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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74774 ***
+
+                           PEOPLE OF THE VEIL
+
+
+[Decoration]
+
+                       MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                  LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA . MADRAS
+                               MELBOURNE
+
+                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                      NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO
+                         DALLAS . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+                   THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
+                                TORONTO
+
+
+                                                               PLATE 1
+
+[Illustration: AGELLAL VILLAGE AND MOUNTAINS]
+
+                                                      [_Frontispiece._
+
+
+                           PEOPLE OF THE VEIL
+
+             _Being an Account of the Habits, Organisation
+               and History of the Wandering Tuareg Tribes
+              which inhabit the Mountains of Air or Asben
+                         in the Central Sahara_
+
+                                   BY
+                          FRANCIS RENNELL RODD
+
+                                                                         ⵍⵆⵔⵗⵙ
+                           “NAUGHT BUT GOOD”
+
+                           WITH ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                       MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
+                      ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON
+                                  1926
+
+
+                               COPYRIGHT
+
+                        PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This book was originally intended to be an account of the people and
+mountains of Air in the Central Sahara, where I made a journey during
+most of 1922 with Angus Buchanan and T. A. Glover. The former had
+visited the area on a previous occasion and had described the people
+and places he had seen in his book, _Out of the World—North of
+Nigeria_. It therefore seemed more profitable to inquire into some
+of the problems surrounding the inhabitants of the Sahara whom we
+encountered, and thus deal with Air and its Tuareg population rather
+less objectively than had my fellow-traveller. In the course of the
+succeeding years, as I became more and more immersed in considering
+various scientific aspects of the Sahara, I came to the conclusion
+that neither had the Tuareg people nor had this vast area of the
+earth’s surface been at all adequately examined. Most studies had
+been objective and, as is unhappily the case with this book, confined
+to one area. A comprehensive account of the history and ethnology of
+the Sahara still requires to be written.
+
+As a consequence of these investigations, the present work assumed
+a form for which one journey of nine months in the countries
+concerned scarcely seems enough justification. That the book was
+not completed sooner has been due to the impossibility of spending
+any time continuously either in research or on writing during the
+three years which have elapsed since I returned. The fact that this
+book has been the occupation only of such spare time as I have had
+available accounts for its many conscious deficiencies, which are
+unfortunately not the more excusable in a volume of the type which it
+purports to be. If I can feel that it will have served to stimulate
+the curiosity of students or have assisted them to find their way
+about the literature on the subject, I shall consider that as a reward
+calculated to enhance the pleasure which I have derived from writing
+and reading about this—to me—fascinating topic.
+
+It will be one of my lasting regrets that I was unable to complete
+with Angus Buchanan his journey across the Sahara from Nigeria to
+Algiers. The delays which we encountered in Air obliged me to return
+to resume my duties in that branch of H.M.’s Service in which I was
+then serving. This is not the place to mention the many things which
+I owe to Angus Buchanan; perhaps the greatest advantage I derived
+was the promise we gave one another to travel again together if an
+occasion should come to him and leisure from another profession
+to me, whereby we might be enabled to renew our companionship of
+the road. I am grateful to him for permission to use several of his
+photographs in the present volume as well as certain information which
+he collected when we were separately engaged on our different work.
+To T. A. Glover, the Cinematographer, whose services Angus Buchanan
+secured to accompany him, I owe many pleasant memories of days spent
+together and his excellent advice in taking most of the photographs
+which are included in this book.
+
+The French officers whom I encountered in the course of my wanderings
+were as charming and as friendly as perhaps, of all foreign nations,
+only Frenchmen know how to be. Were the relations between our
+respective countries always even remotely similar to those which
+subsisted between us, there would be no room for the suspicion and
+pettiness which so often mar diplomatic and political intercourse. The
+mutual confidence in which we lived is illustrated by two events.
+
+On a certain occasion in Air when news was received of a raid
+being about to fall on the country, I was honoured by receiving a
+communication from the French officer commanding the Fort at Agades,
+indicating the locality in his general scheme of defence whither I
+might lead on a reconnaissance an armed band of local Tuareg from the
+village in which I was then living by myself. On another occasion,
+after travelling for some hundreds of miles with a French Camel Corps
+patrol, the men were paraded and in their presence I was nominated an
+honorary serjeant of the “Peloton Méhariste de Guré,” a type
+of compliment which those associated with the French Army will best
+realise. It is to the officer commanding this unit, Henri Gramain of
+the French Colonial Army, that I owe the most perfect companionship
+I have ever had the fortune to experience. I know that when we meet
+again we shall resume conversation where we left off at Teshkar in
+the bushland of Elakkos, one evening in the summer of 1922. He and my
+other friends, Tuareg, British, French, Arab and Fulani contributed
+to make that year the happiest I have ever spent.
+
+No reader of the works of that great traveller, Dr. Heinrich Barth,
+will need to be told how much of the data collected in the succeeding
+pages has been culled from the monumental account of his _Travels
+in Central Africa_. This German, who most loyally served the British
+Crown in those far countries, is perhaps the greatest traveller there
+has ever been in Africa. His exploits were never advertised, so his
+fame has not been suffered to compete with the more sensational and
+journalistic enterprises accomplished since his day down to modern
+times. But no student will require to have his praises sung by any
+disciple.
+
+I have to thank the Royal Geographical Society for permission to use
+the map which was prepared for a paper I had the honour to read in
+1923 before a meeting of the Fellows. More especially do I wish to
+thank E. A. Reeves, their Keeper of Maps, both for the instruction in
+surveying which he gave me before my journey and for the assistance
+afforded after my return in checking and working up my results. My
+cartographic material in the form of road traverses, sketch maps based
+on astronomical positions, and theodolite computations are all in the
+Society’s library and available to students. A small collection of
+ethnographic material which I brought back is at Oxford in the Pitt
+Rivers Museum, to whose Curator, Henry Balfour, I am indebted both
+for advice and for plates Nos. 24-26, 37 and 42.
+
+H. R. Palmer, now H.M. Lieutenant-Governor of Northern Nigeria, and
+Messrs. Macmillan & Co. have given me permission to use a table of
+the Kings of Agades incorporated as Appendix VI. The list originally
+appeared _in extenso_, with the names somewhat differently spelled, in
+an article which he published in the _Journal of the African Society_
+in July 1910. The great learning and sympathetic help which he was
+good enough to put at my disposal have made me, in common with many
+others in Nigeria, in whose friendship my journey so richly rewarded
+me, hope that he may be induced to render more accessible to the
+public the immense fund of historical and other material which he has
+accumulated during his long career as a distinguished Colonial servant.
+
+The then Governor of Nigeria, Sir H. Clifford, and the French Ministry
+of Colonies earned the gratitude of Angus Buchanan and myself
+by their assistance on the road and in facilitating our journey.
+My brother-in-law, T. A. Emmet, was good enough to execute several
+drawings from rough sketches I had made on the spot. Two of these
+drawings are reproduced as plates Nos. 38 and 39.
+
+To three persons it is difficult for me to express my gratitude at all
+suitably. D. G. Hogarth read my manuscript and offered his invaluable
+advice regarding the final form of the book as it now appears. Many
+years’ association with him has led others beside myself to regard
+him in his wisdom as our spiritual godfather in things appertaining
+to the world of Islam. My father devoted many days and nights to
+correcting the final draft and proofs of this book. My brother Peter,
+when his versatile mind perceived certain improvements, rewrote Chapter
+XII after I had become so tired of the sight of my manuscript that
+I was on the verge of destroying the offensive object. I owe more to
+both these two than I can explain.
+
+                                                               F. R. R.
+
+  _New York,
+    31st December, 1925._
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                          PAGE
+
+     I. INTRODUCTORY                                                  1
+
+    II. THE SOUTHLANDS                                               36
+
+   III. THE CITY OF AGADES                                           80
+
+    IV. THE ORGANISATION OF THE AIR TUAREG                          119
+
+     V. SOCIAL CONDITIONS                                           154
+
+    VI. THE MODE OF LIFE OF THE NOMADS                              183
+
+   VII. TRADE AND OCCUPATIONS                                       213
+
+  VIII. ARCHITECTURE AND ART                                        238
+
+    IX. RELIGION AND BELIEFS                                        273
+
+     X. NORTHERN AIR AND THE KEL OWI                                298
+
+    XI. THE ANCESTRY OF THE TUAREG OF AIR                           330
+
+   XII. THE HISTORY OF AIR. PART I. THE MIGRATIONS OF THE
+        TUAREG TO AIR                                               360
+
+  XIII. THE HISTORY OF AIR. PART II. THE VICISSITUDES OF THE
+        TUAREG IN AIR                                               401
+
+   XIV. VALEDICTORY                                                 417
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+  APPENDIX                                                         PAGE
+
+     I. A LIST OF THE ASTRONOMICALLY DETERMINED POINTS IN AIR       422
+
+    II. THE TRIBAL ORGANISATION OF THE TUAREG OF AIR                426
+
+   III. ELAKKOS AND TERMIT                                          442
+
+    IV. IBN BATUTAH’S JOURNEY                                       452
+
+     V. ON THE ROOT “MZGH” IN VARIOUS LIBYAN NAMES                  457
+
+    VI. THE KINGS OF THE TUAREG OF AIR                              463
+
+   VII. SOME BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL USED IN THIS BOOK             466
+
+        INDEX                                                       469
+
+
+
+
+                                 PLATES
+
+
+ PLATE                                                    _Facing page_
+
+   1. AGELLAL VILLAGE AND MOUNTAINS                      _Frontispiece_
+
+   2. ELATTU                                                         14
+
+   3. DESERT AND HILLS FROM TERMIT PEAK                              32
+
+   4. DIOM IN ELAKKOS                                                42
+
+      PUNCH AND JUDY SHOW                                            42
+
+   5. GAMRAM                                                         49
+
+   6. RIVER OF AGADES: CLIFFS AT AKARAQ                              76
+
+      SHRINE AT AKARAQ                                               76
+
+   7. RIVER OF AGADES LOOKING SOUTH FROM TEBEHIC IN THE
+      EGHALGAWEN MASSIF                                              79
+
+      EGHALGAWEN MASSIF FROM AZAWAGH                                 79
+
+   8. TIN WANA POOL                                                  83
+
+      ROCK OF THE TWO SLAVES, AT THE JUNCTION OF THE TIN WANA
+      AND EGHALGAWEN VALLEYS                                         83
+
+   9. AGADES                                                         86
+
+  10. GATHERING AT SIDI HAMADA                                       95
+
+      PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA                                         95
+
+  11. PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA                                         97
+
+  12. OMAR: AMENOKAL OF AIR                                         108
+
+  13. AUDERAS VALLEY LOOKING WEST                                   120
+
+      AUDERAS VALLEY: AERWAN TIDRAK                                 120
+
+  14. MT. TODRA FROM AUDERAS                                        126
+
+  15. GRAIN POTS, IFERUAN                                           133
+
+      GARDEN WELLS                                                  133
+
+  16. AUDERAS: HUTS                                                 154
+
+      AUDERAS: TENT-HUT AND SHELTER                                 154
+
+  17. THE AUTHOR DRESSING A WOUND AT AUDERAS                        163
+
+  18. TEKHMEDIN AND THE AUTHOR                                      178
+
+  19. BAGEZAN MOUNTAINS AND TOWAR VILLAGE                           182
+
+  20. HUTS AT TOWAR SHOWING METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION                  184
+
+      TIMIA HUTS                                                    184
+
+  21. CAMEL BRANDS                                                  195
+
+  22. SHIELD ORNAMENTATION AND UTENSILS                             209
+
+  23. TIMIA GORGE                                                   216
+
+      TIMIA GORGE: BASALT AND GRANITE FORMATIONS                    216
+
+  24. TUAREG PERSONAL EQUIPMENT                                     227
+
+  25. TUAREG CAMEL EQUIPMENT                                        230
+
+  26. TUAREG WEAPONS                                                236
+
+  27. HOUSE TYPES                                                   240
+
+  28. HOUSE TYPES                                                   241
+
+  29. TIMIA: “A” AND “B” TYPE HOUSES AND HUT CIRCLES                244
+
+      TABELLO: INTERIOR OF “A” TYPE HOUSE                           244
+
+  30. HOUSE INTERIORS                                               248
+
+  31. MOSQUES                                                       256
+
+  32. MOSQUES                                                       257
+
+  33. TIFINAGH ALPHABET                                             267
+
+  34. ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN TIFINAGH                                 269
+
+  35. MT. ABATTUL AND VILLAGE                                       275
+
+  36. THE CROSS IN ORNAMENT                                         277
+
+  37. TUAREG PERSONAL ORNAMENTS                                     285
+
+  38. MT. ARWA                                                      295
+
+  39. MT. AGGATA                                                    300
+
+  40. ROCK DRAWINGS                                                 305
+
+  41. ROCK DRAWINGS                                                 306
+
+  42. ORNAMENTED BAGGAGE RESTS                                      310
+
+  43. T’INTELLUST                                                   312
+
+  44. BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST                                   313
+
+      BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST (ANOTHER VIEW)                    313
+
+  45. ASSARARA                                                      326
+
+  46. FUGDA, CHIEF OF TIMIA, AND HIS WAKIL                          352
+
+      ATAGOOM                                                       352
+
+  47. SIDI                                                          366
+
+  48. EGHALGAWEN POOL                                               400
+
+      TIZRAET POOL                                                  400
+
+  49. EGHALGAWEN VALLEY AND THE LAST HILLS OF AIR                   414
+
+  50. MT. BILA AT SUNSET                                            419
+
+  _Additional {  TYPICAL TEBU                                       442
+     Plate_   {
+              {  TERMIT PEAK AND WELL                               442
+
+
+                           MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  MAP SHOWING THE TRADE ROADS OF NORTH AFRICA                         5
+
+  DIAGRAMMATIC MAP SHOWING THE DRAINAGE OF THE CENTRAL SAHARA        29
+
+  MAP OF DAMERGU AND NEIGHBOURING PARTS: 1/2,000,000   _facing p._   36
+
+  SKETCH MAP OF AIR AND THE DIVISIONS OF THE SOUTHLAND               40
+
+  DIAGRAM SHOWING TRIBAL DESCENT AMONG THE TUAREG                   130
+
+  DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GOVERNMENT OF THE AIR TUAREG                  144
+
+  MAP SHOWING LEO’S SAHARAN AREAS                                   331
+
+  DIAGRAM SHOWING IBN KHALDUN’S BERBER TRIBES                       341
+
+  DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MIGRATIONS OF THE AIR TUAREG                  388
+
+  GENEALOGY OF CERTAIN KINGS OF AIR                                 465
+
+  MAP OF AIR AND ADJACENT PARTS: 1/2,000,000                   _At end_
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+
+The general map at the end of the volume was prepared by the Royal
+Geographical Society from data collected by the author supplementing
+existing maps published in France and described in the text of the
+book. The two drawings (Plates 38 and 39) were executed in England
+by T. A. Emmet from sketches made in Air. Plates Nos. 2, 15 (lower),
+34 are from photographs taken by Angus Buchanan. All the other maps,
+diagrams, pictures, and photographs were prepared by the author from
+material collected in 1922.
+
+
+
+
+                                  NOTE
+
+
+The name “Air” is a dissyllable word: the vowels are pronounced
+as in Italian according to the general system of transliteration,
+which follows, wherever possible, the rules laid down by the Committee
+of the Royal Geographical Society on the Spelling of Proper Names. In
+the Tuareg form of Berber, _t_ before _i_ or similar vowel, especially
+in the feminine possessive particle “tin,” very often assumes a
+sound varying between a hard explosive _tch_ and a soft liquid dental,
+such as is found in the English word “tune.” This modification of
+the sound _t_ is written _t’_, wherever it is by usage sufficiently
+pronounced to be noticeable. The pronunciation of Tuareg words follows
+the Air dialect, which often differs from the northern speech. Letters
+are only accented where it is important to avoid mispronunciation,
+as in Fadé and Emilía: a final _e_, as in Assode, which is a
+trisyllable, should always be pronounced even if not accented.
+
+The nasal _n_ occurring in such words as Añastafidet is written _ñ_.
+
+The _gh_ (or Arabic غ, _ghen_) sound is, as in other Berber languages,
+very common in the speech of the Tuareg. The letter is so strongly
+_grasseyé_ as to be indistinguishable, in many cases, from _r_. The
+French with greater logic write this sound _r_ or _r’_. Doubtless
+many names which have been spelled with _r_ in the succeeding pages
+should more correctly have been spelled with _gh_: such mistakes are
+due to the difficulties both of distinguishing the sound in speech,
+and of transcribing French transliterations.
+
+No attempt has been made to indicate the occurrence of the third _g_
+which exists in the Tuareg alphabet, in addition to the hard _g_
+and the soft _g_ (written _j_).
+
+The Arabic letter ع (_’ain_) does not exist in the speech of the
+Tuareg; where they use an Arabic word containing this letter, they
+substitute for it the sound _gh_.
+
+No signs have been used to distinguish between the hard and soft
+varieties of the letters _d_, _t_ and _z_. The “kef” (Iek) and
+“qaf” (Iaq) sounds are written _k_ and _q_.
+
+
+
+
+                          =PEOPLE OF THE VEIL=
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                              INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Sahara is the name given in modern geography to the whole of the
+interior of North Africa between the Nile Valley and the Atlantic
+littoral, south of the Mediterranean coastlands and north of the
+Equatorial belt. The word “Sahara” is derived from the Arabic, and
+its meaning refers to a certain type of stony desert in one particular
+area. There is no native name for the whole of this vast land surface:
+it is far too large to fall wholly within the cognisance of any one
+group of its diverse inhabitants. The fact that it is a Moslem area and
+sharply distinguished from the rest of Africa has made it desirable
+to find a better name than “Sahara” to include both the interior
+and the littoral, for even “Sahara,” unsatisfactory as it is,
+can only be used of the former. “Africa Minor” has been proposed,
+but the reception accorded to this name has not been so cordial as to
+warrant its use. The clumsy term “North Africa” must therefore
+serve in the following pages to describe all the northern part of
+the continent; specifically it refers to the parts west of the Nile
+Valley and north of the Sudan.[1] It is an area which is now no longer
+permanently inhabited by negro races, and which is not covered by
+the dense vegetation of Equatoria.
+
+To the general public the name Sahara denotes “Desert,” and the
+latter connotes sand and thirst and camels and picturesque men and
+veiled women. The Sahara in reality is very different. Its surface
+and races are varied. Almost every type of physical feature, except
+permanent glaciation, can be found. The greater part is capable of
+supporting animal and vegetable life in some degree. Absolute desert
+where no living thing can exist does not on the whole form a very
+large proportion of the surface. It has become usual nowadays to
+differentiate between the cultivated or cultivable areas, the steppe
+desert and the true desert. The latter alone is devoid of organic life,
+and is the exception rather than the rule. The mountain groups of the
+Sahara fall, as an intermediate category, between the cultivated and
+the desert lands. Generally speaking, animal and vegetable life exist
+in the valleys, where some tillage is often possible. The density of
+population, however, is never comparable with that of the cultivated
+districts, which, except where they fringe the coast, are usually
+included in the term “oases.”
+
+The mountain groups of the Sahara are numerous and comparatively
+high. There are summits in the more important massifs exceeding
+10,000 feet above the sea. The three most important groups in the
+Central Sahara are the Tibesti, Air and Ahaggar mountains. In such
+a generalisation, reference to the Atlas and other mountain masses
+in Algeria and Morocco may be omitted, since they do not properly
+speaking belong to the Sahara. The three Saharan massifs are probably
+of volcanic origin. They have only become known in recent years, and
+even now have not been fully explored. This is especially the case
+in regard to Tibesti, an area believed to be orographically connected
+with Air by the almost unknown plateau of the Southern Fezzan.
+
+The Central Sahara with these three groups of mountains differs
+materially from the Eastern Sahara. Although our data for the latter
+are more limited by lack of knowledge, the structure of the surface
+immediately west of the Nile Valley appears characteristically to be
+a series of closed basins. The area is covered with depressions into
+which insignificant channels flow, and from which there appear to be
+no outlets. Compared with the river systems of the west, the stream
+beds are small and ill-defined. One valley of some magnitude, the Bahr
+Bela Ma which Rohlfs tried to find on his famous journeys in the Libyan
+desert, has been identified either as a dry channel of the Nile running
+roughly parallel to it, or alternatively as a valley which starts from
+N.E. Tibesti and terminates near or in the Wadi Natrun depression just
+west of the Nile and level with the apex of the Delta. The upper part
+which drains Tibesti has been called the W. Fardi; elsewhere it is
+the W. Fareg; the shallow depression crossed by Hassanein Bey on his
+journey from Jalo to Kufra seems to be part of this system. Examples of
+closed basins separated from one another by steppe or desert are the
+oases of Kufra, the Jaghbub-Siwa, Jalo and Lake Chad depressions. In
+these areas cultivation is frequently intense; salt and fresh water
+are abundant; and the vegetation sometimes develops luxuriantly into
+veritable forests of date palms such as exist at Kufra. Between these
+hollows the intervening Libyan desert is probably the largest and
+most sterile area of its sort in the world.
+
+The Western Sahara, on the other hand, is essentially an area of
+well-defined river systems with watersheds and dry beds fashioned on
+a vast scale. The valleys which extend from the mountains of Ahaggar
+and the Fezzan to the present River Niger have corresponding channels
+on the other side of the water-parting running through Southern
+Algeria or Tunisia towards the Mediterranean. There are good reasons
+for believing that the original course of the Niger terminated in a
+swamp or marsh north of Timbuctoo, probably the same collecting basin
+as that west of Ahaggar into which certain rivers from the Atlas also
+used to flow. The lower Niger from the eastern side of the great bend
+where the river now turns south-east and south drained the Central
+Sahara by a great channel which had its head-waters in Ahaggar and
+the Fezzan, and ran west of Air.
+
+These Saharan rivers have not contained perennial surface water
+for long ages. In places they have been covered by more recent
+sand-dune formations of great extension, but they date from the present
+geological period. Associated with the desiccation of these valleys is
+the characteristic of extreme dryness which is one of the few features
+more or less in accord with popular conceptions of the Sahara. The
+barrenness of the Sahara is less due to the inherent sterility of the
+ground than to climatic conditions; desiccation has been intensified in
+the course of centuries by the purely mechanical processes attendant
+upon an extremely continental climate and excessively high day
+temperatures. The latter combined with the extraordinary dryness of
+the air have contributed to the decay of vegetable, and consequently
+of animal, life wherever man has not been sufficiently powerful, in
+numbers or energy, to stay the process. Sterility and desiccation are
+interacting causes and effects. There is no reason to believe that
+any sudden change of climate has taken place in the Sahara since the
+neolithic period, or that it is very much drier now than two thousand
+years ago. Maximum and minimum temperatures, both average and absolute,
+have a very wide range seasonally and within the period of twenty-four
+hours. Temperatures of over 100° F. in the shade are common at all
+seasons of the year during the day: the thermometer frequently falls
+to freezing point at night during the winter. Ice is not unknown in
+the mountains of Tibesti, Air and Ahaggar. The rainfall is irregular
+except within the belt of summer rains which are so characteristic of
+Equatorial Africa. In Tibesti the cycle of good rains seems to recur
+once in thirteen years: in many years both here and elsewhere in the
+Sahara no rain falls at all. But with these adverse climatic conditions
+the surprising fact remains, not that the Sahara is so barren, but
+that it is so relatively well-favoured and capable of supporting
+different races of people in such comparatively large numbers.[2]
+
+The Air mountains, like the Desert steppes, are only sparsely
+inhabited. The hill-sides are too wind-swept and rocky to support
+forests or pastures of any value. Many of the valleys are capable
+of being cultivated, but in practice are only gardened here and
+there. In certain districts there are groves of date palms which have
+been imported from the north. Air is in reality a great Saharan oasis
+divided from the Equatorial belt by a zone of desert and steppe. It
+differs from the south in its flora and general conditions, though
+by its position within the belt of tropical summer rains it belongs
+climatically to the Sudan.
+
+[Illustration: TRADE ROADS
+
+F. R. del.
+
+Emery Walker Ltd. sc.]
+
+The oases of the desert, like the Sahara generally, have been
+the subject of much popular misconception. The origin of the word
+“oasis,” which has reached us in its present form through the
+classics, may perhaps be found in ancient Egyptian. It seems to be
+connected with the name of the Wawat People of the West referred to
+in the Harris Papyrus,[3] and occurs in the names of Wau el Kebir and
+Wau el Seghir or el Namus, which are oases in the Eastern Fezzan.[4]
+The term El Wahat,[5] given to one or several of the oases west of
+the Nile Valley, contains the same root. An oasis is not necessarily
+a patch of ground with two or three palm trees and a well in the
+desert. It is simply an indefinite area of fertility in a barren land;
+it may or may not happen to have a well. There are oases in Southern
+Algeria and the Fezzan with hundreds of thousands of palm trees,
+containing many villages and a permanent population. There are others
+where the pasture is good but where there is neither population nor
+water. “Oasis” is a term with no strict denotation, it connotes
+attributes which render animal life possible.
+
+In this sense Air, as a whole, is an oasis situated on a great caravan
+road from the Mediterranean to Central Africa. The mountains so lie
+in respect of the desert to the north and to the south that caravan
+journeys may be broken in their valleys, and camels can stay to
+recuperate. The mountains mark a stage on the road, the importance of
+which it is difficult to over-estimate. In the history of North Africa,
+the principal routes across the Sahara from the Mediterranean to the
+Sudan have seemingly not changed at all. Since the earliest times
+they have followed the shortest tracks from north to south whenever
+there was sufficient water. If the Nile Valley and the routes in the
+desert adjacent thereto are left out of account as being _suorum
+generum_, there are four main caravan roads across North Africa
+from north to south. The easternmost runs from Cyrenaica by Kufra to
+Wadai and Tibesti; only within the last century has it been rendered
+practicable for caravans by the provision of wells along the southern
+part, which was opened to heavy traffic by the Senussiya sect. The
+two central routes run respectively from Tripolitania by the Fezzan,
+Murzuk and Kawar to Lake Chad, and by Ghadames, Ghat and Air to the
+Central Sudan. The western route runs from Algeria and Morocco across
+the desert to Timbuctoo. In addition there is the Moroccan road,
+which roughly follows the curve of the coast to the Western Sudan
+and Senegal. Of all these the best known in modern times,[6] and
+culturally perhaps the most important, has been the Air road. It is
+noteworthy that all three central routes have been or are within the
+control of the Tuareg race. As the Tuareg were the caravan drivers
+of the Central Sahara, so were they also responsible for bringing a
+certain degree of civilisation from the Mediterranean to Equatorial
+Africa. That has been their greatest rôle in history.
+
+The object of this book is to describe a part of the Tuareg race,
+namely, those tribes which live in Air and in the country immediately
+to the south. It will not be possible to examine in any detail the
+theories surrounding the origin of the race, but certain definitions
+are necessary if the succeeding chapters are to be understood. The
+Berbers of North Africa, among whom are usually included the Tuareg,
+have very disputed origins; for many reasons it is perhaps best to
+follow the example of Herodotus and use the geographical term Libyans
+for them. Less controversy surrounds this name than “Berber,”
+which implies a number of wholly imaginary anthropological
+connections. Moreover, it is even open to doubt whether the Tuareg
+are Berbers at all, like the other people so called in Algeria and
+Morocco. In all this confusion it will be enough to grasp that the
+Tuareg are a Libyan people with marked individual peculiarities
+and that they were in North Africa long before the Arabs came. They
+have been there ever since the earliest times of which we have any
+historical record, though in more northern areas than those which
+they now occupy. The population of the Sahara is very diverse and the
+affinities of the various elements afford many interesting problems
+for study; but in the present work we shall be concerned with the
+one race alone.
+
+The Tuareg country may roughly be described as extending from
+the eastern edge of the Central Sahara, which is bounded by the
+Fezzan-Murzuk-Kawar-Lake Chad caravan road, to the far edge of the
+western deserts of North Africa before the Atlantic zone begins, and
+from Southern Algeria in the north to the Niger and the Equatorial belt
+between the river and Lake Chad in the south. The Tuareg are so little
+known even to-day that their very existence is almost legendary. It
+is with something of a thrill that the tourist in Tunis or Algiers
+learns from a mendacious guide that a poor Arab half-caste sitting
+muffled in a cloak is one of the fabled People of the Veil. It is long,
+in fact, since any of them have visited the Mediterranean coast, for
+they do not care for Europeans very much. Before the Italo-Turkish
+War, occasional Tuareg used to reach the coast at Tripoli at the end
+of the long caravan road from Central Africa; even then they more
+usually stopped at Ghadames or Murzuk. With the Italian occupation of
+Tripolitania in 1913 they became apprehensive of intrusion on their
+last unconquered area; but despite the Italian failure to occupy and
+administer the interior they have only lately ventured a certain way
+north once more on raids or for commerce.
+
+Though the Hornemann, Lyons and the Denham, Oudney and Clapperton
+expeditions in the first half of the last century touched the fringe
+of the Tuareg country, the first Europeans in modern times to come
+into contact with the Azger group in the Fezzan were Richardson in
+1847 and Barth with Richardson in 1849 and subsequent years. Barth,
+more particularly mentioned in the story of the penetration of Air,
+is in some respects even now the most valuable authority for all
+the Tuareg except the Ahaggaren. The first detailed work of value
+dedicated to the latter was that of Duveyrier, _Les Touareg du Nord_,
+published in 1864 after a journey through the Ahaggar and Azger
+country and the Fezzan. His systematic study of the ethnology of the
+Tuareg, his geographical work and his researches into the fauna,
+flora and ancient history of the lands he visited, were presented
+to the world in a form which has since been taken in France as the
+model of what a scientific book should be. Ill health was the tragedy
+of his life, for it prevented his return, and rendered him, as he
+remarked in later years, “an arm-chair explorer of the Sahara.”
+After visiting the Wad Righ and Shott countries in Southern Tunisia,
+he went to El Golea on the road to Tuat and thence turned towards
+Ghadames and Tripolitania. He eventually reached Ghat, and returned to
+the Mediterranean coast by Murzuk and Sokna, taking a more easterly
+road than Barth’s in 1850. Beurmann in 1862, and Dickson ten years
+previously, had reached the edge of the same Tuareg country, but
+what Barth had done for the Tuareg of Air and the south, Duveyrier
+did for the Ahaggaren and Azger.
+
+In 1881, twenty years after the expedition of Burin to Tuat, the French
+determined to penetrate the countries of this fabled race. A column
+under Colonel Flatters, who had already gained a certain reputation in
+France as a Saharan explorer, marched almost due south from Wargla and
+Tuggurt in the eastern part of Southern Algeria up the Ighaghar basin
+and so reached the north-eastern corner of the Ahaggar country. This
+valley is the drainage system of the north central Sahara towards the
+Mediterranean; it virtually divides the old Azger country from that of
+the Ahaggaren. Near the Aghelashem Wells at the intersection of the
+valley with the Ghat-Insalah road, Flatters turned S.E., intending
+apparently to follow the Ghat-Air caravan road to the Sudan. This
+track he proposed joining at or near the wells of Issala, and then to
+proceed by much the same route as that which Barth and his companions
+had selected in 1850. But at Bir Gharama in the Tin Tarabin valley,
+a few days before it was due to reach Issala, disaster overtook the
+column. The European officers, who assumed that their penetration
+of the Tuareg country was welcome to the inhabitants, had taken none
+of the military precautions necessary in hostile country. The vital
+part of the expedition, the officer commanding and his staff, left
+camp to reconnoitre a well and became separated from their troops,
+consisting of about eighty Algerian tirailleurs. The officers were
+attacked by the Tuareg and killed. After the death of Colonel Flatters
+and Captain Masson, the remainder of the column under Captain Dianous
+made an attempt to escape north. After an unsuccessful effort by the
+Tuareg to destroy the party by selling the men dates poisoned with the
+Alfalehle plant (_Hyoscyamus Falezlez_),[7] the column reached the
+Ighaghar once more at the wells of Amjid. But they found the wells
+occupied by the enemy, and in the ensuing fight Captain Dianous and
+nearly all his men were killed.
+
+The circumstances of the disaster, so vividly recounted by Duveyrier
+to the Paris Geographical Society on 22nd April, 1881, had followed
+the publication of his account of a people whom he had described
+picturesquely, but with some exaggeration, as the “Knights of the
+Desert.” The massacre created a profound impression in France. The
+Tuareg came to be regarded as an insurmountable obstacle to the French
+penetration of North Africa, and expeditions into their country were
+discontinued. The disaster of Bir Gharama remained unavenged until
+1902, when a detachment of Camel Corps under Lieut. Cottonest met
+the pick of the Ahaggar Tuareg in battle at Tit within their own
+mountains and killed 93 men out of 299 present, the French patrol
+losing only 4 killed and 2 wounded out of 120 native soldiers
+and Arab scouts. Despite the small numbers involved, the fight at
+Tit broke the resistance of Ahaggar, for it proved the vanity of
+matching a few old flintlocks and spears and swords against magazine
+rifles.[8] But if it demonstrated the futility of overt resistance,
+it also established for all time the courage of the camel riders of
+the desert, who hurled themselves against a barrier of rifle fire,
+unprotected by primeval forest or sheltering jungle, in order to
+maintain their age-long defiance of the mastery of foreign people.
+
+Considering the magnitude of the results they achieve, Saharan,
+like Arabian, battles involve surprisingly small numbers. The size
+of armed bodies moving over the desert is limited by the capacity
+of the wells; the output of water not only regulates the mass of
+raiding bands, but also determines their strategy, as well as the
+routes of trading caravans, which are compelled to move in large
+bodies in order to ensure even a small measure of protection. Only
+the realisation of this rather self-evident fact enabled the French
+in the course of years to deal with raiders in Southern Algeria by
+organising Camel Corps patrols of relatively small size and great
+mobility. The privations which these raiders are willing to endure
+made it impossible to fight them with a European establishment.
+
+The necessity of imitating the nomad in his mode of life and warfare
+became obvious to Laperrine from his first sojourn in Southern
+Algeria, where he made his career as the greatest European desert
+leader in history with one solitary exception. The encounter of
+Tit was followed by a number of “Tournées d’Apprivoisement,”
+patrols to “tame” the desert folk, initiated by Laperrine, and
+culminating in 1904 in a protracted reconnaissance through Ahaggar,
+which brought about a final pacification. Charles de Foucauld,
+soldier, traveller and monk, had accompanied the patrol. He remained
+on after it was over as a hermit and student among the Ahaggaren
+until his death in 1916. He had been Laperrine’s brother officer
+at St. Cyr. Extravagant, reckless and endowed with all the good
+things of the world, a member of the old French aristocracy in a
+smart cavalry regiment, the Marquis de Foucauld is one of the most
+picturesque figures of modern times. After a memorable reconnaissance
+of Morocco in 1883-4, disguised as a Jew, he became a Trappist monk,
+and eventually entered a retreat at Beni Abbes, in the desert that he
+loved too well to leave in all his life. During his years in Ahaggar
+as a teacher of the Word of God he made no converts to Christianity,
+but sought by his example alone to lead the people along the way of
+Truth. It is to be hoped that, in spite of a modesty which precluded
+it during his lifetime, the knowledge and lore of the Tuareg which he
+collected in the form of notes will eventually be given to the world
+in order to supplement his dictionary of the Ahaggar dialect, to-day
+the standard work on their language, which is called Temajegh.[9]
+
+To implement the Laperrine policy of long reconnaissances, a post
+was built near Tamanghasset in Ahaggar called Fort Motylinski, after
+an officer interpreter who was one of the first practical students
+of Temajegh. Lately the post has been moved to Tamanghasset itself,
+where Father de Foucauld had built his hermitage, and it is now called
+Fort Laperrine, in memory of the great soldier who was killed flying
+across the desert to Timbuctoo in 1919.
+
+Another post was built at Janet not far from Ghat, to watch the Azger
+Tuareg. Its capture during the late war by the Arabs and Tuareg of
+Ghat, and the killing of Father de Foucauld by a raiding party from
+the Fezzan, are incidents in that same series of intrigues which were
+instigated in North Africa by the Central Empires and carried on with
+such success in the Western Desert of Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania,
+Southern Algeria and as far afield as Air. If the Senussi leaders
+have not been responsible for as many intrigues as it has been the
+fashion to ascribe to this puritanical and perhaps fanatical sect,
+the Germans at least discovered what others are still learning, that
+the latent force of nationalism in North Africa among the ancient
+Libyan and Arab-Libyan peoples is powerful still to-day. The spirit
+of the Circumcelliones and of the opponents of Islam in the eighth
+century was exploited by the Turks and Germans through the Senussiya,
+which provided the only organisation available during the Great War,
+though in fact only few Tuareg and Arabs at Ghat or in the Fezzan
+were members of, or even friendly to, the sect. These people used the
+opportunity afforded by the war to procure arms and material through
+the Senussiya for the consummation of their own ambitions. The new
+spirit which is abroad in Islam, in Africa as well as in Asia, is an
+interesting subject of study for the practical politician. There is
+no occasion to enlarge upon it here.
+
+In consequence of these agitations, a raid came out of the east
+and fell upon Father de Foucauld’s hermitage on the 1st December,
+1916. The hermit was killed, but the raiders were not of the Ahaggaren
+among whom he had lived, and to whom he had devoted his life; they
+came from Ghat and the Fezzan. They probably started without intent
+to murder, but because Charles de Foucauld was the greatest European
+influence in the desert at that time, they desired to remove him
+and perhaps to hold him as a hostage. In justice it must be admitted
+that no one had any illusions regarding the political views of the
+people of the Fezzan; they were in a state of open warfare with
+the French posts in Southern Algeria. De Foucauld had played a
+very great part against them in preventing the Ahaggaren rising
+_en masse_ against the French; he was an important intelligence
+centre for the neighbouring Fort Motilynski; he was apparently, well
+provided with rifles in his hermitage. When surprised by the raid,
+he disdained to fight, preferring to fall a martyr to his religion
+and his country. My excuse, if any is needed, for touching on a
+subject tending to be controversial is the appearance of a number
+of mis-statements concerning the barbarity of his murder and the
+treachery of the people to whom Father de Foucauld had devoted the
+latter part of his life. It is well to remember, in the first place,
+that the circumstances of his life and his prestige made the attack a
+justifiable act of war, for he played a definitely political rôle;
+secondly, that there was no treachery or betrayal; and lastly, that
+his aggressors were a mixed band of Arabs and of Tuareg from another
+part of the Sahara which had, for generations past, been on terms of
+raid and counter-raid with the people of Ahaggar.
+
+When all has been said of the European penetration of the Tuareg
+country, it is not very much. The world outside the society of those
+white men who, during the last fifty years, have spent their lives in
+the Sahara, can know but little of this race or of their country. The
+modern literature on the subject is small, even in French; in English
+it is almost non-existent. On the Tuareg of Air there are only two
+works of any value: the one by a French officer is recent in date
+and sadly superficial;[10] the other is incorporated in H. Barth’s
+account of the British expedition of 1849 and subsequent years to
+Central Africa.[11] There are a few other works in French about the
+Tuareg of the north and south-west, but I am not aware that anyone has
+attempted a general study of the whole people, who have been rather
+neglected by science. The principal object of this volume will have
+been achieved if it in any measure fills a want in English records
+or if it arouses sufficient controversy to induce others to undertake
+a thorough investigation of the race.
+
+The Tuareg are not a tribe but a people. The name “Tuareg” is
+not their own: it is a term of opprobrium applied to them by their
+enemies, and connotes certain peculiarities possessed by a number
+of tribal confederations which have no common name for themselves
+as a race. The men of this people, after reaching a certain age,
+wear a strip of thin cloth wound around their heads in such a manner
+as to form a hood over the eyes and a covering over the mouth and
+nostrils. Only a narrow slit is left open for the eyes, and no other
+part of the face is visible. From this practice they became known
+to the Arabs as the “Muleththemin” or “Veiled People,”[12]
+while they themselves, in default of a national name, are in the habit
+of using the same locution in their own tongue to describe the whole
+society of different castes which compose their community. Whatever
+the social position of the men, the Veil is invariably worn by day and
+by night,[13] while the women go unveiled. Few races are more rigidly
+observant of social distinction between noble and servile tribes;
+none holds to a tradition of dress with more ritual conservatism.
+
+                                                               PLATE 2
+
+[Illustration: ELATTU]
+
+The larger divisions of Tuareg have names by which they are known
+to themselves and to their neighbours: these names designate the
+historical or geographical groupings of tribes. In each group of
+tribes the existence of nobles and serfs is recognised; there are
+appropriate terms to describe these social distinctions. The nobles
+are called Imajeghan;[14] the servile people, Imghad. But no name
+other than Kel Tagilmus,[15] the “People of the Veil,” exists to
+describe the society of nobles and serfs alike, irrespective of group
+or caste. These details will require fuller examination in due course,
+but it is important to realise immediately that the name Tuareg[16]
+is unknown in their own language and is only used of them by Arabs
+and other foreigners. It has, however, been so universally adopted
+by everyone who has had to do with them or who has written of them
+that, although not strictly accurate, it would be pedantic not to
+continue using it. The Tuareg all speak the same language, called
+Temajegh, which varies only dialectically from group to group. They
+have a peculiar form of script, known as T’ifinagh, which also
+is practically identical in all the divisions of the Tuareg, but is
+apparently not used by other peoples. Lastly, the Tuareg are nomads
+by instinct and, save where much intermarriage has taken place, of
+the same racial type. The conquest of foreign elements in war and
+their assimilation into servile tribes have, in the course of time,
+led to some modification of physique and a growth of sedentarism
+in certain areas. As a whole, however, the nation has survived in
+a fairly pure state which is readily distinguishable. There is,
+I think, no justification for considering the People of the Veil a
+large tribal group of Berbers in North Africa; they are a separate
+race with marked peculiarities, distinct from other sections of the
+latter, and, as I believe, of a different origin.
+
+They formerly extended further west almost to the sea-board of the
+Atlantic; their northern and eastern extension can also be deduced
+from what is known of their migrations. Their neighbours to the south
+are the negroid Kanuri, Hausa-speaking peoples,[17] and the Fulani;
+to the east are the Tebu, and in the west the Arab and Moorish tribes;
+finally, in the north the nomadic and sedentary Arabs and sedentary
+Libyans of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania. The N.E. corner of Tuareg
+territory, the Fezzan, is ethnically of such mixed population as to
+admit of no summary classification; Arab, Libyan, Tebu and negroid
+peoples are all inextricably mingled together. The Tuareg wander as
+nomads over the country generally, the negroes and sedentary Libyans
+till the ground, and, in addition to a proportion of all those already
+enumerated, the towns are inhabited by yet another people of noble
+origin, whose connection with the ancient Garamantes of classical
+authors may be assumed if it cannot be proved. With the exception of
+the Fezzan the Tuareg are now predominant within their own country. It
+includes two great groups of mountains, Air and Ahaggar, together
+with certain smaller adjacent massifs.
+
+It is unfortunately not possible to deal with Air in history nor with
+the Tuareg of Air, by considering the mountains and their inhabitants
+alone. The migrations of the Tuareg of Air have been so intimately
+connected with that part of the Sudan which we now call Nigeria that
+the northern fringe of the area and the country intervening between it
+and Air must receive attention. This intervening steppe and desert,
+largely overrun by Tuareg, lie on the way which I followed to reach
+the mountains. The neglect to which these areas have been subjected
+justifies me in devoting a chapter to them before coming to Air
+itself. Again, the concluding chapters of this volume will deal as
+much with the Southland as they do with Air, for the history of the
+latter cannot be divorced from that of the former.
+
+Since mention will be continually made of the various Tuareg groups
+as they exist to-day, and of the tribes which they contain, it will
+be as well to explain that there are to-day four principal divisions
+of the people, all of whom possess characteristics common and peculiar
+to the whole race.
+
+The main groups are:—
+
+  1. The People of Ahaggar, called Ahaggaren, or Kel Ahaggar.
+
+  2. The Azjer, or Azger Tuareg; this name is also spelt Askar, Adjeur,
+     etc.
+
+  3. The People of Air called the Kel Air, or, in the Hausa language
+     which is current in that country, Asbenawa or Absenawa, from Asben,
+     Azbin or Absen, the Sudanese name for Air.
+
+  4. The Tuareg of the south-west.
+
+The first group is held for convenience to include the Tuareg in
+the Ahnet mountains, the Taitoq, and those north-west of the Ahaggar
+mountains. The second group is comparatively compact. The third group
+is the one with which this volume deals in detail, and includes
+the Kel Geres and other Tuareg generally of the Southland, in and
+on the fringes of Nigeria. The fourth group should more properly be
+divided, as it comprises the distinct aggregations of the Aulimmiden,
+the Ifoghas of the Mountain (Ifoghas n’Adghar),[18] and the Tuareg
+of Timbuctoo and the Niger.
+
+The country of the Ahaggaren proper is confined to the Ahaggar
+massif, but there are certain outlying districts to the north and
+north-west. The confused mass of hills east of Ahaggar towards the
+Fezzan was, at the beginning of the century, essentially the country of
+the Azger. In recent years they have tended to move eastwards towards
+their original homes and away from the influence of the French military
+posts. The majority of this group now ranges over the country between
+Ghat and Murzuk. They are the Tuareg who have come least into contact
+with Europeans. Although there is considerable affinity between them
+and the Ahaggaren, the Tuareg generally recognise that the Azger do not
+belong to, or are under the rule of, the Ahaggar chieftains despite the
+fact that they are all collectively known in Air as Ahaggaren. Those
+travellers who have known them are at one in considering them to-day
+an independent division. From the historical point of view the Azger
+are the most important of all the Tuareg, since from this group,
+reduced in numbers as it now is, most of the migrations of the race
+to the Southlands seem to have taken place. They are also probably
+to-day the purest of the Tuareg stock in existence.
+
+The first description of Air and its people in any detail was
+brought back to Europe by Barth after his memorable journey from
+the Mediterranean to the Sudan, on which he set out in 1849 with
+Richardson and Overweg, but from which he alone returned alive
+more than five years later. Prior to this journey there are certain
+references in Ibn Batutah and Leo Africanus, but they do not give
+us much information either of the country or of the people. From Ibn
+Batutah’s description, the country he traversed is recognisable, but
+the information is meagre. The account of Leo Africanus written in the
+sixteenth century is little better. His principal contribution, in the
+English and original Italian versions, is a bad pun: “Likewise Hair
+(Air), albeit a desert, yet so called for the goodness and temperature
+of the aire. . . .”[19] It is an observation, in fact, of great
+truth, but hardly more useful than his other statement, which records
+that the “soyle aboundeth with all kinds of herbes,” in apparent
+contradiction with the previous remark. He adds that “a great store
+of manna” is found not far from Agades which the people “gather in
+certaine little vessels, carrying it, when it is new, into the market
+of the town to be mingled with water as a refreshing drink”—an
+allusion probably to the “pura” or “ghussub” water made of
+millet meal, water and milk or cheese. He states that the country
+is inhabited by the “Targa” people, and as he mentions Agades,
+it had evidently by then been founded, but beyond these facts his
+description is wholly inadequate. He unfortunately even forgets to
+mention that Air is mountainous.
+
+Although the European penetration of the Western Sahara may date
+from the Middle Ages, the same cannot be said of Air. Caillé in
+1828 was, in fact, not the first European to visit and describe
+Timbuctoo, nor was Rohlfs in 1864 the first European in Tuat. There
+are some very interesting earlier accounts which are gradually being
+unearthed[20] dealing with these countries. It is regrettable that
+there are apparently no similar accounts of Air.[21] The first
+information of any value is found only in comparatively recent
+times. Hornemann[22] in 1798 travelled from Egypt along the Haj
+Road which runs from Timbuctoo to Cairo. He turned back at Murzuk,
+but had he continued he would have come to Ghat and eventually to
+Air. He nevertheless brought back the first modern account of the
+Tuareg of this country, or rather of a section of them, the Kel Owi,
+whom he calls the Kolouvey. His information about the Ahaggaren and
+about the divisions of the Tebu, who lived east and north-east beyond
+the limits of the country which they now occupy, is worth examining
+in connection with their ethnological history. After Hornemann’s
+journey Denham, Oudney and Clapperton[23] collected some further
+details about Air and its people in the course of an expedition to
+Chad and Nigeria at the beginning of the last century, and in 1845
+Richardson began a systematic study of the Azger and Air Tuareg during
+a preliminary journey to the Fezzan. But none of these travellers
+had the first-hand personal experience which, five years afterwards,
+Barth, Richardson and Overweg obtained on their expedition.
+
+The part played by Great Britain in the exploration of the Central
+Sahara, testified to by the graves of many Englishmen or foreigners in
+the service of the British Crown, is little known in this country. Our
+efforts to abolish the slave trade in Africa and our paramount position
+in Tripolitania early in the last century led to that initiative being
+taken, to which the world even to-day owes most of its knowledge of the
+Fezzan, and which opened the Sudan to commerce and colonisation. While
+Richardson was apparently the first and only Englishman to visit
+Air until my travelling companion, Angus Buchanan, went there from
+Nigeria in 1919, the graves of explorers in neighbouring lands show
+that we stand second to none in geographical work in the Central
+Sahara. It was only when, in the partition of North Africa, this
+vast area fell to the French, that there was any falling off in the
+numbers of Englishmen who in each successive decade travelled and died
+there. Their work deserves to be better known: Henry Warrington died
+of dysentery at the desert well of Dibbela, south of Bilma in Kawar,
+on his way to Lake Chad with a German, Dr. Vogel. Dr. Oudney died on
+5th January, 1824, at Murmur near Hadeija (Northern Nigeria), after
+accompanying Clapperton and Denham from Tripoli by way of Bilma and
+Chad to explore Bornu. Tyrwhit, who went out to join them, died at Kuka
+on Lake Chad, on 22nd October, 1824. Barth’s companion Richardson
+died in the early part of 1851 at N’Gurutawa in Manga, S. of Zinder,
+and their companion Overweg succumbed near Lake Chad. Both Barth and
+Overweg were Germans who had volunteered and were appointed to serve
+on an expedition sent by Her Majesty’s Government to explore Central
+Africa and to report on the abolition of the slave trade. Dr. Vogel,
+another German, who had been sent by Her Majesty’s Government to join
+Barth and complete his work, died near Lake Chad after his return,
+while an assistant, Corporal MacGuire, was killed on his way home at
+Beduaram, N. of Bilma, in the same year. Of those who had opened the
+way for the Clapperton expeditions, Ritchie had died of disease in
+1819 at Murzuk and Lyon had been obliged to turn back before reaching
+Bornu. Clapperton himself on a second journey lost his life at Sokoto
+on 13th April, 1827. North Africa has claimed her British victims no
+less than the swamps and jungles of Equatoria, only they are not so
+well known, for they never sought to advertise their achievements.
+
+Few people in this country or abroad realise how great was the
+influence of Great Britain in the Sahara during the lifetime and
+after the death of that remarkable man, Colonel Hamer Warrington,
+H.M. Consul at Tripoli from 1814 to 1846. Apart from the fact that
+he virtually governed Tripoli, our influence and interests may be
+gauged by the existence of Vice-Consulates and Consulates, not only
+along the coast at Khoms and Misurata, but far in the interior at
+Ghadames and Murzuk. The peregrinations of numerous travellers
+and efforts to suppress the African slave trade had obliged Her
+Majesty’s Government to play a part in local tribal politics,
+for it had early become clear that if this abominable traffic was
+to be abolished the sources of supply would have to be controlled,
+since it proved useless only to make representations on the coast
+where caravans discharged their human cargo. At one moment it even
+seemed as if Tripolitania would be added to the British Empire, and as
+lately as 1870 travellers were still talking of the French and British
+factions among the Fezzanian tribes. But Free Trade and other political
+controversies in England half-way through the century brought about
+a pause, and the arrest was enough to withdraw public interest from
+North Africa and to give France her chance. The controversies were
+the object of much bitter criticism by the idealist Richardson, who
+saw political dialectics obscuring a crusade on behalf of humanity
+for which he was destined to give his life. He seems to have been
+profoundly affected and to have suffered himself to become warped,
+as Barth on more than one occasion discovered.[24] The inevitable
+consequence of a British occupation of Tripolitania would have been
+the active penetration of the Air and Chad roads and a junction with
+the explorers and merchants who were working north from the Bight of
+Benin. But French interest in North Africa as a consequence of their
+occupation of Algeria grew progressively stronger as it declined in
+this country, while to the same waning appetite must be ascribed the
+fact that for seventy years no Englishman visited Air. Regrettable
+as this may appear to geographers, it is even more tragic to realise
+how few have heard of the German, Dr. Heinrich Barth, than whom it
+may be said there never has been a more courageous or meticulously
+accurate explorer. After several notable journeys further north he
+accompanied Richardson as a volunteer, and on the latter’s death
+continued the exploration of Africa for another four years on behalf
+of Her Majesty’s Government, which he most loyally served. If in
+this volume he is repeatedly mentioned, it is without misgiving or
+apology; it may help in some little measure to rescue his name from
+unmerited oblivion in these days of sensational and superficial books
+of travel. The account of his journey and of the lore and history of
+the countries of Central Africa which he visited from Timbuctoo to
+Lake Chad is still a standard work.
+
+Barth and his companions entered Air in August 1850, and left the
+country for the south in the closing days of the same year. Reaching
+Asiu from Ghat, they traversed the northern mountains of Air, which
+are known to the Tuareg as Fadé.[25] After passing by the wells
+in the T’iyut valley and the “agilman” (pool) of Taghazit,
+they camped eight days later on the northern outskirts of Air
+proper. During this period their caravan was subjected to constant
+threats of brigandage from parties of northern Tuareg, and on the
+day before reaching the first permanent habitations of Air in the
+Ighazar near Seliufet village, they again narrowly escaped aggression
+from the local inhabitants. An attack was eventually made on them at
+T’intaghoda, a little further on, and they only just escaped with
+their lives after losing a good deal of property. The same experience
+was repeated near T’intellust, where the expedition had established
+its head-quarters in the great valley which drains the N.E. side
+of the Air mountains. When, however, they had once made friends
+with that remarkable personality, Annur, chief of the Kel Owi tribal
+confederation, and paramount chief of Air, they were free from further
+molestation, and thanks to him eventually they reached the Sudan in
+safety. From T’intellust Barth made a journey alone to Agades by a
+road running west of the central Bagezan mountains. After his return
+the whole party moved to the Southland along the great Tripoli-Sudan
+trade route which passes east of the Central massifs. Crossing the
+southern part of Air known as Tegama they entered Damergu, which
+geographically belongs to the Sudan, about New Year’s Day, 1851. In
+the course of his stay in Air Barth made the first sketch map of the
+country, catalogued the principal tribes and compiled a summary of
+their history which is still the most valuable contribution which we
+possess on the subject.
+
+Some twenty-seven years later, another German, Erwin von Bary,
+reached Air from the north by much the same road as that which
+Barth and his companions had followed. He left Ghat in January 1897
+and reached the villages of Northern Air a month later. Thence he
+journeyed to the village of Ajiru, a village on the eastern slopes of
+the central mountains, and awaited the return from a raid of Belkho,
+the chieftain who had succeeded Barth’s friend Annur as paramount
+lord of the country. The unfortunate von Bary was subjected to every
+form of extortion, and though Belkho, when he returned, compelled
+his people to restore what they had stolen, the chief himself made
+life unpleasant for the traveller by taking all his presents and
+doing nothing for him in return so long as he showed any desire to
+proceed on his journey southwards. Belkho pleaded such poverty that the
+explorer nearly died of starvation, but von Bary admittedly had laid
+himself open to every form of abuse. He had arrived almost penniless,
+did not understand the courtesies of desert travelling, and seems
+to have placed undue reliance on his skill as a doctor to achieve
+his objects. But when he eventually gave up the idea of going on to
+the Sudan, Belkho treated him well. Although von Bary’s opinion of
+the Tuareg of Air is not favourable, in reality he owed them a great
+debt of gratitude. No other people who dislike foreigners so much
+as they do would have protected him and helped him as they finally
+did. His quarrels with Belkho seem to have been in part due to his own
+tactlessness and discourtesy, and in part to his inability to realise
+that the chief, for political reasons, did not desire him to go to the
+Sudan. Von Bary returned to Ghat, meaning to try once more to reach
+Nigeria as soon as he had picked up his stores and some more money,
+but his diary ends abruptly with the remark that he would be ready
+to start south again from there in fifteen to twenty days. He died
+within twenty-four hours of reaching Ghat, on 3rd October, 1877. He
+had spent a cheerful evening with Kaimakam,[26] and had gone to bed;
+at 6 a.m. he was breathing peacefully asleep; by ten o’clock he was
+dead. His death does not seem to have been quite natural. It remains
+one of the mysteries of the Sahara. Von Bary’s account of Air[27]
+is very incomplete and his observations are coloured by the hardships
+which he suffered. With the exception of certain botanical information
+and notes on one or two ethnological points, his descriptions contain
+little that had not already been made known by Barth.
+
+Then began that competition among European Powers for African
+colonies which was soon to reach a critical stage. The Anglo-German
+Convention of 1890 had proposed to divide Africa finally, but before
+that date the French had seen one desirable part after the other fall
+to our lot. They determined before it was too late to take as much
+as possible of what still remained unallocated. Central Africa, east
+of Lake Chad, certain tracts of indifferent country on the western
+coast and the greater part of the Sahara were still unclaimed by any
+European Power. And so it was that in France the magnificent scheme
+was conceived of sending three columns from north, west and south to
+converge on Lake Chad, and formally to take possession of the lands
+through which they passed in accordance with the stipulations of
+the Congress of Berlin, where it had been laid down that territorial
+claims were only valid if substantiated by effective occupation. It was
+not till 1899, however, that the French plans reached maturity. Three
+expeditions duly set out from the Congo, the Western Sudan and Algeria
+to cross Africa and meet on Lake Chad. Their adventures constitute one
+of the most romantic chapters in Colonial history. The western column,
+at first under Captain Voulet, who was accompanied by Lieut. Chanoine
+and others, marched from the Niger along the northern edge of the
+Nigerian Emirates. Mutiny and murder among the European personnel were
+experienced. French politics at home, where the Jewish question had
+become acute, were responsible for all manner of delays; the command
+changed hands repeatedly. But the northern column and the Congo party
+were equally delayed; not until a year after the date fixed for the
+rendezvous on the lake did the three expeditions meet. The military
+escorts were united under Commandant Lamy, and gave battle to the
+forces of Rabah, one of the Khalif’s generals, who had crossed half
+Africa to carve out for himself a kingdom in Bornu and Bagirmi after
+the _débâcle_ of the Mahdia on the Upper Nile. Lamy defeated him
+and annexed French Equatorial Africa.
+
+Of these three expeditions, the northern column, known as the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission, had passed through Air on its way south. The
+Europeans who accompanied it were in 1899 the first Frenchmen to
+enter the country and to carry out the plan originally contemplated
+by Flatters in 1881. The annexation of Air by France may be counted
+from this date.
+
+The Foureau-Lamy Mission[28] entered the borders of Air from Algeria
+at the wells of In Azawa; their heavy losses in camels obliged
+them to abandon large quantities of material, but they eventually
+reached Iferuan in the Ighazar, not far from T’intaghoda. Here
+the camp of the expedition was attacked in force by the Tuareg,
+who were only driven off with great difficulty. The situation was
+critical. The whole country was hostile to the French; they were so
+short of camels that on the stage south of Iferuan to Agellal they
+had to move their baggage in small lots, marching their transport
+forwards and backwards. Their destiny hung in the balance when friendly
+overtures were made to them near Auderas by a Tuareg of considerable
+note, Ahodu of the Kel Tadek tribe, whose fathers and forefathers
+for five generations had been keepers of the mosque of Tefgun near
+Iferuan. Ahodu’s political sense has rarely been at fault, either
+then or since; he saw that the only end possible for his people from
+protracted hostilities with the Europeans was disaster. He promised
+the French peace while the column remained in Air. It reached Agades
+in safety, and the Sultan was obliged to hoist the French flag and
+provide transport animals and guides. No attack was made near the
+town, thanks to the efficacy of Ahodu’s presence, but his powers
+of persuasion were insufficient when the column marched out into the
+barren area further south. The guide purposely misled the expedition
+and it nearly perished of thirst, succeeding only with great difficulty
+in returning to Agades. It eventually started once more and reached
+the south, where its story ceases to concern the exploration of Air.
+
+Since 1899, then, the fate of Air has been settled in so far as Europe
+was concerned, for it was recognised as lying within the French sphere;
+but the country was not effectually occupied until 1904, when a camel
+patrol under Lieut. C. Jean established a post at Agades. The post
+was evacuated for a short time and then reoccupied. The exploration
+of the mountains has proceeded slowly since that date. Sketch maps
+were gradually compiled in the course of camel corps patrols, and
+in 1910 the Cortier geographical mission published a very creditable
+map of the mountains,[29] other than the northern Fadé group, based
+on thirty-three astronomically determined co-ordinates supplementing
+the five secured by the Foureau-Lamy Mission. Chudeau in 1905 made
+a brief geological survey and published some notes on the flora,
+which remain uncatalogued to this day;[30] very complete collections
+of the fauna have been made by Buchanan[31] and examined in England
+by the British Museum (South Kensington) and by Lord Rothschild’s
+museum at Tring. The ethnology of the country is very superficially
+discussed in a book published by Jean; Barth’s account remains the
+one of value. The complete exploration of the mountains and detailed
+mapping still remain to be done as well as other scientific work of
+every description.
+
+“Air” as a geographical term for the mountainous plateau does
+not signify exactly the same thing to the inhabitants of the country
+themselves as it does to us; properly speaking, it is applied by them
+only to one part of the plateau, for the whole of which the more usual
+name of Asben or Absen is used. The latter is probably the original
+name given to the area by the people of the Sudan before the advent of
+the Tuareg. It is now very generally used even by them: it is universal
+further south. Barth has speculated at some length upon the origin of
+the name Air or Ahir, to take its Arabic form, and concluded that the
+letter “h” had been deliberately added out of modesty to guard
+against the word acquiring a copronymous signification. But early
+Arabic geographers give the form as Akir and not as Ahir, so the
+laborious explanation of the learned traveller is probably unnecessary.
+
+The boundaries of Air may be defined either as running along the line
+where the rocks of the area dip below the sands of the desert, or as
+following certain well-marked basins and watercourses of material size,
+where disintegrated rock or alluvium has covered the lower slopes of
+the hills. The mountainous area is some 300 miles long by 200 miles
+broad. It lies wholly within the tropics and is surrounded by desert
+or by arid steppe. Owing to the general elevation of the country the
+climate is quite pleasant.
+
+[Illustration: Drainage of the CENTRAL SAHARA
+
+F. R. del.
+
+Emery Walker Ltd. sc.]
+
+In remote ages the rainfall of the Central Sahara was sufficient to
+create the deep and important river beds which compose the hydrographic
+system of this part of North Africa. Among these watercourses is
+one of great size, flowing from the Ahaggar massif towards Algeria,
+called the Ighaghar. Duveyrier has tried to prove that it was the
+Niger of Pliny, largely on the grounds that the root “Ig” or
+“Igh” occurs in both words and in Temajegh means “to run.”
+The effect of this identification, which is hard to accept, would be
+to make the classical ethnology of the Sahara less easy to follow, but
+it has little significance in considering Air, except in so far as it
+would tend to show that the geographical knowledge of the Romans did
+not extend as far south as the plateau. Complementary to the Ighaghar
+but flowing south from the Ahaggar massif is another equally great
+river,[32] which early in its course is joined by a large tributary
+from the Western Fezzan. At a certain point this valley is crossed by
+the roads from Air to Ahaggar and Ghat, branching respectively at the
+wells of In Azawa or Asiu. The eastern branch is the caravan road to
+Ghat from the Sudan, the western one finds its way to In Salah in Tuat
+and to Algeria. This bed runs south and south-west towards the Niger,
+which it must have reached at some point between Gao and Timbuctoo
+in the neighbourhood of the N.E. corner of the Great Bend which the
+French call “La Boucle du Niger.” This river of remote times must
+have been one of the great watercourses of Africa, extending from
+the head-waters in 26° N. Lat. to its mouth in the Bight of Benin
+on the Equator. It is not possible to say whether the interesting
+terrestrial changes which diverted the Upper Niger at the lagoons above
+Timbuctoo into the present Lower Niger, and which brought about the
+desiccation of the upper reaches, took place suddenly or gradually,
+but the latter is more probable, for a similar diversion seems to be
+going on in the Chad area. The lake, in reality an immense marsh and
+lagoon, is much smaller than when it perhaps included the depression
+noted by Tilho as extending most of the way to Tibesti; some of the
+waters of the Chad feeders are already believed to be finding their way
+in flood-time into the Benue, and it is possible that in the course
+of time a similar process to that manifested in the Niger area will
+take place; then Lake Chad will dry up into salt-pans like those at
+Taodenit. The Saharan river, which flows southward to the west of Air,
+bears various names. Its course has never been accurately determined,
+but its general direction is known. From Ahaggar to a point level with
+the northernmost parts of Air it is called Tafassasset. The T’in
+Tarabin channel from Ahaggar more probably drained into the Belly of
+the Desert than into this system, but the Alfalehle (Wadi Falezlez)
+from the Western Fezzan most certainly seems to be a tributary;
+there are various reasons why it ought not to flow towards Kawar,
+as used at one time to be thought. West of Air the main bed spreads
+out into a vast plain-like basin under the name of T’immersoi;
+further south it is called Azawak. In general I prefer to use the
+name T’immersoi for the whole until a better one is suggested.[33]
+
+The T’immersoi forms a collector in the west of Air for nearly all
+the water from this group of mountains. Nowadays only a comparatively
+small amount ever reaches the basin, as much is absorbed by the
+intervening plain land of Talak[34] and the Assawas swamp west of
+Agades. The latter are local basins or sumps covered with dense
+vegetation where some of the most nomadic tribes in Air pasture
+their herds. Talak is visited by Tuareg from Ahaggar and from the
+west for the same purpose. It plays an important part in the economy
+of the country, for water is always to be found in the alluvial soil
+however dry the season in the mountains has been. Many of the wells
+have now fallen into disuse, but the output of those which remain is
+still plentiful. The last rocks of Air on the west disappear below
+the alluvium of T’immersoi and in the subsidiary basins of Talak
+and Assawas. The T’immersoi system therefore forms the western
+boundary of Air.
+
+The upper part of the T’immersoi, where it is called the Tafassasset,
+is also the northern boundary of Air. The wells of In Azawa[35] and
+Asiu in this valley may be regarded as the point where the main roads
+from the north enter the extreme limits of the country. Further east
+on another road between Air and Ghat, von Bary fixed the boundary at
+the Wadi Immidir, which is in the same latitude as In Azawa.[36]
+
+The eastern boundary of Air runs along the line where the last rocks
+of the group disappear below the sand of the steppe and desert, which
+extends from north to south between the mountains of the Fezzan and
+the fringe of Equatorial Africa, and from west to east between the
+mountains of Air and those of Tibesti with its adjacent massifs. This
+vast area is crossed by a few roads only, the most important ones being
+(_a_) the road from Murzuk along the Kawar depression to Agadem and
+Lake Chad, (_b_) and (_c_), the two principal tracks from Air eastwards
+to Bilma by Ashegur and Fashi respectively, and (_d_) the road from
+Zinder by Termit to Fashi and Kawar. Watering-points are very few,
+and the habitable oases can be numbered on the fingers of two hands;
+pasturage is everywhere scarce. This great waste is one of the most
+unknown parts of North Africa; its eastern portion along the Tibesti
+mountains as far north as the Fezzan may be said to be absolutely
+unknown except for two tracks to the mountains whither occasional
+camel patrols have passed.
+
+Kawar and the other oases along the Chad road appear to be closed
+basins of the Eastern Saharan type. They seem to have no outlet
+towards the south either into the Chad or into the Niger systems. The
+desert east of Air, therefore, contains the eastern watershed of the
+T’immersoi basin, for the valleys of Eastern Air do not run into the
+desert as Chudeau has suggested,[37] but turn southwards on leaving the
+hills, in ill-defined depressions or folds which join the Tagedufat
+valley or one of the other channels flowing westwards in Tegama or
+Damergu. One valley to the south of Air, probably the Tagedufat itself,
+is stated to run all the way from Fashi across the desert.
+
+The southern limits of Air may be placed along the Tagedufat basin,
+where the rocks of Air disappear below the sand dunes and downs of
+Tegama and Azawagh steppe desert. The valley is of some size and flows
+roughly N.E. and S.W. towards T’immersoi, but whether it actually
+joins this system or the Gulbi n’Kaba, which finds its way into
+Sokoto Emirate under the name of the Gulbi n’Maradi and thence into
+the Niger, is not certain. The former hypothesis seems more probable,
+but I was unable to follow the Tagedufat sufficiently far west to
+verify it, nor could I discover any data on the French maps;[38]
+local reports substantiate my supposition. Both systems in any case
+are in the Niger basin. Air is not on the watershed between Niger and
+Chad. The choice of the Tagedufat valley as the southern boundary of
+Air is made on geographical grounds. What may be termed the political
+boundary is rather further north along the line of the River of Agades.
+
+                                                               PLATE 3
+
+[Illustration: DESERT AND HILLS FROM TERMIT PEAK
+
+Commencing within 50 km. of the In Azawa wells, Air is a low plateau
+of Silurian formation with islands of Archean rock. Through the
+plateau-plain a number of separate formations have been extruded by, in
+many cases, apparently quite recent volcanic action. The northernmost
+massifs of Taghazit and Zelim lie in about latitude 20°. The volcanic
+period was of considerable duration, but all the recognisable volcanoes
+and derived phenomena are post-Eocene.[39] Some of the basalt flows,
+more especially those from Mount Dogam near Auderas in Central Air,
+are not old, while the Teginjir lava flow appeared to me so fresh as
+probably to have come into existence during the historical period. The
+volcanic phenomena take the form of cinder cones with steep sides as
+at Teginjir (Mount Gheshwa), cumulo-volcanoes, as in the T’imia and
+probably Bagezan massifs, domes as in the case of Mount Dogam, and
+basalt flows in various parts, notably in the T’imia valleys.[40]
+Aggata[40] appears to be another volcanic peak, but the serrated crest
+of Ighzan is a phenomenon of the rapid cooling of an igneous extrusion
+rather than an example of erosion. There are numerous volcanic massifs
+distinct from each other all over Air, more especially in the centre
+and north; they are nearly all granitic and very rugged. The Auderas
+basin is of basalt and cinerite.[41] The plateau, which is in the
+main horizontal, rises in the centre to a step some few hundred feet
+higher than the north and south and forms a pedestal for the Bagezan
+and other massifs some 1500 to 3000 feet higher again. The peaks
+are as much as 4500 feet[42] above the plateau, which varies from
+1500 feet above sea level in the south along the River of Agades,
+to 2000 feet in the Ighazar in North Air. Round Auderas the plateau
+may be taken as about 2500 feet above the sea, while to the east of
+the Bagezan massif the plateau is about 3000 feet, sloping gradually
+away to the south and east. Between Agades and Auderas there is an
+abrupt ascent on to the central step of the plateau of some 2000 feet;
+a corresponding descent of about 150 feet takes place near Assada.
+
+The effect of these massifs rising sharply out of the plateau is
+curious. The Archean or Silurian plain and the volcanic mountain groups
+are phenomena which have not yet had time to become correlated. The
+result is that the broad and very gentle valleys of the plateau-plain
+wander in and out among the disconnected massifs and are fed by deep
+torrents draining the slopes of impermeable rock. Water erosion has
+not yet had time to widen or deepen the ravines, while the broad
+valleys have wide sandy bottoms, where pebbles only rarely occur;
+their sides are well wooded with pasture on the plains between the
+beds, except where masses of round basalt boulders, the product of
+the volcanic disturbances, cover the surface. The massifs have hardly
+been affected by erosion. The broad valleys between them are the
+corridors of communication in the country. “Cette superimposition à
+une vieille pénéplaine usée,” says Chudeau,[43] “de massifs
+éruptifs jeunes, donne a l’Air un aspect surprenant, presque
+paradoxal.” And this is the charm of the country that has been
+called by travellers the Saharan Alps. There is contrast everywhere,
+but nothing is perhaps more striking than the black patina which the
+red rocks have assumed. The wind-borne sand has polished them till
+they shine with a dark metallic gleam, while the sheltered rifts and
+ravines retain their pink and red surfaces. It is a land of lurid
+colour, except at midday, when the African sun dominates everything
+in one blinding glare.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The name “Sudan” is used throughout to indicate
+the country referred to by the Arab and early European geographers
+under this name, that is to say, the country inhabited by negroid
+people north of the purely negro zone and south of the Saharan
+deserts. The “Anglo-Egyptian Sudan” is more correctly described
+as the “Nilotic Sudan.”]
+
+[Footnote 2: The geography of the Sahara as a whole is briefly
+treated in _Le Sahara_, by E. F. Gautier, Collection Payot, Paris,
+1923, and with greater detail in _Le Sahara_, by H. Schirmer, Paris,
+1893, but much recent work is not included in the latter.]
+
+[Footnote 3: O. Bates: _The Eastern Libyans_ (Macmillan), pp. 48-9.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Cf. Rohlfs, _Kufra_, Chap. VIII.]
+
+[Footnote 5: “Alguechet” in Leo Africanus, Vol. III. pp. 802,
+818, etc. (For particulars see beginning of Chap. IX.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: Until motor-cars began to cross the Sahara further west.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Bissuel, _Les Touareg de l’Ouest_, p. 63, says: “A
+plant called locally ‘Bettina’ and not the Alfalehle (Arabic:
+Falezlez) was used.”]
+
+[Footnote 8: Gautier: _La conquête du Sahara_, Paris, 1922.]
+
+[Footnote 9: See _Life of Charles de Foucauld_, by R. Bazin, translated
+by P. Keelan, and De Foucauld, _Dictionnaire abrégé Touareg
+Français_ (Dialecte Ahaggar), publié par R. Basset, Alger, 1918-20.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Jean: _Les Touareg du Sud-Est_, Paris, Larose, 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Barth: _Travels and Discoveries in Central Africa_,
+London, Longmans, 1857-8, 5 vols.]
+
+[Footnote 12: From “Litham,” لثام (root لثم), a veil.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The slaves which they possess do not wear the veil. The
+slave is not a man but a chattel. As soon as a slave is freed and
+becomes a serf he wears the veil like the noble Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 14: In the Air dialect this word is so pronounced. Variations
+in other dialects are referred to elsewhere. Imajeghan is the plural
+form of Imajegh. Temajegh is a feminine form of Imajegh.]
+
+[Footnote 15: “Kel” means “People of,” “Tagilmus” is the
+name of the Veil in Temajegh, the language of the Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 16: For an explanation of this term see Chap. IX.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The term “Hausa” throughout this volume is not used
+in an ethnological sense. It is primarily a linguistic division which
+may or may not also have an ethnic significance.]
+
+[Footnote 18: “Adghar” or “adrar” = mountain in Temajegh. This
+mountain group between Air and the Niger and south of Ahaggar has
+no name. It is called the “Mountain of the Ifoghas” (Adghar
+n’Ifoghas), while the people who live in it are known as the
+“Ifoghas of the Mountain,” to distinguish them from the Ifoghas
+tribe in Damergu and the Ifoghas tribe of the Azger.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Leo Africanus: Hakluyt Society edition, Vol. I. p. 127,
+and Vol. III. pp. 798-9.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Notably by M. Ch. de la Roncière: _Revue des Deux
+Mondes_, 1st February, 1923: “Tombuctou au temps de Louis XI.”]
+
+[Footnote 21: M. de la Roncière in a private letter of July 1923 to
+the author.]
+
+[Footnote 22: The edition I have used is a French one: Hornemann,
+_Voyage dans l’Afrique Septentrionale_, edited by my ancestor
+Rennell. Paris: Dentu, 1803.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Denham and Clapperton: “Discoveries in North and
+Central Africa, 1822-4,” Murray, 1826.]
+
+[Footnote 24: See Introduction to Richardson’s _Travels in the
+Great Desert of the Sahara_, London, 1847, and Barth, _op. cit._,
+Vol. II. pp. 219-20.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Barth calls this area Fadeangh, a name not known to-day.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The Governor appointed by the Turks.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Von Bary’s Diary, “La dernier rapport . . . sur
+. . . les Touaregs de l’Air.” Edited by Schirmer; Paris,
+Fischbacher, 1898.]
+
+[Footnote 28: _Documents Scientifiques de la Mission
+Foureau-Lamy_. Various fascicules.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Carte de l’Air: Mission Cortier (2 feuilles),
+1/500,000. Service Géogr. du Min. des Colonies.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Chudeau and Gautier: _Missions au Sahara_, Paris,
+Armand Colin, 1909 (Vol. II., _Le Sahara Soudanais_, by Chudeau).]
+
+[Footnote 31: Buchanan: _Out of the World North of Nigeria_, Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Where the words “rivers” or “watercourse” are
+used they must be understood to mean drainage channels which are dry
+most of the year.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Gautier on his sketch map in _Le Sahara_ uses the name
+Tafassasset, which, however, is even more of a local name in the
+north than T’immersoi is in the south.]
+
+[Footnote 34: In Temajegh “Talak” means “clay.” Cf. Chudeau:
+_Le Sahara Soudanais_, p. 63, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Meaning in Temajegh “of the Tamarisk.”]
+
+[Footnote 36: Von Bary’s Diary, pp. 108-9. He joined the main road
+followed by Barth in the T’iyut valley.]
+
+[Footnote 37: In the case of the Tafidet and other eastern valleys of
+Air, Chudeau, _op. cit._, p. 62. He supposed, as I think erroneously,
+that the Air group itself and not the desert was the eastern watershed
+of the T’immersoi basin.]
+
+[Footnote 38: The country south of Air and north of the limit included
+in the maps published by the Mission Tilho of the area each side
+of the Franco-British boundary between Nigeria and the Territoires
+Militaires du Niger is hardly mapped at all.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Chudeau, _op. cit._, pp. 263-4.]
+
+[Footnote 40: _Vide_ Plates 23 and 39.]
+
+[Footnote 41: _Vide_ Plates 13 and 14.]
+
+[Footnote 42: In the case of Tamgak.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Chudeau, _op. cit._, p. 57.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                             THE SOUTHLANDS
+
+
+Until about twenty years ago it was easier to reach the Western
+Sudan and Central Africa around Lake Chad from the north than from
+the Gulf of Guinea, notwithstanding a journey of many months across
+the Sahara, involving all the considerable hardships and dangers of
+desert travelling. The objectives which Barth, Foureau, Lamy and their
+predecessors all had in view were not the exploration of the Sahara,
+but the penetration of the Sudan. By following the trade routes
+along which slave caravans used to reach the Mediterranean coast,
+the explorers of the nineteenth century reached the wealthy Niger
+lands more easily than they would have done had they attempted to
+pass through the tropical forests of the West Coast. On the sea-board
+European penetration at that time was confined to the neighbourhood of
+a few factories on the shore or the estuaries of certain rivers. Only
+at the end of the nineteenth century did this country, first among the
+nations of Europe, realise that the potential markets and supplies of
+raw material which the Sudan afforded were on a scale far surpassing
+those which had been dreamt of by the early pioneers on the coast. It
+was about thirty years ago that communication was eventually opened
+up between the coast and the Moslem interior, but there is no doubt
+that the accounts of the Sudan in 1850 brought back by Barth after his
+memorable journey were directly responsible for the British penetration
+from the coast of those countries which are now called Sierra Leone,
+the Gold Coast and Nigeria. The movement reached its culmination in the
+opening years of the twentieth century, when the northern provinces
+of Nigeria were occupied under the guidance of Sir F. Lugard, while
+at about the same time the three French columns had met near Lake
+Chad. With these years the expansionist period closed and a phase
+of development, which still continues, commenced. British expansion
+into Northern Nigeria, coming as it did during the South African war,
+passed comparatively unnoticed in this country except in official
+circles, where the campaigns of Sir F. Lugard’s small columns
+aroused considerable anxiety. But because the policy was successful
+the public heard little of the operations which formally annexed the
+outlying Emirates of Kano, Katsina and Sokoto. The new countries which
+we then acquired were of colossal wealth, and contained a population
+of many millions of people living as thickly in certain parts as the
+Egyptians in the Nile Delta. The closing years of last and the first
+few years of this century involved the addition to the British Empire
+of some of the greatest of the Sudanese cities, which are the terminal
+points and therefore the _raisons d’être_ of the two central Saharan
+trade roads which come from the Mediterranean by way of Kawar and Air.
+
+[Illustration: F. R. del.
+
+Emery Walker Ltd. sc.]
+
+                                                     [_To face p._ 36.
+
+The Sudan, though geographically in Central Africa, belongs to the
+Mediterranean civilisation. The great empires of the Niger, Melle
+and Songhai, the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, the Emirates of Kano and
+Katsina, and the Empire of Bornu, were all products of contact with
+the north. Commercially and culturally, the Sudan faced north with
+its back against an impenetrable belt of tropical forest inhabited
+by savage negro tribes, through whose dripping and steaming jungles
+there was little or no access to the sea. This orientation explains
+the high degree of civilisation which Barth found already past its
+“floruit” in 1850. It is obviously also the reason why the early
+explorers came from the north rather than from the nearer coast of
+the Atlantic between Sierra Leone and the mouths of the Niger.
+
+With the arrival of the Europeans, ways down to the coast were
+gradually opened up, until finally in Nigeria seven hundred miles
+of railway were built from Lagos to Kano. As a consequence trade has
+left the trans-Saharan roads where the Tuareg were masters. It is now
+carried to Europe and even to the Mediterranean by steamers sailing
+from Lagos and Liverpool. In more ways than one the advent of the white
+man in Central Africa has been disastrous for the Tuareg. Camel-borne
+trade on a large scale is doomed; caravan broking and long-distance
+desert transport are gone, never to return; even a trans-Saharan
+railway, whose commercial value must be as unreal as the dream of
+its advocates among French Colonial authorities, can never hope to
+compete with sea-borne traffic. Aircraft alone may one day revive the
+old camel roads, for they provide lines of watering-points along the
+shortest north and south routes.
+
+If one may judge by the numbers and size of the market cities, which
+are the termini of the trans-Saharan routes in the Sudan, the Air road
+was by far the most important of the two in the centre. In Kano and
+in Katsina and in Sokoto the commercial genius of the Hausa people
+developed centres for the exchange of the European goods with the
+products, and more especially the raw materials, of Central Africa. To
+these cities also came the negro people of the south, to buy and sell
+or be sold as slaves. In a thickly populated and extremely fertile
+country the cities grew to immense size. Though in no sense properly
+a Tuareg country, Northern Nigeria and the neighbouring lands are
+visited and lived in by the People of the Veil. Every year it is the
+habit of many of this people to come from Air to Nigeria during the dry
+season. They earn a prosperous livelihood on transport work between the
+cities of Hausaland. They feed their camels on the richer pastures of
+the south when those in the north grow dry. But before the rains begin
+they move north again to the steppe and desert, for flooded rivers and
+excessive damp are conditions which the camels of the Veiled People
+do not relish. Quite large colonies of Tuareg have settled in some
+of these cities and have adopted a semi-sedentary life, maintaining
+their characteristics in inverse measure as intermarriage with the
+negroid peoples has become more frequent. The influx of Tuareg into
+Nigeria after the 1917 revolution in Air added considerably to the
+numbers living permanently under British rule. This migration was not
+as strange a phenomenon or so entirely the product of the Great War
+as at first sight it appears to be. The various waves of Tuareg which
+in succession entered Air have each in turn had the effect of driving
+the earlier populations further south. The trend of migration in North
+Africa from the earliest days, when the zone of permanent habitation of
+the negroid races extended as far as the Mediterranean, has always been
+southward. It has continued in modern times. The temptation of richer
+lands in Central Africa has always proved irresistible when local
+political or economic conditions altered in consequence of growing
+ethnic pressure to the extent of providing just that impetus necessary
+to overcome the human disinclination to leave homes which have been
+occupied for generations. The Kel Geres Tuareg left Air to settle in
+the country north of Sokoto when the mountains became over-populated;
+masses of Air Tuareg generally took up their habitation in Katsina
+and Kano after the unsuccessful revolution against the French during
+the late war. The motives were not strictly similar, but the effects
+were identical, and have been observable throughout the ages.
+
+[Illustration: AIR and the SOUTHLAND
+
+F. R. del.
+
+Emery Walker Ltd. sc.]
+
+To-day at Kano, a village of some size named Faji, almost entirely
+Tuareg in population, has sprung up a few hundred yards from the
+walls of the city. Here the People of the Veil live like the Hausa
+in mud houses. They are engaged in retail trade or act as agents
+and brokers for their relations in Air when the latter come down in
+the dry season. In Katsina a quarter of the town and the country
+immediately north are thickly populated with Tuareg, for whom the
+Emir has a marked partiality, largely on account of his commercial
+propensities, which are powerfully stimulated by the ownership of
+several fine herds of camels. The Tuareg of Katsina, drawn from
+almost every tribe in Air, have formed a new tribal unit known as
+the Kel Katchena,[44] and are rapidly forgetting their older tribal
+allegiances. The results of these movements have always been much
+the same. Progressive mixing with the negroid people of the Sudan,
+the gradual acquisition of sedentary habits, and the cultivation of
+fat lands where life is easy, are combining to make these People of
+the Veil lose their characteristics as a northern race; their language
+cannot compete with Hausa, which is the _lingua franca_ of the Sudan,
+as Arabic is that of North Africa. The retention of the Veil is the
+only exception: in fact many southerners associated with them have
+adopted it, although the rigorous proscription against revealing the
+mouth and face is being less strictly observed.
+
+North of the country surrounding the great walled cities of red
+earth, and more or less coterminous with the northern frontiers of
+the Emirates of Katsina, Daura, Kano and Hadeija, there is a deep
+belt of country which marks the beginning of the transition between
+the Saharan and the Equatorial zones.[45] North of the open country
+around Kano, with its large trees that for a height of some feet
+from the ground, like those in English parks, have been stripped of
+leaves by the grazing flocks and herds, the rock outcrops become less
+frequent and eventually disappear entirely. They give place to scrub,
+bush and clearings through which the Anglo-French boundary runs. The
+frontier from Lake Chad to the Niger was delimited in 1907 and 1908 by
+an international expedition whose work has been described by Colonel
+Tilho with a wealth of detail which makes one regret that his labours
+did not extend a little further north, as far as the edge of the desert
+where the Saharan zone proper commences. The area mapped by Colonel
+Tilho hardly extends beyond the northern limit of the Hausa-speaking
+people. Along the roads leading to Air, or in other words along the
+great trade route, no work was done beyond the southern fringe of
+the area called Damergu, and there is consequently to the south of
+Air a considerable depth of unsurveyed country for which no maps
+are available.
+
+The area between the international boundary and the somewhat arbitrary
+limits of Algeria and Tripolitania constitutes the French colony known
+as the “Territoires du Niger,”[46] the southern part of which
+is divided into provinces or “cercles,” roughly corresponding
+to the old native Emirates. French colonial policy in this part of
+Africa, in contrast with the system so successfully instituted by Sir
+F. Lugard in Nigeria, has been directed towards the removal of the more
+important native rulers. They have been replaced by a form of direct
+administration which is only now in process of being organised under
+French civilian officials. North of Katsina the Emirates of Maradi and
+Tessawa[47] have been combined into one province, and here almost the
+last Sultan of the “Territoires” survives, exercising authority
+only in the immediate vicinity of Tessawa itself. West of this is the
+province of Tahua; to the east is the old Emirate of Damagarim with
+its capital at Zinder, and east again is Gure, the northern part of
+which is known as Elakkos and Kuttus.
+
+Once the belt of thick bush near the frontier is crossed the country
+resembles Northern Nigeria again, with park bush and broad open spaces,
+both cultivated and grass-grown. The villages are of the usual Central
+African type; the groups of conical huts are surrounded by millet
+stores, raised on legs like gigantic bee-hives, to contain the grain
+cultivated in the clearings around the settlements. The inhabitants
+are Hausa and Kanuri, though of late years a number of lower-caste
+Tuareg from Air have settled there as well. There is a considerable
+amount of rock outcrop in the form, round Zinder, of low peaks with
+great boulders, or, near Gure, of hills which terminate abruptly in
+a cliff of red rock, north of which is the district called Elakkos.
+
+Through this belt of park bush runs east and west the road recently
+levelled and rendered passable for light cars in the dry season
+between Lake Chad and the Niger. The nomadic cattle-breeding Fulani
+come into this zone from the bush to the north and south; Maradi is
+a Fulani centre of some importance. A certain number of this people
+also come to Tessawa, but the Hausa population here have been at
+feud with them for many generations, and only the advent of European
+control has put an end to continual wars between the two Emirates.
+
+                                                               PLATE 4
+
+[Illustration: DIOM IN ELAKKOS]
+
+[Illustration: PUNCH AND JUDY SHOW]
+
+Tessawa lies in a shallow depression which, like others further north
+on the way to Damergu, drain into the Gulbi n’Kaba, an affluent
+of the Niger containing running water only in its lower reaches
+in the neighbourhood of Sokoto. North of Tessawa and Damagarim
+the land becomes more sparsely populated and the bush thickens,
+except in the immediate vicinity of the villages, which now begin
+to be tenanted in increasing numbers by Kanuri. The bush contains
+herds of Fulani cattle and a certain amount of game; there are two
+or three varieties of gazelle, some bustard, guinea-fowl, ostriches
+and occasionally giraffes. The vegetation becomes more stunted as
+progress is made northward and large trees are rarer; the soil is
+sandy; rock outcrop is almost completely absent. The configuration
+of the ground is difficult to follow in the thick bush; the gentle
+slopes and valleys appear generally to drain westwards, but shallow
+closed basins are numerous. Plenty of water is obtainable in any of
+these depressions a few feet below the ground; the larger groups of
+wells, usually near the two or three hamlets of straw huts which form
+a village, are the resort of the Fulani with their cattle during the
+dry season. The vegetation and the general aspect of the country,
+however, are still those of the Sudan.
+
+Damagarim differs but little from the Tessawa landscape except that
+the bush is thicker and there are fewer open spaces. East of the
+boulder-strewn hills of Zinder the more ambitious elevations of
+Gure are visible. Zinder itself consists of two contiguous towns;
+like Tessawa and the Hausa cities further south, they are built of
+red mud. Zinder is smaller than the analogous Nigerian cities. Since
+1921 it has had no Sultan. The French headquarters of the Niger
+Territories till recently were situated here. In the past Zinder was
+of some importance; although the main caravan track from the north
+appears in the early days to have run direct to Katsina, a branch from
+Damergu went by way of Zinder as soon as Kano grew in importance. But
+in spite of the number and influence of the Tuareg who used to make
+Zinder their headquarters, neither Damagarim nor Gure has changed
+its essentially Sudanese character.
+
+Within a few days’ march of Tessawa on the road north to Gangara
+in Damergu, several interesting features were observable. At Urufan
+village the Magazawa Hausa and Kanuri women were wearing the ornament
+known as the “Agades Cross,” peculiar to the Air Tuareg, in
+a simple as well as in a conventionalised form. Many of the women
+exhibited almost Mongolian traits in their eyes and cheek-bones. Their
+hair was done in what I believe to be a Kanuri fashion, that is
+to say, in a low crest along the top of the head, tightly matted
+and well greased, with a parting, or very often a shaved strip on
+each side, running the length of the skull; over the ears the hair
+was again tightly plaited and greased. Their dancing was different
+from the practice in Nigeria: the women dance with bent knees and a
+crouching body, so that the back is nearly horizontal. They shuffle
+up to the drum band one behind the other, the woman at the head of
+the line turning away at the end of each movement to take her place
+behind. The absence of sedentary Fulani influence is obvious as soon
+as music starts; the rattles and cymbals made of segments of calabash
+on a stick, peculiar to the Fulani in Nigeria, are not used.
+
+Ethnically it is a very mixed area. In most cases each hamlet in a
+village group is inhabited by a different people. Magazawa Hausa,
+Kanuri from Damergu, and more recent Kanuri from Bornu predominate,
+but there are also nomadic Fulani and semi-nomadic Tuareg.
+
+This is the edge of the country called Damergu, which, on the direct
+road from Tessawa, may be said to begin at the village group of
+Garari in a small valley, tributary of the Gulbi n’Kaba. Just
+before reaching the southern edge of the valley the thorn bush
+suddenly ceases. In the hollow are two or three hamlets of Kanuri,
+Bornuwi, sedentary Tuareg and Hausa with common wells in the valley
+bottom. Instead of interminable thorn scrub just so high that nothing
+can be seen above it, an open wind-swept plain of rolling downland
+covered with yellow-gold grass appears in front. On the sharp African
+horizon to the N. and N.E. are the blue peaks of Damergu, quite small
+and humble, but clear cut against the sky-line with all the dignity
+of isolation in a sea of waving sun-washed prairie.
+
+Damergu begins and ends abruptly: as soon as the belt of bush
+which surrounds it on all sides is crossed, the ground lies open to
+the sky and visibility becomes good. There is no more suffocating
+feeling in the world than marching through Central African bush. The
+discomforts and disabilities of travelling are not compensated for by
+any advantage except a ready supply of firewood. The bushland around
+Damergu is particularly unpleasant. It is never so tall that one may
+not hope to see over the top of the ugly stunted trees at the next
+low rise, and never in reality low enough to allow one to satisfy
+one’s passionate longing. Visibility is limited to a few yards
+and one’s sense of direction is confounded. It is infernally hot,
+because the undergrowth effectively shelters one from any breeze. The
+country is uniformly rolling and unbeautiful. A high proportion of
+the trees are of the virulently thorny variety which arch over the
+rare paths and make life on camel or horseback intolerable. Walking
+is equally distasteful, as the ground is strewn with burr grass
+which enters every fold of clothing and mortifies the flesh like hot
+needles. Camels get lost pasturing, game appears in vast quantities and
+disappears before a shot can be fired. There are scorpions, snakes,
+centipedes and tarantulas, not to speak of bush folk who have an
+uncanny sense of their own whereabouts, and of yours as well. They
+are armed with poisoned arrows, and though I did not suffer from their
+unkind attentions, the bush through which I passed north of Daura has
+a bad reputation. There are vast areas with no accessible water in
+the dry season, but when it rains the trees drip their moisture down
+your neck. I know the particular and private hell which is in store
+for me one day for the many misdemeanours I have committed. It will
+be to wander eternally through Sudan bush in search of the desert,
+where one may see what will bring happiness or oblivion at a distance
+and where one may at least face Destiny in the open.
+
+On each separate occasion when I entered Damergu, in the east returning
+from Termit, in the west going north from Tessawa, and in the north
+returning home by way of Nigeria, I experienced such a sense of relief
+and pleasure at emerging from the bush as to dull my perception of the
+really somewhat monotonous nature of the country. The winding hollows
+flow more or less aimlessly east or west, except in the Gangara area,
+where the drainage is definitely westwards into the Gulbi n’Kaba
+basin. The general level of the country is about 1700 feet above
+the sea. Except in the hollows around the rain pools the country is
+devoid of trees or scrub. Every here and there small groups of hills
+rise 300-400 feet above the surrounding country. They are so far apart
+that the next system only appears on the horizon. The black ferruginous
+outcrop forms conical peaks or stretches of pebbly surface, which break
+the round contours of the prairie. These little hills, set on a rolling
+golden prairie of very wide prospect, are the great characteristics
+of Damergu. The land is vast and generous in its proportions.
+
+The hills of Gangara in the west mark the site of a group of four
+villages called Zungu and Gangara close under the principal peak, Malam
+Chidam to the east and Karawa to the south. The hills are a series
+of cones rising a few hundred feet from the plain and are connected
+at their bases; a series of gullies or ravines clothed with little
+bushes descends from them; there are no cliffs or great masses of
+bare rock; the slopes are covered with low scrub. The Gangara hills
+divide the Gulbi n’Kaba basin from a wide depression on the east
+which sweeps south towards the cone of Zawzawa near the large village
+of Kallilua, with Dambida and Mazia not far to the north. North and
+east of Gangara are the low hills of Dambansa, Birjintoro and Ollelua,
+while further east again in a confused medley of aimless valleys are
+Mount Ginea and the triple peaks of Akri. The Akritan[48] hills are a
+landmark for the towns of Jajiduna, Tanut and Gamram. These various
+groups are the signposts of Damergu; even a raw traveller can learn
+them in a short time. Between the more important villages and towns
+the scattered hamlets are of such frequent occurrence that, once the
+general lie of the land has been observed, travelling is easy.
+
+It is a country of considerable potential wealth. It was known in
+the past as the granary of Air; even now great quantities of grain
+are exported to the north and to the more densely populated Hausa
+countries of the south. The long, broad downs, usually well fed by
+the summer rains, are admirably suited for growing millet and guinea
+corn. The surrounding margin of bush, especially on the northern
+side within reasonable distances of the plentiful water holes in
+open places, is full of the cattle of nomad Fulani and the camels of
+the Damergu Tuareg. The cultivable area to-day is limited only by
+the scarcity of population and some lack of enthusiasm for work. A
+periodic cycle of dry years with the inevitable sequels of drought
+and famine can only be guarded against by administrative measures,
+which have not been enforced since the fall of the Central African
+Empires. One after another they dominated this part of the world,
+but whether Melle, Songhai, Bornu or Sokoto was pre-eminent in the
+Central Sudan, Damergu remained an appanage of Air, whose destinies
+it followed and of which it is economically a part. After the first
+arrival of the Tuareg from the east, a progressive descent of other
+tribes from the north led to the establishment of a reigning class in
+the country, recruited among the People of Air. To them the sedentary
+Kanuri people, who then and since have constituted the majority of
+the population, were subjected. The Tuareg Sultans of Damergu in the
+early period of modern history ruled in Jajiduna, Gamram, Tademari and
+Demmili. Even when they fell under the political influence of Tessawa
+or of Damagarim or were conquered by Melle, Songhai or Sokoto in turn,
+they remained in close touch with their relations in the north. The
+economic necessity of keeping open the great caravan road to Tripoli,
+which was a source of wealth to the Tuareg and to the south alike,
+was realised by everyone.
+
+The more intense cultivation and thicker population of earlier days
+are proved by the profusion of deserted sites all over the country,
+where the passing of the villages has left no more tangible, if
+unmistakable, evidence than acres of cleared and levelled ground
+strewn with potsherds and heaps of stones. The greater population
+of those days and the administrative ability of the empires of the
+Sudan combined to counteract the effects of dry years by creating
+proportionately larger reserves of grain, which were so conspicuously
+absent just before the late war that a severe drought brought about
+wholesale emigration to the Southland.
+
+The present-day villages in Damergu are all of the grass hut variety
+of the usual African type. In the past a few towns appear to have
+been built of mud. The ruins of old Dambiri show a walled mud-built
+town, although Demmili, once the seat of a Sultan who probably moved
+to Gangara when his village fell into decay, must have been wholly
+built of grass, for it has entirely disappeared. A lonely tree on a
+barren patch of ground marks its passing. The Gangara villages are all
+straw built, as are, among the larger settlements which have survived,
+Mazia and Kallilua. There are mud buildings, I believe, at Tademari
+and Jajiduna, and certainly at Tanut. The latter is the French centre
+of the country. It has an important grain market and a fort containing
+a small garrison of Senegalese troops. The principal native place was
+Jajiduna, where the first French post was established; but the town
+has rather declined since the move of the official capital to Tanut,
+where the water supply for caravans is better. At Jajiduna there is
+a Senussi “zawia,” one of the few points where the influence of
+this sect has taken root in Tuareg countries. The principal Senussi
+“zawia” in the Southland is at Kano, with another smaller one
+reported at Zinder.
+
+                                                               PLATE 5
+
+[Illustration: GAMRAM]
+
+North of Jajiduna and north-east of Tanut is Gamram,[49] a town of
+some importance in the past for the Tuareg, and the seat of one
+of their rulers of Damergu. Now a small collection of straw huts
+is surrounded by the ruins of mud walls like any of the towns of
+Hausaland. Gamram was the Warden of the South on the marches of the
+desert. As the most northerly permanent settlement of the Sudan on
+the Tripoli road it became a point of vital strategic importance for
+the caravan traffic. The town has occupied many sites on the edge of
+a basin that becomes a lake in the rainy season. The present site is
+on the north side, but the most important settlement was probably to
+the south-west. The beauty of Gamram struck Barth very forcibly. It
+was the first definitely Sudanese settlement to which he had come
+after the inhospitable deserts and the mountains of the Sahara. He had
+suffered intense discomfort in the waste called Azawagh, intervening
+between Damergu and the Sudan, but when he came to Gamram, the rains
+had filled the lake which laps the feet of some immense acacias that
+are perpetually green. Their roots live in water, and when the pool
+dries up, wells only a few feet deep are dug under their shade. The
+trees are filled with the song of many birds and the sound of running
+lizards. The gardens around the edge of the basin produce vegetables
+and luxuries rarely encountered in the Sahara. There are eggs and
+chickens and milk and cheese in the market. All these things are
+found at Gamram, not in plenty but in just sufficient quantities to
+delight the traveller in barren lands. I came to Gamram a day after
+leaving the impenetrable bush of Elakkos and found it as good as
+Barth had described.
+
+The town has lost its Tuareg character. It is now a small settlement
+of a few hundred Kanuri and mixed inhabitants. The Tuareg element
+in the immediate neighbourhood is accounted for by some sedentary
+serfs or slaves living in other hamlets near by. The noble Tuareg
+of the Isherifan tribe who used to possess Gamram wander in the
+district between this place and the bush of Guliski. They have not
+counted for very much since they were decimated in a raid by Belkho,
+the great leader of the Air Tuareg during the latter years of last
+century. Belkho had complained that the Isherifan at Gamram were
+interfering with the caravans which crossed Damergu, and as his
+people were especially interested in the traffic, he demanded an
+assurance that the annoyance should cease, failing which he would
+have to take measures. The Isherifan returned an insolent reply and
+Belkho warned them again. He offered to accept a fine in camels for
+their misbehaviour, but when this was refused, collected a body of
+some two hundred to three hundred men and came swiftly down the
+road from Tergulawen with hostile intent. He reached the town at
+nightfall. Next morning he fell on the Isherifan, who had prepared
+for the attack, defeated them, and carried off so many camels that
+each of the victorious participants, as one explained to me, secured
+five female beasts for his share. Since then, my informant remarked,
+“the Isherifan are not.”
+
+Damergu has been the scene of many bloody raids in recent times. At
+Farak, one day from Gamram, a great assemblage of men and camels
+from the Southland, bound for Ghat, was caught by the Imuzurak
+under Danda. Merchandise and camels were looted and the personnel
+was massacred.
+
+During the four years which elapsed after the journey of the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission took place in 1900, a series of important events
+occurred in Damergu which ultimately led to the occupation of Air. In
+July 1900 the French military territory of Zinder-Chad had come into
+official existence, with a base of operations under Colonel Peroz at
+Say, and subsequently at Sorbo Hausa, on the Niger.[50] In February
+1901 Colonel Peroz set out towards Lake Chad. Sergeant Bouthel,
+left in command at Zinder by Lieut. Joalland of the Voulet Mission,
+entered Damergu, defeated the Imuzuraq tribe of Tuareg at Tademari
+or Tanamari and killed their chief, Musa. His place was taken by his
+brother, Danda, who became ruler of the country, while a third brother,
+afterwards killed at Bir Alali (Fort Pradie) east of Lake Chad,
+in January 1902, with the assistance of the Senussi organised Kanem
+against the French. Of all the Air Tuareg, the Kel Owi confederation of
+tribes alone, on account of their commercial relations with the Hausa
+countries and with the north, adopted a pacific attitude. The rest of
+the Air and the local Tuareg in Damergu set about fortifying Tademari,
+Jajiduna and Gamram and raided as far afield as Zinder. Their defeat
+by Sergeant Bouthel had so little effect that they soon plundered a
+Kel Owi caravan at Fall near Mount Ginea. The French in consequence
+were forced to occupy Gidjigawa near Kallilua in southern Damergu,
+and finally, when the Farak massacre occurred, Jajiduna itself, where
+a fort was built and a nucleus of camel corps established. The latter,
+however, was restricted in its action to a small area north of the
+post; operations did not even extend to Farak, only thirty odd miles
+away. The effect of this French expansion was nevertheless to make many
+of the prouder Tuareg, who would not submit but foresaw the inevitable,
+move eastwards. Some of them migrated as far afield as Kanem and Wadai,
+others only to Elakkos. It was the continuation of a movement which had
+begun after the advent of the Foureau-Lamy Mission. But even east of
+Chad the ubiquitous white men arrived; the migrants fought the French
+with conspicuous success at Bir Alali on two occasions, though they
+were finally defeated. Of these Tuareg of the Exodus, some returned
+to Air, but the rest moved yet further east to the strange land of
+Darfur, where they still live in voluntary exile near El Fasher.
+
+The repeated attacks on the north- and south-bound caravans in Damergu
+induced the French to escort the larger convoys of 1902 and 1903 as
+far as Turayet on the borders of the Air mountains. The departure of
+the irreconcilables towards the east, whence only a part was to return
+after the third encounter of Bir Alali, and the gradual penetration
+of the Southland, with the consequent pacification of the population,
+left the Imuzurak alone in Damergu in open defiance of the French. But
+in the meanwhile a second pillage had taken place at Farak, and,
+moreover, in Air itself the situation from every point of view was most
+unsatisfactory. The Sultan of the Air Tuareg was tossed about between
+the important Kel Owi confederation and their pacific policy on the one
+hand, and the irreconcilables of Damergu and Air on the other. In Gall
+in the south-east of Air had become a head-quarters of the raiders,
+and the Sultan began to find his position intolerable. He concluded by
+inviting the French to enter and take over. The occupation of Agades
+took place in the autumn of 1904 by a camel patrol under Lieut. Jean,
+when the modern history of Air and Damergu commenced.
+
+Osman Mikitan, the Sultan of this critical period, lies buried in
+a square tomb of mud bricks in the Zungu hamlet of Gangara. He had
+changed places three times with Brahim as Sultan of the Air people,
+and died unregretted because he had sold his country to the foreigner.
+
+The Tuareg of Damergu number among their tribes factions of many
+of the most famous Air clans. The Ikazkazan are represented by the
+section known generically as the Kel Ulli, the People of the Goats;
+these tribes include the Isherifan of Gamram and the Kel Tamat,
+in addition, of course, to many others in Air. The Imuzurak round
+Tanamari, with the Imaqoaran, Ibandeghan, Izagaran and Imarsutan
+are tribes which seem to represent the earliest Tuareg stock in the
+neighbourhood; some of them certainly belong to groups which, when
+the first migration into the plateau from the east occurred, never
+reached Air at all. The omnipresent Ifoghas reappear in Damergu near
+Tanut and roam northward; they are apparently cousins of the great
+division of the Ifoghas n’Adrar (Ifoghas of the Mountains), whose
+centre is around Kidal, north-east of Gao on the Niger. These Ifoghas
+of Damergu also I believe to have been left here in the course of the
+westward migration of the first wave of Tuareg, though some of them
+may have returned east after the initial movement. The Tamizgidda of
+Air apparently also had a section in Damergu in Barth’s day:[51]
+their name connects them with “the mosque,” and they are said
+by this explorer to have been regarded by the Arabs in his day[52]
+as “greatly Arabicised, having apparently been settled somewhere
+near a town.” A tribe of the same name occurs in the west; they
+also may be remnants, powerful as they were in Barth’s days, of a
+westward migration from the Chad area, or possibly of a returning
+wave which is known to have reached Air. The Tegama in Damergu,
+says Barth,[53] “form at present a very small tribe able to muster,
+at the utmost, three hundred spears; but most of them are mounted on
+horseback. Formerly, however, they were far more numerous, till Ibram,
+the father of the present chief, undertook, with the assistance of
+the Kel Geres, the unfortunate expedition against Sokoto. . . .”
+But this fighting certainly occurred at a more recent date than 1759,
+when, according to the Agades Chronicle, they were at war with the
+Kel Geres. Barth adds that they were said originally to have come
+from Janet, near Ghat, that they were already settled in the south
+long before the Kel Owi came to Air, and that they are found on the
+borders of Negroland in very ancient times. Ptolemy speaks of a Tegama
+people beyond Air towards Timbuctoo and the middle Sudan. Hornemann,
+from what he heard of them, “believed them to be Christians,” says
+Barth; though the only reference I can find in this authority is to the
+fact that they were probably idolatrous. I think Barth’s reference is
+to a generic group, now called the Kel Tegama, a collective name for
+the people living in the southern part of the area known as Tegama,
+which is on the west side of the northern borders of Damergu. Among
+the Kel Tegama to-day would be classed the Damergu Ifoghas and other
+tribes already mentioned. I fancy Barth has used a generic local and
+geographical name as a tribal name.
+
+The belief that they were Christians is, however, particularly
+interesting. It is possible that these Tegama were not Tuareg at
+all, and that Barth’s informants may have been referring to the
+nomadic Fulani who pasture their cattle in the area where he met them,
+round In Asamed and Farak, though his description of the time spent
+in their company certainly points to their having in reality been
+Tuareg. Their “customs showed that they had fallen off much from
+ancient usages,” for not only did the women make advances to the
+eminent explorer, but even the men urged him to make free with their
+wives. He adds that the women had very regular features and fair
+skins and that the men were both taller and fairer than the Kel Owi,
+many of them dressing their hair in long tresses as a token of their
+being Inisilman or holy men (“despite their dissolute manners”),
+a peculiarity which connects them with the Ifoghas of Azger, who also
+are a tribe of “marabouts.”[54] His general description of the
+Tegama, taken in conjunction with their hunting and cattle-herding
+habits, corresponds so closely with the appearance of the Ifoghas of
+Damergu to-day that there is little doubt that Barth is referring to
+them, and that he should consequently more accurately have written,
+not “the Tegama” but the “Kel Tegama.” He distinctly states
+that they acknowledged the supremacy of the Sultan of Agades rather
+than that of the Kel Owi leaders, which will be seen to point to
+their early origin in the country. Normally resident in Northern
+Damergu, they move to Tegama and Azawagh after the rains to feed
+their cattle, goats and camels. The conquests of the later Tuareg
+immigrants reduced them to a low stage of poverty and degradation,
+though they have retained their nobility of caste, race and feature
+to a remarkable degree.
+
+The history of Damergu shows clearly the predominant rôle which the
+Tuareg played among the lower-caste Kanuri sedentaries and the nomadic
+Fulani. The prepotency of a noble race among people of inferior class
+is one of the most interesting phenomena of history. The Kanuri in
+Damergu are, and probably have always been, numerically the stronger;
+they are armed with bows and arrows, the weapon _par excellence_
+for bush fighting. The Tuareg was less numerous at all times, but
+everywhere, except in the west, where he has been so long associated
+with the Sudan as to lose his nobility, disdained any weapon but
+the sword, knife or spear. Like the knight in medieval Europe, the
+Tuareg has always held that the _armes blanches_ were the only weapons
+of a gentleman, yet with all these disadvantages his prestige was
+sufficient to ensure an ascendancy which would have continued but for
+the advent of the gun and gunpowder. In Damergu this prestige ensured
+the maintenance of the Tuareg Sultanates until the advent of the
+French. In the Southland all legends continue to magnify his prowess.
+
+In Hausaland, at Dan Kaba in Katsina Emirate, a strolling player
+came one day to give a Punch and Judy show for the delectation of
+the village people, who were in part Hausa, in part sedentary Fulani,
+and in part nomadic cattle-owning Fulani. The old traditional play had
+been modernised, and although it was full of topical allusions to the
+Nigeria of 1922, enough of the past remained to show the reputation
+and moral ascendancy which the Tuareg enjoyed in the Southland. The
+showman’s apparatus was simple: divesting himself of his indigo
+robe, he arranged it on the ground over three sticks and crouched
+hidden beneath its folds. He had four dolls in all and worked them
+like those in our Punch and Judy shows in England. In the place of
+the squeaky voice of the Anglo-Saxon artist he used a bird whistle
+to conceal his words; the modulations of tone and inflexion in the
+dialogues and conversations between the puppets were remarkable. The
+Tuareg doll is the villain of the piece: his body is of blue rags,
+most unorthodoxly crowned with a white turban and armed with a huge
+sword and shield. Divested of the latter and crowned with a red turban,
+the same doll in the course of the play becomes the “dogari,” or
+native policeman of the Hausaland Emirs. The King of the Bush is a
+Fulani man, impersonated by a puppet made largely of orange cretonne
+with huge hair crest and bow and arrow. He suspects his wife, made of
+the same material but ornamented with cowries before and behind, of
+having relations with the Tuareg. She soothes and pets and sings to her
+suspicious husband, playing music on drums and calabash cymbals. Her
+mellifluous tones finally persuade him to go out a-hunting in the
+bush. Needless to say, in Act II she flirts outrageously with the
+attractive Man of the Open Lands, but is surprised by her husband
+_in flagrante delicto_, most realistically performed, whereupon,
+in the next act, a tremendous fight ensues. The King of the Bush,
+discarding his bow and arrow, fights with an axe, the Tuareg with his
+sword. The latter is victorious and kills the King of the Bush. The
+wife calls in the “dogari” to avenge her husband and to please her
+Southland audience. In Act V the Tuareg is haled off before the British
+Political Officer, presented in khaki cloth with a black basin-shaped
+hat like a Chinese coolie and the face of a complete idiot. In the
+ensuing dialogue the fettered Tuareg scores off the unfortunate white
+man continuously, but, as all plays must end happily, he is condemned
+to death. The execution of the plot is good, the technique admirable,
+although the performance was unduly protracted for our tastes. The
+one I witnessed lasted nearly four hours. The predominant rôle is
+that of the envied and handsome villain, the noble Tuareg. He is
+glorious in life and fearless in death.
+
+It is unfortunately impossible for lack of space to discuss the
+Kanuri or Fulani of Damergu. The latter affect the political life
+of the country but little. They shift continually to fresh tracts of
+bush or better water for the sake of their great black cattle, which
+used to be sold in the far north as well as in Hausaland. They do not
+mix with the Tuareg, though they are recognised by them, as anyone
+must recognise them, to be of a noble race. Slender, fine-featured,
+but dark-skinned, with the profiles of Assyrian statues, the Damergu
+Fulani are of the Bororoji section of this interesting people which,
+in the course of its sojourn and gradual movement along the fringe
+of the Sudan from west to east, has provided the ruling class in
+most of the Hausa States. The recent history of Sokoto, of Katsina
+and of Kano is their history. Their conquest of power in Hausaland
+is but another instance of the ascendancy of nobility and a glaring
+contradiction of the Socialist theory of equal birth. When they came
+to power they were illiterate and pagan and had no political virtues;
+their success was due to breeding and caste.
+
+The Bororoji are a darker section of the Fulani than many of the
+purer divisions in the south. In Northern Damergu they can be seen
+stalking through the bush with their herds of black kine, naked except
+for a loin skin and a peaked cap of liberty of embroidered cloth,
+but patently conscious of their birth. They come and go as they
+please, and no one interferes with them. Some may settle in towns
+or villages, living for a time on the produce of sales of cattle,
+in which they are rich. Most of them have no permanent habitation. A
+few can be seen in villages like Gangara, where they come to sell
+an occasional bull and buy a few ornaments or some such luxury as
+grain. Their women are slender, tall and straight, with fine oval
+faces and straight, jet-black hair. The triangular form of face
+from the cheek-bones to the chin is noticeable among the Bororoji
+as among the Rahazawa Fulani of the Katsina area, but the face is
+somewhat longer in proportion to the breadth than further south. Their
+appearance is Semitic, though the nose is never heavy but straight,
+and this is the case even more among the women than the men. Both
+sexes wear bead necklaces; the peaked cloth cap is the ornament of
+the men. The women have anklets and bracelets of copper and as many as
+six large copper curtain rings in their ears, the only disfigurement
+of their handsome faces. Of the customs, religion and organisation of
+the Bororoji little is known. Like their cousins in the south, they
+anoint the wide-branching horns of their cattle, and when they drink
+milk, though none must be spilled, a little is left in the bottom of
+the calabash as an offering to the Eternal Spirit. The Fulani believe
+that one day they will return to the East, whence their tradition
+says that they came, but how or why or when they left this unknown
+home has not been explained. Obedient to tradition, numbers of them
+are settling year by year in the Nilotic Sudan.
+
+The last belt of bush between the Sahara and Sudan is reached a day’s
+march from Tanut. The Elakkos bush further east ceases completely in
+about Lat. 15° 20′ N.; on the road to Termit the vegetation becomes
+very scanty some way south of a belt of white sand dunes in Lat. 15°
+30′ N.: north of them the country is pure steppe desert. The Damergu
+bush, however, extends as far north as Lat. 15° 50′ to the Taberghit
+valley on the eastern road to Air, and to Tembellaga on the western
+road. Damergu forms a salient in the line of the Sudan vegetation.
+
+The belt of sand dunes on the way to Termit is said to run eastward
+even beyond the Bilma-Chad road south of Agadem well, and gradually
+to broaden all the way; in the west it hardly reaches the edge of
+Damergu. Some fifty miles north of Talras in Elakkos the same zone of
+acacia trees, which occur in the hollows of the dunes on the Termit
+road, follows a depression called the Tegama valley.[55] The surface,
+like that of the steppe desert, is of heavy buff-coloured sand in
+long whale-back dunes.
+
+The Northern Damergu bush is different to the belt which runs along the
+southern side of the country. The trees and shrubs are principally
+of the acacia variety. The larger vegetation which is typical
+of the Sudan has disappeared, but the grasses and ground plants
+are still characteristic of the south. The burr grass which makes
+life burdensome to the traveller reigns supreme. The “Karengia”
+(_Pennisetum distichium_) grows in clumps or small tufts some fifteen
+inches in height. In Northern Damergu the ground is densely carpeted
+with this grass. As soon as the summer rains are over it sheds a
+little seed with a crown of small sharp spikes. Leather and the bare
+human skin alone afford the burrs no hold; any other material seems
+to attract them irresistibly. In the presence of this pest the bush
+natives have found the only solution, which is to go almost naked;
+the clothed but unhappy European blasphemes until he is too weary
+to speak. Water is the only remedy; it softens the little burr and
+makes it possible to remove it without disintegrating entirely the
+mesh of one’s apparel, but water in this belt of land is scarce.
+
+The next watering-points after leaving Gamram are Farak, and Hannekar
+on the Menzaffer valley. The latter is now on the most direct road
+to Air, since the slightly more eastern track from the former point
+by In Asamed well to Tergulawen became impossible when the latter
+well was filled in during the late war. At Hannekar there is a large
+depression covered with thick undergrowth and small trees standing in
+a pool of water which lasts for some months after the rains. As the
+pool dries up, shallow wells are dug in the bed. The water supply at
+Farak is all contained in shallow wells, but as watering from them
+is a much slower process than sending cattle and camels to drink at
+a pool, it is customary for the local Tuareg and Fulani to stay in
+the Hannekar area as long as they can. After the rains and until
+the wells are re-dug at Farak there is consequently a period when
+there is practically no water there at all, as Barth found early in
+1851. Nevertheless, since the permanent supply at Farak below the
+ground is greater than anywhere else in Northern Damergu, it has
+come to be considered the real starting-point of the eastern road to
+Air. Its importance as a rendezvous for pasturing tribes as well as
+for north-bound caravans explains the numerous disasters which have
+occurred there at the hands of Tuareg and Tebu raiders.
+
+North of Farak is a long hill falling away steeply on the side towards
+the wells. It gave Barth[56] the impression of forming a sharply
+defined southern border to the desert plateau between Damergu and
+Air. The existence of so marked an edge is, however, not borne out in
+fact, for no similar escarpment exists west of it on the road north
+of Hannekar, nor yet, as Foureau[57] points out, on the western road
+to Air, by Abellama. The hill of Farak, like another smaller one at
+Kidigi north of Hannekar, is an isolated elevation.
+
+Permanent habitation used to extend about one day’s march north of
+Farak, to the neighbourhood of In Asamed well, but after the latter
+was filled in, which I understand occurred during the 1917 revolt, when
+Tamatut well, further east, and Tergulawen on the borders of Air were
+also destroyed, Farak became the last village of the Sudan. Neither
+in recent years nor of old, however, did it ever possess the same
+permanency or importance as Gamram. Farak was always liable to be
+deserted at a moment’s notice in times of danger. To-day the skin and
+straw huts of the Ifadeyen and Kel Tamat tribes are scattered about
+in the dense bush all over the district. The camps change from year
+to year. When I passed this way there were Isherifan near Guliski
+and Ighelaf south-east of Gamram, Ifadeyen at Farak, and Ifadeyen
+and Kel Tamat at Hannekar.
+
+Since the more direct road from Farak by In Asamed to Tergulawen has
+been abandoned, there is now no water for caravans between that place
+or Hannekar and the Air plateau except at Milen,[58] which is one day
+south of the mountains. The present track from Farak, after crossing
+the Tekursat valley at a point near the site of In Asamed well,
+inclines slightly west and joins the direct track from Hannekar to
+Milen, running almost due north and south. The apparent angle made by
+the Farak-Milen track at In Asamed puzzled me when I came to plot it
+on paper from a compass traverse, for the extraordinary straightness
+of these old roads between important points, even in the rough hill
+country of Air, is very remarkable. I eventually realised that a line
+from Farak produced through In Asamed was on the direct bearing of the
+old well of Tergulawen. This disused track is the original southern
+end of what is called the “Tarei tan Kel Owi,” or Kel Owi road,
+in other words, of the main caravan track from Tripoli to Nigeria. The
+road in Air and in the south is usually called among the Tuareg after
+the confederation of tribes in control of the way. Down this eastern
+track came Barth and his companions in 1850-1.
+
+In Asamed, meaning in Temajegh “(The Well) of Cold Water,” was
+just over 100 feet deep; its existence shows that Damergu has been
+left behind and Azawagh has begun, for the former is a land of rain
+pools and shallow and seasonal wells, while the latter, north of the
+last Sudan bush, is a desert country with occasional very deep wells
+and no surface water. It is called Azawagh, a Temajegh name applied
+to several semi- or totally desert areas in the Sahara. The fact
+that it is not confined to the country south of Air must be borne
+in mind in seeking to identify the various areas referred to under
+this name by the Arab geographers. There is, for instance, an Azawad,
+a name corrupted in Arabic for Azawagh, north of Timbuctoo.
+
+North of the broad Tekursat valley, with scarcely any marked channel
+and sparsely covered slopes, is a low plateau with three small
+valleys, rejoicing in the uncouth name of Teworshekaken. Beyond is
+the Inafagak valley, and finally the smaller and probably tributary
+valley of Keta. From here to the Taberghit valley the bush thins
+out more and more; patches of bare sand become frequent, and the
+trees are considerably smaller. In none of these valleys has the
+rain-water left a definite bed of flow, though dry pool bottoms and
+short sections of channel may be seen here and there. The valleys
+are sometimes several miles from side to side; they were probably in
+the first instance longitudinal depressions between heavy sand dunes
+formed along the direction of the prevalent wind; the sides are even
+now of too recent formation and too permeable to spill the rain-water
+into definite beds along the bottoms.
+
+At the southern edge of the immense Taberghit valley the character of
+the country changes quite definitely. The surface becomes dotted with
+little hummocks where the sand has been washed against a small bush or
+piece of scrub; otherwise the ground is bare. The few trees are grouped
+in scattered clumps. The ground vegetation is no longer predominantly
+“Karengia,” but one of several kinds of less offensive and more
+useful desert grasses impregnated with salt. The best camel fodder,
+curiously enough, is the true desert vegetation. The animals eat it
+avidly on account of the salt it contains, and even long periods of
+drought do not conquer its obstinate greenness. Its nutritive power is
+greater and it is more wholesome than the luxuriant Southland fodder.
+
+At Taberghit a track runs direct to Agades by way of Ihrayen
+spring. When both the eastern roads were in use, the Hannekar track
+was used by people going to Agades, while the more eastern Farak-In
+Asamed route by way of Tergulawen was frequented by caravans bound
+for Northern Air.
+
+A day before reaching Milen well you feel very strongly that the Sudan
+lies behind. The last bush has been left near Taberghit. In front is an
+open depression perhaps five miles wide and not more than fifty feet
+deep: it contains no stream bed, but here and there patches of dry
+cracked mud indicate the formation of short-lived rain pools. East
+and west the same stark valley runs as far as eye can see. Its
+course is clearly defined and it is without intersecting basins or
+tributaries or curves. On the far crest are loose buff-coloured sand
+dunes and then a few small acacias. The levels gradually rise in a
+series of folds, one of which contains the closed basin and disused
+Anu n’Banka[59]; another forms a valley called Kaffardá, which
+is like Taberghit but on a smaller scale. The folds lie parallel to
+one another along the line of the prevalent E.N.E. wind which always
+blows in Azawagh. This wind is one of the peculiarities for which the
+country is notorious. Both times I crossed this region it was blowing
+with great violence. In June it was suffocatingly hot; I camped one
+noonday to rest out of sheer exhaustion in a group of trees on the
+northern side of Taberghit. There was practically no shade: the leaves
+of the stunted trees were too thin to shelter even three persons. The
+temperature was over 110° F. in the shade, and visibility did not
+exceed a quarter of a mile, owing to the blowing sand and dust. Six
+months later I returned the same way. The same wind was blowing, but
+it was so cold at midday that I was unable to keep warm, even walking,
+with two woollen shirts, a drill coat, a leather jerkin and a blanket
+over my shoulders. Where a bush or sand dune offered shelter from
+the wind the sun was quite hot, but that night the thermometer fell
+to 31° F., after having registered 92° F. at 3 p.m. in a sheltered
+spot in the shade. It was very unpleasant. Barth’s experience of
+the wind and cold of Azawagh was much the same as mine. He writes:
+“The wind which came down with a cold blast from the N.N.E. was
+so strong that we had difficulty in pitching our tent;”[60] it
+was responsible for the most “miserable Christmas” he had ever
+spent. I was there a few days before Christmas in 1922 and can vouch
+for the accuracy of his verdict. Even the blinding glare and heat of
+June were preferable to the bleak cold of the winter nights.
+
+One effect of the constant wind is that the longitudinal dunes
+in Azawagh have retained their characteristic form more generally
+than further south. Their gentle rounded contours, which the wind
+tends to restore whenever the rain happens to have modified them,
+are characteristic. There is, of course, less precipitation here than
+further south, though it has been sufficient in Tagedufat to produce
+a considerable growth of desert vegetation along the bottom of the
+valley, where there are a number of small trees and an abundance of
+every conceivable type of salt bush and grass. It is said at certain
+seasons of the year to produce the finest camel fodder in this part
+of Africa.
+
+All over Azawagh are numerous deserted sites where millet used to
+be grown on the sandy slopes. The people who cultivated this arid
+country lived in temporary tents and huts except further north between
+Tagedufat and Milen, and consequently no trace of their dwellings
+remains. The evidence, however, of cleared and levelled patches and of
+broken earthenware is as unmistakable here as in Damergu. Between Keta
+and Tagedufat there is a succession of such clearings. It is borne in
+upon one that this heavy buff-coloured sand country where only desert
+vegetation now appears to thrive is in reality quite fertile so long
+as it receives any rain at all. The climate has probably not altered
+enough in recent times to account for the desertion of Azawagh; it
+seems rather to have been due to a decrease of the population. The
+Kel Azawagh, according to tradition, were numerous at a time when
+Damergu was thickly peopled, and there was not enough land available
+there or in Air to satisfy the needs of a people squeezed between
+the south and the north, whence the population was constantly being
+driven into the Sudan. It is clear that the Kel Azawagh who made
+these millet cultivations in a zone of desert steppe must have been
+of a fairly sedentary disposition, for a nomad people would have
+contented itself, as the modern Tuareg inhabitants of Azawagh do,
+with grazing herds and flocks on the excellent pastures.
+
+In referring to the Kel Tegama a plea was advanced that the name was
+primarily a geographical one, and one not properly appertaining to a
+single tribe. The name Kel Azawagh, to which the same considerations
+certainly apply, is found to some extent interchangeable with Kel
+Tegama. Now it will be shown later that the Tuareg of Air and Damergu
+only reached these lands comparatively late in history; consequently
+an allusion in Ptolemy to a Tegama people appears to refer to a
+non-Tuareg folk in this or some other area of the same name. I see
+no reason to doubt that it was these Tegama and Azawagh areas which
+were meant by Ptolemy, and therefore conclude that before the Tuareg
+arrived they were possessed by a people to whom the millet clearings
+and village sites are probably due. The later Tuareg Tegama, or Kel
+Tegama, as we should more properly say, as well as the Kel Azawagh,
+were merely a section of People of the Veil who later lived in the
+areas, and in the course of time were named after them, though it is
+possible that the name Azawagh was one given by the Tuareg to an area
+previously called Tegama by its former inhabitants.
+
+We shall see[61] that among the ancient divisions of the People of the
+Veil in the Hawara group is a Kel Azawagh. The peculiarities of the
+Hawara clans would not connote any sedentary instinct in this tribe,
+whether it lived in this or in another area called Azawagh; but when
+we find in the Tetmokarak tribe of the Kel Geres group now living near
+Sokoto (whither they migrated from Air through this Azawagh area)
+a subsection called Tegama, and when we have learnt[62] that the
+Kel Geres are almost certainly a Hawara people, we can be even more
+inclined to the view just suggested regarding the use of the names
+Azawagh and Tegama and the origin of the people at various times
+living there. As a tribal name Kel Azawagh has now disappeared. The
+French 1/2,000,000 map displays it in the valley between Agades and
+the Tiggedi cliff, but out of place, for when still in use it was
+applicable to an area rather further east. Although it is no longer
+a proper name, it serves the Ifadeyen who now live in Azawagh for a
+descriptive term of themselves in accordance with the usual practice
+regarding local tribal nomenclature.
+
+In the periods between the rains the village sites in the Taberghit
+or Tagedufat valleys watered at the deep wells of Tagedufat, Anu
+n’Banka, Aghmat, Taberghit and presumably Tateus, though I know
+nothing of the last named. All these wells have now become silted
+up by wind-borne sand, but could easily be cleared if the population
+returned, as the water has not disappeared.
+
+The whole area between Taberghit and Tagedufat is covered with
+small mobile dunes; the two valleys themselves are, however, free
+of them. There is no loose sand at all in the Tagedufat valley,
+a curious phenomenon probably connected with the eddies formed by
+the prevalent wind in the channel of a depression between the higher
+banks. If this were true, the existence of dunes at Kaffarda would
+conversely point to its being an isolated basin, and this indeed is
+probably the case. Anu n’Banka is in a little hollow, the sides of
+which are also covered with small dunes. The bottom itself is clayey
+and free from blown sand, showing traces of having been a rain-pool
+at certain seasons. Surrounding the depression are millet clearings
+and a little rock outcrop. It is the most southerly point in Azawagh
+where stone occurs, and the outpost of the more conspicuous rock
+formations of the Tagedufat valley.
+
+Although the first part of the descent into Tagedufat is imperceptible,
+the appearance of the ground has changed considerably on account of
+the small crescentic dunes of very fine white sand which overlie
+the heavier buff-coloured sand of the surface. The crescentic
+type is characteristic of young dunes in process of formation,[63]
+their last stage being the long whale-back down of heavy particles
+which tend to settle or become cemented and eventually to support
+some vegetation. The Azawagh valleys present a series of interesting
+examples of the youngest type of dunes, which are still moving rapidly,
+superimposed upon the oldest fixed dune formations oriented along
+the line of the prevalent wind. It is curious that at no point has
+the fine and very mobile sand which is continually being carried in
+from the great Eastern Desert collected in large masses: the small
+crescentic bodies, the horns of which, of course, lie down wind, or,
+in other words, point west to south-west, are neither continuous nor
+contiguous. The underlying buff-coloured surface is covered with
+a number of small trees and scattered scrub or grass in isolated
+clumps. This vegetation becomes covered by the crescent dunes and in
+time uncovered as the white sand moves westward. Where this vegetation
+can be seen emerging from the crescentic formations on the windward
+side it is still alive, pointing to a fairly rapid motion of the body
+of sand. It is true that some of this desert scrub is sufficiently
+hardy to withstand a period of, it is said, as much as four years
+without any rain, and even then it only requires very little moisture
+in the air or some dew; the numerous small acacias, however, if wholly
+engulfed for any length of time, would die. Yet at no point is there
+either a wake of dead vegetation behind the larger crescentic dunes
+or even an unduly large proportion of dead trees. The progress of the
+small dunes is therefore undoubtedly rapid, and is due to the constant
+wind, which should, however, have tended to create larger masses. The
+crescentic dunes are rarely more than twelve feet high at the most;
+their individual area is, of course, relatively large owing to the
+very flat slipping angle of the fine grains. Barth records dunes as
+far as Tergulawen; but there is no evidence regarding the country
+east of this point,[64] which is probably too far north of the dune
+belt on the Termit road to be connected with that zone.
+
+The Tagedufat valley bottom, unlike the Milen and Taberghit valleys,
+is marked by a more continuous stream bed along which water flows
+every year for a short time during the rains. The most remarkable
+feature of the valley is a series of flat bare patches formed by
+the pools of rain-water; they are of no great size, but the surface
+is stained bluish-white by chemical incrustation. The Milen and
+Taberghit valleys, while possessing a few similar rain-pools, none
+of which survives for more than the briefest period, do not exhibit
+this complexion. The point is of particular interest in connection
+with a report given to me by my guide, Sidi, who was with me on the
+way south. He is a widely travelled and knowledgable man. He stated
+that the Tagedufat depression extended eastwards across the desert all
+the way to Fashi, and was marked along the whole of its course by such
+patches of chemical incrustation. My travelling companion, Buchanan,
+observed that the ground shortly before reaching Fashi was stained in
+the manner described. In the open desert, where in the immensity of
+space it is difficult to determine the direction of a very slightly
+accentuated valley, such noticeable features are valuable evidence.
+
+Considering the size of the Tagedufat basin south of Milen, the
+valley shown as extending towards Termit on the French 1/2,000,000
+map and called Tegemi (Téguémi), is perhaps a confluent, or even
+an inaccurate representation, of the main valley itself. A recent
+Camel Corps[65] reconnaissance from Talras to Eghalgawen possibly
+followed up one such affluent in the east bank of the main channel of
+Tagedufat. The importance of the Tagedufat valley from the hydrographic
+point of view cannot be over-stated.
+
+Directly the Tagedufat valley is crossed the rock outcrop on the
+north bank becomes a striking feature. Increasing in size towards
+the west, it falls away below the surface to the east. Crescentic
+dunes reappear between the outcrops and continue almost all the way
+to Milen. On the north side of Tagedufat, near the track, for which
+it serves as a landmark, is a prominent mass of black rock called the
+Kashwar (Stone) n’Tawa or Tawar. Far away to the N.N.E. the relief
+becomes bolder, rising to a group of small summits clothed with loose
+sand, called the Rocks of Oghum. The remains of some stone houses,
+at one time the southernmost permanent settlement of Air, appear in
+the loose sand near the hills. North of Oghum in a little depression
+filled with acacias is Gharus n’Zurru.[66] After a further stretch
+of dunes a small valley running northwards diversifies the general lie
+of the ground. It is called Maisumo, and contains another deep well
+which is still in use. This valley after a short distance runs into
+the Milen depression, with the conical hill of Tergulawen visible to
+the east and the little massif of Teskokrit to the west. The northern
+part of the latter group extends eastwards from the main summits as
+a steep ridge forming the northern bank of the Milen valley itself.
+
+East of Tergulawen again is a small and almost unknown group of hills
+called Masalet, where in recent years Kaossen, afterwards leader of
+the Air revolt in 1917, dug a well. It only yielded brackish water,
+which, though good enough for camels, proved too medicinal for
+the Tuareg, who filled it in again. It had been dug for political
+purposes largely in order to facilitate parties from and for the
+Southland participating in the yearly caravans which fetch salt from
+Bilma. Masalet was designed to obviate these parties making a detour
+along the River of Agades or via Eghalgawen: it provided an easterly
+watering-point in Azawagh corresponding with Tazizilet further north
+in Air itself. The unsatisfactory nature of the supply, especially
+for caravans engaged in crossing the eastern desert, did not, however,
+justify the risk of leaving so remote a watering-point available for
+Tebu raiding parties. The fact that Masalet was constructed in recent
+years is interesting, as showing that the Tuareg have not lost the
+art of locating deep water.
+
+The western road from Tanut to Agades via Aderbissinat and Abellama
+runs over much the same sort of country as that which I have just
+described between Farak and Milen. Aderbissinat well, seventy-five
+miles from Tanut and ninety-three miles from Agades, is a point of such
+strategic importance that the French from Zinder built a fort there
+during the war in order to secure their communications with Air. It
+has not been garrisoned of late, but proved of paramount importance
+during the operations of the column which marched from the south to
+relieve Agades during the rebellion of 1917. With the exception of
+the deep but copious well of Abellama, there is no useful permanent
+watering-place between western Damergu and Agades, as the spring of
+Ihrayen in the Tiggedi cliffs has too small an output to provide
+for many animals. Nineteen miles north of Aderbissinat the bush
+ceases. As at Taberghit further east, the country rises some 200 feet
+to an average level of 1700-1800 feet above the sea. Beyond Timbulaga
+sand dunes appear on the level buff-coloured steppe, which is covered
+with the usual scanty vegetation of desert grass in tussocks.[67]
+The ground then slopes gradually down to the deep well of Abellama
+in Lat. 16° 16′ 30″ N. and Long. 7° 47′ 20″ E. G. Abellama
+as a stage corresponds with Milen on the other road.
+
+On the easternmost or Tergulawen road Barth[68] shows that the country
+is again substantially the same. South of the “spacious” well,
+which is in a depression “ranging east and west,” with sand-hills
+on the south side bearing a sprinkling of desert herbage, the country
+is covered with small dunes on a “flat expanse of sand, mostly bare
+and clothed with trees only in favoured spots.” To the north is a
+great sandy plain running as far as the Ridge of Abadarjan, where the
+level descends to the upper basin of the River of Agades. The area
+is covered with “hád,” the most nutritious of desert plants
+and the most characteristic of the desert steppe of Africa. In all
+parts of the Sahara the distribution of the plant marks the division
+between the Desert and the Sown. This “hád” of the border line
+advances or recedes, sometimes from year to year, according to the
+rainfall. It is the tidal mark of the desert.
+
+The northern part of Azawagh is geographically important, as it
+contains the transverse valleys which collect the southern rainfall
+of Air and carry it westwards into the Niger basin. The course of the
+Beughqot (Beurkot) and Azelik[69] valleys is wrongly shown on the
+French maps. They do not unite until they have reached a far more
+southerly point than where they are shown to do so on the Cortier
+map. Furthermore, when they have joined, they turn S.W. and not S.E. A
+recent reconnaissance as far as Masalet proved that after these two
+valleys meet they turn west into a large depression which is probably
+the same one as that in which the well of Milen is situated, though it
+might, on the other hand, be the Tagedufat basin; this is a point which
+must for the moment remain undecided. On a solution of this problem
+depends the answer to the question as to whether Milen or Tagedufat
+is the principal basin into which the Air valleys east of Beughqot as
+far as Tazizilet drain. All that is clear is that they turn southwards
+and then westwards to join one of the two systems in question, and
+do not peter out in the desert as Cortier’s map suggests.
+
+West of Milen well the valley in which it is situated eventually
+joins the lower Tagedufat, which runs on S.W. or W. towards the Gulbi
+n’Kaba or the Tafassasset-T’immersoi basin. That the Tagedufat
+system does not enter the River of Agades over the Tiggedi cliff at
+some point near Ihrayen is probable owing to the fact that all this
+country has been subjected to a slight southerly tilt. The Tiggedi
+cliff, the Eghalgawen-T’in Wana massif, the cliff east of Akaraq
+and its continuation along the great valley, finally represented by
+the ridge of Abadarjan, as Barth rightly judged, are the northern
+boundary of this area, which slopes gently from north to south. The
+River of Agades receives hardly any left-bank tributaries.
+
+Milen well could never be found without a guide. The wide valley,
+with sand dunes on the south side and a steep north bank where the
+now omnipresent rock of Air appears, is bare, dry and stony. It
+shimmers in the heat. Teskokrit appears as a black mass in the west
+on a bank of milk-white mirage set round a group of trees. The bottom
+of the valley is a gravel plain with a small patch of bare rock in it
+which an unwitting traveller would most probably pass unheeding. In
+this patch of rock is a small hole with a large circular stone near
+by. The hole, barely three feet across, is the mouth of a well driven
+through hard sandstone all the way down to the water-bearing stratum,
+seventy feet below the ground. The mouth can scarcely be seen fifty
+yards away. The rounded stone is several inches thick and was said
+to have been used to cover up the mouth of the well to prevent its
+becoming silted up with driving sand.
+
+I came there in June, after more than forty hours’ march from
+Hannekar with four tired camels and two men, an Ifadeyen guide and
+an Arab of Ghat in the Fezzan. We had very little water left, so
+little, in fact, that it was all used in one pot to cook some rice
+for us three. The place was deserted and very lonely. The wind was
+driving the sand so hard that it stung the naked calves of my legs
+as I stood at the well with Ishnegga the guide, drawing water for the
+thirsty camels. Camels in hot weather drink a great deal, and hauling
+water in a two-gallon leather bucket from a seventy-foot well is hard
+work in a temperature of over 150° F. in the sun. The camels drank
+interminably. The last and best camel was still thirsty and remained
+to be watered. The beast was rather weak. It had a bad saddle sore,
+a hole about the size of a large man’s hand, in its back, and it was
+festering and full of maggots. We had all just done a journey of over
+500 miles from Tanut to Termit and back, in thirty-five days, including
+nine days of halts, averaging, in other words, nearly twenty miles per
+marching day for twenty-six days. The camel had begun to drink. Then
+as we were drawing a full bucket the well rope broke six feet from
+my hand and fell to the bottom of the well with a splash. A vain hour
+was spent, while the rice cooked and got more and more full of sand,
+trying to fish up the rope and bucket with an iron hook made of the
+nose-piece of a camel bridle fastened to a knotted baggage rope. This
+too was lost after hooking the tangle, which it joined at the bottom
+of the well. Prospects looked gloomy as our thirst increased. I have
+distinct recollections of the sky and valley getting whiter and more
+metallic and the heat more intolerable. Finally, just enough rope
+was found by untying all the baggage to ladle up water a half-gallon
+at a time in a small canvas bucket. But the poor camel had to wait a
+long time to finish its drink, for the first of the supply to reach
+the top was used to refill the tanks.
+
+As I was leaving the well two men with three camels came in from the
+south. They had started to return to their own country in the hills,
+after an enforced sojourn in the neighbourhood of the fort at Tanut
+on account of their rebellious propensities in 1917 and 1918. They
+had no possessions but three young camels, and had started with only
+enough water in one small skin for half their journey. The two men
+reached Milen, having drunk nothing for twenty-four hours. They were
+rather exhausted, but had fully expected to have to do another ten or
+twelve hours’ march the same night to the nearest water at T’in
+Wana, as they had only a calabash bottle and no rope with which to
+draw any more water. They had risked death sooner than stay a moment
+longer than was necessary in the south, even to collect enough well
+rope or equipment for a journey which most Europeans would consider
+difficult. It was very pleasant to give these two men, an old noble and
+his serf, some especially good cold water from a small canvas cooler
+which I had prepared. When the serf carried away a pan of icy water,
+he first offered it to his master, who drank it.
+
+The second time I came to Milen was in December. There was such a
+crowd of people and of flocks belonging to the Ifadeyen watering
+that the supply was practically exhausted, and it took me five hours
+to get enough water for the return journey to Hannekar. But in June
+the camping grounds were deserted, for there was hardly any pasture
+during those last few days before the rains.
+
+The deep wells of Azawagh fall into two categories. The narrow wells,
+like Milen, Aouror, higher up the Milen valley, and Maisumo, are
+intended primarily for watering flocks. Their output is copious but
+slow, and not unlimited. Not more than two buckets can draw water
+comfortably at the same time: for watering flocks where time is not
+important and the animals can be brought in from pasture in small
+batches, these wells are adequate. Tagedufat, like Tergulawen, on the
+other hand, was a caravan well; it was broad and capable of watering
+a whole caravan rapidly. It became silted up with drifting sand, like
+the pasture wells, Anu n’Banka and Gharus n’Zurru. Of Aghmat,
+Tateus and Taberghit I have no details, but when Barth passed this
+way no stop was made at either of the first two, which were on his
+road. The supposition is that unless these wells were dug since his
+day, which is not likely, as the population of Azawagh had by then
+already decreased, they also were intended for pastoral purposes. They
+are now all silted up.
+
+The theory that the wells of Azawagh were made by the Ifadeyen,
+who have only recently come into this area for winter pasturage, was
+advanced to me, but my informant, who joined my caravan as an unbidden
+but welcome guest at Milen on my way south, was himself a member of
+this tribe, so the information is prejudiced. The wells are certainly
+very old and are probably the handiwork of the denser population which
+cultivated millet and had its permanent villages in the Taberghit and
+Tagedufat valleys. The pasture wells were regarded as the property of
+the tribe in the area, and now, therefore, of the Ifadeyen. The big
+caravan wells were under the tutelage of the keepers of the great
+highway to the south, the Kel Owi confederation, and before them,
+therefore, of their predecessors in Eastern Air. These big wells
+were always considered to be free for passing caravans to use without
+let or hindrance at any time, except in the event of a feud being in
+progress between the Kel Owi and the owners of the caravan. Caravans,
+on the other hand, using pasture wells, could only do so with the
+permission of the tribe pasturing in the area. The latter, conversely,
+had no rights over the great wells. The maintenance of these rights
+is the origin of confederations like the Kel Owi, for the freedom of
+the great wells is a vital necessity to a society of caravaneers,
+and has to be retained by force if necessary. It accounts for such
+raids as those conducted by Belkho on Gamram, where the Isherifan
+had interfered with passing caravans just once too often.
+
+One of the Azawagh wells, Aouror, has been the object of much
+dispute among the Tuareg: there are inscriptions on a neighbouring
+rock recording the ownership and, to some extent, the history of
+the well. It would be attractive to think that “Aouror” meant
+the “Well of the Dawn.” It is not impossible, since Arorá
+or Aghorá[70] means “dawn” in Temajegh, and Aouror is almost
+the easternmost well of Azawagh. Like Milen, it is driven through
+the rock, but is only some four fathoms deep. Like Milen, too, its
+sides are scored by rope-marks which in places have cut deep into
+the hard sandstone. Wet ropes covered with sand of course cut into
+rock quite rapidly, but even so the antiquity of these wells must be
+considerable. The rock cutting, which no Tuareg to-day is capable
+of executing, is perfect; the walls are perpendicular and smooth;
+the plan is a perfect circle.
+
+Abellama and Aderbissinat in the west of Azawagh are deep caravan
+wells with good water; the former is in friable soil, and has a
+tendency to fall in.[71] These two, with Aouror, Maisumo and Milen,
+are the only live wells in Azawagh to-day.
+
+After a short gentle slope up, the ground descends from the ridge
+on the north side of the Milen valley in a series of long terraces
+to a basin, the lower part of which is known as the Eghalgawen
+valley. It joins either the River of Agades at the south-west corner
+of the T’in Wana massif, or turns south-west towards the Milen
+and Tagedufat basin; my own impression, based on native sources
+which are not wholly reliable, inclines to the first view. East of
+the watering-point of Eghalgawen, the valley runs in a fold, into
+which flows one of the Southern Air valleys. The actual stream bed
+is wide and well marked by the heavy annual flood which it carries
+away from the hills of Eghalgawen and T’in Wana. In character the
+lower part of the valley along the foot of the hills, with its short
+tributaries from this little massif, belongs to the Air plateau, and
+not to Azawagh. The vegetation in the bed is dense and heavy. Dûm
+palms (_Cucifera thebaica_) and large trees appear. Geographically
+and geologically the Air plateau has already commenced at the rocks
+of Tagedufat: actually, however, it is not reached till the River of
+Agades is crossed, for Eghalgawen is still held to be in Azawagh.
+
+                                                               PLATE 6
+
+[Illustration: RIVER OF AGADES: CLIFFS AT AKARAQ]
+
+[Illustration: SHRINE AT AKARAQ]
+
+The cliff of Tiggedi, with its continuation eastward for some way
+beyond the Eghalgawen hills, is the southern shore of a wide valley
+which serves as a catchment for all the waters of Southern Air that do
+not escape by the south-east corner of the plateau into the Azawagh
+valleys previously described. The cliff is a geological phenomenon
+of great interest. At the point where the Abellama road descends into
+the valley some forty miles south of Agades the cliff is sheer for a
+height of over 200 feet. The path down from the general level of the
+desert to the dry alluvial plain, which forms the bottom of the River
+of Agades, is steep and rough. Standing at the top and looking east
+and west, it seems like a cliff on the sea-shore broken by capes and
+small inlets; the illusion of maritime action is remarkable. Westwards
+at Marandet, though still a definite feature of the area, it is less
+abrupt; erosion has broken down the precipice, while the Marandet
+torrent has eaten away a ravine leading even more gradually up to the
+level of the desert. Eastwards, on the other hand, the cliff continues
+unbroken as far as the Eghalgawen and T’in Wana massif, where higher
+hills above the desert level take the place of the cliff itself. Though
+they form a salient in the line, their abrupt northern slopes continue
+the eastward trend until they come to an end near Akaraq, where the
+cliff reappears. Here again it is absolutely sheer, if somewhat less
+elevated; it is broken by a narrow inlet where the Akaraq valley,
+the only tributary[72] of any size on the south bank of the River of
+Agades, enters the main basin. At this point the cliff assumes the most
+fantastic form. The sandstone has been shaped by erosion into pinnacles
+and blocks of the strangest shapes. The Akaraq valley itself runs back
+like a cove in a cliffbound sea-coast; both banks are nearly vertical,
+decreasing in height as the level of the bottom gradually rises to the
+desert, where the bare rock has been deeply cut into by the water,
+lying in a semi-permanent pool in a very narrow gully. The bottom
+of the inlet is covered with luxuriant pasture and some fair-sized
+trees, while at the mouth, in the main valley, stands an island of
+rock with vertical sides to complete the illusion of a sea-coast.[73]
+From the top of the cliff you may look across the great broad valley
+toward the mountains of Air that are scarcely visible in the north. No
+defined bank appears to limit the far slope of the basin. There is deep
+green Alwat pasture[74] in the nearer distance, merging imperceptibly
+into yellow grass and bare sand further away. The blazing glare and
+shimmering heat wash the feet of the cliff where a shelving beach of
+loose white sand has been thrown up against the rocks. The plateau
+at the top of the cliff is quite flat, and covered with a layer of
+small hard gravel over the rock. It is without any vegetation.
+
+The great valley bears several names. At the Akaraq inlet it is called
+Tezorigi. Opposite the Eghalgawen massif it is the T’in Dawin, and
+further west the Araten valley. West again it has no name, but where
+it finally leaves the mountains of Air for the Assawas swamp on the way
+to the T’immersoi basin, the natives call it the Ighazar n’Agades,
+or River of Agades, from the city which stands on its northern shore,
+and this is the name I have adopted for the whole. How far the cliffs
+extend eastward I do not know. A great fork in the valley is visible
+from Akaraq, the channel is divided by a bluff promontory, but the
+cliff continues along the southern bank of the southern branch until
+it is lost from sight. The ridge of Abadarjan which Barth crossed
+north of Tergulawen, I expect, is part of the same formation.
+
+                                                               PLATE 7
+
+[Illustration: RIVER OF AGADES LOOKING SOUTH FROM TEBEHIC IN THE
+EGHALGAWEN MASSIF]
+
+[Illustration: EGHALGAWEN MASSIF FROM AZAWAGH]
+
+Maritime action is highly improbable as the origin of the cliff. No
+traces of shells or beaches at different levels, to be accounted
+for by a receding sea, have been noticed. The supposition that
+all the Sahara was once a sea-bed is untenable, and in any case
+maritime action would hardly be limited to a few small areas such
+as this one. It seems easier to look for another explanation. The
+cliff and the Eghalgawen massif are a sandstone formation, but the
+Taruaji mountains of Air opposite the little Eghalgawen-T’in Wana
+massif are granitic. The cliff represents, I hazard, a fault north of
+which the igneous formation of the Air plateau has been extruded. The
+ground to the south slopes gradually away from the edge of the cliff,
+accounting for the virtual absence of any tributaries on the left
+bank of the River of Agades. There is apparently no igneous rock south
+of the basin, there is very little else to the north of it, with the
+exception of some Archean and very early rock. The fault, occasioned by
+the volcanic action which formed the massif of Central Air, erected a
+barrier to the southward drainage of the mountains, and the waters of
+Southern Air were diverted westward. A larger rainfall than now caused
+the gradual silting up of the area between the bottom of the fault
+and the southern part of the mountains. As the ground level rose and
+became an alluvial plain from which practically only Mount Gadé and
+the island off Akaraq emerge, the rain floods began to wash along the
+cliff and eroded the sandstone into the fantastic forms which are now
+seen. Wind-borne sand from the eastern desert completed the process
+of shaping the rocks. The accretion of alluvium diminished with a
+decreasing rainfall in Air, and the surface deposit of wind-borne
+sand formed what is now in dry weather a hard gravel-covered plain
+which, in the rainy season, turns into mud-flats and becomes almost
+impassable. The water flows aimlessly in the alluvium along deep-cut
+gullies with vertical sides that constantly change their course. The
+alluvial origin of the plain of the River of Agades is unmistakable.
+
+
+[Footnote 44: That is, “The People of Katsina.”]
+
+[Footnote 45: Chudeau has called this transitional area the Sahel Zone,
+but the name is borrowed from the north and does not seem to be used
+in the latitudes under discussion: cf. _Le Sahara Soudanais_, passim.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Now called the “Colonie du Niger-Tchad.”]
+
+[Footnote 47: The natives pronounce the name Tasawa, but “Tessawa”
+is consecrated by European usage since Barth’s day.]
+
+[Footnote 48: The plural of “Akri” in Temajegh.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Wrongly spelt Gum_rek_ by Barth, _op. cit._,
+Vol. I. chap. xxi.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Jean: _Les Touareg du Sud-Est_, p. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 52: _Ibid._, Vol. V. p. 554.]
+
+[Footnote 53: _Ibid._, Vol. I. p. 529.]
+
+[Footnote 54: _Vide_ Duveyrier, _op. cit._, pp. 328 and 359, _et
+infra_, Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 55: On the French 1/1,000,000 map. Cf. Appendix VII.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 521-2.]
+
+[Footnote 57: _Documents de la Mission Foureau-Lamy_,
+Fasc. II. p. 206.]
+
+[Footnote 58: There are other small wells in the immediate vicinity
+of Milen: cf. _infra_.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Anu (plural Unan) means “well” in Temajegh.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 523.]
+
+[Footnote 61: _Infra_, Chap. X.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _Infra_, Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Cf. V. Cornish: _Waves of Sand and Snow_ (Unwin).]
+
+[Footnote 64: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 523.]
+
+[Footnote 65: _Vide_ Appendix III.]
+
+[Footnote 66: “Gharus” means “deep” in Temajegh, and when
+thus used of places always signifies a “deep well.” This one,
+however, was silted up.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Buchanan’s _Out of the World_, pp. 128-30.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 523.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The indications on the Cortier map that the south-eastern
+and eastern valleys of the Air massif peter out into the desert in
+the direction of Termit are certainly inaccurate. Cf. 1/500,000 Carte
+de l’Air, 2 sheets, Service Géogr. des Col., 1912.]
+
+[Footnote 70: This word is believed to have been borrowed by the
+Tuareg from the Latin. _Vide infra_, Chap. IX.]
+
+[Footnote 71: The French are lining it with concrete.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Unless, as has been mentioned, the Eghalgawen valley
+also joins the River of Agades, S.W. of T’in Wana.]
+
+[Footnote 73: A similar island, but considerably larger, has been
+left isolated in the plain by the erosion of the water in the River
+of Agades; it is a low conical hill, rather similar in shape to the
+Tergulawen peak, called Mount Gadé, lying between the T’in Wana
+hills and Agades.]
+
+[Footnote 74: A fleshy plant, growing about two feet high rather like
+a veitch, and containing as much moisture.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                           THE CITY OF AGADES
+
+
+The Eghalgawen massif contains a number of watering-points. The
+pool of Eghalgawen is near the junction of a valley sloping down
+from the hills, the main valley here assuming the name of the
+watering-point. Abundant water exists all the year round under the sand
+in the bed near a low rock on the left bank. It has rather taken the
+place of Tergulawen well as a _point de passage_ for caravans on the
+Great South Road, and used in the past to be a favourite resort for
+caravan raiders. The neighbouring hill, like the one at Tergulawen,
+is a well-known watch-tower in times of trouble, since both of
+them command the approaches to a strategic point.[75] T’in Wana,
+Tarrajerat, Tebehic and some pools in the Isagelmas valley on the
+southern periphery of the Eghalgawen massif, are watering-points for
+the camels and flocks of the tribes which range over Azawagh, to-day
+the Ifadeyen. Their winter camping grounds can be seen all the way from
+Tagedufat to the River of Agades; they are readily distinguishable
+from the older permanent settlements of the original Kel Azawagh who
+grew millet in this area. Besides the Ifadeyen, the Kel Giga section
+of the Kel Tadek use the Eghalgawen hills and Azawagh pastures very
+considerably after the rains. The Ifoghas of Damergu rarely come
+so far north, since, having few camels, they lack incentive to seek
+these superlative desert pastures. Those members of this tribe whom
+I saw in Azawagh were typical in possessing only donkeys and goats,
+which of course will eat almost anything.
+
+After a 560-mile excursion to Termit and Elakkos, I rejoined my
+travelling companions, whom I had forsaken at Tanut, in the little
+massif on the south side of the River of Agades. They were camped a
+short day’s march from Milen, at the famous permanent pool in the
+T’in Wana valley. Of all pools in Africa it is of T’in Wana that I
+shall keep the pleasantest recollections. I was greeted by a fusillade
+of welcome and immediately went for a swim in the deep pool that had
+recently been filled by the rains. The channel cut by the water in
+the rock was in places fifteen feet deep. The pool had a sandy bottom,
+with a rock four feet high at one end for a diving platform. A length
+of twenty yards was clear to swim in, and then came a succession of
+smaller pools beneath the arches and overhanging sides of red and
+black rock. The erosion of the sandstone was most remarkable. There
+were witches’ cauldrons and buttresses and enchanted caves, with
+deep crannies in the tall vertical sides. In the wide valley above,
+masses of green bushes and branching palms seemed to make the place
+a heaven-sent garden of rest in a hot land. We were all very happy,
+and the camels were improving fast. Our men were delighted to see the
+mountains of Air again. My guide from the south, Ishnegga, who was of
+the Ifadeyen, found relations in a neighbouring valley. There were
+acquaintances on the road to gossip with and discuss. Poor Ishnegga
+shot himself accidentally some months later, as I heard from his
+beautiful old mother, whom I had met at Hannekar and saw for a second
+time on my way home.
+
+The sides of the T’in Wana ravine were covered with T’ifinagh
+inscriptions relating to the tribes that had pastured here in their
+time; they recorded the names of people, messages to and from their
+friends, and the professions of love of their men and women. The
+low hills behind were rough and without vegetation or soil; but
+some mountain sheep, gazelle and sand-grouse subsisted on the coarse
+grass in the ravines. The sandstone of the massif seemed to have been
+subjected to volcanic heat. A deposit of fossil trees among the rocks
+and boulders was found: a specimen piece picked up near Akaraq a few
+miles north-east had probably been brought from this deposit near
+T’in Wana. It was identified on my return as a Tertiary conifer,
+but the siliceous replacement had been too complete to permit of more
+detailed examination, except by microscope.
+
+A very pleasant camp was eventually broken, and Tebehic, on the
+north-west side of the hills, with two watering-places, was reached
+after crossing the Isagelmas valley, a collector for several small
+rivulets draining the western side of the hills. In spite of an attack
+of malaria, which overcame me, Tebehic proved most interesting, for I
+made friends with a family of Ifadeyen who were camping there during
+the rains. The man had some cows and supplied me with fresh milk,
+a great luxury after camel’s milk and the condensed sort out of a
+tin. He was a widower with several children, and quite charming. One
+of the children was suffering from a severe abscess in the right
+ear. It had been “treated” by blocking the orifice with a paste
+made of fresh camel dung and wood ash mixed with pounded leaf of the
+pungent Abisgi (_Capparis sodata_) bush. I suppose the mixture was
+intended to act like a mustard poultice, but the discharge from the
+abscess being unable to escape had been causing the child acute pain,
+which it was easy to relieve by clearing out the mess and washing the
+ear. The abscess having previously opened of its own accord, the pain
+ceased almost as soon as the “remedy” had been removed. It was
+the first of my “cures” as a doctor among the Tuareg, and laid
+the foundations of a great reputation!
+
+                                                               PLATE 8
+
+[Illustration: TIN WANA POOL]
+
+[Illustration: ROCK OF THE TWO SLAVES, AT THE JUNCTION OF THE TIN
+WANA AND EGHALGAWEN VALLEYS]
+
+After a few days at Tebehic we proceeded to cross the broad plain
+of the River of Agades, whither one of my companions had preceded
+me. Memories of that plain are unpleasant. A day’s march from
+the shelter of the Tebehic valley we were overtaken by a violent
+thunderstorm right out in the open just south of T’in Taboraq. As
+a convalescent cure for malaria, designed to make any reputable
+European doctor shudder, I recommend getting up after three days in
+bed, marching six hours on a camel in the sun, and then spending
+two more holding up a tent in company with four other men in an
+eighty-mile-an-hour storm with a rainfall of three-quarters of
+an inch in about half an hour. The exertions of five of us were
+successful in keeping the tent up and the baggage dry, but proved
+tiring. As soon as the wind was over the five human tentpoles were
+turned on to canalisation, which soon became necessary to drain away
+the deluge. When this passed, a search over the countryside had to be
+instituted for articles of equipment carried away by the storm. The
+camp stove, an unwieldy cube of sheet-iron some fifteen inches each
+way, and weighing nine pounds, was found 3000 yards from the camp. But
+the storm had been magnificent. It had commenced at about 3 p.m. as
+a black cloud hanging over the Air mountains in the north. The wind,
+before it acquired full force, bore along a cloud of orange sand
+gleaming in the sun, which was still uncovered by the blue-black storm
+above. Suddenly everything seemed to be going on at once, sunshine,
+sand-storm, wind, purple squalls and a white uniformity of tearing,
+sweeping rain. By six o’clock it was all over. The sun set in a
+pale yellow sky behind the T’in Wana range. The northern hills grew
+slate-coloured and then black, and the storm went rolling on into
+Damergu, illuminating the night with lightning. Hitherto my worst
+experience of rain had been at Guliski in Damergu, when myself,
+three natives and our baggage lay in a hut nine feet in diameter;
+it rained all night, and slowly flooded us out. One felt the water
+rising among the blankets in an atmosphere of damp clamminess and
+native humanity. Then had come a hopeless dawn, but the air soon dried
+everything. Yet I had still to learn what storms in the mountains
+could be like.
+
+The north side of the River of Agades opposite Tebehic has no definite
+bank. The mountains of Air slope gradually down to the valley; they
+are intersected by larger and smaller valleys, forming a series of
+roughly parallel right bank tributaries all in close proximity to
+one another. The widest of them are the Azanzara, Tureyet, Amidera,
+Teghazar and Telwa, most of which start north of the Taruaji
+mountains—the Tureyet and Telwa, in fact, have their head-waters
+in the Bagezan and Todra groups in Central Air. Some small villages
+lie among the foothills by these valleys, but it is dull country. A
+few small ill-grown trees and a little grass are all the vegetation
+on the succession of gravel patches which constitute the plain. The
+sight of the mountains of Air in front makes one want to hurry on.
+
+South of one of these villages the opening tragedy of the 1917
+revolution took place. A platoon of French Camel Corps, after
+completing their duties as escort to the Bilma salt caravan, had
+supervised the dispersal of the camels in their various tribal
+groups at Tabello, east of Bagezan, and were returning to Agades
+for a rest. They had been away perhaps a month and now were within a
+day’s march of the city. They knew nought of what had happened in
+Air, suspected absolutely nothing of the unfriendly disposition of
+the Tuareg. Near T’in Taboraq a large force of Tuareg, which had
+been lying in ambush behind a little hill on the northern edge of the
+plain, fell on the column as it was beginning its last day’s march
+into Agades post. A running fight ensued, in the course of which nearly
+the whole platoon of Camel Corps were destroyed. One officer, who was
+returning to France on leave, escaped southward, and a few wounded
+Senegalese “tirailleurs” found their way with difficulty into the
+fort at Agades, which had been attacked early one morning a day or two
+before while the garrison was out on parade. The revolution had been
+prepared for some time, with the connivance of the Sultan of Agades,
+by a Tuareg noble named Kaossen, an inveterate enemy of the French
+since 1900. The outbreak had been proposed by Kaossen and aided by the
+Senussiya and hostile elements in the Fezzan and Tripolitania as part
+of the anti-French and -British activities which continued in North
+Africa throughout the European war. The development in Air, however,
+came as a surprise to the French. All the Tuareg in the plateau rose,
+and although the garrison at Agades held out for over three months in
+doubt and in complete isolation, the revolt spread into Damergu and
+fears were even entertained for the safety of Northern Nigeria. The
+defence of Agades and the arrival of a column from Zinder, acting in
+conjunction with another column from the Niger, eventually saved the
+situation. The heroic resistance of the garrison at Agades and the
+magnificent work of the military organisation of French West Africa,
+over these huge expanses of country at the end of 1917 and early in
+1918, have probably never even been heard of, still less recognised,
+in England, where events nearer home at a most critical period
+of the war obscured the issue of “another minor incident in the
+Sahara.” The column from Zinder, in spite of a severe check on the
+way, was the largest single body of men ever successfully sent over
+a desert against a nomadic people. It is my privilege to record in
+England, I think for the first time, the courage of those gallant
+French soldiers who indirectly defended Nigeria. Their efforts in
+Air saved a British colony from facing a situation which might have
+become serious owing to the general depletion of forces there, as
+elsewhere during those tragic months of the Great War. I am happy
+to make this acknowledgment, both as tribute to the French soldiers
+whom I had the pleasure of meeting during the Great War and in 1922,
+and particularly because even in Nigeria the gravity of the 1917
+revolution has never been sufficiently recognised.
+
+My route over the plain of the River of Agades lay in sight of Mount
+Gadé, a flat-topped hill standing alone to the south. The track used
+by parties from Sokoto passes this conspicuous landmark after crossing
+the Azawagh on the way to the rendezvous of the annual salt caravan
+at Tabello, under the eastern slopes of Bagezan in Central Air. After
+cutting this track we joined the Agades-Tabello road somewhat west
+of T’in Taboraq. East of this village the road passes through the
+other settlements which lie on the southern spurs of the Taruaji
+massif before it turns north to Tabello.
+
+The track now entered and wound along a valley called the Teghazar.[76]
+The small torrent bed was very sodden after the rain of the previous
+day. On either side were low hills of bare gravel with some rock
+outcrop beginning to appear here and there. On the low scarps or
+patches of loose stones a few ragged acacias had secured an existence,
+marking the foot of the Air hills along the River of Agades. Eventually
+the track rose up to the level of the highest undulations and we
+came in sight of Agades. Almost simultaneously two Tuareg on camels
+appeared on the road. They had been sent out from Agades with an
+accumulation of letters, months overdue, and a message to say that
+we were the guests of the French officers in the fort, about a mile
+north of the city. As the last fold of ground was crossed, by a steep
+bluff where Kaossen had constructed a military work during the siege
+of the French garrison in 1917, the whole length of the city came
+in sight on a low ridge to the south-west. The far end was marked
+by the stately tower of the Great Mosque, unchanged since Barth saw
+it more than seventy years ago. Straight ahead lay the French post,
+surrounded by a defensive wall flanked by blockhouses and containing
+the tall masts of a wireless station, near the wells of T’in Shaman
+in a diminutive plain where the Foureau-Lamy Expedition had camped over
+twenty years earlier. In 1917 there was no W/T station and scarcely
+any fort; the buildings were all disconnected and scarcely defensible.
+
+                                                               PLATE 9
+
+[Illustration: AGADES]
+
+The city of Agades used to be surrounded by mud walls, intended to
+baffle raiders rather than to withstand a siege. The distance along
+the line of their elliptical circumference, so far as it can still
+be traced, is a matter of three and a half to four miles. The wall
+has been much broken down and in some places is hard to find; its
+perimeter and plan seem to have varied from time to time according
+to the number of inhabitants. The best preserved parts are to the
+north-west beyond the Great Mosque, and to the north, where gates
+may be seen; there has evidently been considerable decay even since
+1850.[77] At a distance the whole ridge on which the city stands
+appears covered with low, earth-coloured houses, for the most part
+without an upper storey. The regular sky-line is scarcely broken save
+by a few dûm palms and tenuous trees rising above the uniform level
+of the roofs. Only the tower of the mosque, like a finger pointing
+up to heaven, soars over the drab habitations. Their dull uniformity
+seems to enhance its dignity.
+
+Agades is not a Tuareg city. Its foreign aspect is at once
+apparent. Although it also struck Barth immediately, he was, curiously
+enough, not so much concerned with what is really the most obvious
+feature of the alien atmosphere as he was with the foreign language
+and origin of most of the people he met there. His wanderings perhaps
+brought him less into contact with the permanent settlements of the
+Tuareg in Air than my good fortune did me; he could not otherwise have
+failed to remark that the houses in Agades are those of a Sudanese
+town and not those of the People of the Veil.
+
+The most striking characteristic of the towns of the Sudan, of the
+immense walled cities of Kano and Zaria, as well as of the smaller
+places, is the mode of construction of the dwellings. There are two
+types of houses and in neither of them is stone used. The first type is
+the circular hut with a low vertical wall carrying a conical roof; the
+fashion extends throughout Central Africa. This abode is constructed
+of straw, or grass, or boughs, or of whatever material is readiest
+to hand. The ground plan is circular unless specific conditions have
+exerted a contrary influence, which occurs rather seldom. In the more
+advanced settlements of this sort in Northern Nigeria a development of
+the primitive form has taken place: it is a much larger structure with
+vertical mud walls which support the conical thatched roof, sometimes
+as much as twenty feet in diameter, standing within a compound. In
+many North Nigerian villages the dwellings consist exclusively of
+groups of such huts surrounded by low walls or enclosures.
+
+The second type of house in the large towns of the Sudan is many-roomed
+and formless. The whole building, including the roof, is made of mud
+and often has one or more stories. The flat roof of mud and laths
+is carried on rafters of dûm palm wood which is one of the only
+available trees that resists the invasion of the white ant. Houses
+of this type often cover a considerable area, rambling aimlessly
+hither and thither in rooms, courts and alley-ways, according to
+the requirements and fancy of the owner or his descendants. The
+mud construction at times displays architectural features of real
+distinction. The thick tapering walls are wide and smooth. The doorways
+have a pylon-like appearance reminiscent of Egypt. The heavy squat
+façades are by no means unimposing: deep cold shadows cast by angles
+and buttresses break up the surface of the red walls. The broad panels
+around the doors are sometimes elaborated with decorative mouldings
+or with free arabesque designs in relief. The larger rooms which
+cannot be spanned by one length of rafter are vaulted inside with
+a false arch of mud, concealing cantilever timbering; the effect is
+that of a series of massive Gothic arches, plain but often of noble
+proportions. Technically, mud construction is easy, inexpensive
+and adequate in a climate where the rainy season is short and well
+defined. Balls of mud are dried in the sun and cemented together
+with wet mud. The outer and inner walls are faced with a plaster of
+earth and chopped straw. In the hot tropical sun the walls dry as
+hard as stone. The houses survive for an unlimited period of time
+if the outside surfaces are refaced every year after the torrential
+rains have washed away the stucco skin. Roofs, of course, have to
+be carefully levelled and drained to prevent the water accumulating
+in puddles and, in time, soaking through the ceilings. Gutters are
+provided with spouts projecting through the parapets of the roofs to
+prevent the water running down the sides.
+
+The rambling mud house and the circular mud or straw and thatch
+huts, grouped in compounds, together make up the towns and villages
+of Northern Nigeria. The two types may be seen side by side, for
+instance in the country between Kano and Katsina, where the Fulani
+and Hausa population is mixed. It would be interesting to establish,
+as _prima facie_ seems to be the case, whether the circular houses
+were those of the sedentary Fulani, who are nearer the semi-nomadic
+state, and the more ambitious mud dwellings those of the Hausa. In
+neither of these two types of house is stone used, either as ashlar
+or as rough masonry. Nor do dry stone walls occur, for mud is more
+convenient even when stone is available.[78]
+
+When the Tuareg, on the other hand, builds permanent or semi-permanent
+dwellings, he displays characteristics which at once differentiate
+him from the people of the south. His straw and matting huts are not
+of the Central African type; they have no vertical wall of reeds or
+grass and a separate conical roof; they are built in one piece as a
+parabolic dome. Another, movable, type of hut or tent consists of a
+leather roof arched over four vertical uprights surrounded by matting
+walls on a square plan. The appearance of these tents is that of a cube
+with a slightly domed top. The permanent houses in Air are regular,
+carefully built constructions of stone and cement. In them mud is
+not employed except where the fashion of the south has been directly
+copied in comparatively recent times. The rambling house plan of
+the south is almost unknown. The Tuareg dwelling has a definitely
+formal and rectangular character. It rarely consists of more than
+two rooms. Even the exceptions to this rule[79] display considerable
+differences from the southern type of house.
+
+Both the temporary huts and the permanent dwellings of the People of
+the Veil, therefore, are intensely individual. They differentiate
+the Tuareg sharply from the southern peoples. But even a casual
+glance at the houses of Agades makes it obvious that they belong
+to a city of the south. There is plenty of stone all round the city
+which might have been used for building, yet nearly all the houses
+are rambling mud constructions like those of Kano or of any of the
+towns of Nigeria. The number of houses at Agades which reflect the
+formal Tuareg fashion of planning is small. The characteristics
+which one learns to associate with the truly Tuareg houses of Air
+are conspicuously difficult to find. When I was in Agades at the
+commencement of the rains before the annual refacing of the walls
+had been carried out, it was possible to observe the absence of
+stone building. An inspection of the broken walls of the many ruined
+houses confirmed this observation of the past. The number of pools
+in the town alone was evidence of the prevalence and antiquity of
+mud construction; Barth mentions the names of several of them. The
+borrow pits in the Sudanese towns, where water accumulates in the
+rainy season and rubbish is shot in the dry, are features which no one
+can escape, were it only on account of the smells which they exhale;
+for in the Sudan, even when stone is available as at Kano, it is not
+used. I have vivid recollections of Agades at this season and was
+particularly impressed by the efficiency of the spouts designed to
+carry the water off the roofs. Progress was necessarily circuitous in
+order to avoid drowning in the flooded holes and borrow pits, while
+distraction was afforded by a determined but usually unsuccessful
+effort to escape a series of shower-baths in the narrow streets.
+
+The ridge on which the city stands is surrounded by several depressions
+where are the wells that supply the needs of the population. In
+addition to those outside the town there were formerly nine other
+wells within the walls, but, like the pools, they were nearly all
+adulterated by the saline impregnation of the ground.
+
+I cannot here refrain from quoting Barth, whose capacity for meticulous
+observation depended on never missing an opportunity, however strange,
+of acquiring information. “The houses of Agades do not possess all
+the convenience which one would expect to find in houses in the north
+of Europe; but here, as in many Italian towns, the principle of _da
+per tutto_, which astonished Goethe so much at Rivoli on the Lago di
+Garda, is in full force, being greatly assisted by the many ruined
+houses which are to be found in every quarter of the town. But the
+free nomadic inhabitant of the wilderness does not like this custom,
+and rather chooses to retreat into the open spots outside the town. The
+insecurity of the country and the feuds generally raging oblige them
+still to congregate, even on such occasions. When they reach some
+conspicuous tree the spears are all stuck into the ground, and the
+party separates behind the bushes; after which they again meet under
+the tree, and return in solemn procession to the town. By making such
+little excursions I became acquainted with the shallow depressions
+which surround Agades. . . .” He then proceeds to enumerate them.[80]
+The plain where the French fort lies is called Tagurast, that to the
+S.W., Mermeru; to the S.E. is Ameluli, with Tisak n’Talle somewhat
+further away to the S.S.E.; Tara Bere lies to the west.
+
+The city is divided into several quarters, the names of which are
+recorded on Barth’s plan. The only two I heard mentioned were
+Terjeman and Katanga, the former so called from the interpreters who
+used to live in the neighbourhood, the latter from the market where
+what Americans would term “dry goods” of the Air fashion are
+sold. Little seems to have changed in seventy-five years; necklaces,
+stone arm-rings, wooden spoons and cotton cloth can be bought, now as
+then. In the larger market near by, called by the Hausa name of Kaswa
+n’Rakumi (the Camel Market), live-stock of all sorts is sold. The
+vegetable market seems to be as ill furnished now as it was in 1850.
+
+I visited two or three private houses. They were not imposing,
+lacking the architectural features of the better-class houses in the
+Sudan. The use of white and colour washes in the interiors and on
+the outside walls was interesting. This practice is the only feature
+in which the houses of Agades differed from those of the Sudan; it
+appears to be peculiar in this part of Africa to the Tuareg, the habit
+having, no doubt, been copied from the north. The pigment is made of a
+chalky substance found near Agades, or of ochreous earths occurring in
+various places in Air. One of the houses which I saw was that of the
+Añastafidet, the administrative head of the Kel Owi tribes. The rooms
+were small and ill-planned; there was no attempt at decoration. The
+technique of the south had evidently not flourished in the atmosphere
+of the Sahara. The two plans of private houses reproduced by Barth
+give an idea of the rambling and haphazard designing.
+
+The most elaborate and well-kept house is the one which belongs to
+the Kadhi, near the Great Mosque. It must have been here that Barth
+attended several sittings of the Kadhi’s Court, adjudicating
+on inter-tribal matters which could not be settled by the tribal
+chiefs. It did not seem at all remarkable after the great houses of
+the Sudan, but was perhaps rather better kept than most of the other
+buildings in Agades. The people call it the House of Kaossen, and his
+family still live there. He carried on his intrigues from this place,
+and plotted with apparent impunity through 1917, until the time was
+ripe for open rebellion. He had returned from the Fezzan full of
+ambition to free his country from the white men whom he fought all
+his life. He had taken part in the operations against the French
+in Equatorial Africa, largely directed by the Senussiya from their
+“zawias” in Tibesti and Ennedi. When this period of hostility came
+to an end, but not before the French had sustained several severe
+reverses, notably during the fighting at Bir Alali (Fort Pradie),
+north-east of Lake Chad, Kaossen took refuge with the Azger Tuareg
+in the Eastern Fezzan, raiding and fighting with these lawless folk
+against their neighbours. Of his own initiative, but aided by the
+Senussiya and their Turkish and German advisers, Kaossen returned to
+his native country in 1917 with a small band of supporters to drive
+out the French, an effort in which he very nearly succeeded.
+
+By far the most considerable monument of the city is the Great
+Mosque. I was unable to visit the interior, but from the general
+appearance of the building I am sure that I should have agreed with
+the description of Barth, who wrote: “The lowness of the structure
+had surprised me from without, but I was still more astonished when
+I entered the interior and saw that it consisted of low narrow naves
+divided by pillars of immense thickness, the reason of which it is not
+possible at present to understand, as they have nothing to support but
+a roof of dûm-tree boards, mats and a layer of clay.” He goes on to
+speculate on the superstructure which these “vaults or cellars” may
+have been designed to carry but which was never completed. I do not
+think such speculation is necessary. The description fits accurately
+every one of the seven or eight other mosques in Air which I saw within
+and without. In none of them were the walls ever meant to carry an
+upper storey. In all of them the ceiling was low and the roof flat,
+with rows of massive pillars and the naves running transversely from
+north to south across the buildings, which were usually far broader
+than they were deep.
+
+The Great Mosque of Agades as it stands to-day was built in 1844.[81]
+It would hardly be remarkable were it not for the minaret, which was
+rebuilt by the Sultan Abd el Qader in 1847 to replace the one which
+had fallen. From a base thirty feet square resting on four massive
+pilasters in the interior of the mosque, this four-sided tower of mud
+and dûm-palm rafters rises to a height of between eighty and ninety
+feet, tapering from about one-third of its height to a narrow platform
+less than eight feet square at the top. Access is obtained by a spiral
+way between the solid core and the outer wall, which is pierced with
+small windows. From a little distance the foreshortening produced by
+the tapering faces gives the impression of immense height without
+accentuating the pyramidical form. The four-square, flat sides are
+bound together by transverse rafters projecting some three or four
+feet. These ends serve the purpose of scaffolding when refacing is
+necessary after the rains, an operation without which the tower would
+not have stood any length of time. Near the mosque is a heap of mud,
+the remains of an older tower called “Sofo,” presumably of the
+same type.[82]
+
+The structure is properly speaking a minaret, but was used
+as a watch-tower in time of war. It is not now used for either
+purpose. The muezzin stands on the roof of the mosque below to call
+upon the Faithful at the prescribed hours to forsake their pursuits
+and turn to the only God. The Tower of Agades stands like a beacon,
+showing far over the monotonous plains. I remember this solitary
+pillar towering above a confused mass of low and ruinous buildings
+against the blood-red setting sun, which appeared and disappeared in
+the black clouds of an evening in the rains. The blue hills and sharp
+peaks of Air were distant in the north; to the south lay a drab plain,
+unbroken as far as eye could see in the gathering twilight. The Tower
+seemed like the lonely monument of a decaying civilisation.
+
+There are said to have been as many as seventy mosques in and near
+the city, but only two, I think, are still used. Outside the walls
+to the S.W. there is a shrine known as Sidi Hamada, “My Lord of
+the Desert,” appropriately named considering the barren nature
+of the ground all round. It is an open place of prayer of much
+sanctity, and reputed to be the oldest Moslem place of worship in the
+neighbourhood. The Qibla is in a low bank, faced with a dry stone wall,
+which slopes down to the level of the surrounding ground a few feet on
+each side of the niche. On certain occasions prayers are said at Sidi
+Hamada, notably on the Feast of the Sheep, known to the Tuareg as Salla
+Laja, which I was fortunate enough to witness at Agades in June 1922.
+
+                                                              PLATE 10
+
+[Illustration: GATHERING AT SIDI HAMADA]
+
+[Illustration: PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA]
+
+It was made the occasion of much festivity. Every available camel
+in the vicinity was ridden by a Tuareg in the gayest saddle and
+bridle from the city to the shrine. These people do not feel that
+they are making the best of themselves unless they are mounted on a
+camel. A man and his camel are complementary and reciprocal to one
+another. When there is an occasion to celebrate they wear their best
+clothes and borrow any ornaments they can find to adorn their sombre
+garments. They are vain of their personal appearance and covetous of
+those pretty things which are considered in good taste, but their
+unselfishness is nevertheless remarkable. I have seen men forgo
+the real pleasure of wearing a silver ornament or a new face veil
+in order to lend them to a less fortunate companion whose general
+appearance was more ragged, or whose means and opportunities did not
+allow him to secure anything to smarten his turn-out. I had bought
+of the local jeweller-blacksmith in Agades a number of small silver
+ornaments of the sort which are affected by the Tuareg. All these,
+and even certain articles of clothing from our own scanty wardrobes,
+were borrowed for the day. It was curious to see that their sombre
+apparel was never lightened by any of the coloured materials so much
+in evidence in the Sudan. The best-dressed man is considered to be
+the one with the newest indigo-cotton robe and veil of the traditional
+plain design. At the most a red cloth is tied round the head over the
+face veil, or, in the case of the guides employed by the French, around
+the waist and shoulders: the robe must, however, always be plain white
+or dark indigo. The Tuareg of our own retinue picked out the best of
+our camels to ride. They turned out a very smart patrol, the camel
+men Elattu, Alwali and Mokhammed of noble caste, with two or three
+buzus or outdoor slaves, and Ali the son of Tama, the Arab from Ghat.
+
+At an early hour the poorer people on foot began to stream over the
+tufted plain which lies between the place of prayer and the city. They
+were followed by little parties of men on camels, black figures on
+great dun-coloured or white riding beasts, girt about with their
+cross-hilted swords, and some also carrying a spear and oryx-hide
+shield. Finally, a larger group of men, preceded by three or four
+horsemen, was seen approaching. They were the Sultan of Agades,
+Omar, the Slave King of the Tuareg of Air, with his attendants,
+and the Añastafidet, a noble of the Kel Owi tribes, who, from the
+purely administrative point of view, is the most important man in the
+country. They were accompanied by the chief minister of the Sultan,
+the notables of the place, and other dignitaries. Among them was El
+Haj Saleh, the father of our camel man Elattu; he had performed the
+pilgrimage three times, in the course of which he had acquired the
+Arab fashion of dress used in the north. He wore the white woollen
+robe that is supposed to be descended from the Roman toga, with his
+head covered only by a fold of the cloth. El Haj Saleh has lived so
+long in foreign parts that he no longer veils his face and prefers
+speaking Arabic, but he is much respected as a learned and holy man;
+he is now employed by the French at the fort as Oriental Secretary
+and interpreter. With him were the Kadhi and the Imam, a solitary
+exception among the veiled Tuareg in the matter of display, for he
+had obtained from the south a buff-coloured silk robe embroidered
+with green. The Sariki n’Turawa, or chief minister of the Sultan,
+came next; near him gathered a number of Arab merchants from Ghat
+and Tuat in white robes; with one or two from the extreme west, there
+were a dozen or fifteen in all, who have the trade of Agades in their
+hands. Among them I perceived one Arab from Mauretania, a little man
+with delicate, sensitive features and a brown beard. He came straight
+up to where I was standing to repay me a debt of five silver francs
+which he had incurred some months before at Gangara in Damergu.
+
+                                                              PLATE 11
+
+[Illustration: PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA, NEAR AGADES]
+
+When the crowd had collected, the men ranged themselves in rows facing
+east before the Qibla; the women stood together on one side. The
+Sultan and his party were immediately opposite the niche with the
+Imam facing them. He began to read the Quran and the multitude
+then prayed. On either side of the Sultan, as he knelt to make his
+prostrations, a Tuareg remained standing with his sword drawn, extended
+point downwards at arm’s length, in protection and salute. As the
+Sultan rose to his feet the guard sloped their swords, repeating the
+salute every time he bowed before the name of God. These two men are
+distinct from the officials in the local administration;[83] they are
+the personal body-guard of the Sultan, chosen among the “courtiers
+of the king,” who are young men selected in turn from the tribes
+in Air which owe allegiance direct to the Sultan.
+
+After the prayers were over two sheep were slaughtered in the
+orthodox manner. Their throats were cut by the Imam, reciting the
+invocation of Islam, and the blood was wiped away with holy water to
+the accompaniment of suitable prayers.
+
+The Sultan and the people then returned to the city, making a detour
+by the N.W. side through the ruined suburb outside the walls and past
+the Great Mosque to the present palace, an indifferent building,
+both tumbledown and dirty. The reigning Sultan, Omar, like all his
+predecessors, is of slave descent. He was chosen in 1920 by the
+tribes which have the right to elect him, from a collateral branch
+of the ruling family. He is a weak man, and too much in the hands
+either of interested advisers or of the French, which does not always
+mean the same thing. His predecessor, Tegama, on the other hand,
+was a remarkable man. His intrigues with Kaossen were successful in
+preparing the revolution in Air so quietly that practically nothing
+was suspected of his intentions until the fateful dawn when the black
+troops on parade at the post were fired upon from the outskirts of the
+city. After the French columns had relieved the besieged garrison,
+both Kaossen and Tegama fled east to Kawar, whence the former found
+his way to the Fezzan, only to be killed, so it is believed, in obscure
+circumstances north of Murzuk by some Arabs. The native accounts of the
+story cast some doubt on his actual death on the grounds that his body
+was never found among those of his massacred companions. It is further
+represented that the very Turks and Senussiya whom he had served put
+him to death for his failure in Air, but it appears more probable that
+on his way to seek refuge with the Senussiya in Cyrenaica, Kaossen
+and his friends had the misfortune to fall in with a band of Arabs
+whom he had raided in the olden days, and to have been killed by them.
+
+The Sultan Tegama, on the other hand, betook himself to Tibesti,
+hoping to find sanctuary among the Tebu, who, though the hereditary
+enemies of the Tuareg of Air, were probably sufficiently hostile to
+the French to be counted on to harbour any prominent refugee from
+the wrath of the white man. By the influence of the Senussiya in
+these parts he expected to reach Kufra and so take up his residence
+among the malcontents who live in that remote land. Treacherous as
+ever and true to their reputation current all over North Africa,
+the Tebu entreated Tegama generously and took the first opportunity
+which presented itself to hand him over to a French camel patrol from
+Bilma. In the course of time he returned to Agades as a prisoner under
+an escort of negro Senegalese soldiers and was thrown into prison
+at the fort to await his trial by court-martial. He died suddenly
+one night in May 1922, by his own hand it is said, in the prison,
+while under the surveillance of the French, and he was buried. But
+one chief who was at the funeral told me that he looked under the mat
+which covered the alleged corpse and discovered that there was nothing
+there. The story spread that Tegama escaped and fled to the north,
+where he is still living. Perhaps it is better that this story should
+obtain credence than any other. Instead of Tegama, the French officer
+in charge of the post was court-martialled for the suicide of the king,
+but acquitted. The whole episode is curious, but the truth is perhaps
+rather unsavoury. It is another of the fierce tragedies of the Sahara.
+
+Before Tegama, Osman Mikitan and Brahim (Ibrahim Dan Sugi) were
+Sultans. Mikitan was Sultan when the post was first established at
+the wells of T’in Shaman, but they changed places several times
+in the course of the intrigues which took place between the passage
+of the Foureau-Lamy Expedition in 1899 and the occupation of Air in
+1904. In Barth’s day Abd el Qader, son of the Sultan Bakiri (Bekri),
+was on the throne. His tenure of office was as precarious as that of
+his successors, for he had been Sultan on a previous occasion before
+Barth reached Agades, only to be deposed in favour of Hamed el Rufai
+(Ahmed Rufaiyi), whom he again succeeded; they once more changed
+places some three years afterwards, Abd el Qader having reigned in
+all about thirty-two years, Hamed some twelve. The tenure of office of
+the Sultans of Agades during the last century has been as precarious
+as it was in Leo’s time, for we read in this authority[84] that the
+Tuareg “will sometime expel their king and choose another; so that he
+which pleaseth the inhabitants of the desert best is sure to be king of
+Agades.” Bello in his history says the same:[85] “whenever a prince
+displeased them, they dethroned him and appointed a different one.”
+
+The installation of the Sultan with the customs that obtain is
+in the nature of a ceremonial recognition, by the representatives
+of the principal tribes of the Tuareg of Air, of his elevation to
+office. Taken in connection with the traditional mode of his selection,
+it throws an interesting light on relationships of the various groups
+of the Tuareg in Air. Barth, who was in Agades on such an occasion,
+wrote: “The ceremonial was gone through inside the _fada_ (palace);
+but this was the procedure. First of all Abd el Kader (Qader) was
+conducted from his private apartments to the public hall: the chiefs
+of the Itisan (Itesan) and Kel Geres who were in front begged him to
+sit down upon the _gado_, a sort of couch or divan, made of the leaves
+of the palm tree . . . similar to the _angarib_ used in Egypt and
+the lands of the Upper Nile, and covered with mats and carpets. Upon
+this the Sultan sat down, resting his feet on the ground, not being
+allowed to put them on the _gado_ and recline in the Oriental style
+until the Kel Owi had desired him to do so.[86] Such is the ceremony,
+symbolical of the combined participation of these different tribes in
+the investiture of their Sultan.”[87] The throne-room in the old
+palace seems to have been more imposing than any part of the royal
+dwelling of to-day. The present audience chamber is a low, arched room,
+with a small daïs or seat at one end near a narrow stairway leading
+up to three rooms in an upper storey, which is now not in use. These
+rooms are lighted by small windows looking over the outer court. I
+wandered at random in and out of the palace except that small part
+which is still used by Omar himself and his women-folk. The deserted
+rooms were deep in dust and fallen plaster. The courts were infested
+with dogs, children and chickens. The palace was far less magnificent
+and certainly less well kept than many other houses in the city. Even
+the small house of the Añastafidet, with its mats and solitary carpet
+of horrid colours on the floor of the guest-chamber, was more cleanly.
+
+The present Sultan enjoys little or no authority; his predecessors,
+unless they were backed by the more important chiefs in Air, were
+almost equally powerless, for the position of the Sultan, or Amenokal,
+as he is called in Temajegh, is curious. It is said in the native
+tradition that in the early days there was no authority in the land
+other than that of the chiefs of the various groups of tribes, and
+these did not in any way acknowledge one another’s authority over
+affairs which interested the community at large. The groups and
+single tribes were constantly at war with one another, and there
+were then 70,000 people in the land, with no common ruler.[88] The
+more reasonable chiefs recognised that some figure-head at least
+was necessary, but they could not agree that he should be chosen
+from any of the principal groups of clans in Air. They therefore
+sent a deputation to Istambul or Santambul (Constantinople) to the
+Commander of the Faithful, asking him to appoint a Prince to come and
+rule over them. The Khalif called together the sons of his wives and
+offered them all the country from the land of the Aulimmiden in the
+west to Sokoto in the east (_sic_), and from Tadent in the north to
+the lands of the Negroes in the south. But Air was so far away that
+none of the sons of the Khalif was willing to leave the comforts
+of Stambul. The Embassy was kept waiting for three years. Finally
+the Commander of the Faithful, weakening before the tears of his
+legitimate wives, the mothers of his sons, selected the child of a
+concubine to rule over the Tuareg of the south. The candidate returned
+with the deputation to Air and from that day to this there are said
+to have been one hundred rulers in the land. This figure does not,
+of course, represent the exact number; it is only meant figuratively
+to indicate a long period of time.
+
+From the original impressions I had received in Air I came to the
+conclusion that the installation of the first Sultan could be assigned
+to the beginning of the fifteenth century A.D., or, in other words,
+to a period prior to the capture of Constantinople by the Moslems. In
+the course of some research on the subject I discovered that 1420
+A.D. had been suggested by one authority on the evidence of tradition,
+while the Agades Chronicle, independently of all this evidence, had
+recorded that the first Sultan, Yunis,[89] ascended the throne in 809
+A.H., or about 1406 A.D.[90] The important thing in any case is that,
+if the story of his choice has any historical foundation whatsoever,
+it must be referred to a period when Christian emperors were still
+ruling in Constantinople. It is therefore all the more interesting
+to learn that the first Sultan was called Yunis, which means John,
+and that the wife of the first Sultan, a noble girl said to have been
+given to him in marriage by the Kel Ferwan tribe, was called Ibuzahil
+or Izubahil, a name bearing a curious resemblance to Isabel. It is a
+fitting name for the companion of John, the man from the distant land.
+
+If a deputation went to the Mediterranean at all, it was natural at
+this period that it should go to Constantinople, still regarded as
+the capital of nations, with which no other city in the fifteenth
+century could compare for civilisation or splendour. But we shall
+probably never know whether a Byzantine prince came to Air in 1406
+A.D. or whether the names and legend of John and Isabel are only
+coincidence. Yunis is described as the son of Tahanazeta, and I must
+leave for others to discover Byzantine resemblances to this name. For
+the name of one of his successors, Aliso, I suggest Louis may have
+been our equivalent, and regarding the latter’s brother, Amati,
+who followed, comment is hardly necessary.
+
+Yunis reigned twenty years and was succeeded by Akasani,[91] who was
+the son of Yunis’s sister. Elsewhere El Haj Ebesan or Abeshan,
+a son of Yunis, and his son, El Haj Muhammad ben Ebesan, are said
+to have reigned respectively as second and third Sultans, but this
+is not substantiated by the Agades Chronicle, which mentions El
+Haj Ebesan only as the grandfather of the sixteenth Sultan, Yusif,
+who came to the throne about 1594. From this record there appear to
+have been some forty rulers, several of whom reigned more than once,
+but there are certain gaps in the series.[92]
+
+After the very first ruler the reigning family divided into two
+branches, which keep on reappearing, many of the Sultans of one being
+deposed by powerful tribes like the Itesan in favour of candidates of
+the other line. The family of El Guddala or Ghodala figures prominently
+with several notable rulers like Muhammad Hammad, who was known as
+the Father of his People. From such records as are available I have
+tried to recover the genealogy of this stock; but the Agades Chronicle
+is neither accurate nor complete;[93] although it is almost the only
+detailed information which we possess for the present. One noteworthy
+fact accords well with Ibn Batutah’s observations and with certain
+matriarchal survivals which will be referred to in detail hereafter:
+there are repeated instances of descent being traced through the
+female line. Nevertheless, this was not an essential condition. The
+ruler to this day is elected by the same tribes originally responsible
+for the elevation of Yunis to the throne: he must be drawn from one of
+the two branches of the original family, and his heir, subject to due
+and proper election, is normally considered to be his sister’s son.
+
+Being the son of a concubine or slave, the king, according to the
+rules of descent of all the Tuareg, was himself of slave caste,
+nor could he ever achieve the distinction of being ranked among
+the nobles. As it is the law among the People of the Veil that
+the child must follow the caste of the mother and not the father,
+whatever the latter’s claims, only the offspring of a noble Tuareg
+woman can be noble. In all other matrimonial combinations the child
+must be a serf or slave. A slight distinction is sometimes drawn
+if only the mother is inferior, but it has the effect, at the most,
+of creating a mixed caste, without admitting the possibility of the
+child becoming a noble. When the problem arose of finding a wife
+for the first ruler who had been selected by the Khalif, despite the
+pre-eminence of his sponsor, tradition prevailed, that he was to be
+given a slave woman for wife. The arrangement had the advantage of
+perpetuating the status of the original Amenokal, since his children
+perforce had to continue in the inferior caste. For political reasons
+certain exceptions seem to have been made, and the Amenokal, though
+a serf, was also allowed to marry a noble woman, but in that case
+her children were not eligible. The marriage of John and Isabel—if
+she came from the noble Kel Ferwan, and not from Constantinople, as
+I suspect—may be an instance of such political dispensation. The
+restriction of the choice of the Amenokal to one of the two branches
+of the original family, and the force of tradition in regard to his
+descent, have resulted in the apparent paradox that in order to be
+Sultan of Agades the candidate has to be a slave. These considerations
+duly influenced the choice of the present Amenokal, Omar.
+
+Insignificant as his power nominally is, and unimportant as the office
+may practically be, many of the traditional stories which purport
+to explain the circumstances attending the Sultan’s elevation to
+the throne are probably fanciful. They may be accepted but still be
+fictions in the legal sense. Unless or until Byzantine researches can
+come to our assistance, the logical explanation, if there is one, must
+be sought. Shorn of romance, what appears most likely to have happened
+is that the Tuareg of Air at a certain stage were unable to reach
+any agreement regarding the selection of a head of the State. They
+were divided up into groups which their piecemeal immigration had
+accentuated. But the necessities of trade and caravan traffic made
+it essential for the common weal to have some sovereign or head,
+even if he were only a nominal ruler, to maintain foreign relations
+and transact political business on behalf of the inhabitants of Air
+generally with the Emirates and Empires of the Sudan. Since none of
+the principal tribes was willing to forgo the privilege of providing
+the ruler, the expedient was hit upon of appointing a man whose status
+would never conflict with the authority of the tribal chiefs within
+the borders of the country, but who could still be delegated to speak
+for the whole community with the rulers of the Southland. With all
+the jealousy that exists among the tribes on the question of relative
+nobility or antiquity, the only people fulfilling the essentials were
+of servile caste. The choice of such a man was nevertheless possible
+among the Tuareg, for neither “imghad” nor slaves are despised
+or regarded as mere animals. This, I think, is the only explanation
+of the usage which obtains, that whatever may be the caste of the
+Amenokal’s children, only the servile ones are eligible. Although
+the family of the Sultan may include noble persons, it is, as a whole,
+a servile group in both its branches; it seems that Barth is mistaken
+in regarding the group as noble. The family may, as he says, be called
+“Sherrifa,” but probably only on account of its reputed origin. It
+is not considered any the more noble in the Tuareg sense of the word
+for all that.[94]
+
+This does not exclude the possibility of the Constantinople Embassy
+being true, but the explanation I have given of the slave kings of Air
+seems to be sufficient on its own merits and also reasonable. Every
+factor in the situation points to the care which was taken to eliminate
+all possible chances of dispute; even the relegation of the choice to
+one servile family singled out for the purpose would tend to diminish
+friction. On the whole the procedure may be said to provide a rational
+if cynical solution of what has always been a difficult problem in all
+countries.[95] Inasmuch as the explanation also serves to elucidate
+a number of other problems, it may be said to receive confirmation.
+
+Thus, the principal Minister or Vizir of the Amenokal is the Sariki
+n’Turawa,[96] a Hausa term meaning the “Chief of the White
+People.” The White People are the Arab traders from the north, who
+themselves call this official the “Sheikh el Arab.” His functions
+are those of Minister for Foreign Affairs:[97] his duties are to
+regulate the foreign community of Agades and settle all questions of
+trade with the outside world. Though originally appointed to deal
+with the Arabs of the north, he came eventually to have more to do
+with the Southland. He used to collect the duties on merchandise in
+Agades and accompany the salt caravans to Bilma, a service for which
+he received an eighth part of an average camel load of salt. After the
+salt caravan returned, the Sariki n’Turawa proceeded south with the
+camels returning to Sokoto, and then went on to Kano. The latter part
+of his journey had already been discontinued in 1850, but he still
+accompanies the salt caravan as the representative of the Sultan
+and nominal leader of the enterprise. In addition to these duties
+involving foreign relations, he is the Amenokal’s chief adviser and
+“Master of the Interior of the Palace,” with the Songhai name of
+“Kokoi Geregeri.” He is also known as the “Wakili” or Chief
+Agent of the king. The reason for the Chief Minister in Agades being
+also Minister for Foreign Affairs needs no further comment after what
+has been said of the Sultan himself and his _raison d’être_.
+
+Other officials and courtiers round the Amenokal include the Sariki
+n’Kaswa, or Chief of the Market Place, who collects the market
+dues and supervises the prices of commodities. There are, besides,
+police officials or policemen who are also the executioners, and a
+number of persons called after the class from whom they are chosen, the
+“magadeza.” The word seems to be a corruption of “Emagadezi,”
+meaning People of Agades, but has acquired a more restricted meaning,
+and is commonly applied to a number of rather fat men who are reputed
+to be the posterity of the attendants of the first Yunis who came
+from Constantinople.[98]
+
+By virtue of his own position the Amenokal enjoys very little
+authority. He is used as an arbitrator and Judge of Appeal. In
+cases where the disputants are both from the same group of clans
+their quarrel would normally be referred to the head of their
+aggregation, except amongst the Kel Owi, over whom the Añastafidet
+is the administrative authority, or court of the second instance;
+in minor matters the tribal chief can, of course, decide on his own
+initiative. But in disputes between persons of different tribes who
+cannot agree on the finding of the chief of either of their factions,
+the case may be referred to the Sultan, on whose behalf the Kadhi
+renders judgment. Such functions as the Sultan performs are executed
+with the consent of the governed. Although all serious cases might
+be referred to him in theory, in practice his authority has never
+run in local tribal affairs. He has a common gaol for criminals,
+used in the first instance for those of the city, but also for such
+as cannot be satisfactorily punished under the tribal arrangements
+of a nomadic and semi-nomadic people. There were cases when chiefs
+of tribes might be, and were, imprisoned at Agades, but then it was
+because the power behind the throne had so desired it. The Sultan
+apparently at one time also had a dungeon with swords and spears fixed
+upright in the floor upon which criminal malefactors were thrown;
+but already in 1850 it was rarely used.
+
+It cannot be too carefully emphasised that the rule of the Sultan as
+the elected head of the State of Agades was founded upon the consent
+of the governed. He is the figure-head of the community and performs
+the same useful duties which so many heads of more civilised States
+undertake. The Tuareg have probably never had occasion to discuss
+the social contract, and the works of J. S. Mill or Rousseau are not
+current in Air, but nowhere are these theories of government more
+meticulously carried into effect or do they assume the practical form
+which they have often lacked in Europe. With all their aristocratic
+traditions of caste and breeding, the Tuareg have never favoured an
+established or hereditary autocracy. The government they prefer seems
+to be a democratic monarchy. Their king is a slave elected by the
+representatives of certain, at one time doubtless the most important,
+tribes; he exists and carries out certain functions because the mass
+of the people desire it so. Authority is not inherited, and even men of
+inferior caste may become chieftains. The evolution of society has also
+inevitably rendered the king dependent for support upon the principal
+men of the country, and the latter upon the smaller chieftains. Where
+there is much rivalry or where the ruler is weaker than usual the
+frequent changes and inconsistency inherent in democratic government
+ensue. Equally the ascendancy of one man’s personality independently
+of his position may override the voice of the people, but in the
+absence of organisation or bureaucracy the conditioning factor is
+efficiency and competence. Tribal leaders are selected because they
+can lead; when they cease to lead they are deposed.
+
+The unenviable position of the king and his dependence on the influence
+of the chiefs seem consequently to have been the same throughout the
+ages. Leo[99] refers to the practice of deposing one king and electing
+another from the same family who was more acceptable. Bello on the
+subject has also already been quoted. We have just seen how often and
+why Osman Mikitan and Brahim changed places. Barth recounts how in
+his day Abd el Qader was completely in the hands of the Kel Owi, who
+were represented by the dominant personality of their paramount chief,
+Annur. His own tribe was not even, as a matter of fact, among those
+responsible for the selection of the Sultan, but his personality
+was such that the Amenokal, at his request, or with his support,
+felt himself strong enough to imprison three turbulent chiefs of
+the Itesan who were stirring up the people in Agades in favour of
+a pretender. Yet the Itesan, a tribe of the southern Kel Geres,
+are the foremost of the tribes responsible for the Sultan’s very
+election and his maintenance in power. Without Annur’s support,
+Abd el Qader was powerless.
+
+[Illustration: OMAR: AMENOKAL OF AIR]
+
+I think that the persistence of tradition shows how essential the
+method devised for choosing the head of the community was, and is
+still considered to be among the Air Tuareg. Even to-day the Itesan
+retain their predominant voice in the election, though they live in the
+Sudan and are in part within the border of the country administered by
+the British Government, and though their king is in French territory
+hundreds of miles away. They were the deciding factor in the election,
+after the death of Tegama,[100] of Omar from the collateral branch
+which lives with them.
+
+Only in rare cases was the Amenokal a leader in war. Muhammad Hammad is
+an instance in point, but it is clear he was an exceptional man. When
+raids had taken place or were threatening in such a manner as to affect
+the people of Air indiscriminately, or where individual tribes might
+not consider themselves sufficiently involved to occasion reprisals,
+the Sultan used to lead a counter-raid recruited from several clans
+and provisioned according to his direction from those groups most
+capable of supplying the needs. In no case could a Sultan lead a
+raid against an Air tribe, whether in the north or in the south,
+unless he had definitely thrown in his lot with a local intrigue,
+which theoretically would, and usually did, entail his eventual
+deposition. Within Air the Sultan was neutral, or as we should say
+“constitutional.” He could only take the field against people like
+the Aulimmiden of the west, or the Tebu of the east, or the Ahaggaren
+of the north beyond the borders of his country. As a general rule,
+however, leading in war was the task of tribal chieftains and not of
+the king.
+
+The Amenokal does not seem to have had a fixed revenue. He lived
+principally on the presents given to him by the tribes on the occasion
+of his accession, and more especially by those tribes which owe
+allegiance directly to himself. He was entitled to collect a tax on
+foreign merchandise entering the city and a tithe from certain servile
+tribes in the southern parts of Air.[101] In addition he had certain
+perquisites in the shape of judicial fines imposed on individuals
+and tribes, and a revenue from legitimate trading with Bilma during
+the great salt caravans.
+
+In considering the history of Agades one cannot fail to be struck by
+the peculiarity of the site.
+
+Elsewhere in North Africa, where any of the great caravan roads
+pass through areas of fertility which break up the journeys into
+sections, towns and cities, in some cases of considerable magnitude,
+have grown up. Where these settlements are near the margin of belts
+of permanent sedentary inhabitation, they play the part of termini
+or ports for the trans-desert traffic. They have become markets
+and the seats of the transport and produce brokers, a development
+which has its parallels in Arabia and Central Asia. There are many
+instances in Northern Africa of such terminal points becoming large
+and important centres: some of the more active of these “ports,”
+as they may be called, in the north are Sijilmasa, Wargla, Ghadames,
+Tripoli, Orfella and Benghazi. Corresponding with them at the southern
+end of the various roads are Timbuctoo, Gao, Sokoto, Katsina and
+Kano.[102] In addition to that there are also the true Cities of
+the Desert. They have arisen in places where caravans can call a
+halt to rest and replenish food supplies, where water is plentiful,
+and sometimes also, where these requisites are present, at the
+intersection of important routes. These settlements are like island
+coaling stations in maritime navigation, but they are not termini;
+they are particularly interesting ethnologically, for they often
+mark the ends of stages where the transport of merchandise changes
+hands. At these points one tribe or race hands over its charge to
+another group of people. They are thus entrepôts where goods are
+discharged and reshipped—not markets, but broking centres where
+the transport contractors and merchants who live at either end of the
+routes have their agents. A money market often develops, but the local
+trade is small, for it is confined to the requirements of the place
+and immediate neighbourhood. At all costs, either by means of a strong
+local government or by mutual consent, tribes which elsewhere may be
+at war with one another must be compelled to meet in peace to pursue
+their lawful occasions. The essentials for the growth of such centres
+are invariably the presence of water, pasture and, to a lesser extent,
+food. Where these factors can be obtained at one definite point only,
+the centre is fixed, whereas if there are several places all more or
+less equally convenient for the traffic, the settlement has a tendency
+to move under the influence of political changes. In Tuggurt, Laghuat
+and Ghat may be found instances where the centre has been unable to
+shift on account of geographical conditions; but in the Tuat-Tidikelt
+area the most important town of In Salah has had many rivals, which
+have prevented it acquiring the same compactness or prominence as,
+for instance, the city of Ghat. At the latter place a large permanent
+water supply in an arid country practically limited the choice
+of sites to one spot. A commercial city of paramount importance,
+if of no great size, sprang up in the earliest times and continued
+uninfluenced by political vicissitudes. As an entrepôt of commerce
+where there was peace at all times among the local population, where
+feuds and racial hostility were set aside within its precincts, where
+free trade was the oldest tradition and where an efficient municipal
+organisation did not seek to extend its influence far beyond the walls,
+Ghat developed a government similar to that of an autonomous Hanseatic
+town. Ghat is the most interesting of all the cities of the desert,
+but the decline of caravan trade has brought ruin to its people and
+war among the tribes, which no longer have the material incentive of
+trade to refrain from fighting.
+
+On the eastern of the two central roads across the Sahara there is
+a stage where one would expect to find a town like Ghat, for to the
+south on both these routes there is a tract of desert to be crossed
+before reaching Kawar or Air respectively. But in the Eastern Fezzan
+the choice of locality was not restricted by geographical and economic
+considerations, and Murzuk, as the counterpart in modern times of
+Ghat, has consequently not always been the most important centre of
+the area. In early classical times Garama, now known as Jerma, some
+sixty miles to the north of Murzuk, was the capital of the Garamantian
+kingdom. When Jerma was destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh century,
+Zuila, probably the Cillala of the Romans, became the capital of the
+Eastern Fezzan, maintaining its supremacy even after conquest by the
+Beni Khattab in the tenth century. When in the fourteenth century the
+Fezzan was overrun by the people of Kanem the capital again moved,
+this time to Traghen.
+
+Air is the next stage on the road to the Sudan after crossing the
+desert to the south of Ghat. The requisites of water, pasture and
+food are found all over this vast oasis; the principal settlement
+might therefore be presumed to have changed its site under the
+influence of politics, and in a great measure this has happened,
+but the largest settlement in the country, the City of Agades, is
+comparatively modern and appears to owe its existence to political
+rather than to economic reasons.
+
+Standing on the north side of the valley which is named after it,
+Agades is in one sense a City of the Desert, since it lies on the edge
+of a Saharan oasis. In so far as it is a true desert city at all, it
+is the greatest of them, but, as we shall see, it has not quite the
+same characteristics as its smaller rivals. Ghat, before the war, was
+said to number less than 4000 people, but may have attained double this
+figure at one time; the population of Murzuk was variously estimated
+at 2800 by Barth and at 6500 by Nachtigal; Ghadames is believed
+to have a population of about 7000. But Agades in the days of its
+prosperity must have contained not less than 30,000 inhabitants.[103]
+By 1850 the population had fallen to about 7000; ten years ago the
+number was estimated at 10,000. To-day there are not 3000 people in
+the half-ruined city, but the numbers are again increasing since the
+efflux of population after the 1917 revolution. These astonishing
+variations in population are a normal feature of desert cities,
+even as they are of harbours and seaport towns where the places
+are entirely dependent on conditions of trade, which is affected by
+political change; in the Sahara the mode of life of the surrounding
+nomads makes these fluctuations even more conspicuous.
+
+None of the considerations governing the site of other desert cities
+applies to Agades. It lies on the southernmost foothills of the Air
+mountains, and in the history of the country there has never been any
+danger of invasion except from the south. Some of the Tuareg, it is
+true, gradually penetrated Air from the north, and pushed south by the
+progressive occupation of the northern mountains, which the original
+population may not have been sufficiently interested or numerous to
+occupy and defend. Small raiding parties can always enter the country,
+but it is certain that with even inconspicuous opposing forces the
+success of an invading army approaching Air from any direction except
+the south is out of the question, owing to the difficulties of moving
+large bodies of men over the appalling desert which separates the
+plateau from Ahaggar or the Fezzan. The same conditions obtain in
+the east, and to a great extent in the west also. On the south only
+is the position rather different. The steppe desert between Air and
+Damergu is neither so waterless nor so pastureless nor so deep as to
+preclude military operations from that direction. In point of fact Air
+was invaded on at least one occasion from that side with conspicuous
+success.[104] It is therefore anomalous that the capital of the country
+should have been located on the fringe of the mountains, where every
+road is defensible, in possibly the most vulnerable position which
+could have been chosen.
+
+Nor is the explanation to be found in such economic necessity as has
+dictated the choice of site in other examples of desert cities. Agades
+is some distance from the great north-south road which runs, and always
+has run, east of the Central massif of Air, leaving the country on
+its way to the Sudan at the water of Eghalgawen or Tergulawen. An
+alternative route to the Sokoto area branching off the main road in
+Northern Air and descending by the Talak plain and In Gall passes some
+distance west of the city. No caravan road suitable for heavily-laden
+camels passes through Agades for the north, owing to the barrier of
+the Central massifs, through which the tracks are difficult even for
+mountain-bred camels. The old pilgrim road from Timbuctoo to Cairo
+enters the western side of the Air plateau at In Gall or further north,
+and passes to Iferuan and so to Ghat without touching Agades. Ibn
+Batutah’s route shows that this was so in his day, as it certainly
+has been the case since then. Caravans from the south crossing the
+Eastern Desert for Bilma pass across Azawagh to the eastern fringes
+of Air without going to Agades, which would involve a detour, as was
+explained in referring to the importance of the well of Masalet.[105]
+
+While the trade routes of the country do not, therefore, provide
+an adequate justification for the choice of the site, climatic or
+geographic conditions have equally little bearing, for there are a
+number of points in Air where the pasture is good and where there is
+sufficient water to supply the needs of a large settlement. At Agades,
+as a matter of fact, the water is indifferent; while the surrounding
+gravelly plain, like the rest of the valley, is only covered with
+scanty vegetation, the neighbouring Telwa valley contains some
+pastures, but they are not abundant, and camels in the service of
+the local merchants have to be sent to feed as much as three or four
+days distant.
+
+If the conditions which had led to the growth of a city in Air had
+been of a purely economic order, it might have been anticipated that
+it would have occupied the site of Iferuan, the first point south of
+Ghat where a permanent settlement with plentiful water, pasture and
+land fit for cultivation was possible. So convenient is the Iferuan
+valley that caravans, in fact, usually do rest there for long periods
+to allow both men and animals to recuperate after the difficult stage
+to the north has been negotiated. Or, again, a city might have stood
+at the eastern end of the River of Agades at the north end of the
+stage across the Azawagh, although this position would have been less
+dictated by necessity than the first alternative, since the steppe
+desert of the south cannot be compared for hardship with the northern
+waste. It would nevertheless have been convenient, if somewhat exposed
+to raiding parties, as a point for the concentration of caravans
+crossing the Eastern Desert to Bilma, or in other words at the
+branching of the Salt Road and the north-south route. On its present
+site, Agades is out of the way for travellers from any direction who
+may be bound beyond the city. Some other explanation must then be
+found, and it occurred to me only when I had reached the city itself.
+
+The fact of the matter is that Agades is not the capital of Air
+at all. As we have seen, the city is not the seat of the central
+government because there is no real central government, and the King
+who lives there is not really King at all. Agades is only the seat of
+an administration set up in the first instance to deal with exterior
+affairs, and more especially those connected with the Southland. These
+affairs were in the charge of a figure-head ruler unconnected, except
+to a very minor degree, with the internal problems of the Tuareg
+tribes. When this is once grasped, Agades assumes a different position
+in the perspective of history and it becomes apparent that the site is
+really suited to the purpose for which it was intended. The place where
+the city lies is neutral as far as the tribes of Air are concerned;
+it has easy access to the Sudan yet is removed from the main roads,
+which are considered the property of certain groups of clans. But it
+follows that the character of the city must inevitably partake rather
+of the south than of the Sahara.
+
+Finally, there is the most conclusive evidence of all; during the
+early part of the Tuareg occupation of Air, there was no city of
+Agades at all; it fulfilled no need despite the caravan traffic. It
+was presumably not founded when Ibn Batutah travelled through Air, for
+he makes no mention of the name; although this is negative evidence,
+it is valuable in the case of so observant a traveller. By 1515, when
+Askia conquered the Tuareg of Air, Agades, however, was certainly
+in existence, since it is on record that he occupied the city for
+a year, “sitting down north of the town,” possibly at T’in
+Shaman. Marmol, moreover, is quite definite on the subject, saying
+that the city was founded 160 years before he wrote, a date which
+has been reckoned at 1460 A.D.[106] We know that the first Sultans
+of Air did not live at Agades, but by inference it may be supposed
+that they soon came to do so, so that the date suggested is probably
+correct. With the advent of a figure-head king there sprang up a
+figure-head capital. The story of Agades is the story of its kings:
+the explanation of both is similar.
+
+What seems to have struck Barth most about Agades was that the people
+spoke Songhai and not Temajegh; it was, in fact, one of the few places
+left where the language of the greatest Empire of the Niger still
+survived. There is reason to believe that most of the Emagadezi are not
+of Tuareg race at all. The Songhai element is probably preponderant
+even now, four hundred years after the conquest of Agades by the
+Songhai king, Muhammad Askia, who planted a colony there. The face
+veil has been adopted universally, but the physical type of the
+inhabitants is much more akin to that of people of the south than to
+that of true Tuareg. The descendants of the Songhai conquerors are
+coarse, broad-featured people with dark skins and untidy hair, which
+is an abomination among the noble Tuareg. The same characteristics
+reappear among the inhabitants of certain points west of Agades on
+the south-western outskirts of Air, where the Songhai element is also
+known to have become established and to have survived. The people of
+Agades are hardly even considered as natives of the country by the
+rest of the inhabitants of Air. They are not classed as a group,
+like the inhabitants of other settlements in the mountains. It is
+rarer to hear the “Kel Agades” mentioned than it is to hear such
+exotic compositions as “Kel es Sudan” or “Kel Katchena.” The
+people of Agades are more usually spoken of as the “Emagadezi,”
+in much the same way as the Kanuri in the Air dialect are called
+“Izghan” and the Tebu “Ikaradan.”
+
+The family of the Sultan is foreign in appearance. The physiognomy of
+Abd el Qader, who wore the white face veil usually associated in the
+north with servile caste, was not, as far as could be seen by Barth,
+that of a Tuareg. His corpulence was equally a foreign peculiarity,
+despite which Barth considered him “a man of great worth though
+devoid of energy.” The personality of the present Sultan, Omar,
+has already been described; his dark skin and coarse features betray a
+very mixed ancestry. These peculiarities are not unexpected in a family
+descended through slave women, who may, of course, be of any race.
+
+The different races and languages of Agades would be interesting to
+study in greater detail. The name Terjeman, given to one quarter of the
+town, is evidence in the estimation of its inhabitants of the Babel
+which has occurred. Temajegh, Hausa, Kanuri, Songhai and Arabic are
+spoken; even the more exceptional Fulani, Wolof and Tebu are heard,
+while the advent of the French garrison with its negro troops has
+introduced further linguistic complications, and will, of course,
+in time accentuate the Sudanese element in the racial composition,
+for at no time do the morals of the ladies of Agades appear to have
+been beyond reproach. The consequences of city life are felt even
+here in the Sahara. The forwardness of the ladies so moved Barth
+to indignation that he discoursed at considerable length on the
+standards of conduct which should be observed by Europeans in these
+far countries towards native women. He no doubt owed much of his
+success to the respect in which he held the feelings of the people
+among whom he travelled. Rather than provoke criticism, he recommends
+explorers to take their own wives with them. A few pages further on,
+describing his journey through the Azawagh, he is again referring
+to advances of the Tuareg women of the Tegama. One appreciates his
+resentment at these importunities, but is inclined to speculate on the
+true inwardness of his thoughts. On one occasion at least his artistic
+feelings rather than his sense of propriety seem to have been offended,
+for he writes: “It could scarcely be taken as a joke. Some of the
+women were immensely fat, particularly in the hinder regions, for which
+the Tawarek have a peculiar and expressive name—‘tebulloden.’”
+
+
+[Footnote 75: Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 523.]
+
+[Footnote 76: Literally “a small river or torrent” in Temajegh.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 454.]
+
+[Footnote 78: This generalisation is not intended to cover exceptional
+examples of stone construction such as those in Sokoto Province.]
+
+[Footnote 79: For the houses of Air see Chap. VIII, where
+characteristic plans are given.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 477.]
+
+[Footnote 81: According to Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 451; but
+the minaret was built in 1847, according to the Agades Chronicle
+(_Journal of the African Society_, July 1910).]
+
+[Footnote 82: This is the one to which Chudeau (_Missions au Sahara_,
+Vol. II, _Le Sahara Soudanais_, p. 64) refers as 980 years old
+according to tradition, presumably basing himself on the same
+information as Jean, _op. cit._, p. 86. The date is improbable,
+as Agades was not founded at that time.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Cf. Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p. 829: “The king
+of this citie hath alwaies a noble garde about him.” Cf. Plate 11.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p. 829.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Denham and Clapperton, Vol. II. p. 397.]
+
+[Footnote 86: The same procedure is indicated in the Agades Chronicle,
+which also states that the Kel Owi give him an ox (_Journal of the
+African Society_, _loc. cit._)]
+
+[Footnote 87: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 422.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 89: Isuf or Yusuf according to Jean, who is certainly
+wrong in this respect. _Op. cit._, p. 89. Chudeau, _op. cit._, p. 70,
+gives his name as Yunis, as did my informants in Air.]
+
+[Footnote 90: The date of the founding of Agades is a measure of
+confirmation: _vide infra_, Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 91: The second Sultan is given by Chudeau, _op. cit._,
+p. 64, as Almubari (El Mubaraki): a ruler of this name succeeded a
+Yusif whom he deposed in 1601; some confusion has probably arisen
+on account of Jean’s error in supposing that the first Sultan was
+called Yusuf instead of Yunis.]
+
+[Footnote 92: See Appendix VI.]
+
+[Footnote 93: See table in Appendix VI.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 468.]
+
+[Footnote 95: See also the remarks made in Chap. XII regarding the
+tribes which elected the Sultan.]
+
+[Footnote 96: For the explanation of the sense which these words have
+acquired, see second footnote, Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 471.]
+
+[Footnote 97: The Tuareg have forestalled many European Powers in
+making their Prime Minister also Secretary of State for Foreign
+Affairs.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p. 829.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The influence of the Emir of Sokoto to which Barth has
+referred is exercised through the Itesan by virtue of their domicile
+near this city. Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 468.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Cf. Leo Africanus, Vol. III. p. 829.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Cf. map in Chap II.]
+
+[Footnote 103: My estimate of 30,000 inhabitants was arrived at
+locally without any books of reference. On my return I found that
+Barth had arrived at the same figure, with a possible maximum of 50,000
+(_op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 472).]
+
+[Footnote 104: The French operations of 1918 against Air, the
+occupation of the country from the south in 1904 and the passage of
+the Foureau-Lamy expedition are not considered, as the superiority
+of European weapons makes it impossible to compare these exploits
+with native enterprises, though the success of the first two and
+the appalling losses in camels and material of the last in a measure
+confirm the thesis.]
+
+[Footnote 105: _Vide supra_, Chap. II.]
+
+[Footnote 106: By Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 459, and by Cooley,
+_Negroland of the Arabs_, p. 26, as 1438 A.D.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                   THE ORGANISATION OF THE AIR TUAREG
+
+
+On 6th August, soon after noon, I marched out of Agades with twenty-six
+camels and eight men for Central Air. My two travelling companions
+had left the same morning with ten camels in the opposite direction,
+bound for a point called Tanut[107] near Marandet in the cliff of the
+River of Agades. Some men of the Kel Ferwan, who were camped under
+the cliff south of the river, had brought information concerning a
+lion. At Marandet, it appeared, a cow had been killed and the trail
+of the offending beast was plainly visible; notwithstanding, Buchanan
+was unable to secure this lion or any specimen, or even a skull,
+so it proved impossible to classify the animal.
+
+Circumstantial evidence goes to show that the lion still exists
+in Air, but is nevertheless very rare. In the Tagharit valley, a
+few miles north of Auderas, there is a cave in the side of a gorge
+which a large stream has cut through a formation of columnar basalt:
+a pink granite shelf makes a fine waterfall in the rainy season with
+a pool which survives at its foot all the year round. A lion used to
+live in this den until recent years, when it was killed by the men of
+Auderas because it had pulled down a camel out of a herd grazing in the
+neighbourhood. The carcase had been dragged over boulders and through
+scrub and up the side of the ravine into the lair; a feat of strength
+which no other animal but a lion could possibly have accomplished. When
+I came to the overhanging rock the ground was fœtid and befouled, and
+the skeleton of the camel was still there and comparatively fresh. One
+of the men of Auderas who had been present at the killing secured a
+claw as a valuable charm; another had apparently been severely mauled
+in the shoulder. They had surrounded the “king of beasts,” as the
+Tuareg also call him, and had attacked with spears and swords. There
+was no doubt of the animal having been a lion.
+
+The cave in the Tagharit gorge is a short distance from the point[108]
+where Barth[109] saw “numerous footprints of the lion,” which
+he conceived to be extremely common in these highlands in 1850,
+albeit “not very ferocious.” In 1905 a lioness trying to find
+water fell into the well at Tagedufat and was drowned; her two small
+cubs were brought into Agades, and one of them was afterwards sent
+to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.[110] This lion, however, may not
+have been of the same variety as the Air species, for the latter is
+said never to have been scientifically examined.
+
+The Air lion has been described as a small maneless animal like the
+Atlas species, though von Bary, who, however, never himself saw one,
+heard that it had a mane. He confirms the report that the animal
+was common, as late as in 1877, especially in the Bagezan massif,
+where it used to attack camels and donkeys.[111]
+
+The advent of the rains during the latter part of July made
+travelling through Air in many ways very pleasant. But there were also
+disadvantages. With the first fall of rain the flies and mosquitoes
+came into their own again. The common house-flies were especially
+trying during my journey north of Agades. They infested the country
+miles from any human habitation or open water.
+
+                                                              PLATE 13
+
+[Illustration: AUDERAS VALLEY LOOKING WEST]
+
+[Illustration: AUDERAS VALLEY: AERWAN TIDRAK]
+
+South of Agades the rains proved a terrible burden. The combined
+onslaughts of flies, mosquitoes and every other form of winged and
+crawling insect made life intolerable for Buchanan’s party; meals had
+to be eaten under netting and naked lights were rapidly extinguished
+by incinerated corpses. Camels got no rest. Even the hardened natives
+had recourse to any device to snatch a little sleep. They went so
+far as to make their beds in the thorny arms of small acacia trees in
+order to escape the plague. The alluvial plain of the River of Agades
+had become so soft as to be almost impossible to cross. Mud engulfed
+the camels up to their bellies. The drivers used to unload them and
+push them bodily over on to their sides at the risk of breaking their
+legs in order to let the brutes kick themselves free. The several
+stream beds of the system, even if not too swollen to be completely
+unfordable, had such perpendicular banks where the water had cut
+its way down several feet below the surface of the ground that they
+became formidable obstacles. The constant threat of rain made long
+marches impossible, though it was abundantly clear that the longer
+the time that was spent in the valley the worse the ground would
+become. Buchanan was rewarded for his disappointment at not finding
+a lion by securing near Tanut two fine specimens of ostrich and an
+ant-bear. He also reported the existence near Marandet of a cemetery
+in the bank of a stream bed. It was unfortunate that he had not time
+to examine this site, as it seems to be an example of urn burial,
+probably of pre-Tuareg date.[112]
+
+Half a day’s march from Agades brought me to the village of Azzal
+on the valley of the same name, the lower part of which is called
+“Telwa,” the most convenient name for the whole of this important
+basin. Azzal and the neighbouring Alarsas[113] are small settlements
+with a few date palms and some gardens. They were formerly inhabited
+only by serfs engaged in cultivating the gardens which supply Agades
+with vegetables. After the 1917 revolution in Air the noble population
+of certain villages in the Ighazar, which was evacuated, settled there
+temporarily under their chief, Abdulkerim of T’intaghoda. They were
+living in straw and reed huts, hoping in the course of time to return
+north and resume possession of the more substantial houses in their
+own country. During my stay in Air several families did, as a matter
+of fact, go back to Iferuan and Seliufet. But the presence of the
+remainder of these Kel Ighazar in the south is somewhat anomalous,
+as the country from the earliest times has been almost exclusively
+inhabited by servile people. The area, extending over the foothills of
+the main plateau, is not yet, properly speaking, Air, in the sense in
+which the name is used by the Tuareg. Like the desert further south,
+it is called Tegama.
+
+After following the Telwa for a short distance the track crosses
+to the left bank and winds over low bare hills and torrent beds. A
+little before reaching Solom Solom there is a wooded valley which
+the road leaves to cross a stretch of higher ground by a small pass
+covered with the remains of stone dwellings, the site, I presumed,
+of Ir n’Allem. The track is evidently very old at this point,
+for in places it has worn deep into the rock. The country is wild
+and picturesque, but the earth-brown hills are fashioned on a small
+scale. The district used to be infested by brigands who preyed on
+the caravans bound to and from Agades.
+
+The southern part of my journey followed the usual route, though
+Barth on his expedition from T’intellust to Agades travelled both
+there and back by an alternative track rather further east in the
+Boghel valley and via Tanut Unghaidan, which is not far from Azzal,
+where he rejoined the more habitual way.
+
+At Dabaga my road from Solom Solom rejoined the Telwa valley and
+crossed the stream bed after a short descent into a basin covered with
+dense thickets of dûm palms and acacias. The trees were filled with
+birds. The river was in full flood, over a quarter of a mile wide and
+some two feet deep—an imposing stream draining south-western Bagezan
+and Todra into the River of Agades. I was luckily able to cross it
+with my laden camels, but some travellers only a little behind me
+were held up for several days by the floods which followed the heavy
+rain in Central Air. Travelling at this season of the year is slow,
+as camp must be pitched before the daily rains begin, usually soon
+after noon. On the other hand, it is very convenient to be able to
+halt anywhere on the road regardless of permanent watering-points;
+for every stream bed, even if not actually in flood, contains pools
+or water in the sand.
+
+Climatically Air is a Central African country. It is wholly within
+the summer rainfall belt, the northern limit of which coincides
+fairly accurately with the geographical boundary of the country at
+the wells of In Azawa. The rains usually commence in July, and last
+for two months, finishing as abruptly as they have begun. Within the
+limits of the belt, the further north, the later, on the whole, is
+the wet season, though great irregularities are observed. In Nigeria
+the rains fall during May and June, at Iferuan they occur in August
+and September.[114] They are tropical in their intensity, and in Air
+nearly always fall between noon and sunset.
+
+During my stay at Auderas there were a few days when the sky
+was overcast for the whole of the twenty-four hours, with little
+rainfall; the damp heavy feeling in the air reminded one of England,
+as the atmosphere was cold and misty. On one particular day it rained
+lightly and fitfully for fourteen hours on end with occasional heavy
+showers. Such phenomena, however, are rare. Precipitation follows a
+north-easterly wind and usually lasts three or four hours; as soon
+as the westerly wind, prevalent at this season, has sprung up, the
+nimbus disperses rapidly, leaving only enough clouds in the evening
+to produce the most magnificent sunsets that I have ever seen.
+
+In 1922 the rainy season at Auderas was virtually over by the 10th
+September, though it continued a little later in the north. The rains
+were followed by a period of damp heat, and then by some days when the
+ground haze was so thick that visibility was limited to a few hundred
+yards. Until recent years there seems to have been a short second
+rainy season in the north of Air coinciding with the first part of
+the Mediterranean winter precipitation. In November near Iferuan I
+experienced several days on which rain appeared to be imminent, but
+none fell. Natives told me that up to three or four years previously
+they had often had a few days’ rain in December and January. In
+1850 the last rain of the summer season, which, exceptionally, had
+begun as far north and as early as 26th May at Murzuk, was recorded
+on 7th October, but in November and December after a fine period the
+sky had again become overcast, and a few drops of rain actually fell
+in Damergu on 7th January, 1851. The cycles of precipitation in the
+Sahara are constantly varying and data are as yet insufficient to
+permit any conclusion. It would be quite incorrect, from the accounts
+of the last ten years alone, to suppose that the rainfall had markedly
+diminished, or that the second rainy season had disappeared.
+
+During the rains the larger watercourses meandering among the
+massifs of the country often become impassable for days on end,
+which is inconvenient, for in ordinary times they are the channels
+of communication. Owing to the lack of surface soil and vegetation
+on the as yet undisintegrated volcanic rock, streams fill with
+surprising rapidity during the rains and are very dangerous for the
+unwary traveller. The great joy of these weeks was the freshness of
+the air after the intolerable heat of June and July, especially in
+the plains. With the rain too came the annual rebirth of plant life,
+which made one’s outlook very sweet. In European spring-time Nature
+awakes from winter sleep, but in Africa a new world, fresh and green
+and luxurious, is born after the rains out of a shrivelled corpse of
+sun-dried desert.
+
+At Dabaga I was persuaded to forsake the caravan road which continues
+up the Telwa and take a riding road by Assa Pool and the T’inien
+mountains. Difficulties began at Assa, when I tried to pitch my tent
+on rocky ground, with the result that it was almost impossible to
+keep it erect in the rain squalls which followed. The evening, after
+the rain, was unsatisfactory. I wounded two jackals at which I had
+shot, but did not kill either. I missed several guinea-fowl and only
+secured a pair of pigeons among the dûm palms of the valley. Also,
+there were many flies. However, I made the acquaintance of one of
+the greatest guides in Air, Efale, who overtook me on his way north,
+and camped near me. He talked volubly that night. Next day, after
+dropping sharply into the T’inien valley by a narrow defile, the
+road became frankly devilish. At the bottom of the steep sides the
+soil is impregnated with salt, which effectually prevents anything
+growing. There are a number of circular pits where the sandy salt,
+called “ara” or “agha,” is worked. The mixture is dried in
+cakes and sold in the south for a few pence. It is only fit for camels,
+which require a certain amount of salt every month, more especially
+after they have been feeding on fresh grass. “Ara” can only be used
+for human food if the sand has been washed out and the brine re-dried.
+
+After leaving Assa the vegetation had almost entirely disappeared. Low
+gravel-strewn hills on the right obscured the view to the east. The
+T’inien valley soon made a right-angle turn to the north, closing
+to a narrow cleft, which became even rougher. The track was a series
+of steps between huge granite and quartz boulders, among which the
+camels kept on stumbling. Their loads required constant readjustment
+and there was no room to kneel them down. The way was really only fit
+for unloaded camels or riders on urgent business. There had not been
+a tree or bush for hours. We climbed some 600 feet in about a mile,
+almost to the very top of the jagged peaks on the left that marked
+the summit of the T’inien range. By 11.15 a.m. I was beginning to
+despair of finding a camp site before the rain was due, as I foresaw
+a similar unpleasant descent on the other side of the col which had
+so long been looming ahead. Then as I reached the gates of the pass
+a view over the whole of Central Air suddenly burst upon me in such
+beauty as I can never forget.
+
+The ground sloped imperceptibly to the east. It fell away only about a
+hundred feet to the north, where a row of small crags, the continuation
+of the T’inien range, cut off the western horizon. Straight in
+front in the distance, piled mass upon mass, the blue mountains of
+Central Air rose suddenly out of the uplands, soaring into the African
+sky. Between the bold cliffs and peaks of the Bagezan mountains and
+the long low Taruaji group to the right, a few little conical hills
+of black rock broke the surface of the vast plain which rolled away to
+the east. From so great a distance the plain seemed tolerably smooth,
+veined like the hand of a man with watercourses winding southwards
+from the foot of the mountains. Black basalt boulders covered the flat
+spaces between lines of green vegetation and the threads of white
+sand, where the stream beds were just visible. Over the whole plain
+the new-born grass was like the bloom on a freshly-picked fruit. To
+the south-east stood the blue range of Taruaji itself, flat-topped
+and low on the horizon. Either side of the hills the curve of the
+world fell gently away towards the Nile.
+
+I camped a mile or so north of the pass in a valley below the
+precipitous cliffs of a rock called Okluf, which has a castellated
+crown several hundred feet high. The rocks shone blue-black, with their
+feet in a carpet of green that seemed too vivid to be real. There
+were plenty of guinea-fowl and many other birds in the palm woods
+and thorn groves, and such grass as I thought only grew in the water
+meadows of England. I shall never forget the beauty of Central Air
+on that noonday in the rains, though I have it in me to regret the
+fiendish temper in which the day’s march had left me. The flies
+in the evening and the fast-running things upon the ground at night
+only made it worse. I had hurriedly and laboriously pitched a tent,
+and it never rained after all.
+
+                                                              PLATE 14
+
+[Illustration: MT. TODRA FROM AUDERAS]
+
+On the following day I ascended the T’ilisdak valley which flows
+into the Telwa, and reached Auderas village, where some huts had
+been prepared for us by the chief Ahodu, a man who soon became my
+most particular friend. The T’ilisdak valley is renowned for its
+excellent grazing and for some mineral springs where men, camels
+and herds go after the rainy season to take a “cure” of the
+waters.[115] Near Okluf there are the remains of several hut villages,
+and some with stone foundations of a more permanent character. They
+belong to a servile tribe of Southern Air called the Kel Nugguru,
+who at present are living somewhat further west.
+
+Air proper may be said to begin at the head of the T’ilisdak
+valley. The part of the plateau I had traversed was therefore still
+in Tegama, which includes the whole area south of Bagezan and Todra
+as far as the River of Agades, as well as the Taruaji massif, but not
+the country east of the latter and of Bagezan. Most of the villages
+in Tegama have gardens, and some have groves of date palms. That they
+are inhabited by serfs is, of course, natural, since the cultivation
+of the soil, in the estimation of the noble Tuareg, is not a worthy
+occupation for a man. When, however, in a nomad society agriculture
+is relegated to an inferior caste of people, it is inevitable that
+the practice should undermine the older allegiances. It becomes
+possible for the settled and therefore originally the servile people
+to accumulate wealth even in bad times when the profit from raiding or
+caravaning is denied to the upper classes of Air. The social effects
+of the disruption caused by the 1917 revolution may be observed in
+the village organisations, where people of different tribes are now
+tending more and more to live in association under the rule of a
+village headman, who for them is displacing the authority of their
+own tribal chiefs. The village headmen, it is true, are sometimes
+themselves the leaders of the tribes in whose area the village is
+situated, but more often they are merely local men acting on the
+delegated authority of the tribal chief, who in Tegama is probably the
+head of an Imghad or servile tribe dependent in turn upon some noble
+tribe living in a different part of Air. But in time the population
+of a village may become known collectively as the people of such and
+such a place, and so reference to the old tribal allegiance of the
+inhabitants disappears.
+
+Tuareg tribal names deserve close investigation. They are of two
+categories: those which begin with “Kel” (People of . . .) and
+those which begin with “I” or sometimes “A.” This “I”
+or “A” may be quite strongly pronounced, but often represents
+the so-called “neutral vowel,”[116] which is very difficult
+to transliterate. Thus the word “Ahaggar” might as correctly
+be written “Ihaggar”; the initial vowel indeed is so little
+emphasised that the French have come to write simply “Hoggar” or
+“Haggar.” On the other hand, in the name Ikazkazan, an Air tribe,
+the “I” is marked; in the Azger tribe, again, the Ihadanaren,
+it is so lightly accentuated that Barth writes “Hadanarang.” This
+point, however, is of little moment: what matters is the question of
+the type of prefix to the name. To simplify reference I propose to
+call these two types “Kel name” and “I name” tribes. After
+examining the two categories at length, a distinction seemed to me
+to stand out clearly; I believe it holds good among other Tuareg as
+well as those of Air. The primary tribal divisions have names of the
+“I” category, except in certain cases where they are nearly always
+known to have been forgotten; the subdivisions of these tribes have
+“Kel names.” The former are proper names; the latter are derived
+either from the place where the people usually or once lived, or from
+some inherent peculiarity. The word “Kel” is also used to cover
+generalisations of no ethnic importance: the “I name,” on the other
+hand, is scarcely ever geographical or adjectival. The generalisation
+will be clearer for a few examples, chosen among the Air tribes. The
+noble tribe called Imasrodang has for sub-tribes the Kel Elar, Kel
+Seliufet and Kel T’intaghoda, called after the villages where they
+lived in Northern Air. Again, the Ikazkazan have one section or group
+of sub-tribes called the Kel Ulli—the People of the Goats—who
+are themselves subdivided into other factions bearing “Kel names.”
+
+Certain other “Kel names” like Kel Ataram or Kel Innek are often
+heard in Air, but are not proper names at all; they were erroneously
+regarded by Barth as tribal names, but simply mean the “People of
+the West” and the “People of the East” respectively, and have
+no inherent ethnic significance. In Air the former term logically
+includes, and is meant to include, the Arab as well as the Tuareg
+tribes of the west.[117]
+
+So clear is this use of geographical “Kel names” that we shall
+find repeated instances later on of tribes who, having migrated
+from a certain area, retain their old names, though these are no
+longer applicable to their new ranges. Take, for example, the Kel
+Ferwan—the People of Iferuan, in North Air; they now live in the
+southern parts of the country. Or, again, there are two Kel Baghzen,
+called after a mountain group in Central Air; the one group is still
+in that area, the other, which once lived there, has since migrated
+to the country north of Sokoto.
+
+In certain forms the word “Kel” corresponds to the Arabic word
+“ahel,” but the latter seems more usually employed in connection
+with wide geographical indications of habitat, without much ethnic
+significance, like Kel Innek. The use of this type of “Kel name”
+is the exception rather than the rule in Temajegh and has a colloquial
+rather than traditional sanction. The more common “Kel names,”
+on the other hand, are definitely individual tribal names, and refer
+to small areas. They are not by any means restricted to sedentary
+tribes.[118]
+
+A third category of names commencing with the “Im” or “Em”
+prefix is regarded by Barth[119] as virtually identical with the
+“Kel” class, but this is not quite accurate. The “Im” prefix
+is used to make an adjectival word form of place names; the “Kel
+names” only become adjectival by prefixing “People of . . .” Thus
+“Emagadezi” would be more correctly translated as “Agadesian”
+than as the “People of Agades,” whose correct designation is Kel
+Agades. “I names” partake of neither of these characteristics. For
+the most part their significance remains unexplained. It follows
+that “Kel names,” although proper to the tribes that bear them,
+being descriptive or geographical, are certainly not so old as the
+individual and proper “I names.”
+
+There are examples of tribes which have lost their “I names”
+and are only referred to by a “Kel name,” though in many cases
+this is more apparent than real. When a tribe with an “I name”
+increases until the point is reached where it subdivides, one of the
+subdivisions retains the original “I name,” the remainder take
+other and, usually, geographical appellations. This process might be
+shown graphically:—
+
+                Original I name tribe.
+                         |
+       +-----------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
+       |                             |            |           |
+  I name sub-tribe                Kel name     Kel name    Kel name
+    (as above)                    sub-tribe    sub-tribe   sub-tribe
+  \__________________________________________________________________/
+  Collective Kel name often the same as one of the sub-tribe Kel names
+  if the latter has come to play a preponderating part in the group.
+
+This difference of nomenclature has a definite bearing on the
+difficulties of co-ordinating sedentarism and nomadism in one people,
+which must have occurred to everyone who has studied the problem in
+administration. The exact relations between a village headman, the
+tribal chiefs of the persons who are living in his village and the
+tribal chief of the area in which the village is situated cannot be
+defined. One set of allegiances is breaking down and another has not
+yet been completely formed. This was already going on in Air when the
+position was complicated by the advent of a European Power demanding
+a cut-and-dried devolution of authority, and tending to encourage
+sedentary qualities in order to prevent raiding. These problems in
+Air to-day are almost insoluble, but they are of an administrative
+rather than of an anthropological order.
+
+Auderas at the present time is probably the most important place in
+Air after Agades. As an essentially agricultural settlement it is an
+excellent example of the village organisation. The valley of Auderas
+lies about 2600 feet above the sea. Seven small valleys unite above
+the village and two affluents come in below, draining the western
+slopes of Mount Todra and a part of the Dogam group. The main stream
+eventually finds its way out into the Talak plain[120] under various
+names. The sandy bed of the valley near the village contains water
+all the year round. Both banks are covered with intense vegetation,
+including a date-palm plantation of some thousand trees. Under
+the date palms and amongst the branching dûm-palm woods, where the
+thickets and small trees have been cleared or burnt off, are a number
+of irrigated gardens supplied with water from shallow wells. Some
+wheat, millet, guinea corn and vegetables are grown with much labour
+and devotion. Onions and tomatoes are the principal vegetables all
+the year round, with two sorts of beans in the winter. Occasionally
+sweet potatoes and some European vegetables like carrots, turnips
+and spinach are grown from seeds which have been supplied by the
+French. Pumpkins do well and water melons are common. There is also a
+sweet melon. Three different shapes of gourds for making drinking and
+household vessels are cultivated. Cotton is found in small quantities,
+the plant having probably been imported from the Sudan. Its presence in
+Air is interesting, as in 1850 Barth had placed the northern limit of
+Sudan cotton in the south of Damergu. The cotton plant does very well
+when carefully irrigated and produces a good quality of fibre. Two
+samples which I brought home from Air were reported on respectively
+as: “good colour, strong, fairly fine 1³⁄₁₆ staple,” and
+“generally good colour, staple 1³⁄₁₆-1¼ inches, strong and
+fine”; the materials were respectively valued at 20·35 and 21·35
+pence per pound when American May Future Cotton stood at 17·35 pence
+(May 1924).[121] The Tuareg spin their cotton into a rough yarn for
+sewing or making cord, but in Air they do not seem to weave. The
+indigo plant grows wild in Air: it is not cultivated, nor is it used
+locally for dyeing.
+
+The gardens require much attention and preparation. The ground is
+cleared and the scrub burnt off as a top dressing. The soil is then
+carefully levelled by dragging a heavy plank or beam forwards and
+backwards by hand across the surface. The area is divided up into
+small patches about six feet square with a channel along one side
+communicating with a leat from an irrigation well. These wells are
+usually unlined and shallow, with a wooden platform overhanging
+the water on one side; on this a rectangular frame is set up with a
+second cross member carrying a pulley over which a rope is passed. An
+ox or a donkey pulls up the big leather bucket by the simple process
+of walking away from the well, returning on its tracks to lower it
+again. The bucket is a tubular contrivance, the bottom of which is
+folded up while the water is raised; when it reaches the level of
+the irrigation channel, a cord is pulled to open the bottom of the
+leather tube and the water allowed to run out. The other end of this
+cord is attached to the animal, and the length is so adjusted that the
+operation is performed automatically each time the bucket comes to the
+top. The pole and bucket with a counterweight and the water wheel are
+not known in Air for raising water; nor are any dams constructed either
+to make reservoirs in ravines or to maintain a head of water for flow
+irrigation in the rainy season. Each little patch in the gardens is
+hoed and dressed with animal manure. The seed is planted and carefully
+tended every day, for it is very valuable. Barth records seeing at
+Auderas a plough drawn by slaves. This was clearly an importation
+from the north; the plough is not now used anywhere in the country,
+which at heart has never been agricultural.
+
+                                                              PLATE 15
+
+[Illustration: GRAIN POTS, IFERUAN]
+
+[Illustration: GARDEN WELL]
+
+As in the south, millet and guinea corn are sown during the rains,
+but they usually require irrigation before they reach maturity. In
+certain areas rain-grown crops could be raised most years. In the
+past a fair amount of cereals seems to have been produced in this way;
+to-day the Tuareg are too poor to risk losing their seed in the event
+of inadequate or irregular rainfall. Although the wheat grown in the
+Ighazar used nearly all to be exported to the Fezzan, where it was
+much in demand on account of its excellent quality for making the
+Arab food “kus-kus,” Air at no time has produced enough grain for
+its own consumption. In the economics of Air necessary grain imports
+are paid for by the proceeds of wheat sales or live-stock traffic
+with the north, and by the profits of the trade in salt from Bilma;
+these provide the means of purchasing the cheaper millet and guinea
+corn of Damergu. Any additional surplus, representing annual savings,
+is invested in live-stock, especially camels, within the borders of
+the country.
+
+The breakdown of the social organisations of the Tuareg in Air
+compelled numbers of nobles out of sheer poverty after they had lost
+their camels and herds to cultivate the soil; before the war not even
+the servile people were very extensively so employed if they could
+find enough slaves to do the work.
+
+Neither the advent of a European Power nor the subsequent changes in
+the social structure of the country has had very much effect on the
+position of slaves in Air. Of these there are two categories,[122]
+the household slave and the outdoor slave, and both of them are
+chattels in local customary law. The former are called “ikelan,”
+the latter “irawellan,”[123] or alternatively “bela,”
+“buzu” or “bugadie,” which, however, are not Temajegh words,
+but have been borrowed from the south. The term “irawel” is also
+used generically to cover both categories of slaves, although it
+primarily refers to the latter. In the use of this word Barth[124]
+makes one of the few mistakes of which he has been guilty, where he
+states that the most noble part of the Kel Owi group of tribes in Air
+is the “Irolangh” clan, to which the Amenokal or Sultan of the
+Kel Owi belonged. The paramount chief of his day, Annur, belonged to
+the Kel Assarara section of the Imaslagha tribe, which is probably
+the original and certainly one of the most noble of the Kel Owi,
+for it includes the Kel Tafidet, who gave their name to the whole
+confederation. The traveller’s mistaken reference to Irawellan or
+Irolangh is probably due to his having been informed by a member of
+some non-Kel Owi tribe that Annur and all his people were “really
+Irawellan,” or servile people. Such abuse of the Kel Owi is common
+among the other Air Tuareg. It is certainly not justified in fact,
+and is due to the contempt in which an older nobility will always
+hold more recent arrivals.[125]
+
+The negro slaves, the Ikelan, are primarily concerned with garden
+cultivation, and are consequently sedentary. One half of the
+produce of their labour goes to their masters and the other half to
+support themselves and their families. Ikelan also perform all the
+domestic duties of the Tuareg to whom they belong, and herd their
+masters’ goats and sheep if they happen to be living in the same
+neighbourhood. A certain proportion of the offspring of the flocks is
+also given to the slaves. Since, primarily, they are cultivators of the
+ground, they do not move from place to place with their owners. They
+consequently often escape domestic work and herding. Despite their
+legal status they are in practice permitted to own property, though, if
+their masters decided to remove it, they would be within their rights
+to do so. In other words, the theoretical status of slavery which makes
+it impossible for a chattel to own property has been considerably
+modified, and not as a consequence of the altered conditions, or of
+the legislation of a European Power, but because slavery among the
+Tuareg never did involve great hardship. Their slaves, furthermore,
+always had the hope of manumission and consequent change to the status
+of Imghad or serfs, a rise in the social scale which, in fact, often
+did occur. It was in slave trading and not in slave owning that the
+Tuareg sinned against the ethical standards which are usually accepted
+in Europe, and obtained so unenviable a reputation last century.
+
+Herding live-stock, and especially camels, is the primary function of
+the outdoor slave or Buzu. Though often also a negro, he is considered
+to possess a somewhat higher status than the Akel, for he does not
+as a rule work in the house or village. The Buzu’s work, if on the
+whole less strenuous than that of the tiller of gardens, is felt to
+be more manly because he is associated with camels. He travels with
+nobles or Imghad, to either of whom he may belong. He does all the hard
+menial work on the march. He is responsible especially for herding
+the camels at pasture and for loading and unloading them each day on
+the road. Such duties as filling water-skins, driving camels down to
+water, feeding them on the march and making rope for the loads, all
+fall to his lot. The Buzu may even accompany his master’s camels on
+raids or act as personal messenger for his lord. When the camels are
+resting he spends his days watching the grazing animals, or looking
+after any other herds which his master may own in the neighbourhood. On
+the whole I have found the Buzu a remarkably hard-working person. He is
+almost useless without his master to give him orders and to see that
+they are carried out, but ready to undertake any exertion connected
+with his work, which he regards as his fate, but not his privilege
+to perform without complaint.
+
+It is difficult to determine whether there is any racial difference
+between the Buzu class, the tillers of gardens, and the ordinary
+household slaves. The first are more respected than the last,
+which may mean that they are more closely related in blood to their
+masters. The practice of concubinage, though not very widespread,
+has probably created the caste, and from them, in time, a certain
+proportion of the Imghad. While theoretically the children of a slave
+concubine and a Tuareg man ought to be “ikelan” like their mother,
+in practice they tend to rise into the superior caste of the Buzu,
+and eventually in successive generations to Imghad. In Air at least
+the general tendency is for the old-established caste distinctions to
+become more elastic and for the ancient order to pass away. Although
+the events of the last twenty years have contributed greatly to this
+change, the strongest factor has certainly been the increasing wealth
+of the Imghad, but another reason is probably that many Imghad tribes
+in Air were themselves originally Imajeghan before their capture in war
+or their subjugation by some means. Consequently with the dissolution
+of tribal allegiances in Air and enhanced prosperity they have tended
+to revert to their former status. They cling so tenaciously to nobility
+of birth that, rather than accept the logical results of inferiority
+consequent upon defeat in war, the people collectively combine to
+admit the fiction of servile people possessing dual status.
+
+The presence of more than one racial type among the Imghad has
+led certain travellers to make quite unjustifiable generalisations
+about this section of Tuareg society. There have also been advanced
+numerous and most unnecessarily complicated theories to account for
+the division of the race as a whole into these two castes. The problem
+is really much simpler. Although by no general rule can it be said
+that the Imghad originally belonged to this or to that people, they
+are all clearly the descendants of groups or individuals captured in
+war and subsequently released from bondage to form a caste enjoying
+a certain measure of freedom, and having a separate legal or civil
+existence under something more than the mere political suzerainty of
+the noble tribe which originally possessed them. In this first stage,
+the noble tribe represents the original pure Tuareg race, while the
+oldest Imghad are the first extraneous people whom they conquered,
+in some cases perhaps as early as in the Neolithic ages. “It
+is necessary,” says Bates,[126] with great justice, “to state
+emphatically that the division into Imghad and Imajeghan is so ancient
+that the Saharan Berbers preserve no knowledge of its origin.” This
+antiquity may be held to account for the complete national fusion
+which has taken place among the two castes: nearly all Imghad would
+utterly fail to grasp a suggestion that they were not to-day as much
+Tuareg as their Imajeghan overlords, however they may dislike and
+abuse the latter. As time went on more and more Imghad were added to
+the race, each group being subject to the noble tribe responsible for
+its conquest. The possibility of a group of people becoming the Imghad
+of an Imghad tribe was precluded by the relations obtaining between
+serfs and nobles, whereby it is the sole prerogative of the latter
+to wage war or make peace. Should an Imghad tribe capture slaves in
+war they could not be manumitted except by the Imajegh tribe, the
+lords of the victorious Imghad; and by the act of manumission the
+newly-acquired slaves would then become the equals of their Imghad
+conquerors under the dominion of the Imajeghan concerned.
+
+The Imghad of Air may be divided into three categories whose history
+is so intimately bound up with the noble tribes that it cannot be
+considered separately. There are the Imghad whose association with
+their respective Imajeghan dates from before their advent to Air; their
+origin must be looked for in the Fezzan or elsewhere at some very early
+date. Secondly, there are the Imghad who were the original inhabitants
+of Air before the Tuareg came, and who by some agreement at the time,
+like the traditional one of Maket n’Ikelan,[127] were not enslaved
+but allowed to continue living in the country side by side with
+the new arrivals in a state of vassalage or semi-servitude. Lastly,
+there are the Imghad who are either Arabs, Tuareg of other divisions,
+or negroids from the south captured in the course of raids from Air,
+in some cases as recently as a generation ago. With these different
+origins it is not surprising to find among the Air Imghad both a
+strongly negroid type, a non-negroid and non-Tuareg type, and a
+type showing the fine features and complexion characteristic of the
+Imajeghan themselves. The first type is the pre-Tuareg population
+of Air. It is the most common, if only for the reason that negroid
+characteristics always appear to be dominant in the cross-breeding
+which ensued. The second type represents the Arab or Berber element
+acquired by conquest. The third type represents the subjugated groups
+of Imajeghan of other divisions.[128] Of the latter category are,
+for instance, the Kel Ahaggar, Imghad of the Kel Gharus, who were
+originally nobles from the great northern division of the Tuareg. Many
+of the Kel Ferwan Imghad are believed to be Arabs or Tuareg of the
+west, captured comparatively recently on raids into the Aulimmiden
+territory. The Kel Nugguru are the freed slaves of the Añastafidet,
+the administrative head of the Kel Owi confederation: they have become
+so prosperous that they are now laying claim to be of noble origin,
+a pretension which no right-minded Imajegh in Air will admit for a
+moment. But it is almost impossible nowadays to trace the history
+of each Imghad tribe in detail. Generally, in the absence of more
+precise data, it may be assumed that those Imghad tribes which have
+“I names” are the oldest; for here the process of assimilation
+to the mass of the Tuareg race is most complete, either on account
+of the length of their mutual association or owing to the fact that
+they were originally themselves of the same race; the “Kel name”
+Imghad, on the other hand, are probably more recent additions.[129]
+
+The confusion reigning on the subject of the “Black” and
+“White” Tuareg in the minds of the few people in Europe who
+have ever heard of the race is due to the practice in the north
+of the servile wearing a white, and the nobles a black, veil. But
+a “Black” Tuareg, being a noble, will, in the vast majority of
+cases, have a much fairer complexion and more European features than a
+“White,” or servile Tuareg. In Air the colour of the veil affords
+no means of distinguishing the caste of the wearer. The best veils,
+being made in the south, are consequently cheaper in Air than in the
+north, and this is probably the reason why Imajeghan and Imghad alike
+in Air wear the indigo-black Tagilmus. When a white veil is seen, it
+usually means that the wearer is too poor to buy a proper black one and
+has had to resort to some makeshift torn from the bottom of his robe.
+
+Slaves, domestic or pastoral, do not wear the face veil at all. This
+is the essential outward difference between them and the Imghad. The
+latter, whatever their origin, are considered to be a part of the
+Tuareg people; the former cannot be so, for they are simply accounted
+to belong, as camels do, to the People of the Veil.
+
+The exact status of the Imghad, or “meratha” (merathra) as they are
+called by the Arabs in Fezzan, is somewhat difficult to define. There
+is no adequate translation in any European language of the word
+“amghid.”[130] The process of their original enslavement and
+subsequent release to form a category of people who have achieved
+partial but not complete freedom has, I think, no parallel in
+Europe except in a modified form in the state of vassalage. Yet,
+as “servile” conveys too narrow and definite a relationship, so
+“vassal” is certainly too broad a term. In the state of servility
+or, to coin a word, “imghadage” to which the pre-Tuareg inhabitants
+of Air appear to have been reduced, the process of enslavement and
+release may be said to have taken place only as a legal fiction, and
+not, if the tradition is to be accepted as accurate, in real fact. The
+general practice seems to have been that when large groups of people
+were subjugated or captured in war they were simultaneously released
+into the state of imghadage, but when individuals or a few persons
+were acquired by force or by purchase, they were only manumitted in
+the course of time, if at all, and incorporated at some later date
+into an Imghad tribe or village already in existence.
+
+In contradistinction to slaves, the Imghad are not bound individually,
+but collectively, and not to individuals, but to a noble tribe
+or group of tribes. They are in no sense considered to be the
+property of the latter; but the relationship is closer than that
+of suzerain and vassal. It is not within the power of an Imghad
+tribe to change its allegiance, since in the first instance its
+members were theoretically at least the property of its overlord
+tribe; they owe their separate existence to an act of manumission
+freely and voluntarily accomplished. A change of allegiance could
+occur only if a servile tribe were captured in whole or in part;
+it follows that when this has occurred one servile tribe might owe
+allegiance in several parts to different noble groups.[131] The bond
+between them consists of the right of the responsible noble tribe
+alone, and therefore of its chief, to administer justice among the
+dependent Imghad, either in small cases by tacitly confirming the
+verdict of their own headman, or in more weighty matters by express
+reference. The Imghad tribe may be fined or punished collectively by
+their lords, and would have no right to appeal to the Amenokal without
+permission. For the Amenokal to interfere on behalf of an Imghad
+tribe would constitute a breach of tribal custom and ensure a rebuff,
+if not worse. A certain proportion of the marriage portions payable
+in the Imghad tribes goes to their Imajeghan, who have the right to
+give or withhold consent to these contracts. One of the functions of
+the Imghad is to take complete charge of and use the camels of their
+lords for long periods or to trade with them on their behalf. In such
+cases the Imghad act as the agents of the nobles, each one of whom
+has a right to ask the servile tribe as a whole to undertake these
+duties. But such obligations are imposed collectively on the tribe
+and not on any one Imghad. It is the custom to share the offspring
+of the camels thus herded in equal shares, though in the event of
+any of the animals dying whilst under the charge of the Imghad,
+the latter are collectively responsible for making good the loss,
+save in extenuating circumstances. Conversely, the nobles are, in
+every case,[132] the protectors of their dependents. The relations
+between Imghad and Imajeghan are a mixture of those obtaining under
+the feudalism of Europe and the “client” system of Rome.
+
+A consequence of the interruption of caravan traffic and the
+disappearance of one of the principal sources of revenue of the noble
+Tuareg is that the Imghad as camel herders, and generally speaking
+as the more laborious members of the community, have gained where
+the nobles have lost.
+
+Prosperity is emancipating the Imghad, and is materially assisting
+the breakdown of social distinctions which in time will survive only
+in the philosophic contemplation of the Imajeghan dreaming idly of the
+return of better days. The Imghad tribes used to be the unquestioning
+allies of their overlords in war; their numbers contributed greatly to
+the strength of any Imajegh tribe. Though they might not make war on
+their own initiative, the Imghad carried and still carry weapons.[133]
+They used to go on raids with their masters, or, if the Imajeghan
+were busy elsewhere, represent them with their masters’ camels and
+the weight of their own right arms. But the chiefs of the Imghad were
+never more than subordinates, or at the most advisers to the nobles.
+
+To-day this unquestioning subservience has almost disappeared and
+we even find Khodi, chief of the Kel Nugguru, disputing with the
+noble Ahodu the leadership of the village of Auderas. This issue
+was one of great importance in local politics and originally arose
+out of the disputed ownership of certain palms which had been given
+to Ahodu when he was installed as head of the village as a reward
+for service rendered by him to the Foureau-Lamy expedition. The
+village is on the edge of the Kel Nugguru country, while Ahodu in
+fact comes from a northern tribe, the Kel Tadek, who have no real
+concern with this district. The impossibility of reconciling the
+tribal and settled organisations was clearly demonstrated in every
+aspect of this controversy. Khodi, living as a nomad with his people
+and camels at some distance from the village, sought, without success,
+to govern the community through various representatives, while Ahodu,
+who had given up wandering, was suspended by the French during the
+settlement of the legal case, and sat in the village watching mistake
+after mistake being made. Under the old system Khodi could never have
+pretended to dispute with a noble the position of chief of a large
+village: in fact an Imghad tribe without a protecting noble overlord
+would have been unlikely to administer a village at all. Similarly
+among the Ahaggaren Imghad of the Kel Gharus, a man of servile origin,
+Bilalen by name, has come to share with T’iaman the lordship of a
+once noble people of the north, a position of such importance that
+he is regarded as one of the most influential chiefs in Air. Bilalen
+has only become associated with the Ahaggaren by marriage; he could
+never have achieved even this, much less could he have attained so
+powerful a following in the country, under the old _régime_.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOVERNMENT OF THE AIR TUAREG
+
+_Note._—The scheme is largely theoretical, as the Amenokal has
+rarely had much authority over any tribes except the People of the
+King. His authority over a part of the Aulimmiden has been even more
+nominal and has varied considerably from time to time.]
+
+In addition to the social distinctions between nobles and serfs,
+the Tuareg attach great importance to tribal classification. Among
+the inhabitants of the mountains a man will describe himself as, say,
+“Mokhammad of the Kel Such-and-such of the Kel Owi,” or of the
+other category, which is called the “People of the King,” as the
+case might be. These two great tribal divisions (there were three
+before the departure of the Kel Geres for the Southland) will be
+referred to in detail when the history of the migrations of the Air
+Tuareg is considered. The divisions are absolute; a tribe either is
+of the Kel Owi or is not of the Kel Owi. There is usually never any
+doubt; the erroneous attribution of a man’s tribe to the Kel Owi
+confederation would provoke the indignant rejoinder that his clan
+were “People of the King” and did not “belong (_sic_) to the
+Añastafidet.” The distinction means all that the difference between
+an ancient landed nobility and a _parvenu_ commercial aristocracy
+denotes. Many of the older men of the “People of the King” go so
+far as to say that there are no nobles among the Kel Owi at all.[134]
+Apart from their slightly different ethnic origin, the principal reason
+why the Kel Owi have stood apart from the other tribes is that they
+possess an administrative leader of their own who represents the whole
+confederation; as they say, “he _speaks_ for them to the Amenokal
+at Agades.” He is called the Añastafidet, the Child of Tafidet. The
+non-Kel Owi tribes, on the other hand, have no single leader other than
+the king; in their case each tribal chieftain transacts the business of
+his own tribe with the former independently of the other chiefs. For
+them the Amenokal of Air assumes the dual function of nominal ruler
+of the whole country and of direct overlord of certain tribes.
+
+In accordance with the democratic traditions of the Tuareg, the
+Añastafidet,[135] like the Sultan, is elected. He must be a noble,
+but need not always be chosen from the same family. He is elected for
+a period of three years, but his tenure of office is really dependent
+upon a yearly revision by the Kel Owi tribes when they concentrate
+in the autumn to go with the salt caravan to Bilma. The tribal
+groups mainly responsible for the choice are the Kel Tafidet and Kel
+Azañieres; the Ikazkazan, being the junior group of the confederation,
+have little voice. The Añastafidet’s badge of office[136] is a drum;
+he retains no authority on leaving office, though it entitles him to a
+certain degree of respect, and leads to his being consulted on State
+matters. In practice if the Añastafidet is reasonably capable he
+is confirmed in power for a succession of three-year periods. During
+the last fifty years there have been in all about six Añastafidets;
+one, I think the last holder of the office, is at present living at
+Zawzawa in Damergu. The Añastafidet’s official place of residence
+was at Assode in Central Air, but since the evacuation of the north
+he has been living at Agades in direct touch with the Amenokal. His
+principal duties are to represent the confederation at the Court of the
+Sultan and maintain the freedom of transit through Air and Damergu for
+caravans, on which the prosperity of the tribes depends. Trade with the
+north and the position of the Kel Owi in Air astride the great caravan
+road which passes from north to south, east of the Central massifs,
+have in effect combined to place the foreign relations of all the
+Air people with Ghat and the Fezzan in the hands of the Añastafidet,
+business with the potentates of the south, on the other hand, being,
+as has already been stated, in the hands of the Amenokal at Agades. The
+breakdown of the trans-desert traffic during the war deprived the
+Kel Owi of most of their prosperity and the Añastafidet of his work.
+
+The Añastafidet was assisted in his duties by four agents, two
+of whom dealt with local business, while the other two lived in
+the Southland to assist the Kel Owi tribes in their transactions
+there. Neither the Añastafidet nor his agents ever seem to have
+received a salary, and the former at least was expected to give
+munificent presents, but no doubt their official positions brought
+perquisites which compensated for any outlay. As in the case of
+the Sultan, the importance of the Añastafidet’s office depends
+entirely on the personality of the holder. When von Bary visited the
+country, Belkho, chief of the Igermaden tribe, living at Ajiru in
+Eastern Air, thanks to his military prowess and political wisdom,
+was the _de facto_ ruler of the whole country. His relations with
+the Amenokal were strained, even though he had him more or less under
+his influence; the Añastafidet had become of so little moment that
+he is only once mentioned by this traveller.[137] In Barth’s day,
+when Air was under the domination of Annur, another Kel Owi chief of
+the same type, the Añastafidet was a mere shadow in the land.
+
+The Añastafidet doubtless represents the surviving functions of a Kel
+Owi Amenokal. The restriction of his duties was probably the result
+of a compromise arrived at when the Kel Owi entered Air and found
+an Amenokal already established in the country, supported by the Kel
+Geres and the various tribes known as the “People of the King.”
+The more intimate inter-tribal relations between the various units
+of the Kel Owi confederation and the organisation of the “People
+of the King” will be referred to hereafter in detail.
+
+The system by which the Kel Owi have an administrative leader who seems
+to have practically no warlike or judicial functions has in no way
+modified the tribal or social organisation of the confederation. As in
+the case of all the Tuareg tribes, other than those which have become
+entirely sedentary, the government of each unit, large and small, is
+patriarchal and similar to that of Bedawin tribes. The chief of a noble
+tribe is the leader in war and the dispenser of justice in peace. The
+functions are not necessarily hereditary. In council with the heads of
+families he exercises authority over the Imghad tribes associated with
+his clan, through the chiefs of these servile groups in the manner
+already described. The council of the heads of families is of great
+importance, but plays an advisory rather than an executive part. The
+heads of families rule their own households, including their slaves.
+
+Within ill-defined limits, certain tribes are grouped together under
+a common leader known as the “agoalla” or “agwalla.” This
+usually occurs in the case of tribes which are nearly related to
+each other. Three groups in the Kel Owi division have already been
+mentioned; in two of these, the Kel Tafidet and Kel Azañieres, the
+office of “agoalla” is said[138] to be hereditary, but I have
+been unable to find any confirmation of this except in so far as the
+son of a man who, by his personal ascendancy, has secured control
+over more than one tribe, would probably more easily step into his
+father’s shoes than another person. The grouping of tribes may also
+occur for military reasons, but in such cases it has a tendency to be
+of a temporary character. It is best to assume that the tribe is the
+unit of Tuareg society and that the tribal chiefs are the elements of
+which their Government is constructed. “Agoallas” are an exotic
+form principally due to individual personality or temporary conditions
+prevailing over long-standing customs.
+
+Tribes sometimes group themselves into temporary or permanent
+alliances. The former probably spring from military exigencies,
+the latter may be due to common origins in the recent past. Such
+aggregations as the Kel Azañieres and Kel Tafidet in the Kel Owi
+tribes are so obviously due to common tribal origins that they require
+no further examination. But the Kel Owi confederation in Air plays
+a far larger rôle than do mere tribal alliances. Here is no mere
+question of relationship or community of origin, but a more strict
+bond, which, however, cannot be defined. Such groups as these have
+been termed confederations, though the term is a little misleading,
+as no unity of government is implied. The origin of the confederation,
+which carries with it more moral than material obligations, is to be
+explained by the entry of the Kel Owi tribes into Air as a mass of
+people confronted by an already established hostile or at least jealous
+population of the same race as themselves. It followed that the new
+arrivals would tend to hold together and act with one another. The
+conditions of the confederation nevertheless have been such that the
+representative is only an administrative head and not a ruler. He is
+there to embody a common policy and to dictate one. Loose as these
+bonds have been they have served the Kel Owi in good stead, for their
+commerce has gained by co-operation at the expense of their rivals,
+the “People of the King,” who in the absence of any organisation
+have been forced to rely on the fickle ties of common jealousy. How far
+there are groups or confederations like the Kel Owi within the larger
+northern division of Azger or Ahaggar I cannot say, but the former
+are a confederation as the people of Air generally never have been.
+
+Much has already been said of the status of the Tuareg men and their
+tribal organisation, but before it is possible to consider their
+family life, the method they follow in tracing their descent must be
+described. A man’s status, in Air, as elsewhere among the Tuareg,
+is determined by the caste and allegiance of his mother. Survivals
+of a matriarchal state of society are numerous among the People of
+the Veil. They colour the whole life of the race. A woman, they say,
+carries her children before they are born, and so they belong to her
+and not to the father. “After all,” as one of them said to me when
+we had been discussing this question for some time, “when you buy a
+cow camel in calf, the calf is yours and not the property of the man
+who sold the camel to you. It is the same with women,” he added;
+and he seemed to me to have some show of logic. Our medieval (and
+perhaps modern) lawyers would have said instead, “partus sequitur
+ventrem,” but he would have meant the same as my Tuareg friend. If
+a woman marries a man in her own tribe the children, of course,
+belong to that tribe, but if she marries away from her people they
+belong to her own, and not to her husband’s clan. In this case,
+were the husband to predecease his wife, the children and their
+mother would return to live with her tribe. If the father survives,
+the children usually go on living with him for a time, but as they
+belong to their mother’s tribe in any event, they eventually return
+there. Should inter-tribal hostilities break out they must leave their
+father and fight for their mother’s tribe, even against their own
+parent if need so be. Until this is understood the relationships of
+the Tuareg appear very puzzling to the traveller. When I first met
+Ahodu he informed me that he was of the Kel Tadek people, who are Kel
+Amenokal, but he had a half-brother and a paternal cousin who belonged
+to the Añastafidet. It appears that the fathers of Ahodu and Efale,
+the famous eastern guide, were brothers of a man in the noble Kel
+Fares of the Kel Owi confederation. Ahodu’s father took a wife
+from the Kel Tadek, so the son became a member of the latter tribe,
+whereas Efale’s father married within the confederation. The maternal
+allegiance is so strong that, though proud of his father’s repute
+as a holy man and representative of the fifth generation of keepers
+of the mosque of Tefgun near Iferuan, Ahodu used to speak of the Kel
+Owi in disparaging terms when comparing their recent origin with the
+antiquity of the Kel Tadek and the other “People of the Amenokal.”
+
+The following examples of definite cases may assist in understanding
+the position:
+
+1. A man of the noble Kel Tadek marries a woman of the noble Kel
+Ferwan. The children are Kel Ferwan, but will live with the father
+until his death or the divorce of the mother, when they return with
+her to her own tribe.
+
+2. A man of the noble Kel Tadek married a woman of the Imghad of the
+Kel Ferwan. The children will normally be Imghad of the Kel Ferwan.
+
+3. If a man marries a slave woman of another tribe, this woman has
+become the property of the husband’s tribe by his purchase or payment
+of the marriage portion, and the children belong to the father. This
+occurred in Ahodu’s case. One day the Kel Gharus came over and
+stole eight slaves belonging to the Kel Tadek, who proceeded to retake
+them. The slaves in question were Kanuri people of Damagerim. The Kel
+Gharus appealed to the religious court at Agades, which awarded four
+slaves to each tribe. Later two of those allotted to the Kel Gharus
+ran away to the Kel Tadek, who were allowed to keep them on the ground
+that they had been ill-treated by their former masters. One of these
+two women Ahodu married, and his son is considered to belong to his
+own clan and not to his wife’s former tribe. In this case Ahodu
+nevertheless had to pay some compensation to the former masters of
+his wife.
+
+The derivation of tribal allegiance through the female line has
+carried in its train the consequence that a man or woman’s social
+status is always determined by that of the mother. But the restricted
+number of noble women, the deference and respect paid to them,
+and the impossibility of taking them as concubines have combined to
+diminish the numbers of Imajeghan as compared with the Imghad. The
+hard-and-fast rule among all the Tuareg, that nobles can only be born
+of a noble mother irrespective of the caste of the father, has done
+much to preserve the type and characteristics of the race. In recent
+years the custom has tended to break down, for where a noble father,
+who has taken unto himself a servile wife, is sufficiently powerful
+to assert himself he will often succeed in passing off his sons and
+daughters as Imajeghan. Ahodu has done so with his boy; but had this
+been impossible the child would have been accounted of the Irejanaten
+or mixed people. The old laws of succession are said by von Bary to
+have become especially slack among the Kel Owi, but even here the
+status of noble women has remained so unassailable that it would
+still be impossible to-day for them to marry outside their own class.
+
+The laws of inheritance and succession also show the strength of the
+matriarchal tradition. Although hereditary office is rare among the
+Tuareg nowadays, it seems to have been more frequent in the past.[139]
+Ibn Batutah states that the heir of the Sultan of Tekadda was the
+son of the ruler’s sister.[140] Similarly of the Mesufa who were
+Tuareg, he records that descent is traced through the maternal uncle,
+while inherited property passes from a deceased man to the children
+of his sister to the exclusion of his own family.[141] The traveller
+adds that nowhere except among the infidel Indians of Malabar did he
+observe a similar state of things.[142] Bates thinks that Egyptian
+records tend to show that the succession of the chieftainship of the
+Meshwesh Libyans passed in the female line. The genealogy of many
+of the kings of Agades is recorded by their female parentage. The
+Tuareg of Ghat not only treat their women-folk in much the same way as
+their brethren further south, but Richardson specifically states that
+the succession of the chiefs and Sultans of those parts is similar
+to the practice of the Tekadda house and at Agades. It is the son
+of the sister of the Sultan who succeeds.[143] It seems clear that
+before the advent of Islam, which has tended to modify the system,
+the Tuareg had a completely matriarchal organisation. In this earlier
+state of society may perhaps be found the explanation of the reputed
+Amazons of the west of North Africa, recorded by Diodorus Siculus
+in a grossly exaggerated version of some story which he had probably
+heard concerning the status of certain Libyan women.[144]
+
+I know of no reason to suppose that these matriarchal customs were
+derived from association with the negro people; the reverse is quite
+as likely to have occurred, as the culture contacts of North Africa,
+following the trend of migration, seem to have taken a course from
+north to south and not the opposite direction.[145] The matter is
+one of great interest,[146] for the matriarchate is found in a highly
+developed state in Ashanti, and it would be of interest in connection
+with the origin of this people to learn if the system can be traced
+to a common origin.[147] I cannot agree with Barth’s[148] conclusion
+that the descent of the Sultan of Tekadda “is certain proof that it
+was not a pure Berber State, but rather a Berber dominion ingrafted
+upon a negro population, exactly as was the case in Walata,” where he
+cites the case of the Mesufa. Moreover, this remark is in contradiction
+with his previous assumption,[149] to wit: “With respect to the
+custom that the hereditary power does not descend from the father
+to the son but to the sister’s son . . . it may be supposed to
+have belonged originally to the Berber race; for the Askar (Azger),
+who have preserved their original manners tolerably pure, have the
+same custom. . . . It may therefore seem doubtful whether . . . this
+custom belonged to the black native,” with which statement I am
+decidedly inclined to agree. The problem, however, is one which I
+prefer on the whole to leave to qualified anthropologists.
+
+
+[Footnote 107: Not to be confused with Tanut in Damergu. The word
+“tanut” means a shallow well; there are consequently many places
+of this name.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Just north of Auderas.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 385.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 148-9.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Von Bary’s Diary (French edition), p. 183, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 112: The available data are in the hands of the author,
+if some more fortunate traveller can check and examine the place.]
+
+[Footnote 113: The “El Hakhsas,” Barth: _op. cit._,
+Vol. I. p. 416.]
+
+[Footnote 114: The extremes in variation, for the first rains of
+sufficient volume to fill stream beds of a certain size with flood
+water, are recorded by von Bary east of Bagezan on 3rd June, 1877,
+and by Barth in Northern Air on 1st September, 1850. Both these dates
+seem to be exceptional.]
+
+[Footnote 115: This, and not T’efira, is presumably the point south
+of Auderas where Barth saw “natron” encrustations on the ground
+(see Vol. I. p. 389). Salt or “ara” is collected at T’efira
+further east, but Barth would not have described “entering” the
+Buddei valley after seeing the “natron,” for the road past Auderas
+to T’efira winds down the Buddei valley.]
+
+[Footnote 116: This is the vowel which in English words “oft_e_n,”
+“_a_non,” “_u_ntil,” may be written as _o_, _e_, _a_, or _u_.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Cf. Barth, Vol. I. p. 350, and von Bary, p. 169, on
+the Kel Ataram of Auderas. The people of this village were simply
+“People of the West” for the inhabitants of Ajiru in Eastern Air,
+where von Bary was living.]
+
+[Footnote 118: As Barth would have it: _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 339 and 347.]
+
+[Footnote 120: The Cortier 1/500,000 map shows a large affluent to
+the right bank joining the Auderas valley below the village. This
+is incorrect: a small affluent called the Mafinet joins at the point
+shown, but the valley purporting to be the upper part of the Mafinet
+valley is the Tagharit valley, which falls into the Ben Guten, and not
+into the Auderas basin. The Cortier map is generally somewhat incorrect
+in this area, especially in regard to the position of Mount Dogam.]
+
+[Footnote 121: I am indebted to Sir J. Currie of the Empire
+Cotton-growing Corporation for these reports.]
+
+[Footnote 122: For fear of appearing to misinform people who are always
+ready to mind other people’s business before looking after their own,
+I hasten to add that the legal practice of slavery has, of course,
+been abolished in Air since the advent of the French. The psychology
+and habit of slavery, nevertheless, still remain as strong as ever,
+and master and slave continue to regard each other by _mutual consent_
+in the light of their former relationship. I therefore propose to refer
+to slaves and the custom of slavery as if they were still sanctioned
+by law.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Respectively “Akel” and “Irawel” in the
+singular.]
+
+[Footnote 124: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 344 _sq._]
+
+[Footnote 125: Cf. _infra_, Chaps. XI. and XII.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Bates, _op. cit._, p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 127: _Vide infra_, Chap. XI., _et apud_ Barth, _op. cit._,
+Vol. I. pp. 235 and 239.]
+
+[Footnote 128: When von Bary (_op. cit._, p. 184) says that Imajeghan
+were never enslaved, he is wrong. Although the Air Tuareg, when they
+raided the Aulimmiden, often used to lift their cattle but spare the
+men because they were of the same race, some of the latter division
+nevertheless, became Imghad of the Air Kel Ferwan, for instance,
+in the course of these raids.]
+
+[Footnote 129: This is, of course, not an absolute rule, for the
+“I name” might have been forgotten, as previously explained. The
+supposition that “Kel names” represent Imghad and the “I names”
+Imajeghan is, of course, quite untenable.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The singular form of Imghad.]
+
+[Footnote 131: There are several instances of this among the Northern
+Tuareg, as will be seen from the data contained in Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Cf. Schirmer’s note in von Bary, _op. cit._, p. 184.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Barth’s statement, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 237,
+that the Imghad are not allowed to carry arms is not substantiated:
+he seems at this point to have confused the Imghad with slaves.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Cf. _supra_, p. 134. Von Bary, _op. cit._, p. 181,
+notes that the distinction between Imghad and Imajeghan among the
+Kel Owi seemed to have broken down. This is perhaps exaggerated,
+but interesting, as this division in a sense is the most modern in
+development in Air.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Barth erroneously calls him the Astafidet.]
+
+[Footnote 136: Cf. Badges of Office among Libyan rulers given by Bates,
+_op. cit._, p. 116.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Von Bary, _op. cit._, pp. 172 and 188-9.]
+
+[Footnote 138: By Jean, _op. cit._, p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 139: Cf. Bates, _op. cit._, pp. 112, 114-15.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Ibn Batutah (ed. Soc. Asiatique), Vol. IV. pp. 388
+and 443. Cf. also Appendix IV.]
+
+[Footnote 141: The Mesufa are a surviving section of the Sanhaja,
+and are specifically described by Ibn Batutah and Ibn Khaldun as
+a part of the People of the Veil, _i.e._ not negroes or negroids
+(_vide infra_, Chap. XI.).]
+
+[Footnote 142: This statement is made in spite of the reference a
+little later to the succession of the Sultan of Tekadda, who, though
+a Tuareg, does not seem to have been of the Mesufa. This little
+inaccuracy is, however, of no importance.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Richardson: _Travels_, etc., Vol. II. pp. 65-6.]
+
+[Footnote 144: Diod. Sic., iii. 53 _sq._ See also Silius Italicus,
+ii. 80. Bates, _op. cit._, pp. 112-13 and 148, agrees that the
+existence of matriarchal society would be a reasonable explanation
+of the Amazon story.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Nevertheless the matriarchate is known to have existed
+in classical times as far south as Æthiopia, in the Meroitic kingdom
+as well as in early Egypt.]
+
+[Footnote 146: Perry (_The Children of the Sun_) would doubtless
+suggest that it came from Egypt.]
+
+[Footnote 147: See Rattray, _Ashanti_, 1924. This authority thinks that
+the Ashanti people themselves came from the north. Many of the details
+of their matriarchal system accord closely with that of the Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Barth, Vol. I. p. 388.]
+
+[Footnote 149: _Ibid._, p. 341. On page 342 he says the Aulimmiden,
+who have the same custom, consider the practice shameful, “as
+exhibiting only the man’s distrust of his wife’s fidelity; for such
+is certainly its foundation.” I don’t agree with this conclusion;
+the origins of matriarchy are certainly not as simple as this.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                           SOCIAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+By constantly seeing the same people for nearly three months at
+Auderas and in the neighbourhood, I was able to dissipate much of
+the innate diffidence which the Tuareg display in their relations
+with Europeans. Language always remained a source of difficulty. An
+interpreter is never satisfactory, more especially if he belongs to a
+people whom the Tuareg at heart really despise, while real proficiency
+in a language cannot be attained in so short a time as I had at my
+disposal. By the end of my stay in Air I had acquired a sufficient
+knowledge of Temajegh to be able to travel comfortably with a guide
+speaking only that language, and to collect a considerable amount of
+vicarious information, but never at any time was I able to discuss
+really abstruse questions. At Auderas I was lucky enough to find that
+Ahodu, the chief of the village, had a working knowledge of Arabic
+which was almost as indifferent as my own; but we both made up for
+lack of grammar by volubility. The local “inisilm,” or holy man,
+named El Mintaka, was a Ghati who had been settled for fifteen years in
+Air, where he had taken a Tuareg wife. He, of course, spoke Arabic in
+addition to Temajegh, and acted as scribe to Ahodu, who could neither
+read nor write. With these two men in the village, with my servant
+Amadu, a Fulani soldier who had served with distinction in the West
+African Frontier Force during the war, and had a working knowledge
+of English and Hausa, which most of the Air Tuareg speak, and with
+my interpreter Ali, a man from Ghat, I found myself quite at my ease.
+
+This Ali ibn Tama el Ghati had lived for some years in Kano and had
+travelled all over the Central Sudan. He was small and very black,
+but constantly cheerful and as clever as a tribe of monkeys. Somewhat
+of a rogue unless watched, he was tireless and devoted, and proved to
+be one of only two natives who, after I had been obliged to return
+home, completed the whole journey with Buchanan. He was one of the
+original race of Ghat, now called the Atara, who were there before
+the Tuareg and Berbers came. Ali spoke no English, but was loquacious
+in Hausa, Temajegh and Kanuri; he also spoke some Tebu and Fulani,
+in addition, of course, to Arabic. His especial joy was to wear many
+different combinations of gay clothes for periods of about ten days at
+a time. He would then change his apparel and adopt another disguise
+until the novelty of appearing as a Tuareg or a Hausa or an Arab in
+turn had worn off.
+
+                                                              PLATE 16
+
+[Illustration: AUDERAS: HUTS]
+
+[Illustration: AUDERAS: TENT-HUT AND SHELTER]
+
+On reaching Auderas I took up my residence in some huts which Ahodu had
+prepared on the edge of a diminutive plateau between the main bed of
+the valley and a secondary affluent. The area between the valleys and
+ravines which intersected the little plain was bare, but the sides of
+the valleys were covered with vegetation. About a hundred yards away
+across a steep gully was Teda Inisilman, the House of the Holy Men,
+the smallest of the three hamlets which together make up Auderas. On
+the other side of the main stream bed, where the water-holes of the
+village were dug in the sand, lay the larger hamlet called Karnuka,
+containing the house of El Mintaka. The third settlement was a few
+hundred yards further down-stream. These hamlets were all built of
+reeds and palm fronds, but the little plain was covered with what
+proved to be the ruins of stone houses, many of which were inhabited
+until 1915. Teda Inisilman is the village of the nobles where Ahodu and
+the only other three Imajeghan families of the place lived, together
+with their own dependent Irawellan and Ikelan, and the Enad or smith, a
+most important person in Tuareg society. Down-stream of Teda Inisilman
+and Karnuka lay the date-palm groves and most of the gardens; there
+were a few above our camp also, in a side valley and in the main
+bed under a huge mass of overhanging rock resembling the keep of a
+fortress rising high above the sheer side of the stream. To the south
+were only dûm palms and the rugged hills, called Tidrak,[150] which
+formed the further edge of the valley. Elsewhere the ground was more
+open. Down-stream to the west were the low Mafinet and T’ilimsawin
+hills, joining on to the T’inien peaks north of the point where my
+road had emerged from among them on the way from Agades. To the north
+the ground rose over a low ridge to the Erarar (plain) n’Dendemu,
+the Taghist plateau[151] and the distant peak of Dogam.[152] The
+glistening black domes of the Abattul and Efaken peaks were rather
+nearer, on the far edge of the Auderas valley itself. A few miles
+north and north-east, this basin reached to the foot of the mountain
+group of Todra, which towers 3000 feet and more above the valley to a
+total height of about 5500 feet above the sea. The rounded sides rose
+out of a bed of green and yellow to a crest of bare red rock at the
+top. The mountain used to change colour all day, a whitish gleam off
+the rocks at high noon giving place to blue-black shadows under storm
+clouds and in the evening. At sunset it seemed to glow vivid red from
+within. It is one of the most beautiful mountains in the world. The
+Tuareg regard Todra and Dogam as one group, but separate from the
+Bagezan Mountains, and this is certainly the case. They are reckoned
+among the five principal massifs of Air, the others being Taruaji
+in the south, Bila or Bilet north-west of Todra, and Tamgak which
+includes the Azañieres, Tafidet and Taghmeurt ranges in the north.
+
+The advent of Europeans in Auderas caused a certain amount of
+excitement, but the novelty soon wore off as the routine of life was
+resumed. I was welcomed by Ahodu’s wife and other persons with a
+present of fresh dates, which were then ripening,[153] and newly-made
+cheese, known as T’ikammar, which is excellent food. The Tuareg
+live very simply and take so little trouble about their food that for
+Europeans it is almost uneatable. The staple diet is milk and cheese,
+but the more sedentary people eat locally grown or imported grain. The
+millet is pounded in a mortar as in the south and cooked with water,
+making a sort of porridge; but whereas in the Hausa countries this
+“pura,” or “fura” as it is called, can be quite palatable
+when seasoned or eaten with meat, the Tuareg in Air are too poor and
+too lackadaisical to dress it in any way. They often even forget to
+add salt, and without it the mess is peculiarly nasty on account of
+a certain glutinous consistency which it acquires. The finer flour
+obtained from the millet after it is pounded is also mixed with
+water and dry powdered cheese and drunk uncooked as very thin gruel;
+the dry cheese gives it a sour taste to which in time one gets used,
+and then it becomes really rather refreshing if one is thirsty. It
+is much better on the march for the stomach than large quantities of
+plain water. The drink is called “ghussub” in the south; it is
+often the sole means of sustenance of a Tuareg travelling quickly
+without baggage or when a scarcity of fuel makes it impossible to
+light fires. In the place of millet, guinea corn is also eaten; it
+is pounded and baked in embers into a heavy tasteless cake which is
+slightly more edible than millet porridge. The best food in Air is
+undoubtedly the wheat “kus-kus” of the Arabs and Berbers in the
+north: it is made in the same way by grinding wheat into rough flour,
+and then steaming and rubbing it until it forms grains about the size
+of small barley. It is carried dry and can be prepared by boiling
+in water or stock for a short time. It has the great advantage of
+requiring very little fuel to cook it. With no other adjunct than
+a little salt it is very good indeed. During the latter part of my
+stay I lived almost exclusively on kus-kus and rice, with hardly any
+meat, but as many vegetables as I could procure. When neither millet,
+guinea corn nor wheat is available, the Tuareg collect the seeds of
+various grasses and grind them, notably of the grass called Afaza
+and of the prickly burr grass. The former is a tall grass with stems
+of such strength that they are used when dry with a weft of thin
+leather strips for making the stiff mats which are spread upon their
+Tuareg beds. The stalks grow as much as five feet high; the grass
+is dark grey-green when fresh, or yellow when dry. The burr grass is
+fortunately rare in Air. One can only be thankful that Nature has found
+some useful purpose in this damnable plant as food for the Tuareg.
+
+Of all the Tuareg food their cheese is best. It is usually made of
+equal parts of sheep’s or goat’s and camel’s milk, but any
+of them alone will do. The rennet is obtained from the entrails of
+the goat; the curds are pressed in matting made of dûm-palm fronds
+and formed into cakes about 4 in. × 5 in. × ¾ in. thick. The
+fresh cheese is pure white and soft, but nevertheless crisp; it is
+delicious with dates or with any other form of food, for it has
+no sour or “cheesy” flavour. It dries yellow and hard and is
+carried about by all Tuareg as a staple commodity, but in this state
+requires soaking or crumbling before use, and acquires rather an
+unpleasant sour smell. Butter is made of goat’s or sheep’s milk,
+churned in bottle-shaped gourds or in small skins. It is not bad
+mixed with kus-kus or rice or in cooking, but indifferent on bread or
+biscuits. Meat is very little eaten, for it is a luxury. But even when
+an animal is slaughtered and divided up the Tuareg do not seem capable
+of turning it into a very edible dish. They neither roast nor fry;
+they either stew their meat in a pot with vegetables or with millet
+porridge, or on the march broil it in the hot sand under the embers of
+a fire until it becomes shredded. If ever there is a surplus supply
+of meat, it is preserved by soaking in brine and drying in the sun
+strung on cords.
+
+The preparation of food in the villages is done by the women, on
+the march by the “buzu,” or, where there is no slave present,
+by the youngest member of the party, whatever his caste or status, so
+long as he has not reached his majority. When there are no minors or
+slaves an Amghid does the work, but where all are of the same caste,
+the duty reverts once more to the youngest member of the party. The
+most arduous function is preparing the millet flour. Nowadays the
+millet is almost invariably pounded in a mortar with a long pestle,
+and the meal is then graded and separated from the husk and other
+impurities by shaking it with a circular motion on a flat tray. The
+mortar and long pestle, which is used by men and women standing up and
+working alone or pounding rhythmically with one or more companions,
+is certainly a southern invention; the wooden pestle is double-headed
+and some 3 feet long; the mortar is cut out of one piece of wood
+and stands about 12 inches high. The indigenous and more primitive
+fashion is to grind grain on the rudimentary saddle-stone quern, a
+form which has been preserved unchanged since prehistoric times. A
+large flat stone is placed on the ground, and the person grinding
+the wheat or millet kneels by it with a basket under the opposite
+lip of the stone to catch the flour as it is made. The wheat or other
+grain is poured on to the flat stone and crushed by rubbing it with
+a saddle-stone or rounded river pebble about the size of a baby’s
+head, held in both hands and worked forwards and backwards. As the
+grain is crushed the flour is automatically sorted out and pushed
+forward into the basket in front, the heavier meal remaining on the
+flat stone. These querns may be seen lying about all over Air on all
+the deserted sites; the lower stones can readily be recognised by the
+broad channel which is worn along their length. Except for wheat,
+which is too hard to be pounded, they have largely been discarded
+in favour of the handier mortar and pestle. I do not think a more
+widespread use of the quern necessarily indicates that wheat was more
+extensively eaten than millet in olden days nor yet that agriculture
+was formerly more pursued than nowadays. The explanation of the fact
+is merely that pounding grain in a mortar was found a simpler method
+in a country where millet was the staple cereal and the consumption
+of wheat a luxury. Moreover, the Northern Tuareg when they came to
+Air were probably less familiar with millet than with wheat, and only
+modified their habits and utensils after they had settled down.
+
+Though certain wild herbs are employed for medicinal purposes, I know
+of none which is used in cooking. Besides Afaza and the burr grass,
+several other seeds or berries are used by the more nomadic Tuareg
+for food; there are said to be some twenty odd varieties in Air which
+ripen at various times of the year. The Abisgi (_Capparis sodata_)
+leaf has a biting taste and is sometimes used as a condiment; the
+tamarind does not grow so far north; limes are found only in Bagezan,
+and are rare. Dates are eaten fresh, or are preserved by soaking them
+for a short time in boiling water, and pressing them into air-tight
+leather receptacles, which are then sewn up. The practice of drying
+dates and threading them on a string is resorted to in Fashi and
+Bilma but not in Air.
+
+Food is cooked in pear-shaped earthenware pots of red clay. The
+vessels are only half baked when they are manufactured, principally
+in the Agades neighbourhood, and have to be fired before they can be
+used. They are plain and unornamented, with a lip or rim round the
+mouth, which is bound with a cord to prevent cracking. More elaborate
+pitchers with a blue design are used for liquids, since the universal
+calabash of the south is comparatively rare in Air.[154] These pots are
+also made near Agades. The designs appear to be of local origin. The
+Sudanese jars and pots with bands of geometric design in straw-coloured
+slip and blue pigment are not used in Air. Many small pots for inks,
+spices and condiments are found in the houses of Northern Air: black
+and red pottery is used for such vessels and for saucers and little
+bowls. With the exception of what may be termed the “grape design”
+(Plate 22), none of the pottery is very remarkable. The pots used
+in the urn cemetery at Marandet seem to have been shaped like the
+common cooking-pot or with a slightly more round appearance: they
+are reported to have stood in saucers or plates. None of the pottery
+is wheel-turned.
+
+Auderas being essentially a sedentary and servile community, did
+not contain many characteristic noble Tuareg. Neither Ahodu nor his
+wife represents the fine physical type of the race, for he is of
+somewhat mixed parentage, having, according to his own tradition,
+some Arab blood in his veins, while she is a Kanuri woman. Among
+the Tuareg, as in all races, it is hard to find the absolutely pure
+type. I came across one or two examples, and must count myself lucky
+to have seen so many. I was never able to confirm the story one had
+so often heard of Tuareg with blue eyes, but such accurate observers
+have recorded this feature that its occurrence must be admitted. In
+Air it must certainly be most uncommon; nowhere is it the rule; light
+brown and grey eyes, however, are not unusual, nor is it rare to see
+hair which is not so much black as dark brown and wavy; it is never
+crinkled or “fuzzy” unless there has been an obvious infusion of
+negro blood. Very fair skins, as fair as among the people of Southern
+Europe, are comparatively frequent, but the transparent white skin
+of the North is not known: no deduction can be drawn from this, as
+skin pigmentation is notoriously unreliable. Fair skins are held by
+the Tuareg to represent the purest type: a range of every shade to
+the black of the negro occurs. The Tuareg of Air differentiate the
+colouring of people somewhat arbitrarily: they call the pure negro
+“blue,”[155] but the dark-brown Hausa, “black”; the Arab
+is always “white,” whatever shade of bronze he happens to be;
+the Tuareg himself is “red,”[156] which is the most complimentary
+epithet he can apply to others. Fairness of complexion is much prized
+and is a social distinction, though when carried to such extremes as
+among Europeans it is apt to be regarded as strange and odd. Certain
+tribes in Air are reputed, even among the Tuareg, to be more than
+usually fair. When von Bary was in Air his acquaintances seem to
+have chaffed him about his celibacy; they offered to find him a
+woman of the Iwarwaren tribe, for, they said, she would match his
+own complexion.[157] Once on a time in Auderas I dressed completely
+as a Tuareg, a disguise which was not difficult, for I had grown
+a full dark beard and was very deeply sunburnt all up my arms and
+legs from wearing a sleeveless tunic, diminutive shorts and no shoes
+or stockings—the ideal garb for hot weather and an active life. I
+rode into the village on a great white camel by a circuitous path:
+the people were puzzled about my identity, and some, as I was later
+told, decided from the colour of my limbs that I came from the Igdalen
+tribe. It was typical of the Tuareg that they eventually recognised
+not me, but my camel, and so guessed who I was.
+
+                                                              PLATE 17
+
+[Illustration: THE AUTHOR DRESSING A WOUND AT AUDERAS]
+
+In spite of the occurrence of many fair-skinned people, it must
+be admitted that the vast majority of Imajeghan and Imghad in Air
+are comparatively dark, yet these Tuareg are among the purest of
+their race. Their skin pigment seems to have changed before other
+characteristics. The darkness of their complexion in Air is accentuated
+by the prize set upon indigo clothing, which is so impregnated with
+dye that it wears off on the skin of the proud owner, whose ablutions
+are conspicuously infrequent. The Tuareg does not believe in washing
+unless it is absolutely necessary, and he avers that an indigo-stained
+skin is good protection against strong sunlight, which may or may not
+be true. In justice to my friends, I must admit that they washed their
+clothing, especially their white trousers, very frequently, and when
+they washed their person, they did so very thoroughly from head to
+foot, with much rubbing and a prodigious splashing of volumes of water.
+
+The beauty and grace of their bodies are the principal characteristics
+of the Tuareg. They are tall, more commonly in the neighbourhood of
+six feet than shorter. They look much taller owing to their flowing
+robes. When at rest they have little superficial muscular development;
+their bodies are not corrugated and knobbly like the powerfully built
+Latin: they are more like Nordic folk in that their limbs and backs are
+smooth until exerted, when the muscles stand up hard and tough. Their
+arms and legs are long and shapely and exceedingly graceful; they never
+have flaccid or cylindrical limbs like Abyssinians or certain Indian
+races. Their bones are small. They have wrists and ankles as slender
+as a woman’s; it is noteworthy that whatever the degree of negro
+admixture this sign of high breeding is the last to disappear. It is
+a most infallible mark of pure Tuareg parentage. With it, of course,
+go slenderness and refinement of hands and fingers. The men never
+grow fat: they are hard and fit and dry like the nerve of a bow,
+or a spring in tension. Of all their characteristics the one I have
+most vividly in mind is their grace of carriage. The men are born
+to walk and move as kings, they stride along swiftly and easily,
+like Princes of the Earth, fearing no man, cringing before none,
+and consciously superior to other people.
+
+Grace and mystery are added to their appearance by the veil over the
+face and by their long black robes, which are called “takatkat.”
+They are of plain indigo black cotton stuff, and though some are
+embroidered on the breast, the old-fashioned men shun such ornament
+as ostentatious. More rarely their robes are white. Their dress,
+to be in good taste, must above all be simple. Silk is hardly known
+and not in great demand: plain native cloth made up of many narrow
+slips sewn together to the desired width is esteemed superior to the
+European sorts. Buchanan had brought for presents an indigo stuff
+of excellent quality, made in Lancashire and better than anything
+of the sort that could be bought in Kano. It was much appreciated,
+but as it had a thin white stripe in it, not a single man would wear
+it for a dress. They gave it to their women for skirts.
+
+Broad Moslem trousers called “takirbai” are worn beneath the robe;
+they are always of white cotton. Sometimes a tanned goat or sheep
+skin is worn around the loins below the trousers, more especially in
+bush country where burr grass is very prevalent.[158]
+
+The best sandals used to be made in Agades only, but since the
+emigration of so many craftsmen from Air they can now also be procured
+in Kano, and more cheaply. They are of a shape peculiar to the Tuareg
+and are much in demand all over the Sahara. The form is pleasing:
+it is wide and round under the toes, slender under the instep,
+and at the heel, and just broad enough to carry the weight of the
+body. They are made of two thicknesses sewn together with neat white
+raw-hide stitching; the top piece is of red leather with a stained
+black border: the lower piece is of raw hide. Two red straps from
+the sides level with the instep join a thong, which passes under the
+top leather and is fastened between the two thicknesses of the sole
+in order to protect the sewing from wear on the ground. The thong is
+slipped between the big and second toes; the red straps pass over the
+breadth of the foot to the sides of the sandal. The heel is free. It
+is the ideal footwear in sandy country, as nothing can collect on the
+surface and rub the foot. I wore nothing else for nine months and can
+vouch for the comfort of these sandals. They are usually made in two
+sizes[159]; the correct pattern for all those who can afford them is
+12 inches long and 6 inches broad across the toes. This great surface,
+leaving several inches all round the breadth of the foot, gives much
+support on loose sand, on which it rests like a platform. Many other
+forms of improvised sandals are made, covering the sole and sometimes
+the sides of the foot, but the most ingenious home-made type I saw
+was woven in a few minutes of green dûm-palm fronds. These sandals
+were really a sole of palm matting under the foot: they have the
+advantage of costing nothing and, when the fronds are still green, of
+being supple and springy in any weather, whereas the leather sandals
+become flaccid on wet ground. They are, however, not proof against
+long acacia thorns, as I learnt to my cost. During the rains I used
+to have a new pair made for me every day by Ahodu’s son, aged nine,
+at the grossly excessive rate of about 6_d._ a dozen. The best leather
+sandals cost as much as 6_s._ a pair at Agades nowadays.
+
+Walking barefoot over loose sand in time produces severe cracks in
+the sole of the foot. The ball of the big toe and the inside part of
+the foot are particularly liable to be affected. In cold dry weather
+it is common to see men rubbing fat into the callous skin of their
+feet and warming them in front of a fire to soften the leather,
+for when a crack has begun to appear it is very difficult to induce
+healing. The skin of their feet is so insensible and thick that men
+often take a needle and thread and sew up their sole as one would mend
+a sandal. Some form of foot-wear is likewise desirable when there are
+many thorns about, and in the bush, where burrs find their way into
+the tender skin between the toes. As I often wore no foot-covering at
+all my feet became very hard, but I contrived on several occasions
+to pick up thorns, which went as much as three-quarters of an inch
+into the sole of my foot. I well remember how the extraction of these
+spikes used to cause a most peculiar form of pain; it produced almost
+physical sickness. Curiously enough, these wounds never seemed to get
+septic, and I have always wondered why. For several months I did have
+septic sores on my feet and legs whenever a rub or scratch occurred,
+but they were principally due to being run down after malaria and the
+rainy season. Acacia thorns or burrs in my feet never became infected.
+
+With a veil, robe, trousers and sandals, the wardrobe of the Tuareg is
+complete. Some carry a white blanket of heavy native cotton stuff known
+in Nigeria as “Kano cloth,” woven in six-inch strips sewn together,
+with a blue border and fringe. But the article is a product of the
+Southland and almost seems to be considered a luxury in Air, where few
+men have any additional clothing or covering in cold weather. Some
+wear the conical hats of Kano basket-ware associated with the Hausa
+countries, but the practice is regarded as an affectation and is not
+very common.[160]
+
+The scantiness of the clothing of the Tuareg in Air is very
+remarkable. Their robe is admirably suited for hot weather, since any
+covering which hangs in loose folds over the back is good protection
+against the sun. The garment consists of two large squares of stuff,
+forming the front and back, the height of a man’s shoulder, or say
+about 5 feet × 5 feet. The two lower corners of the squares are sewn
+together, the bottom and sides are left open. The top is sewn up except
+for a space of about 18 inches where the head is put through, and a
+slit with a pocket is cut on the breast. The sides of the upper part
+either fall down the arms or can be looped up over the shoulders to
+leave them clear. As the sides are open, the circulation of air under
+the robe is quite free. In cold weather the ample volume of the robe
+enables it to be wrapped well around the body, nevertheless it is very
+inadequate protection when the thermometer falls to freezing point. It
+speaks highly of the hardihood of these people that they wear this
+garment only throughout the year in spite of variations in temperature,
+such as in December I encountered on my way south through Azawagh,
+of as much as 60° F. in twenty-four hours. The three Tuareg with me
+had no sort of extra covering for the night until I gave them a ground
+sheet in which to wrap themselves near the fire. But they discarded
+it, because the canvas, as they said, “attracted the cold” more
+than did the sand. The dying embers of a fire warmed the soles of
+their feet, but the rest of their bodies must have been frozen.
+
+The Tuareg woman wears a long piece of indigo cloth rolled round her
+body as a skirt and tucked in at the waist. Over her shoulders is
+a garment which resembles a sleeveless coat, but is really a small
+square of light indigo or black stuff with a hole for the head. The
+ends hang down in front and behind to the level of the waist, the sides
+are open. She never veils her face; the upper garment, or a dark cloth
+worn over the head like a nun’s hood, may be drawn across the face,
+but more often in coquetry, I think, than in prudery. This upper
+garment is sometimes embroidered with a simple cross-stitch pattern
+around the neck; usually it is a piece of plain native cloth made,
+like the robes of the men, of narrow bands sewn together. Women who
+can only afford one piece of stuff wear it wound round their bodies
+close under the armpits, though, as a general rule, it may be said
+that there is no feeling of immodesty involved in exposing the body
+above the waist.[161]
+
+This ease of garb among the women and their unveiled countenances are
+in keeping with the perfect freedom which they enjoy. Irrespective
+of caste or circumstance, whether they be noble or slave, rich or
+poor, the women of the People of the Veil are respected by their men
+in a manner which has no parallel in my experience. It is the more
+significant in a Moslem people, inasmuch as Islam has not hitherto
+taught the men of the Eastern world to treat their women-folk as their
+equals, still less as their betters. In saying this much I write in
+no depreciatory spirit, for the Western world has happily long ceased
+to regard the followers of Muhammad’s teaching of the Faith of the
+One God as heathen or pagan. But the morals and ethical code of Islam
+differ most essentially from those of the north of Europe and America
+precisely in regard to women; and in this respect Islam has lagged
+behind. But even in European countries the complete emancipation of
+women is only a modern development which may perhaps have just begun
+in Islam. Yet judged by our Northern standards the Tuareg have much
+in common with ourselves. So strange in Africa seems their conduct
+to women, that early travellers called them the Knights-Errant of
+the Desert Roads. The extent to which they have earned this name is
+their justifiable pride.
+
+Their women have position and prerogatives not yet achieved by their
+sisters in many of those countries which we term “civilised.” The
+Tuareg women are strong-minded, gifted and intelligent. They have
+their share in public life; their advice is proffered and sought
+in tribal councils. Contrary to Moslem practice and to that of many
+European societies, a Tuareg woman may own property in her own name,
+and, more than that, may continue to own and administer it after
+her marriage without interference by her husband, who has no rights
+over it whatsoever. At death a woman’s property, unless otherwise
+disposed of in satisfaction of her expressed wish, is divided in
+accordance with the Moslem laws of inheritance, but if her family
+has been provided for as custom demands, she may bequeath what is
+over as she pleases. There are many instances of Tuareg women of
+noble birth being heiresses or receiving a share of property which
+has become available, by conquest or the extinction of some group,
+for distribution generally among the community. Sometimes, if a tribe
+moves away from an old area, the community goes so far as to divide up
+and settle the free land on the chief women, who become, as Duveyrier
+has called them,[162] the “femmes douairières” of the Tuareg.
+
+Their bravery is famous in Africa. Instances are not lacking where
+they have played great parts in war. In one engagement in Air the Kel
+Fadé women led their men into battle, covering them with their own
+bodies and those of their children to prevent the French firing.[163]
+When Musa ag Mastan, the Amenokal of Ahaggar, went to France in
+1910 his sister ruled the people in his stead. Though no instances
+are recorded in Air itself of women becoming chiefs of tribes they
+rule several villages among the Kel Geres. By usage and by right
+their functions are more consultative than executive. They do not
+seek election to tribal councils. They enter them as of right and
+not in competition, but not even then do they order men about. Their
+function is to counsel and to charm. They make poetry and have their
+own way. In recent years there seems to have been only one example
+in Air of a woman playing a definitely masculine rôle. Barkasho,
+of the Ikazkazan, was already an old woman when, as a small boy,
+Musa, of the same tribe, who was with me at one time as a camel-man,
+knew her. Soon after she married, Barkasho told her husband that
+she was going about a man’s work and proceeded to don the robe,
+veil and sword of the other sex. She set off on a raid to the east
+to avenge some depredations on her people. As her courage grew and
+became famous she turned her attention to the west and led a raid,
+it is said, as far afield as the Tademekkat country. On one of these
+expeditions she lifted, single-handed, seven camels from a party of
+three men who were guarding them. The curious side of Barkasho’s
+personality was that when she returned from these excursions, she put
+off her male attire and quietly resumed her place and occupations
+in the household. Evidently, however, her husband must have become
+restive, for in the end she advised him to get rid of her, or at
+least to marry another woman as well, since she was useless to him
+as a wife. But history does not relate what the husband did. Musa
+last saw her as an old, old woman, sitting in front of her hut,
+looking into the sunset over the country where she used to raid,
+and dreaming. I failed in my endeavours to obtain other stories of
+women leaders. I found, therefore, nothing to bear out the Amazonian
+legend,[164] except the survival of the matriarchal system generally.
+
+Kahena lives on among the Tuareg only as a memory and as a proper
+name. They do not claim as one of their race the Berber queen who
+defended Ifrikiya against the Arabs in the seventh century. Ahodu
+had heard of her as a woman of the Imajeghan who were in the north
+when the Arabs came. “She led these noble people and defeated the
+Arabs, it is true, and those Imajeghan were great people, of course,
+but she was not one of our people: our people are older than they;
+and the Arabs—why, the Arabs have only just come to the land,”
+said Ahodu, who, where his own Kel Tadek were concerned, was always
+an intolerable snob.
+
+Under Moslem law a man may take unto himself four legitimate wives
+in addition to a number of slave concubines. The rules laid down
+by the Prophet for the governance of the marital relations of good
+Moslems are theoretically, at least, in force among the Tuareg of
+Air. In practice, however, monogamy is more frequent than polygamy. I
+am not clear whether an explanation of this phenomenon is to be
+looked for in a survival of a matriarchal state of society where
+one would indeed be led to expect polyandry rather than polygamy, or
+whether the reason is rather to be sought in the economic condition
+of a people whose poverty does not allow them to keep more than one
+wife. I have no hesitation in disagreeing with Jean when he says[165]
+that monogamy is rare and even anomalous in Air. It does not accord
+with my personal observations, nor is it consistent with what I heard
+of those traditions and conditions which I was unable to verify. How
+often has it not been said to me that “the Imajeghan respect their
+women, and _therefore_ have only one wife, not like the negroes, and
+heathen”? It does not accord with the conditions governing the status
+of women as described by Jean himself, nor yet with the remarks which
+he makes on the subject of the matrimonial relations of the Tuareg. It
+is, finally, in contradiction with the accounts given by Duveyrier[166]
+and others of the Northern Tuareg, concerning whom his enthusiasm even
+led him into the exaggeration of asserting that polygamy was unknown.
+
+After considering the question carefully, I have come to the
+conclusion that monogamy is probably an old tradition dependent upon
+and consistent with the status of Tuareg women, and not a consequence
+of economic conditions which have, however, served to perpetuate
+the custom. It is certainly connected with the matriarchate. The
+practice of concubinage is restricted, and where it does occur, is
+usually confined to women of the slave caste. A noble woman is not,
+and never could be, a concubine so long as the status of noble and of
+serf continues to exist; but if the maintenance of only one wife were
+due to economic necessity alone, the same conditions would not obtain
+in regard to concubinage in a community where every additional slave,
+male or female, is an asset as a productive unit. The position of
+women among the Tuareg has no real parallel in any other Oriental
+country. Even in Ashanti, where there are analogies for some of
+the matriarchal survivals found among the Tuareg, the exceptional
+positions of some of the royal women seem to be less favourable than
+that of any of the noble and most other women in Air, where all the
+sex is held in honour.
+
+At Auderas I played the rôle of doctor to the best of my ability. I
+found a great ally in Ahodu’s wife, who, though not a Tuareg by race,
+had acquired all their traditions and manners. Her appearance was
+not in the least characteristic; her negroid features were frankly
+ugly from the European point of view. But she made up for these
+physical disadvantages by her unfailing sense of humour and constant
+cheerfulness, which are very valuable qualities in Africa. In general
+the young Tuareg women are handsome and possessed of considerable
+charm. They are smaller in build than the men, but when their
+parentage is reasonably pure, they possess the same aristocratic
+features and proportions. Their demeanour is modest and dignified. In
+this Ahodu’s wife resembled them. She was perfectly natural and
+had great quickness of mind. She was what might be called “une
+femme du monde.” Ahodu had divorced at least two previous wives
+for their uncouth or unrestrained behaviour. He was devoted to his
+present one. He always used to speak with pride of her capability,
+which he averred was second to no man’s: one could place complete
+reliance in her. I made a point of taking her with me when visiting
+sick women and children in the hamlets, and through her tact and
+presence of mind gradually came to understand their perfect ease and
+bearing. In their tents or huts they would sit and listen without
+fear or shyness. After the inevitable diffidence had worn off they
+talked and were free from awkwardness, but never familiar like the
+negro or negroid women. They are gay but not infantile. They never
+lose their dignity. Their dress is staid and sombre like that of
+their men, with a few ornaments of beads and silver.[167] As they
+grow older the women of good family and wealth become fat, especially,
+as Barth remarks, in “the hinder parts,” for fatness is a sign of
+affluence, since it implies a sufficiency of the good things of life,
+like slaves and food, to obviate having to do much manual work. But
+among the unmarried women I saw no large-proportioned ladies: indeed
+few enough even of the married ones at Auderas were fat, indicating,
+I am sorry to say, the poverty of most of them. When the women do
+not run to fat, they age with great beauty; nearly all the old women
+looked typical aristocrats and conscious of their breeding.
+
+The women use henna, which grows in Air, on their finger and toe nails,
+and “kohl” (antimony) for their eyes. On festive occasions they
+have a curious habit of daubing their cheeks and foreheads with paint,
+prepared either from a whitish earth found especially near Agades,
+or with red or yellow ochres which occur in several places. The
+effect of these colours on different shades of skin is uniformly
+ghastly, especially when the more usual yellow pigment is used, but
+they apparently like the habit. A possible explanation is that in the
+first instance the custom was intended as a symbolic or conventional
+method of expressing the respect felt for the fairer complexions of
+their original ancestors. The negro is despised in Air, the “red”
+man is respected; painting the face was perhaps at first intended to
+create an illusion of purer blood. Although the practice is supposed
+to be restricted to festive occasions, where the women have little
+work to do, they remain daubed most of the time: this seemed to be
+the case at T’imia, for instance, where the women were noble and
+had plenty of slaves. Tuareg men do not so adorn themselves.[168]
+
+Before marriage, which for Oriental women occurs comparatively late
+in life, Tuareg girls enjoy a measure of freedom which would shock
+even the modern respectable folk of Southern Europe. They do no
+work, but dance and sing and make poetry, and in the olden days they
+learned to read and write. The art of literature is unfortunately
+dying out, but the women still are, as they always were in the past,
+the repositories of tradition and learning. Where the script of the
+Tuareg is still known and freely used, it is the women who are more
+versed in it than the men. It is they who teach the children. When
+families have slaves, the noble woman does as little work as she can:
+her occupation among the poorer people is confined to the household
+work or to herding goats and sheep. They make cheese and butter and
+sort dates, but they do not as a rule work in the gardens. They are
+never beasts of burden. They have never learnt to weave or spin, but
+they plait mats and make articles of leather. The leather-working
+industry at Agades is exclusively in their hands. Their knowledge
+of needlework is limited; the men on the whole are more skilled than
+the women at cutting out and sewing clothes.
+
+The household duties are simple but laborious. The children for the
+first few years of their lives are washed frequently, but when they are
+able to look after themselves in any way the practice is abandoned. The
+hut or tent is cleaned out several times a day and food has to be
+prepared. This entails pounding millet in a mortar and stewing the
+porridge, or steaming wheat to make kus-kus. The women eat their
+food with the men, a privilege often denied their sex among other
+Moslems. Among the Kel Ferwan[169] the women eat their food before
+the men do so, and the latter have to be content with what is left,
+which is often not very much. A man once said to me, to emphasise the
+good manners required by usage to be observed before women, that in
+the olden days if anyone had dared to break wind in their presence,
+the insult was punishable by death alone.
+
+Half the poetry of the Tuareg deals with the loves and adventures of
+young men and women. Marriages are not arranged as among the Arabs. It
+often happens that a girl has two or more suitors, when her free
+choice alone is the deciding factor. It is common for a girl who is
+in love with a man to take a camel and ride all night to see him and
+then return to her own place, or for a suitor to make expeditions
+of superhuman endurance to see his lady.[170] Fights between rivals
+are not uncommon. Illicit love affairs inevitably occur: if they
+have unfortunate consequences, the man is called upon to marry the
+woman, but infanticide is not unknown. Once married the woman is
+expected to behave with decorum and modesty. Public opinion on these
+matters is strong. The married state, however, does not prevent a
+woman admitting men friends to an intimacy similar to that existing,
+perhaps, only among the Anglo-Saxon peoples. In a passage in which
+Ibn Batutah describes the Mesufa, who before becoming debased were
+of the Western Sanhaja Tuareg, but had in part settled south of Air,
+he comments on the status of women in these charming terms:[171]
+
+“The women of the Mesufa feel no shame in the presence of men; nor
+do they veil their faces. Despite this, they do not omit to perform
+their prayers punctually. Anyone who wishes to marry them can do so
+without difficulty. . . . In this country the women have friends and
+companions among men who are strangers. The men for their part have
+companions among women not in their own families. It often happens for
+a man to enter his own house to find his wife with a friend. He will
+neither disapprove nor make trouble. I (that is, Ibn Batutah himself)
+once went into the house of a judge at Walata after he had given me
+permission, and found quite a young and very beautiful woman with
+him. As I stopped, doubting, and hesitated, wanting to return on my
+steps, she began to laugh at my embarrassment instead of blushing
+with shame.” The great traveller is evidently very much shocked,
+for he goes on: “And yet this man was a lawyer and a pilgrim. I
+even heard that he had asked the Sultan for permission to perform the
+pilgrimage that year to Mecca, in the company of this friend. Was it
+this one or another? I do not know. . . .” Again, he goes on to
+describe how he visited the house of one of his companions of the
+road and found him sitting on a carpet, “while in the middle of
+the house on a couch . . . was his wife in conversation with a man
+seated by her side. I asked Abu Muhammad: ‘Who is that woman?’
+‘It’s my wife,’ he replied. ‘And who is the individual with
+her?’ ‘It’s her friend.’ ‘But are you, who have lived in
+our countries, quite satisfied with such a state of affairs—you who
+know the precepts of the Holy Writ?’ He replied: ‘The relations
+of women with men in this country bring good and are correct, they
+are right and honourable. They give rise to no suspicion. Our women,
+as a matter of fact, are not like those in your country.’”
+
+And that is the whole truth. The Tuareg men and women are not like
+the other inhabitants of North Africa. But Ibn Batutah must have been
+none the less shocked, because, though Abu Muhammad invited him to
+visit him again, he did not go.
+
+Conditions have not changed since those days among the People of the
+Veil, but habits which would be considered natural in America or in
+England admittedly seem strange in Africa. They are all summed up in
+the Tuareg proverb which says: “Men and women towards each other
+are for the eyes and for the heart, and not only for the bed,” as
+among the Arabs. The consequence of such a frame of mind is that the
+men and women of the People of the Veil are often blessed, or cursed,
+with love so lasting, so sincere and so devoted that, like in our
+own society, it makes or mars a life.
+
+Bates has discussed the marriage customs of the Libyan tribes mentioned
+in the classics. While some of these groups of people may represent
+the ancestors of the Tuareg, there is no evidence of the outrageous
+performances mentioned, for instance, by Herodotus, having persisted
+into modern times in Air. Divorce among the Tuareg is fairly frequent
+and is carried out in accordance with Moslem prescription, but adultery
+is not very common. Prostitution exists, but perhaps, on the whole,
+is less common than in more favoured parts of the world. It is,
+of course, more frequent in Agades than in the villages, and in the
+latter than among the tribes. The harlot is not respected, and her
+marriage with a decent man is reprobated.
+
+The husband is required to purchase his wife, the money or equivalent
+being paid to her parents. The sum varies from a few silver francs to
+several camels. Marriage portions in cattle, sheep or goats, according
+to the circumstances of the parents, are frequently given to women;
+the “dot” remains the property of the bride.
+
+The children of the Tuareg, and especially the little girls, are
+adorable persons. They are fairer than their parents, largely,
+I think, because they wash more often than their elders, but even
+discounting this factor they appear to turn darker as they grow
+up. Up to the age of seven or eight the children wear no clothes at
+all, summer or winter, indoors or out of doors, except perhaps a rag
+to keep off the flies when they are asleep. After that, their first
+clothes are white cotton shifts. Small boys have their hair cropped
+close, except for a crest along the top of the head; in some tribes,
+notably in the west of Air, a lock on either side of the head and a
+patch on top are sometimes left. Little girls are allowed long hair
+until they first put on a smock or cloth about their waists. At the
+age of puberty both sexes dress their hair in one of the several
+fashions current in Air, usually in small plaits all over the head;
+thereafter the boys continue to wear white shirts, but the girls
+put on the indigo skirt cloth. The children are so well brought up
+that European parents might be envious of them. I have never met
+small boys with such perfect manners and so free from selfishness
+as I experienced in Air. As soon as they are old enough to take an
+interest in things, the boys accompany their fathers on journeys,
+to which they are thus gradually broken from an early age. They are
+made to work and do all the domestic duties that their powers allow in
+camp or on the march. They feed the camels on the road with grass or
+plants picked by the way; they carry water to their elders to drink;
+they bring in stray camels at loading-up time and hobble them when
+turned out to graze. The slaves, who prepare the food, are assisted
+by the boys and send them out to do all the hundred and one little
+jobs that are required. So the boys grow up to be useful men before
+they are mature, and in the process learn the respect which is due
+to their elders, and their elders show them such devotion as these
+pleasant little people deserve. The training is evidently successful,
+for nowhere else have I seen children so thoughtful or so kindly to all
+and to each other. It had never been my lot until I met the Tuareg to
+see a right-minded boy, for instance, who had been given a sweet or
+a penny or some equally valuable object, run off and offer it first
+to his father and then to his companions, who refused it. And this
+I saw not in an isolated instance, but as an universal practice.
+
+In the primitive conditions of life in Air, infant mortality is
+high. The happiest and some of the most successful days I spent in
+Air were doctoring people, and especially children, at Auderas. There
+are not many diseases in the clean dry mountain air, but under-feeding
+and malaria, which comes after the rains, take their annual toll. The
+almost miraculous effect of quinine on the fevers is a very saving
+grace. One can never have enough quinine, but fortunately small doses
+at frequent intervals will keep fever in check during bad attacks
+and prevent collapse. Thus can a great deal be achieved. But it was
+the good sense of the women, who had some faith in my elementary
+remedies, that did most to save several children of Auderas in the
+autumn of 1922.
+
+I was interested to find how long women went on suckling their
+children. I saw children of three and four years still feeding at the
+breast, though they were already eating solid food. A woman will go
+on suckling an older child for many years so long as her younger ones
+do not suffer; she is especially prone to do so if her last baby has
+died. In company with most races living under primitive conditions,
+even advanced pregnancy does not interfere with a woman’s activities,
+nor do mothers suffer much from the effects of childbirth. The
+processes of nature take place unassisted: there are neither local
+medicine men nor midwives. Women in labour are attended by their
+older relations or intimate friends, whose assistance is limited
+to massaging the body with hands steeped in butter or fat. Death
+in childbirth appears to be rare. Newly-born children are wrapped
+in some ragged garment, but receive no especial care. Cradles or
+swaddling clothes are unknown; but perhaps a cushion of grass or
+leaves for the infant is prepared on the family sleeping mat or
+bed. Babies are carried on their mother’s back or by a slave woman,
+slung with one tiny leg each side of the woman’s waist, in a fold
+of the cloth which constitutes her skirt. The cloth is firmly rolled
+round the baby and the woman’s body, and tucked in over the breast;
+only the child’s head emerges from this pouch on her back. So the
+child sleeps or cries or sucks its finger, and the mother goes about
+her daily occupations, pounding millet or plaiting mats.
+
+                                                              PLATE 18
+
+[Illustration: TEKHMEDIN AND THE AUTHOR]
+
+Neither at birth nor later is any form of bodily deformation
+practised. Such horrors as flattened skulls or filed teeth are
+unknown. The only eunuchs in Air are negroes purchased in the south. As
+in the case of all good Moslems, the boys are circumcised at the age
+of a few months. The diseases which I myself observed in Air, I must
+admit, seemed few. Syphilis, malaria, certain digestive troubles,
+dysentery, a few minor skin diseases and eye troubles were the most
+serious. Syphilis is common, but apparently not very virulent: its
+method of propagation and origin are well known to the natives: in
+the Northern Sahara it is called the Great Disease. Von Bary thought
+that it, like malarial fevers, came from the Sudan, but there is no
+reason to believe this, for it is very evenly distributed all over
+North Africa. The juice of the colocynth as a purge is believed to do
+good in cases of venereal disease. Guinea-worm is fairly common; the
+milky juice of the Asclepias, known as _Calotropis Procera_,[172]
+which grows all over Air, is said to have a curative effect,
+in addition to the usual method of extraction known to everyone
+who has travelled in Africa. I saw one case of tuberculosis of
+the lungs at Auderas, accompanied by hæmorrhage. It was rather
+an interesting case of a woman whose family for three generations
+was said to have died of the disease. I was too honest, I suppose,
+to profess to be able to cure her, but I need hardly say that my
+servant, Amadu, took over the case. He claimed to have established
+a complete cure in a few days with some herb which he had found. My
+reputation suffered, but my advice to Ahodu to move her hut to the
+outskirts of the village was nevertheless admitted to be reasonable,
+and was followed. Duveyrier[173] mentions a form of ulcer in the nose,
+said to be due to constant sand irritation. He describes hernia from
+long-distance camel riding as being frequent: to prevent abdominal
+strains from this cause the Tuareg bind a long strip of cotton stuff
+tightly about their waists. Von Bary[174] records having seen,
+in addition to the above diseases, epilepsy, atrophied children,
+skin eruptions, small-pox, hypochondria and madness. He remarks
+that the Kel Owi seemed to suffer more from disease than the other
+tribes, that their women were very fat, and that they appeared to
+have irregular periods. My investigations into local medicine were
+unproductive. I brought home some drugs which were used locally as
+purges, lotions and astringents, but they were without value. The
+empiric knowledge of the Tuareg may yet be worth investigating,
+but has so far disclosed nothing of any value.
+
+Festivals connected with social life are not interesting. Births
+occur without unusual or curious celebrations. The naming of the
+child is supposed to be in the hands of the local holy man, but
+the mother brings her influence to bear in his choice by suitable
+payments. Marriages are celebrated with feast and rejoicing after the
+bridegroom has wooed his bride and paid the stipulated portion. Burials
+equally follow the Moslem practice. The body is laid in the ground
+on its back, the head to the north and the feet to the south, with
+the face turned towards Mecca. The rope by which the body is lowered
+into the grave is left lying to rot away on the tomb. The grave is
+marked by one or two standing stones according as the deceased is
+male or female. The graves in Air are intimately connected with the
+architecture and dwellings of the Tuareg, and are dealt with in a later
+chapter. There are cemeteries all over Air: the little one now in use
+at Auderas lies on the south side of the valley under the hills of
+Tidrak, opposite the site of our camp. In the rains, malaria claimed
+several victims. They were mournful little processions which I used
+to see from my hut. One such occasion particularly impressed itself
+upon me. I was returning from South Bagezan one evening, climbing
+down on a rough path in a ravine with three camels and three men,
+when Ahodu, El Mintaka and a few more appeared, carrying a man to
+his grave. They were walking quickly so as to have done as soon as
+possible, proclaiming as they went that there was no God but God. They
+did that which there was to be done in haste, and returned at their
+leisure near sundown when the sky and the mountains of Todra were on
+fire. It had been raining and the black clouds were still in sight,
+covering the place of sunset. Above, everything was as red as the
+light of a blast furnace shining on Todra. Already the darkness had
+gathered in the north-east and the stars were coming out, and the deep
+valley with its white, sandy bottom was scarcely seen for the many
+trees in it. A chilly wind blew down the valley, waving the palms and
+troubling the gardens. As I reached my hut, Ahodu and his men joined
+me, and night fell, leaving purple and then dark red and then a yellow
+glow in the west. Last of all came the pale zodiacal light climbing
+up nearly to the zenith of the night, and the wind died down. Ahodu
+did not speak of death because it was unlucky, but he sat on the sand
+and told me many things. Ultimately came the information that a raid
+of Ahaggaren had plundered some villages in Kawar. He was afraid they
+would come on to Air, and that the village would have to be abandoned,
+and that his people would have to retreat into the mountain which
+towered as a black shadow in the east. He had left this subject to
+the last, because there was nothing in the matter to discuss. The
+raiders either would or they would not come. There was a proverb:
+“Reasoning is the shackle of the coward.”
+
+                                                              PLATE 19
+
+[Illustration: BAGEZAN MOUNTAINS AND TOWAR VILLAGE]
+
+
+[Footnote 150: Cf. Barth, Vol. I. p. 387. The village of Aerwan wan
+Tidrak is presumably to be placed in these hills, where there are
+numerous remains of hamlets. The “village” of “Ifarghan” at
+Auderas is presumably a mistake, for “Ifargan” means “gardens”
+in Temajegh. Several of the Auderas gardens are at the point where
+Barth placed this so-called village.]
+
+[Footnote 151: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I., p. 385.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Mount Dogam is not west of the Ighaghrar (Arharkhar)
+valley as shown in the Cortier map, but to the east at the head of
+three tributary streams and adjoining the Todra massif. The latter
+on the map is not named and is erroneously given as a south-western
+spur of Bagezan, from which it is really quite distinct.]
+
+[Footnote 153: First half of August, 1922.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Three sorts of gourds do exist, but they are valuable.]
+
+[Footnote 155: As does the Arab, and with some reason, for real
+negroes in the sunlight have, in fact, a blue-black appearance.]
+
+[Footnote 156: Izagarnen or Ihagarnen—the red ones, possibly the
+etymology of “Ihaggaren.”]
+
+[Footnote 157: Von Bary, _op. cit._, p. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 158: Among the Tuareg I have never seen or heard of the
+“penistasche,” which Bates regards as so typical of the Libyans.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Sandals are called Irratemat.]
+
+[Footnote 160: The hats illustrated by Bates, _op. cit._, Fig. 32,
+are typically Sudanese.]
+
+[Footnote 161: I believe this is not so in the north, where Arab
+influence contrasts with the more negroid customs of Air.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 401.]
+
+[Footnote 163: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 192-3.]
+
+[Footnote 164: _Vide supra_, Chap. IV.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 429.]
+
+[Footnote 167: See Plates 36 and 37.]
+
+[Footnote 168: The practice is alluded to in Gsell’s _Histoire
+de l’Afrique du Nord_, Vol. I. Chap. IV, and a connection with
+the mysterious term Leucæthiopians is suggested, but I think
+mistakenly. It is an insult to the classical geographers to suggest
+that any people were so called because some negroes whitened their
+faces with paint.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 170: I cannot agree with Jean, p. 193, that until their
+marriage girls never leave their mothers. They are not taken on
+journeys like boys, but they walk about the villages or encampments in
+a remarkably free way. Their romances are a proof of their freedom,
+which is the topic of discussion and the object of remark of anyone
+who first comes into contact with this race.]
+
+[Footnote 171: Ibn Batutah (French edition), Vol. IV. pp. 388-90.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Known by various native names. In Air the usual
+name is the Hausa form Tunfafia. Barth refers to it as _Asclepias
+gigantica_. It is called Turha or Toreha or Tirza in Temajegh, Turdja
+in Mauretania, Ushr in Egyptian and Korunka in Algerian Arabic.]
+
+[Footnote 173: Cf. Duveyrier, _op. cit._, pp. 433-5.]
+
+[Footnote 174: Von Bary, _op. cit._, p. 185.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                     THE MODE OF LIFE OF THE NOMADS
+
+
+One of my first trips from Auderas was to the village of Towar,[175]
+which lies under the south-western spurs of Bagezan on the edge of
+the plain between this massif and Todra. Leaving Auderas by a very
+rough path over the hills on the south side of the valley, a narrow
+track with difficulty climbs up to the watershed of the basin where
+the central plain is reached. The northern part of the plain skirting
+Todra and Bagezan is covered with black basalt boulders all the way
+to Towar. The boulders are polished and range in size from a large
+water-melon to an orange. They were probably thrown out from Bagezan
+by some volcanic activity, which, in conjunction with later eruptions
+at Mount Dogam, also produced the basalt and cinerite formations
+in the Auderas valley. The plain is intersected by several valleys,
+the head-waters of the Buddei-Telwa system which drains the southern
+slopes of Todra. Further east is the Ara valley, which comes down from
+the south-east face of Mount Dogam between Todra and Bagezan. Several
+valleys descend from the south-western parts of Bagezan as tributaries
+to the Ara and Towar, which both flow into the Etaras, whose waters
+eventually find their way east of Taruaji into the River of Agades
+opposite Akaraq by the Turayet valley. The Ara valley is particularly
+important, for it divides Todra from Bagezan, which are distinct
+groups and not a single massif as the Cortier map implies.
+
+The plain between Bagezan and Taruaji is dotted with small conical
+hills. There is no vegetation except along the watercourses: between
+the boulders a little grass finds a precarious existence. But there
+are many gazelle always roaming about. Of the two roads from Auderas
+to Towar village, I first tried the northern one, which is also the
+shortest. At the point where it crosses a col over a spur of Todra
+it proved precipitous and dangerous, but the alternative road, on the
+other hand, is more than half as long again, running south-east from
+Auderas and then turning north-east to rejoin the first track at the
+domed peak of Tegbeshi, some six miles east of Towar. At Tegbeshi the
+road to Towar crosses a track from Agades to Northern Air, running over
+the pass of the Upper Ara valley not far from the village of Dogam,
+which lies on the south slope of the peak. A branch leads up into
+the Bagezan mountains by a precipitous ravine north of Towar village.
+
+After crossing several more tributaries of the Ara and Towar
+valleys the village itself is reached, on the east side of the
+stream bed. There are two older deserted stone-built settlements,
+respectively south and east of the present site, which consist of a
+group of straw huts. The dwellings are typical of the Tuareg mode
+of hut construction. The frame is made of palm-frond ribs planted
+in the ground and tied together at the top; the section of the huts
+is consequently nearly parabolic. This framework is covered with
+thatch of coarse grass on top and mats round the lower part. The
+dwelling is built in one piece; it does not, as in the Southland,
+consist of two separate portions, namely, the conical roof and the
+vertical wall.[176] The stone houses of the two older villages point
+to the former settlements having been more extensive than the present
+one. There are small palm groves and a group of gardens on the banks
+of the valley, which contains plenty of water in the sand. The site
+was deserted during the war and has only recently been occupied. The
+population is mixed, but principally servile, derived from several
+tribes. The present inhabitants owe allegiance to the Kel Bagezan (Kel
+Owi) but the plain all round belongs to the Kel Nugguru of the chief
+Khodi, whose camels were pasturing in the little watercourses of the
+plain. One of the first people I met on camping near the village on
+the east bank was a man from Ghat, Muhammad, who had left his native
+town many years ago in the course of a feud between the leading Tuareg
+of the city and some neighbouring villages. He had become completely
+Tuareg and had almost forgotten his Arabic. The man, however, I had
+come to see was working on his garden, and I sent a friend whom I had
+brought from Auderas, one Atagoom, of Ahodu’s group of Kel Tadek,
+to find him. Eventually the man returned, and I became aware that I
+had found the purest Tuareg type in Air.
+
+                                                              PLATE 20
+
+[Illustration: HUTS AT TOWAR SHOWING METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION]
+
+[Illustration: HUTS AT TIMIA]
+
+I went forward with the intention of greeting T’ekhmedin, but was
+met with a look of disdainful inquiry which said more clearly and
+forcibly than words could express, “Who the hell are you and what
+the devil do you want?” He is one of the most remarkable men in Air,
+and the greatest of all the guides to Ghat on the northern roads of
+Air. Now barely forty years old, he has done the journey from Iferuan
+to Ghat, which is some four hundred miles in a straight line on the
+map, more than eighty times. He knows every stone and mark on all the
+alternative tracks over this terrible desert, as well as one may know
+the way from Hyde Park Corner to Piccadilly Circus. He is famous all
+over the Central Sahara, among the hardest travellers of the world,
+as the surest and toughest guide alive. His birth is noble, his spirit
+uncompromising. He has fought against the French on many occasions: his
+activities at Ghat in connection with the capture of the French post
+of Janet are known to all who followed events in North Africa during
+the war. He continued to fight against the French when Kaossen came
+to Air, and was imprisoned after the termination of that revolution;
+the fetter-marks round his ankles will endure until he dies. He had
+lost all his property; the rags on his back were pitiful to see, but
+his leather tobacco bottle and sheath knife, though almost falling to
+pieces, were of a quality which betokened affluence in the past. When
+I saw him he had nothing in the world but a small garden at Towar,
+which he had been reduced from high estate to cultivate like a mere
+slave. He seemed to be half starved. He was certainly over-worked,
+trying to grow enough food to keep life in his wife and small boy. The
+French at Agades have offered him pay to join their Camel Corps as
+a guide, but T’ekhmedin would have none of them. I wanted him to
+come with me as a guide, for his knowledge of the Central Sahara
+would have been invaluable to me in my researches, but he refused to
+come for pay. After I had broken the ice and explained my purpose
+in desiring to see him, T’ekhmedin began to thaw, and eventually
+became more affable. In time I learned to know him well, but in all
+our relations he never modified his independent attitude. He said:
+“I will come with you when my wife is provided for out of the
+harvest from my garden, and when I have placed her in the hands of my
+relations in T’imia. Then I will come with you for a month or for
+a year, but only because I want to come, and not for pay: if I come,
+I will go anywhere you want, but I will not come as your servant. You
+may give me a present if you like; you must feed me because I am poor,
+and give me a camel to ride, but I will not be paid for any service. I
+will come only as your friend because I, _I_ myself, want to come.”
+On a second trip to Towar I had occasion to nurse him when he had
+fever. He was thus one of the few men I ever saw without the veil, and
+as he is so typical of the pure Tuareg, I will copy the description
+of his appearance which I recorded in my diary at the time. “On
+reaching Towar I found the whole village laid low with malaria due
+to the proximity of stagnant wells in the gardens on the edge of the
+settlement. So I delivered a lecture on the desirability of moving the
+huts further away, and set to work to dose T’ekhmedin with quinine,
+the only drug I had with me. He was very bad, and had been ill ever
+since he left me at Auderas ten days before. I persuaded him to come
+away with me again; he came, but had a rotten time riding in the
+heat of the sun, and arrived rather done up. Thanks to good food and
+quinine he is better now. He is a handsome man, say six feet tall,
+of slight build, with a small beard and clipped moustache which,
+like his hair, is just steeled with grey. His domed forehead joins
+a retreating skull running back to a point behind. He has heavy
+eyebrow bones and the characteristic Libyan indentation between the
+forehead and root of the nose, which from that point is straight
+to the flat extremity. The nostrils are moderately flat and wide,
+but thin. The lips are not at all everted, rather the reverse. The
+upper lip is of the type which is very short, but in his case is not
+unduly so. There is an indentation between the lower lip and chin,
+which is very firm, very fine and very pointed. The cheek-bones are
+prominent but not high, and from here, accentuating their prominence,
+the outline of the face runs straight down to the chin. The ears are
+small, thin and flat. The profile is somewhat prorhinous; it is not
+at all prognathous. His hands and ankles are as slender as those of
+a woman; his body and waist are also slender; as is the case among
+all Tuareg, there is no superficial muscular development.”
+
+T’ekhmedin’s colleagues on the north roads, Kelama, who is nearly
+blind, and Sattaf, together with Efale, in the Eastern Desert, enjoy
+enormous respect in Air and indeed among all Tuareg. As a race the
+People of the Veil are all born to travel, but anyone among them who
+has a specialist’s knowledge is as important as a great scientist
+is in Europe. In general the topographical knowledge of Air and the
+surrounding countries has declined since raiding ceased, for this
+pastime was as much a sport as anything else. It is now confined to
+the people of those areas which are not under European control, that
+is, most of Tibesti, all the Fezzan and southern parts of Tripolitania
+and the interior of the Spanish colony of the Rio de Oro. Some of the
+exploits of the raiding bands from these areas sound so fantastic that
+they would hardly be credited were they not established facts. The
+Arab and Moorish tribes from Southern Morocco and from the Rio
+de Oro, for instance, when they have finished cultivating their
+scanty fields, turn out nearly every year for the especial purpose of
+lifting camels from the salt caravans between Timbuctoo and Taodenit,
+but the parties do not confine their operations to this area if they
+miss their objective. They have, on several occasions, gone on until
+they have found elsewhere a sufficient number of camels to make their
+journey profitable. Thus they have come as far as Damergu and Tegama,
+south of Agades, a journey from the Atlantic half-way across North
+Africa and back. Once, with consummate humour, a band stole all
+the camels of a French Camel Corps patrol in the Tahua area north
+of Sokoto. These people usually start out in as large a body of men
+as they reckon can water at the wells by the way, and break up into
+small parties as soon as they have looted some camels, returning
+home by different routes. Although they often lose a part of their
+booty and suffer casualties at the hands of the French Camel Corps,
+their tactics make them very hard to catch.
+
+The Tebu and Tuareg from the Fezzan raid Kawar and Air. Their procedure
+varies considerably, and it is impossible to know which way they
+will come or return. One year a party from the north-east entered
+Air by the western side and left in an E.S.E. direction. The raiding
+season begins as soon as the rains have fallen, when there is plenty
+of water all over the Southern Sahara even in the most inaccessible
+places. Outlying watering-points which can rarely be visited are
+their favourite haunts. The wireless stations at Agades and Bilma are
+a serious handicap, for intercommunication enables the French Camel
+patrols of different areas to obtain a start, and very often some idea
+of the possible roads which the raiders are following. Yet even so
+the two Camel Corps platoons in Air have let many bands slip through
+their fingers. It is generally recognised as impossible to prevent a
+raid reaching its objective; at the most the raiders can be followed
+up and brought to action or forced to abandon their loot on the way
+home. The latter politically is the end kept in view, for it exposes
+the raiders to the ridicule of failure rather than the sympathy of
+defeat. One of the great difficulties of defensive operations in the
+deserts of the Territoires du Niger is the use of the Tirailleurs
+Sénégalais as Camel Mounted Troops. The negro of the coast is not,
+and never will be, a good camel-man, and his efficiency cannot compare
+with that of the natives used by the French authorities in Southern
+Algeria, where tribesmen who have been born and bred in the saddle
+are enlisted as volunteers. Here, there is nothing to choose between
+the capacity of the raider and his opponent.
+
+The technique of raids is interesting. The size of the bodies
+attacking Air must always be limited by the capacity of the outlying
+watering-points, which, except in Damergu and Azawagh, are small. Bands
+of as few as ten men sometimes operate; a raid of one hundred men is
+considered large. They travel astonishing distances on practically
+no food or water: a few dates and a little water serve them for
+several days. If I were to record the periods of time for which
+men have lived without water in the lands of the People of the
+Veil, I would be accused of such mendacity that I will refrain
+from risking my good name. I will only say that seventy-two hours
+without water is an occurrence just sufficiently common not to pass
+as unduly remarkable. Similarly the distances ridden by raiders are
+fantastic. A hundred miles in the day have been covered by a band of
+a few hard-pressed men. Individual performances are even better. A
+messenger quite recently rode from Agades to In Gall in one day
+and back the next on the same camel, which therefore covered not
+less than one hundred and forty miles as the crow flies in forty
+hours, and probably one hundred and sixty by road. Another man, on
+a famous camel it is true, rode from the River of Agades near Akaraq
+to Iferuan, a distance of not less than one hundred and sixty miles,
+in just over twenty-four hours. The two messengers who brought the
+news to Zinder in 1917, that the post of Agades was besieged, covered
+over four hundred kilometres in under four days. And such instances
+could be multiplied. A raiding party, however, will not usually
+average more than thirty-five miles a day, and even so the hardship
+is considerable if this rate has to be kept up for many days. The
+bands are often made up of more men than camels, some of them in
+turn having to walk until they can loot more mounts. The Tuareg on
+raids are generally well-behaved towards each other. They do not
+kill unless the looted tribe or village puts up a fight, for it is
+an unwritten law among them that on ordinary raids, as opposed to
+real warfare, only live-stock is taken. Houses are not destroyed and
+villages are not burnt. This forbearance is, of course, largely due
+to the fact that there is nothing of any weight worth removing, such
+wealth as the Tuareg possess being principally in flocks and herds,
+of which only the camels can readily be driven off. But secrecy is
+essential, and when, therefore, a stray wanderer is met on the road
+who might give warning of the arrival of a raiding party, he may be
+made to accompany the robbers, or, if his presence is inconvenient,
+he may have to be killed. The Tuareg do not capture each other as
+slaves unless they are at war, though to steal someone’s slaves
+is, of course, as legitimate as to steal his camels. Descents on
+French patrols, posts, and tribes known to be engaged in assisting
+them are considered legitimate, but they generally have had serious
+consequences. For here more than raiding is involved—it is war. At
+the end of last century raiding from Air was frequent: lifting camels
+from the Aulimmiden had, in fact, become so common a pastime that
+it was proscribed by the Holy Men, who decided that even though no
+killing of Tuareg was taking place, the People of the Veil should leave
+the People of the Veil alone and turn their attentions to the Tebu,
+who were legitimate enemies. With the latter the Air Tuareg neither
+give nor expect to receive mercy. Raiding eastward at the end of last
+century became popular, but fraught with more serious consequences. On
+one such occasion the expedition turned out so badly that Belkho’s
+own people, the Igermadan, after successfully lifting camels and
+taking many prisoners in Kawar, were virtually exterminated. They
+were surprised at night in their over-confidence and massacred,
+a reverse from which the tribe to this day has never recovered.
+
+In his youth Ahodu accomplished some very successful raids in the
+east. His greatest adventure was when he captured a big Arab caravan
+bound from Murzuk to Bornu, some thirty years ago. He told the story
+as follows, with Ali of Ghat sitting near him on the floor of my
+hut. Now when a Tuareg tells a story he always draws on the sand
+with his fingers to show the numbers of his camels and men and the
+direction of his march, and when he counts in that way he marks the
+units by little lines drawn with two or three fingers at a time till
+he has reached ten, and then marks up a group of ten with a single
+line to one side.
+
+“That was nearly thirty years ago,” he said, and drew:
+
+  II    II    II   II  II    +-------+
+                             | I   I |
+  II    II   III  III        |       |
+                             |   I   |
+  II   III  IIII             +-------+
+
+“I was one leader and Ula with the Ifadeyen people was the
+other. There were” (rubbing out the first marks with a sweep of
+the hand):
+
+    III       III      I
+
+         II        I       I    I
+
+  II    II    II   II  II
+
+         III
+
+(that is) “twenty-five of us and about I I I thirty of the Ifadeyen.
+
+“First we found a group of camels, the ones we came for, half a day
+on the Fashi side of Bilma. And some of the men went back with them
+from here. They were afraid, but we went on. As I was the leader I
+went too.
+
+“Then we had news of a caravan of Arabs coming down the road from
+Murzuk, but my men were afraid, for all the Arabs were supposed to have
+rifles—they were only old stone guns [flint-locks]—and horses to
+pursue us. We took counsel, and I agreed to go in and stampede the
+horses, when my men would rush the caravan, which was camped in the
+open under a dune. The dune had a little grass on it. [He then drew a
+rough map of the battle-field on the sand.] So we hid for the night
+behind another dune, and I crept in on the sleeping caravan and lay
+still till dawn, behaving like a Tebu. In the cold before dawn my
+men came up, but the Arabs saw them a little too soon and the alarm
+spread. My men rushed the caravan all right, but one Arab got away on
+his horse, barebacked, with a rifle, and nearly created a panic among
+my men when he sat down to shoot at us from a hill. He only fired two
+shots and they did no harm, but my men ran away till I showed them that
+we had picked up the only other two guns of the caravan. Then my men
+regained courage. We took two hundred laden camels with ‘malti’
+[cotton stuff], tea and sugar, and we emptied even our waterskins to
+fill them with sugar, and still so had to leave much on the ground.”
+
+SELF. “What happened to the Arabs?”
+
+AHODU. “A few were able to run away—the rest died.”
+
+ALI. “Was that the caravan of Rufai el Ghati?”
+
+AHODU. “Yes; why?”
+
+ALI. “I knew the man: he was my friend: and were Muhammad el Seghir
+and El Tunsi and Sheikh el Latif there?”[177]
+
+AHODU. “Yes. I killed them myself, but there was a child . . .”
+
+ALI. “. . . who was not killed but was found with his head all
+covered with blood. He was sitting on the ground playing when someone
+found him.”
+
+AHODU. “Yes, it is so.”
+
+ALI. “I was in Bornu then, waiting for that caravan. Ai! There was
+dismay in Ghat when the news came there. It was you who did that! I
+did not know till now. The boy was my sister’s son. His father was
+her husband.”
+
+AHODU. “Yes (relapsing into silence); and we also got another
+caravan that time.”
+
+SELF. “Will you come on a raid with me one day?”
+
+AHODU (quite seriously). “Wallahi, anywhere; and my people will
+come too, and many more, if you want.”
+
+SELF. “But where shall we go?—there are no caravans now.”
+
+AHODU. “Never mind, there are some fine female camels in Tibesti.”
+
+It was their great sport and had its recognised rules. It kept their
+men virile, but is finished now.
+
+The essence of rapid travel by camel is lightness of equipment. It is
+a mistake to suppose that the actual rate of progression on camels is
+anything but very slow. It may come as a surprise to many to learn
+that even riding camels rarely move out of a walk. They say in the
+Sahara that it is bad for the camel to run. The riding camels of the
+Tuareg are selected and tried beasts, but they are never, in fact,
+trotted except for quite brief periods. The French camel patrols,
+after many years of experience, are by regulation forbidden to move
+out of a walk: the weight of equipment which they have to carry may
+be a reason, but there must be more in it than that, for even raiding
+parties follow the same practice. It is held that the fatigue of
+man and beast consequent upon trotting is disproportionate to the
+results achieved. But the walk of a camel is slow at any time; to
+average 3·5 miles an hour over long distances is very good going,
+while 2·5 with a baggage caravan is all that can be managed.
+
+Where the raider has the advantage over any organised military body
+engaged in chasing him is in the lightness of his load. The Tuareg
+camel saddle weighs a few pounds only; the head-rope or bridle is
+a simple cord without trappings: a small skin of water, a skin of
+dates, a rifle and perhaps twenty to thirty rounds of ammunition
+are the only serious additions to the rider’s own weight. But long
+marches under these conditions are tiring, and scarcely anyone not
+born to the saddle can survive ten to fourteen hours’ riding day
+after day for hundreds of miles on a minimum diet. It is the habit
+of the Tuareg, in Air and elsewhere as well, when they start on
+such expeditions to procure a long length of stuff woven in the
+Sudan and tie it round their bodies as support for the abdomen,
+on which the motion of the camel imposes great strain. In Air the
+stuff they use is rather like a bandage some four inches wide,
+of unbleached and undyed cotton tissue; the material is similar to
+that used for making up robes, for which purpose numerous strips are
+sewn together and then dyed. These strips of cotton stuff are wound
+several times tightly round the waist and then over the shoulders,
+crossing on the breast and back.[178] The practice is particularly
+interesting, because many of the Egyptian pictures of Libyans show the
+belt and cross strapping. In referring to the dress of the Libyans,
+who are often described as “cross-belted,” Bates[179] has made
+a peculiarly apposite remark: “As seen on the Egyptian monuments,
+the Libyan girdles were like some modern polo belts cut broader in the
+back than in the front.” And the Tuareg bandages serve identically
+the same purpose in similar circumstances, namely, during periods of
+great physical strain on the stomach muscles. On the analogy of the
+Tuareg practice, Bates is right in supposing that the Libyan method of
+wearing the “belt” was to pass it several times round the body:
+the end was then pushed “down between the body and the girdle,
+and afterwards again brought up and tucked in.”
+
+To own camels, and yet more camels, is the ultimate ambition of
+every Tuareg. A man may be rich in donkeys, goats or sheep, or he
+may have houses, gardens and slaves, but camels are the coveted
+possessions. Therein the nomadic instinct obtrudes. When I found
+T’ekhmedin at Towar, he possessed the few rags on his back, and a
+garden which just kept him alive. He had no prospects of becoming
+richer; there were no caravans to Ghat, by guiding which he might
+earn his fees: the French he would not serve: his surplus garden
+produce had no market. After I had known him a little while I gave
+him a white cotton robe embroidered on the breast, of the fashion worn
+by the Hausa, but not favoured in Air. One day not long afterwards I
+met him and noticed that he was in his old rags once more. He became
+confused and avoided me. He eventually begged my excuses and hoped
+that I would not be hurt; he had sold the robe I had given him to
+the Sultan of Agades, who had found the Southland fashion more to
+his taste than a true Imajegh would have done. With the proceeds
+of this deal, T’ekhmedin had bought a half-share in a young camel
+which had gone to Bilma in charge of a friend with the great caravan
+to fetch a load of salt. He became more cheerful as he explained. In
+a few weeks if all went well he expected to have enough money to buy
+a small camel of his own, and so build up his fortune once more. He
+nearly wept with gratitude when he had done telling his story. It
+seemed, I had been the means of rehabilitating him in the world of
+men, a prospect which appeared only a short time before to be beyond
+the range of possibility.
+
+                                                              PLATE 21
+
+[Illustration: CAMEL-BRANDS SEEN IN AIR.]
+
+To a European all camels at first look much the same, but a few
+weeks’ association with them enables one rapidly to differentiate
+between the different breeds. They vary as much in build as they do
+in colour. Camels of almost every African and some Arabian varieties
+may, sooner or later, be seen in Air, but only two varieties properly
+belong to the country or to the Tuareg of these parts. The tall,
+sandy-fawn-coloured Tibesti camel, standing an immense height at the
+shoulder, is much prized; the Ghati camel, reddish-fawn in colour,
+is fairly common. The latter is short-legged with heavy stubby bones
+and big foot-pads; he has a straight back, holds his head low, and
+is capable of carrying immense loads over sandy country, but at a
+slower pace than the Tebu animal, which is generally more of the riding
+build. The western camel of Timbuctoo is represented by an animal with
+a well-arched back, generally lighter-limbed and more graceful than
+the Ghati sort. The Ahaggar camel is recognisable by his great height
+and strength, and above all by his very shaggy coat with a long beard
+and fluffy shoulders: he is usually dark in colour. The Maghrabi camel
+also has very hairy shoulders, the colour varying from red-fawn to
+very dark brown. The two types of camels belonging to the Air Tuareg
+are both very distinctive. There is a great white camel and a smaller
+grey or piebald animal. The white camel is said originally to have
+belonged to the Kel Geres, to have been specially bred and brought by
+them originally to the Southland. He has long flat withers and a round
+hump; but either because the Kel Geres in recent years have lived in
+the Southland, or for some other reason connected with their original
+habitat, the white camel is a plain land animal and is almost useless
+on rocky ground. He is consequently not very highly valued in Air.
+
+The true Air camel is very peculiar. The species may be divided into
+two categories, the grey and the piebald, the latter being perhaps
+derived from a cross between the former and some other breed. The
+Air grey is a sturdy and straight-backed animal with sloping quarters
+and a long neck, which he holds rather low. He can carry a fair load
+and negotiate any sort of ground. The colour varies from iron-grey
+to brown-ash and is quite distinctive; the coat is either uniform
+or speckled. Although the Tuareg say that the original stock is the
+piebald, the pure-bred animal apparently has a uniform coat. The
+“type animal” is called the Tegama camel, the iron-grey colour is
+known as “ifurfurzan.” In the parti-coloured animal the markings
+take the form of large patches of dark grey and white with sharp
+edges, as if the skin had been painted, or of small patches giving a
+dappled appearance, or of a combination of the two, or, more rarely, of
+undefined patches merging into one another. Inter-breeding has produced
+the red-fawn and white, and the brown and white animals. Though
+very sturdy, they are light-boned and small-footed, but their short
+legs and short sloping withers give them an agility which is quite
+unbelievable in what the world has always regarded as an ungainly
+animal. The eyes of these camels are sometimes pale blue and white,
+a peculiarity which makes them look very strange. The breed is much
+prized as a curiosity or freak outside Air.
+
+Temajegh, like Arabic, has innumerable names for various types of
+camels. The most valuable animal is the cow-camel which has calved
+once; they are not used more than can be helped for long or very
+strenuous work, because they are, on the whole, not so strong as
+the males. They are rested as much as possible prior to, and after,
+calving. If a cow-camel has calved on the road it is common to see
+the small calf carried on the mother’s back until it is fit to run
+alongside, which is within two or three days. Stud fees are unknown:
+attempts are made as far as possible to avoid cross-breeding. A certain
+Ahmadu of the Kel Tagei is known throughout Air as the possessor of
+the finest herd of pure Tegama cow-camels in the mountains: they are
+maintained exclusively for breeding purposes. These are some of the
+commonest Temajegh names used in Air:
+
+  _Temajegh name._             _Meaning._
+
+  [180]Tefurfuz        Grey and white piebald camel.
+
+       Adignas         White.
+
+       Aberoq          Dark grey.
+
+       Kadigi          Thin.
+
+       Alletat         “White belly.”
+
+       Banghi          “One eye.”
+
+       Awina           Blue (or black) and white-eyed camel.
+
+       Korurimi        “The earless one.”
+
+       Tabzau          White (but not very white) camel.
+
+       Tāurak          Fawn.
+
+       Imusha          White-mouthed.
+
+       Izarf           Light grey.
+
+       Buzak           White-footed.
+
+       Ajmellel        Spotted white.
+
+       Kelbadu         “Big belly.”
+
+       Agoiyam         Tebu camel.
+
+Camels are curiously delicate animals, as anyone who has had
+anything to do with them will know to his cost. They lose condition
+very quickly and mysteriously, and do not regain it easily. Camel
+travelling implies a perpetual fruitless attempt to maintain their
+condition by seeking to reconcile progress and pasturing. The ideal
+is to give the beasts at least four hours’ grazing, which must not
+be at night or in the heat of the day, when the camel is prone to
+rest in the shade of a tree instead of feeding. At the same time,
+when it is very hot it is neither good for man nor beast to march;
+nor should the camel march all night either, when four hours’ rest
+are very desirable. Lastly, it must be remembered that it is tiring
+for camels to be on and off loaded more than once a day, since every
+time they kneel or get up with a heavy burden they are subjected to a
+considerable strain; it is consequently inadvisable to divide a march
+into two parts. To reach a satisfactory compromise is difficult. So
+long as not more than about twenty miles a day are being covered,
+any system works well enough, but where long marches are necessary
+there is no really satisfactory solution. The Tuareg himself usually
+starts late in the morning and marches till dusk, when he off-loads;
+he then drives his camels to pasture, leaving them out all night;
+they are slowly collected after dawn, when they have again begun to
+feed. The disadvantage from the European point of view is that there
+is always some delay in finding the camels in the morning, as one or
+two are sure to have strayed, nor is it always safe to leave camels
+wandering about unguarded at night. The French Camel Corps patrols
+and other Europeans usually prefer to start in the night and march
+until high noon or the early afternoon. I have myself tried every
+course, and with all its disadvantages finally adopted the Tuareg
+system. To these complications must be added the consideration that
+if a camel is watered it should be at noon, when the sun is hot,
+in order to make him drink well. If there is no reason to anticipate
+long waterless journeys, camels are watered every third day, but if
+they are required to cross difficult tracts of desert, the intervals
+must gradually be increased beforehand. Above all, the camel must
+be made really thirsty prior to his final drink before the longest
+waterless portion of the journey is attempted. The camel must start
+almost bursting with the water in his belly.
+
+It is generally more important for a camel not to miss a day’s
+pasture than a day’s water. When the rains have fallen and
+green vegetation is abundant, camels need not be watered for long
+intervals. If they are not being worked they can go for weeks without
+drinking. Camels will eat anything if put to it, from hard grass with
+a straw like wire to any kind of tree or shrub; acacia thorns three and
+four inches long appear to make no difference to his digestion. Pasture
+is the most important factor on the march, for the animal is really
+a fastidious feeder and requires plenty of variety.
+
+The woes which afflict the camel are numerous. First and worst are
+saddle sores, which rapidly become stinking and gangrenous. They
+develop quickly from a slight rub or gall under the saddle, and often
+end by infecting the bones of the spine or ribs. They discharge a
+thick offensive pus either through the sore or under the skin. In
+treating them the first thing to do is to open the wound and let
+the pus escape, after which the best cure, I found as others have
+discovered, is to wash the wound with a strong solution of permanganate
+of potash. Thereafter an iodoform dressing is almost miraculous in its
+quick-healing properties, as it keeps away the flies, and consequently
+obviates maggots and re-infection. The great black crows in Air have
+an odious habit of sitting on the backs of camels and pecking at these
+sores. They do terrible damage with their long powerful beaks. The
+only way to keep them off is to tie a pair of crow’s wings to the
+hair on the hump of the camel. The remedy is sovereign, as I learnt
+by experience, but I am at a loss to explain the psychological process
+governing the action of the live crows which are thus scared away.
+
+Apart from deaths due to eating poisonous plants, which are far more
+numerous in the Southland than in Air, the highest mortality among
+camels in Air comes from a disease known locally as “blood in the
+head.” It is a form of pernicious apoplexy or congestion of blood in
+the head. The early symptoms are hard to observe unless one happens to
+be born a Tuareg. As the attack develops the camel becomes dazed and
+lies in the sun with rather a glassy stare, instead of feeding. Later
+it runs about, hitting its head against trees, and finally falls to the
+ground in contortions, dying very rapidly of a stroke. The disease is
+especially common after the rains, when the pasture is rich or when
+the animals are idle, recovering condition. If they are left in the
+Southland for the whole year, the rich feeding there aggravates the
+incidence of the disease. An attack may be staved off by the remedy,
+which is also used for dealing with refractory animals, namely, of
+putting tobacco snuff in their eyes. This apparently cruel treatment is
+singularly efficacious, and I can only suppose that the irritation or
+smarting has the effect of a stimulant which draws or dispels the blood
+pressure. When the disease is more advanced, resort has to be had to
+blood-letting; the jugular artery is cut a span below the left ear and
+blood is drawn to an amount which will fill three cup-shaped hollows
+in the ground made by removing a double handful of sand or earth
+from each. The blood is seen at first to flow very dark in colour;
+as it gradually resumes its normal hue, the hæmorrhage is stopped
+by taking a tuft of hair, dipping it into the coagulated blood and
+inserting it in the cut. As soon as a clot is formed the incision
+is covered with sand. The whole proceeding sounds a fantastically
+imprudent and septic way of dealing with an arterial hæmorrhage,
+but it works most successfully. If camels are sickening for disease,
+and especially for “blood in the head,” which may sometimes be
+recognised by the premonitory symptom of very hard, dry droppings,
+they are dosed with a mixture made of tobacco leaf, onion, and the
+seed of grain called “Araruf,” containing a pungent oil apparently
+of the mustard variety. These ingredients are pounded up, mixed with
+about a gallon of water and poured down the camel’s throat.
+
+Firing is resorted to for various ills, especially around bad sores
+to prevent them from spreading and to induce healing. A cow is very
+often fired across the flanks after calving, when she is also given
+a goatskin-full of millet and water “to fill up the empty space
+in her belly.” Firing round the breast pad is carried out when
+the animal is suffering from the disease which causes the pad to
+split. Mange is fairly frequent, and is treated with a mixture of oil
+and ashes. The worst disease of all is called “Tara,” for which
+there is said to be no cure: the symptoms are a wasting of the legs,
+and eventual death from debility and breakage of the bones: luckily
+I had no experience of the malady, which is said to be infectious or
+contagious. The Tuareg say that there is no reason for its coming,
+but that Allah sometimes unaccountably sends it.
+
+The Tuareg empiric remedies, other than those described, are not
+interesting except in their treatment of gangrenous wounds. When they
+have washed the wound with a lotion of female camel urine or brewed
+from one of several plants which seem to have remarkably little effect,
+they cover the exposed flesh with a powder of crumbled donkey droppings
+dried in the sun. I was appalled at the danger of septic infection
+when I first saw the practice, but soon discovered that the powder,
+which had, I supposed, become sterilised in the sun, was a really
+effectual method of preventing the great harm caused by flies settling
+on the wound. I can now confidently recommend this practice.
+
+Camels, of course, are branded with tribal marks, a complete study
+of which would be worth making. Each mark has its own name, and many
+of them are derived from certain known symbols or perhaps letters,
+all of which call for investigation in connection with marks from
+other parts of Africa. Some of the principal brands in Air are given
+in Plate 21, the most interesting being the mark of the Ghati Tuareg
+(Azger); it is called the Hatita, after the name of the famous leader
+of Barth’s day.
+
+This necessarily brief note on the animal which is so intimately
+bound up with the life of the People of the Veil, not to say their
+very existence, may be supplemented by some mention of the other
+domestic animals of Air.
+
+In Nigeria the best horses are described as Asben horses; yet in Air
+there is hardly a horse to be seen. The explanation is presumably
+that the Tuareg bring, or used to bring, the best horses for sale in
+Hausaland; but they were not necessarily bred in Air. The supposition
+is reasonable, for the Tuareg north of Sokoto, and especially the
+Aulimmiden, west of Air, possess a number of horses which are renowned
+for their hardiness, and of course all Tuareg in the Southland are
+called Asbenawa. In Air the best of the few horses are, with an
+even lesser show of logic, described as Bagezan horses; but there
+are no horses in the mountains. The tracks are far too rough for
+there ever at any time to have been a considerable number of horses
+in the hills. I can offer no explanation of the name. Air is not a
+horse-breeding country. The pasture is too rough even after the rains,
+while during the dry season the only green stuff is on the trees,
+which, even if it were good fodder for horses, could only be reached
+by animals of the build of camels. The few horses which I saw in Air
+belonged to the Sultan at Agades and to the Añastafidet. They were
+small and wiry but rather nondescript, a variable cross of Arab and
+Sudanese blood; in no case could they be said to represent an “Air
+breed.” The Tuareg say the horse came to Air from the north, and
+in point of fact all those I saw bore a certain resemblance to the
+little animals of Tripolitania. There are probably not more than 100
+horses in Air altogether to-day. Water is far too scarce a commodity
+for horses to be much used for travelling. Those in the mountains
+are never watered more than once a day, and can easily do three days
+between drinking without undue fatigue.
+
+The other domestic animals are donkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, dogs and
+a few Hausa cats. Falconry is not a pastime in Air. The cattle come
+from the south; they are of the humped and ordinary varieties. The
+bulls are used for drawing water from the garden irrigation wells;
+cows are more scarce. Before the war the Tuareg used to carry on an
+active trade in cattle, buying from the Fulani in Damergu and selling
+to the people of Ghat and the Fezzan. Incredible as it may seem,
+cattle used to be driven over the roads to Ghat after the rains, and
+do as much as four and five days without water. The mortality must have
+been considerable, but their cheapness in the Southland made the trade
+profitable. It is curious how all the animals in Air, including man,
+seem to get used to going without water for long periods. Oxen are
+used to a certain extent as pack animals both in Air and Damergu;
+Barth started his journey from Northern Air to Agades on an ox;
+he considered this mount indifferent as a means of transport, for
+he fell off and nearly broke his compass. The association of cattle
+with a well-watered country where they can drink every day must be
+dismissed in the Sahara, and this disposes of one of the difficulties
+surrounding the problem of the ox-drawn chariots of the Garamantes
+which so exercised Duveyrier;[181] loaded oxen can march comfortably
+with water only every third day.
+
+The donkey is very nearly as good a performer in the desert as the
+camel. In austerity of diet he is better, being less fastidious
+about pasture and quite as capable of doing four and five days in
+cold weather, between wells. But his pace is even slower than that of
+the camel, and his maximum load should not exceed 100 lbs. Curiously
+enough, donkeys suffer from the same disease as camels after the rains:
+they get “blood in the head,” but in their case a treatment of
+snuff in the eyes is said to be useless. They have to be bled by
+making an incision with a curious bent iron instrument in the roof
+of the mouth above the lower molars. The operation looks ridiculous,
+but the donkey is always a humorous beast. The ones in Air and nearly
+all those in the Southland are small grey animals, standing not more
+than four feet from the ground, with straight knife-edged backs. I
+saw none of the large white donkeys of Egypt. Near T’imia and in
+the north-eastern parts of Air there are a number of wild donkeys,
+roaming unbroken and unherded. They are the descendants of domestic
+donkeys driven out to propagate and find their own livelihood by
+certain tribes who claim them when captured in their own areas. These
+animals, like the gazelle of the country, exist on pasture alone, for
+they often encounter no open water to drink for ten months of the year.
+
+The commonest domestic animals are the sheep and goats. Every village
+and tribe has large herds. After the camels they constitute the
+principal wealth of the people and do exceedingly well. The sheep
+are all of the gaunt wire-haired variety without woollen fleeces,
+resembling goats. The latter provide most of the milk in the villages,
+and vary in colour from white to black, with every intermediate shade
+of brown and type of marking. Curiously enough, none of the Tuareg
+of Air, and, I believe, none of the other groups, either spin the
+hair of goats or the wool of their own camels. A good sheep in 1922
+could be bought for six to seven and a goat for four to five silver
+francs. Camels ranged between £5 and £12 a head.
+
+The number of domestic animals in Air, hard and barren as the country
+seems to be, is surprisingly large. In a rough classifying census of
+the Tuareg of Air, including only a few tribes in the Southland and
+not counting either the Kel Geres or Aulimmiden, Jean[182] in 1904
+estimated (Column I) the numbers as follows:
+
+                       I.         II.       III.       IV.
+
+  Camels             20,150     20,000     60,000     25,000
+
+  Horses                554        600       —           100
+
+  Cattle              2,491      2,600       —         1,000
+
+  Donkeys             2,840      3,000       —         2,500
+
+  Sheep and Goats    51,300     45,000    400,000    450,000
+
+The figures in Column II are Chudeau’s[183] estimate of 1909,
+while those in Column III were compiled by another authority: those
+in Column IV are my present estimate. There is little doubt that the
+number of camels in Air before the war was grossly under-estimated
+by the early authorities. From fear of taxation and requisition the
+Tuareg will resort to every device to conceal their possessions,
+and especially the number of their camels. The same applies to their
+sheep and goats. In 1913 the number of camels in Air was put down at
+60,000, which then was probably a reasonable figure. The herds were
+seriously depleted by the requisitions made for the expeditions of
+1913-14 to Tibesti, when not less than 23,000 camels were taken,
+few of which ever returned to the country. This was certainly one
+of the principal grievances which led to the 1917 revolution. During
+the operations of 1917-18 the herds were further diminished, and have
+only recently again begun to increase at a rate which is bound to be
+slow when it is realised that a camel cannot be worked at all till it
+is over three years old, and ought not to be worked till it is five,
+while from seven years onward it is at its prime for only about five
+years. Nowadays there are probably not more than about 25,000 camels
+in Air; the sheep and goats, however, have once more reached their
+pre-war figure, which must have been nearly half a million.[184]
+
+The last domestic animals worth mentioning are the dogs, of a type
+usually resembling inferior Arabian gazelle hounds, with short hair,
+often brown in colour, or with the brown or liver-and-white markings
+like foxhounds. The “pi” dog, which is so common in the north of
+Africa, I never saw in Air. Dogs are interesting owing to the friendly
+way in which they are treated by the Tuareg; they are much more
+the companions of man than is usual among Moslems, a characteristic
+which has probably survived from pre-Moslem days. Duveyrier refers
+to three types of dog among the Tuareg: a greyhound (_lévrier_),
+a long-haired Arab dog which is very rare, and a short-haired cross
+from these two. The latter appears to be the domestic dog in Air.[185]
+
+Chickens are common and are eaten. In this the southern Tuareg differ
+from the Tuareg of the north, among whom Duveyrier specifically states
+that chickens, other birds and eggs are prohibited as food.[186]
+
+But all domestic animals sink into insignificance in comparison with
+the camel, whose rôle is so outstanding in the nomadic life of the
+Tuareg that one wonders how the inhabitants of the Sahara can have
+lived before the advent of this animal, which is usually supposed to
+have come from the East at a comparatively late date in history.
+
+The camel in Africa offers a most interesting historical problem around
+which there has been much inconclusive scientific dispute. The camel
+does not appear on Egyptian monuments before the Saitic period, and is
+not mentioned as living in Africa either by Herodotus or by Sallust,
+when the horse and probably the donkey were the ordinary means of
+transport of the nomads. It is fairly clear that the Carthaginians
+did not use camels, or we should certainly have found some reference
+to the animal in the accounts of the Punic or Jugurthine wars. It is
+said by so eminent an authority as Basset[187] that none of the Berber
+dialects contain any names for the camel which cannot be traced to
+Arabic origins, but this generalisation is also disputed. Sallust[188]
+says the Romans first saw a camel when they fought Mithridates at
+Rhyndacus, but Plutarch says it was at the battle of Magnesia in _c._
+190 B.C. The first text mentioning camels in Africa is in the account
+of the fighting with Juba, when Cæsar[189] captured twenty-two on
+the Zeta. A camel figures on a coin attributed either to L. Lollius
+Palicanus, a prefect of Cyrenaica under Augustus, or alternatively
+to L. Lollius, a lieutenant of Pompey,[190] but the first mention of
+camels in any large numbers is during the Empire, when in the late
+fourth century A.D. the general Romanus requisitioned 4000 animals
+for transport purposes from the inhabitants of Leptis Magna.[191]
+Other sources, including sculptures and texts of this period from now
+on, confirm their frequency, and by the time Corippus was writing the
+camel was the normal means of transport in the interior. The silence of
+Pliny[192] the Elder is valuable, if negative, evidence for Africa, as
+he mentions camels in Bactria and Arabia, and speaks of the East as the
+home of this animal. He knows nothing of them apparently in Africa. It
+is on such evidence that it has been supposed that camels were first
+introduced into Cyrenaica[193] from Sinai and Arabia. The conclusion
+would be more readily acceptable were it not for the unfortunate
+discoveries of camel skeletons associated with evidence of human
+industry of the Pleistocene period in more than one palæolithic site
+in North Africa.[194] In rock drawings the camel, of course, figures
+largely; these glyphs may not be of extreme antiquity, but they are
+quite possibly prior to the earliest classical references. It has been
+said that in really early rock drawings the camel is not represented,
+but neither has any complete catalogue of the drawings yet been made,
+nor has any conclusive scheme of dating been compiled. The question
+remains undecided, for although the camel was rare on the coast in
+early historical times, there is no evidence that it was not used more
+extensively in the interior. It is difficult consequently to discuss
+the question of early transport methods in the Sahara, of which I
+would only say that conditions of water supply have apparently for
+several thousand years been much as they certainly were throughout
+historical and modern times. An interesting theory has lately been
+advanced that there is an African and an Eastern species of camel
+distinguished by the peculiarity that some camels have one and some
+two canine teeth on each side of the upper jaw.
+
+In the absence of any conclusive evidence it is safest to assume,
+as do most authorities, that the camel was not common in North Africa
+till as late as the second century A.D.
+
+Gsell[195] makes an interesting suggestion that “La prospérité
+de la Tripolitaine prit certainement un grand essor sous la dynastie
+des Sévères, dont le chef était originaire de Leptis Magna. Ce fut
+à cette époque que Rome mit des garnisons dans les oases situées
+sur les routes du Soudan, ce qui favorisa évidemment le commerce des
+caravanes. Peut-être le développement du trafic trans-saharien fit
+alors adopter définitivement l’usage du chameau.” The problem of
+what transport was used before this period is only in part answered
+by Herodotus,[196] who tells us that the Garamantes harnessed
+oxen to carts, a statement which is confirmed from other sources,
+which add that cattle were used as beasts of burden as well. Whether
+wheeled vehicles ever reached Air is doubtful,[197] but the use of the
+pack-ox there continues as it does in the south. Whatever the means of
+transport which they favoured in their original northern homes, the
+Tuareg were already using camels when they reached Air. Dissociation
+of the Tuareg from his camel is difficult to conceive, since his life
+to-day as a nomad is so intimately bound up with the animal, which
+in turn has served so strongly to maintain his nomadic instinct. Of
+all animals it alone enables the Tuareg to remain to a great extent
+independent of his physical surroundings. Neither oxen nor donkeys
+could do so to the same extent.
+
+The historical and anthropological aspect of the introduction of the
+ox and camel into Africa, and the identification of the races with
+which these animals were associated, are questions which concern
+the general story of North Africa rather than that of the Tuareg in
+particular. Fundamentally the Tuareg remains the pure nomad even when
+his habitat has changed and circumstances have obliged him to settle
+in villages or on the land. In Air all the truest nomads inhabit the
+Talak plain and the N.W. of the plateau, with the one great exception
+of the Ifadyen tribe, which during the last generation has moved
+south to Azawagh and Tegama. The true nomads have no fixed centres
+of permanent habitation whatsoever, thereby differing considerably
+from many of the purest Arabian nomads. But, unlike the latter again,
+they do not migrate very far afield; their winter and summer pastures
+are usually not very distant from each other. The only exception that
+I know to this rule is the case of some of the Ahaggaren, who send
+their herds to graze as far afield as the Adghar n’Ifoghas[198]
+and at times Damergu.[199]
+
+                                                              PLATE 22
+
+[Illustration: 1. Ornamentation on shields.
+
+  2. Clay cooking pot.
+
+  3. Clay water pot.
+
+  4. Axe.
+
+  5. Adze.
+
+  6. Drum: calabash in a bowl.
+
+  7. Drum: millet mortar.]
+
+For many months of the year after the rains the true nomads do not even
+trouble to cluster round a group of wells; living on the milk of their
+camels and goats, they dispense with water for weeks on end. So long
+as their camels are only pasturing and the fodder is green they do not
+require to be watered. They are therefore able to live many days from
+the nearest wells. In such conditions water is a luxury, for it entails
+long marches and is not essential to man or beast. In South-eastern
+Air I came across a small party of Kel Takrizat, who had wandered some
+distance away from their usual grounds in North-western Air, to an area
+which had been uninhabited since the war. I was riding out from Tabello
+on the upper Beughqot valley to look for an old village site of which
+I had heard. Neither my companion, Alwali, nor I had any baggage,
+and we were short of water, as the skin I carried was leaky. For a
+mere two days’ journey Alwali had not thought it worth while to
+bring any food for himself except a small skin of millet meal milk,
+which he had finished early the first afternoon. In the evening we
+entered a wide valley known as Tsabba,[200] where we saw a number of
+camels pasturing. We discovered that they belonged to a charming man
+called Ahmadu ag Musa. The valley was about miles broad from lip to
+lip, very green and full of a veitch-like plant called “Alwat,”
+which contains much moisture. The bottom under the steep sides lay
+some 100 feet below the level of the plain, which was covered with
+round basalt boulders wherever there were not hillocks of bare rock
+rising above it. It is a very arid country looking out towards the
+Eastern Desert, where the last rocks of Air are swallowed up in sand
+some thirty miles further on. Ahmadu’s camp consisted of a few mats
+spread under two or three little trees. As we reached it he came out
+to meet us. When he found out who we were, he asked me to spend the
+night with him; and this, having at the time intermittent fever which
+was due that evening, I willingly agreed to do, provided he could let
+me have some water. He regretted that he had no water, as he had not
+been near a well for three weeks, but his men went to fetch milk. I
+had barely dismounted and agreed to stay when a man ran up with a mat
+for me to sit on and a bowl of sour milk to drink. Among the Tuareg,
+if a man comes as a guest his host is personally responsible for
+his guest’s life, camels and property, so a slave unsaddled my two
+camels and hobbled them in the usual way by tying the two fore fetlocks
+together with the short hobble rope which everyone carries. My animals
+were driven off to feed with Ahmadu’s herd of piebald cow camels. I
+thought at first it was part of the famous Tegama herd of Ahmadu of
+the Kel Tagei, but it turned out to be another Ahmadu.
+
+I met him only that once, and for a few moments two days later
+at Tabello. I have the pleasantest recollections of a great
+gentleman. We sat talking of the impending departure of the salt
+caravan for Bilma. The sun set slowly, and, as the light grew less,
+the cruel gleam left the basalt and granite of the plateau beyond
+the eastern lip of the valley. The rocks ceased to look metallic
+in the dance of the hot air, and became soft red and purple in the
+green-blue sky. Here and there white sand from the outer desert had
+been washed up against the hillocks. Mount Gorset, with one slope
+inundated by the sand flood, lay just north of the valley where
+we sat surrounded by acacia bushes and “Alwat.” The wind had
+fallen. More and more food was brought for us to eat, all of it of
+the sort on which the true nomad lives. Cheese, sweet and sour milk,
+curdled milk, whey water, some cakes of baked burr-grass seed and
+a very little millet. We sat down to eat; they thought I wanted to
+eat alone at first, but became more friendly when they saw that some
+white men were only human like themselves. A pot of cooked millet
+meal was set down in the middle; luckily they had added salt to
+the porridge. Each man in turn ate a mouthful from the big wooden
+spoon and handed it on to his neighbour. I ate little, having fever,
+but drank much milk, both sweet and sour. The former arrived during
+the meal, warm and fresh from the camel. It is best quite fresh;
+when it gets cold in the night it is good too, but becomes rather
+salt and thin to the taste. We went on eating slowly in the evening,
+and suddenly night came with a greenish light in the west behind our
+backs. Milk was left for me to drink during the night; a slave was
+told to fill my skin with millet meal and milk for the next day. We
+went on talking, and then the snuff-box was passed round. The Tuareg
+in Air do not smoke: their only vice, in the austere life they lead,
+is to take snuff, when they can get it, or to chew green tobacco mixed
+with a little saltpetre to bring out the taste. The tobacco and snuff
+are traded from the Southland: the saltpetre is found in Air, and is
+also used in cooking, for they say that a pinch in the stew-pot makes
+the meat cook in half the usual time. Presently I turned over to go
+to sleep on Ahmadu’s mat, in a blanket which I had brought. He and
+Alwali went on talking far into the night, for they were old friends:
+Alwali had travelled with him when he was a boy many years ago.
+
+I thought of how very happy these nomads were. They have no possessions
+to speak of: a few mats, the clothes they wear, some water-skins, some
+camel trappings, a few weapons, some gourds and bowls, a cooking-pot
+or two and their camels. They have no routine of life, and no
+cares except to wonder if a raiding party will or will not happen on
+them. Even in their normal centres where their tribes are living more
+or less permanently they often have neither tents nor covering. At
+the best their tent is a leather roof made of two or three ox skins
+carried on a few poles, with brushwood laid across so that the top is
+dome-shaped. The sides are enclosed with vertical mats, and inside,
+if they are rich, they have a bed—two poles supported on four forked
+sticks stuck in the ground, with six transverse poles overlaid with
+stiff mats, woven of “Afaza” grass and strips of leather. On
+this bed, which is perhaps eight feet square, the whole family sleeps
+during the rains. At other times they sleep anywhere, on a mat on the
+ground. Their smaller possessions are carried in a leather sack of
+tanned goatskins, dyed and ornamented with fringes. All the belongings
+of a rich family could be loaded on one, certainly on two camels. So
+they move about looking for pasture. They are independent of water;
+their camels and goats provide both food and drink, the grasses of the
+field a change of diet; a slaughtered sheep or millet porridge is their
+luxury. When they want a fire they kindle it by rubbing a small green
+stick cut about the size of, and sharpened like, a pencil on a dry
+stick; the dust and fibre rubbed off the dry wood collect at one end
+of the channel which has been rubbed, and when the friction is enough,
+ignites. They do not even require flint and steel. I am sure they
+must be very happy, for they want so little and could have so much
+when the value of their herds often runs into thousands of pounds,
+but they prefer the freedom of the open world. They are even envied
+by the village dwellers, whose sole ambition is to make enough money
+to buy camels and live in the same way as their wandering kinsmen.
+
+
+[Footnote 175: This name would perhaps be more correctly written Teouar
+for the “o” is pronounced as if with a London Cockney accent.]
+
+[Footnote 176: Plate 20.]
+
+[Footnote 177: For certain reasons the names are fictitious.]
+
+[Footnote 178: See rock drawing at T’imia, Plate 40.]
+
+[Footnote 179: Bates, _op. cit._, p. 126, and Figs. 17, 20 and 24,
+where the belt and cross are plainly shown.]
+
+[Footnote 180: The initial “T” represents a feminine form.]
+
+[Footnote 181: _Vide infra_, Chap. X.]
+
+[Footnote 182: Jean, _op. cit._, Chap. XIII.]
+
+[Footnote 183: Chudeau, _op. cit._, _Sahara Soudanais_, pp. 71-2.]
+
+[Footnote 184: It must be remembered that since the evacuation of
+1918 many of these animals are with their owners in Southern Air,
+Damergu, and the south, pending a return to normal conditions.]
+
+[Footnote 185: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 234.]
+
+[Footnote 186: _Ibid._, p. 401, _et infra_, Chap. XVIII.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Basset, in the _Actes du XIVme Congrès des
+Orientalistes_, II. p. 69 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 188: _Apud_ Plutarchus, _Lucullus_, XI. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 189: _De Bello Africano_, LXVIII. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 190: Tissot, _Géographie Comparée de la Province Romaine
+d’Afrique_. Paris, 1884-8. Vol. I. p. 350.]
+
+[Footnote 191: _Ammianus Marcellinus_ XXVIII. 6. 5, and others.]
+
+[Footnote 192: _Pliny_, VIII. 67.Cf. _Strabo_, XVII. 1. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 193: Cf. _Strabo_, XVII. 1. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 194: References in Gsell, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 102
+and 105.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Gsell, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 60, note 8.]
+
+[Footnote 196: Herodotus, IV. 183.]
+
+[Footnote 197: _Vide infra_, Chap. X.]
+
+[Footnote 198: Mission Cortier, _D’une rive à l’autre du Sahara_,
+p. 355.]
+
+[Footnote 199: Observation of the author in Damergu in December 1922.]
+
+[Footnote 200: The Tesabba valley of the Cortier map. It runs into
+the Afasas valley, which joins the Beughqot valley further down.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                         TRADE AND OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+The Auderas country, still almost in Tegama, is far less interesting
+ethnically than the north or east. The old permanent habitations in
+the area are less characteristic of the Tuareg; there are hardly any
+inscriptions or rock drawings, with the exception of the large group
+at T’in Wana, and a few scattered about elsewhere. Owing to the many
+pools and “eresan”[201] there are no deep wells. At Auderas itself
+there are some ruined stone-built dwellings of the later type, but a
+few earlier examples may be seen both there and at Abattul, a village
+about two miles to the N.E. in the same basin of valleys. A famous
+mosque was founded there by Muhammad Abd el Kerim el Baghdadi. Abattul
+village lies between the domed peaks of Faken[202] and Mt. Abattul,
+which is itself a spur of Mount Todra. Behind, and between them, a
+valley and rough track run north to Mount Dogam. Just south of the
+village are the valleys which converge from Todra and Faken on the
+main Auderas basin. From Auderas Mount Faken is a prominent object on
+the northern horizon with a rounded top and vertical black sides which
+look unscalable. Almost at the foot of Faken on the Abattul side is
+a pool in a deep gorge, usually containing water enough to swim in
+most of the year. The path from Auderas to Abattul is very rough,
+as it crosses and re-crosses several small valleys where gazelle,
+some wild pig, and occasionally monkeys are to be found. Abattul
+village lies just under a low white cliff in which there are a few
+caves and many smaller holes inhabited by owls and night birds. It
+was the first settlement in the basin and was only gradually abandoned
+as the country became less subject to raids and war. The inhabitants
+had settled in this place so that they could easily take refuge in
+the inaccessible crags of Mount Todra just behind their village, in
+time of raids. Even nowadays the folk from Auderas have to resort to
+the mountain from time to time, but not so often as to prevent them
+from living further away. The stone mosque at Abattul is one of the
+few in Air which is still used for prayer.[203]
+
+The main road from Auderas to Northern Air runs over very rocky
+ground to a plain west of Faken, bordered by two valleys on the
+east and by low hills on the west side. The latter continue for some
+distance along the valley of Auderas until it eventually reaches the
+foothills of Air on the Talak plain. The different groups of hills are
+known by names which the Itesan sub-tribes adopted and retained.[204]
+The plain north of Agades is the Erarar n’Dendemu of Barth:[205] it
+contains El Baghdadi’s place of prayer mentioned by the traveller,
+lying under a small hill. Turning left here into more broken country
+by a small tributary the track enters the Ighaghrar valley, which
+descends from the Gissat and T’Sidderak hills.[206]
+
+At the head of the basin a steep drop leads into a valley flowing north
+between Mount Bila to the west and Mount Dogam to the east. This drop,
+the descent of Inzerak, is equivalent to the ascent south of Auderas
+at T’inien on to the central platform of the plateau. It leads into
+one of the most beautiful valleys in Air, called Assada, the head
+of which, at right angles to its main direction, is formed by small
+ravines draining Mount Dogam. It runs along the eastern foot of Bila
+and falls into Anu Maqaran, the central basin of Air. When we came
+into Assada there were two or three pools near the foot of Inzerak;
+further up the T’ighummar tributary lay a small village of stone
+houses with a deep well and mosque on an alternative loop road from
+Auderas branching off at the place of prayer of El Baghdadi. This
+alternative track was the one taken by Barth in 1850; it debouches
+into the Tegidda valley, a tributary of the Assada from the north,
+at Aureran well.
+
+I camped in Assada three times in all, twice near the foot of
+the descent and once a mile or so further down at the wells
+of Tamenzaret,[207] which are temporary and require to be dug
+again every year. The deep narrow valley with its sandy bed and
+immense trees growing in the thick vegetation on both banks was
+magnificent. Towering up on either side the red mountains framed,
+in a cleft towards the east, the cone of Dogam seated on a pedestal
+of black lava and basalt. Most of the Dogam massif is so rough as to
+be impassable. It seems to be a volcanic intrusion in the Todra group,
+to which it really belongs. I suspect that the basalt boulders covering
+the plain north and south of Auderas, and perhaps certain features
+of Todra itself, owe their origin to the Dogam activity. But Bila
+is hardly less imposing: on the Assada side it presents a wall of
+vivid red rock. The fine clean colours of dawn on the first morning
+I saw the mountains against a cold blue sky offered the most lovely
+spectacle I saw in all Air.
+
+The Assada and T’ighummar valleys are inhabited by a northern section
+of the Kel Nugguru, who pasture their goats and camels there, and owe
+allegiance to Ahodu of Auderas. There are a few ruined stone houses
+below Tamenzaret and the remains of a mosque at the old deep well of
+Aureran, where the main road divides. From here one branch proceeds
+north past another ruined settlement to the Arwa Mellen valley and
+mountain, the other turns east towards the upper part of the Anu
+Maqaran basin. I took the latter road to T’imia. It crossed several
+broad valley beds flowing northwards from Dogam, notably the Bacos,
+where there is a village and palm grove, and the Elazzas not far from
+where they fall into Anu Maqaran. The road I have had occasion to
+mention as running from Agades by the Ara valley over the shoulder
+of Dogam descends from the Central massif by Bacos or Elazzas. The
+latter corresponds to the Ara on the other side of the Dogam pass. By
+these two the Todra-Dogam group is divided from Bagezan.
+
+Near its junction with the main Anu Maqaran valley, the Elazzas is
+a broad bed between low rocky banks. At a certain point where it
+crosses a ridge of rock large quantities of water are held up in the
+sand. The remains of a recent village with a few date palms appear on
+the site. The rocks in the neighbourhood bear a few rude pictures, but
+the ruins, a few round pedestal foundations of loose stones some 15-20
+feet in diameter and 2-3 feet high, on which reed huts used to stand,
+are uninteresting. Bila from here has the appearance of a long flat
+ridge, in pleasant contrast to the isolated peaks of Aggata and Arwa in
+the north, or the confused mass of Bagezan to the south and south-east.
+
+The upper part of the Anu Maqaran valley where the Bagezan and the
+Agalak mountains at the western side of the T’imia massif approach
+one another is called Abarakan. The road passes a large cemetery and
+the valley narrows between high hills with bare sides until a big fork
+is reached: one valley goes north to T’imia village, the other south,
+emerging on the central plateau east of the Bagezan mountains.
+
+T’imia village is a veritable mountain fastness. The Agalak-T’imia
+massif was evidently highly volcanic, for a great flow of basalt
+overlying pink granite boulders has taken place along the valley
+towards Abarakan. The track climbs steadily over the broken lava
+stream. The going is rough. Then suddenly the track seems to end
+altogether below an overhanging cliff of lava some 30 feet high lying
+right across the bed of the ravine. We reached this point and found
+the men of T’imia had come down to meet us in order to help our
+camels to negotiate the path which follows a narrow crevasse in one
+side of the cliff. The cleft is so narrow that a camel with a bulky
+load cannot pass at all; it is so steep that the poor animals were
+forced to proceed in a series of ungainly lurches or jumps. Above
+the cliff the valley broadens out again, and where two small side
+valleys enter it lies the modern village of T’imia.
+
+                                                              PLATE 23
+
+[Illustration: TIMIA GORGE]
+
+[Illustration: TIMIA GORGE: PINK GRANITE TO LEFT, BLACK BASALT
+TO RIGHT]
+
+This settlement of Kel Owi nobles is very different from the servile
+Auderas. The parentage of these Kel Owi may be obscure and mixed, but
+their physique, the general cleanliness of the place and the neatness
+of their domed huts stamp them as nobles. The dwellings stand grouped
+in compounds, or sometimes as single huts, scattered between a row of
+gardens with irrigation wells, and the slope of a hill covered with
+huge boulders. In one of the smaller side valleys is a large grove
+of date palms with most of the gardens, near the site of the older
+village, a collection of rectangular masonry houses in ruins, and round
+hut sites marked by a ring of stones and a hearth. The little mosque
+of stone and mud construction lies between the old and new villages,
+but it was desecrated by the French soldiers and is no longer used. A
+matting shelter and compound in the new settlement serve to-day both
+for a place of prayer and a school, presided over by the ’alim
+’Umbellu. Though over sixty he still works daily in his garden
+in the intervals of teaching the children of the village. Fugda,
+chief of T’imia, is one of the cleverest men in Air. Under the
+guidance of these two men the community has prospered. The villagers
+are enterprising. In the changing conditions of things they are
+an exception to the usual rule, for the men combine caravaning and
+trading on a large scale with gardening and date cultivation, without
+the help of any Imghad. When we came this way some of their camels were
+fattening in Abarakan ready to go to Bilma with the annual salt caravan
+in charge of a selected party of men. Another herd of some 100 head
+was going to Damergu to fetch millet for sale to the French post at
+Agades, and later I met yet another drove in Assada going south from
+Iferuan by way of Auderas to fetch more grain for sale in Northern
+Air after working on transport duties in Nigeria for the winter.
+
+The life of the camel-owning Tuareg may be said to centre round
+the autumn salt caravan, which all the best camels accompany. It
+usually leaves in October, starting from Tabello[208] in the upper
+Beughqot valley, where parties from all over Air, Damergu and the
+Southland rendezvous in order to start together. Since the war these
+caravans have been comparatively small, but even during the last few
+years they have numbered 5000 camels. Ever since the occupation of
+Agades by the French, the Camel Corps has been turned out to guard
+the concentration and escort the caravan across the desert, for so
+valuable a congregation of camels might any year, as it sometimes
+did in the past, prove an irresistible temptation for raiders. The
+largest caravan ever escorted reached the fantastic total of over
+30,000 camels. The caravan marches for five days to the oasis of
+Fashi, where it is joined by a smaller caravan from Damagarim via
+Termit. There, a halt is made for a short time to water and feed on
+whatever scanty pasture is available, and in some three more days Bilma
+is reached. The animals go out empty except for a little grain or live
+meat in the form of goats and sheep, and some trade goods for the Tebu
+and Kanuri inhabitants of Fashi and Kawar and Tibesti. They bring back
+salt and dates both from Fashi and Bilma. The latter place has perhaps
+the finest salt deposits in Africa. It costs nothing to get except the
+labour at the pans of making it up into loaves and loading it wrapped
+in matting bales. The outlay may be threepence to fivepence a load, in
+addition to an export tax of two francs per camel levied by the French
+authorities. The salt is sold in Hausaland for anything up to 7_s._
+or more a loaf according to the time of year. As a fully-grown camel
+can carry four to six loaves of salt, the trade is extremely lucrative.
+
+Both Fashi, or Agram as the place is also called, and Kawar have
+practically no pasture, and the few camels which live permanently
+there eat dates. The desert for five and a half days between Tabello
+and Fashi and three days between Fashi and Bilma is not only waterless
+but also nearly pastureless as well. The camels start out loaded with
+a sufficient supply of fodder for the outward and return journeys;
+the huge bales of grass are dropped _en route_ at the end of each
+day’s march to provide for the equivalent return stage. Since
+the practice of escorting caravans has been instituted the French
+authorities quite rightly forbid isolated parties crossing the desert
+and attracting raiders to the neighbourhood. The route now chosen
+for the caravan runs from Tabello to Tazizilet on the edge of the
+Air mountains, and then straight across to Fashi in an almost due
+easterly direction. Formerly another road, which was more convenient
+for the northern tribes of Air, was also in use. It left the mountains
+at Agamgam pool in North-east Air and went to Ashegur well, north of
+Fashi; this way the distances between watering-points was shortened,
+and there was also rather more pasture.
+
+This annual salt caravan is the largest enterprise of its sort in the
+world at the present time. It is called in Air the “Taghalam,” a
+word derived from “aghelam,” meaning a “prize camel,” but the
+French call it the “Azalai,” which means the “Parting” or the
+“Separation,” the name given to a similar caravan which annually
+leaves Timbuctoo to collect salt at Taodenit for sale along the Niger.
+
+With the advent of European salt in Nigeria the trade has become
+somewhat less remunerative, as the Air “Taghalam” no longer enjoys
+its ancient monopoly in the Central Sudan, but the infinitesimal cost
+of production and the cheap transport in the hands of nomads will
+always enable it to compete with the imported European trade product
+to some extent. Bilma salt is of good quality; it is comparatively
+free from sand or medicinal chemicals and is preferred by the natives
+of the south to the purer European product. The loaves are made up
+in conical form and are pink in colour, standing some 18-24″ high
+by 9-12″ at the base.
+
+The return journey of the “Taghalam” follows the same course as
+the outward one. The whole trip, which is extremely strenuous for
+men and camels alike, takes some three weeks. There are always a
+number of casualties among the camels from exhaustion, but so large
+are the profits that every Tuareg is ready to take the risk and send
+as many of his herd as he can possibly spare at least once a year,
+either in the autumn or on the smaller “Taghalam” which goes
+in the spring. After returning from Bilma the camels are rested and
+then proceed to Damergu and the south to sell their salt and their
+services. They are joined by any other camels fit to go, and when they
+have disposed of their merchandise engage in transport work between the
+cities of the Southland until about March or April. Then they begin to
+move north again before the rains set in in the Sudan. The proceeds
+of this work and of the sale of Bilma salt, or dates from Fashi and
+Air, are invested in grain and such trade goods as cotton cloth, tea,
+sugar, snuff and hardware, which are the only luxuries of Air. By the
+time they reach the mountains the summer rains have probably begun,
+and they have some three months in which to recuperate on the fresh
+pasture of the hills in preparation for the next year’s routine.
+
+Transactions in salt and grain are measured by the camel load,
+which varies considerably from place to place. Metrology is not
+an exact science in Air, but recognised standards nevertheless
+exist. The actual measures are kept by the tribal chiefs, and it is,
+of course, common gossip to hear it said that a certain chief gives
+unduly short weight. The only truly Tuareg measure is a unit of
+capacity; in the first instance it is the handful, whether of grain
+or salt or other commodity. But the measure has been standardised
+by establishing that a handful shall be as much millet grain as an
+ordinary man can pick up in his hand with the fingers _closed_ palm
+upwards.[209] Six such handfuls nominally make one “tefakint,”
+which is measured by heaping the grain in a small circular basket
+with sloping sides 1¾″ deep × 3⅝″ in diameter at the mouth
+× 2″ at the bottom. The next larger measure is the “muda,” a
+cylindrical wooden cup with a hemispherical bottom in a U section. As
+the handful and the “tefakint” are too small to measure bulky
+wares like dates, the “muda” has become the effectual standard
+in the country, but it varies in certain areas. At Auderas it is of
+five “tefakint,” but in Agades of ten. The T’imia and Kel Owi or
+Ighazar “muda” is different again, three of them being the same
+as two Auderas or one Agades “muda.” The three “mudas” are,
+however, generally recognised and are not the subject of bargaining in
+each transaction. The measure corresponding to the Air “tefakint”
+basket in Damergu is a round section cut from a large calabash; this
+slightly convex plate is held by a loop for the fingers fixed to the
+underside. All these grain measures are considered to be full when
+the grain is heaped up so that it runs over the edge.
+
+For small weights the silver five-franc piece, or “sinko” as it is
+called, is now also used, especially in measuring the value of silver
+ornaments. The rate of exchange current in 1922 in Air at Agades
+was four silver shillings or five silver francs to the “sinko”;
+a general rate of five obtained elsewhere in Air, as silver francs and
+shillings were not distinguished from each other. The people of Air
+have the nomads’ dislike for paper currency in any form. Various
+coins, including the Maria Teresa dollar, are still in circulation,
+but French coinage is gradually replacing all others. Cowrie shells
+are no longer used and gold is now unknown. The mithkal of Agades
+dates from the time when the gold trade was still flourishing, and
+its form here is peculiar to this city. It seems to have been a unit
+of weight and not of currency; as a recognised amount of gold it was
+used as the basis for striking bargains, but the metal probably did
+not pass from hand to hand owing to the inconvenience of handling
+dust. With the decline of the gold trade the mithkal survived as a
+unit of weight, but its theoretical value changed considerably in
+the course of centuries. We find in Barth’s day the exchange was
+reckoned at 1 mithkal = 1000 cowries, and 2500 cowries = 1 Maria Teresa
+dollar; but whereas the Agades mithkal was only worth two-fifths of
+a dollar, the Timbuctoo mithkal was worth one-third of a dollar. It
+is interesting to arrive by a round-about method at a rough estimate
+of the change in value of the unit.
+
+The mithkal as a simple unit of weight was a part of a larger unit
+in the following equation:[210] 100 mithkal = 3 small karruwe =
+1 large karruwe = 6½ Arab rottls. The Arab rottl weight varies
+between 225 grammes in Persia and about 160 grammes in Cairo, several
+slightly different standard rottls being used in other parts of
+Egypt. Taking 160 grammes as the equivalent of 1 rottl, and assuming
+Barth’s equation to be correct, we get 10·4 grammes for the Agades
+mithkal. The unit of 10·4 grammes of gold dust in the fifteenth
+century A.D. was in the nineteenth century equal to two-fifths of
+a Maria Teresa dollar weighing 28·0668 grammes silver 0·833 fine,
+or in other words, 13·5 grammes of silver.
+
+The only measures of length in Air are the “aghil” (plural
+“ighillan”)[211] and the “tedi” or “teddi.” The former is
+the universal dra’, ell or cubit measured from the inner elbow-point
+to the first joint of the middle finger on an average man, say 5 ft. 10
+in. tall. Ten “ighillan” make one “amitral,” the two measures
+being only used for cloth, etc. The “tedi” is the fathom and is
+used for measuring the depth of wells or the length of rope, etc. There
+is no measure in Air for distance, which is invariably calculated by
+the parts of a day or the number of days taken to cover the ground.
+
+The pack-saddle of Air is peculiar to the country. It is very simple,
+consisting of two sheaves of grass or straw, two semi-circular pieces
+of matting made of plaited dûm palm fronds, a skin filled with grain
+or stuffed with dry camel dung and a wooden arch terminating in flat
+boards. A bundle of grass, with the butt ends even and trimmed, is
+laid on the semi-circular mat, which is then rolled around it and
+sewn up with ribbands of palm frond by a long wooden or iron bodkin;
+the flowery ends of the grass project beyond the matting. One of these
+mat cylinders or cushions is fitted each side of the camel’s hump
+with the butts nearly touching one another over the withers. Over
+these pads is placed the arch of wood, the ends of which terminate
+in boards some 9″ × 3″ at the ends, resting on the pads, which
+are tied on with twisted dûm palm rope. A stuffed goatskin thrown
+transversely over the back of the camel behind the hump forms a rear
+pad. Its corners are tied to the two ends of the arch with adjustable
+cords to regulate the distance between them. The loads, which must be
+carefully balanced, are slung over the pack-saddle; two loops on each
+load are hitched to the other two on the other load with two short
+sticks. The weight of the load rests on the side pads and the ends
+of the back pad; the load cords bear on the latter and on the side
+pads just in front of the wooden arch, which prevents them slipping
+backwards. The load ropes rest on, and are not tied to, the saddle. No
+girths, crupper or breastband are used unless the loads are very bulky
+or need special steadying. Unloading is extraordinarily simple, for
+as soon as the camel has been knelt down the loops are disconnected
+by pulling out the short sticks and the loads fall down on either side.
+
+The pack-saddle is simple and cheap, but is not efficient on steep
+slopes where the camel may stumble or lurch awkwardly. As these
+conditions prevail all over Air, the arrangement is really far from
+ideal, though in the plain land it is practical enough. The principal
+advantages are that every part of the saddle is easily adjustable
+to suit any particular camel, while the whole equipment weighs next
+to nothing. The goatskin used as the back pad on long journeys is
+filled with a provision of grain, saving an additional receptacle on
+each camel of the caravan. The resultant economy of space and bulk
+is unequalled in any other system.
+
+The rest of the camel’s equipment consists of a head rope, a hobbling
+rope and the load ropes. In Air all rope is made of split dûm palm
+fronds soaked in water till they have fermented, or, if no time is
+available, from fresh material. The strips are twisted like ordinary
+two or three strand “cable laid” rope. It is a strong, serviceable
+material costing nothing and available everywhere where the dûm palm
+grows, which is all over Air and the Sudan. The scarcity of date palms
+precludes the use of the brown fibre which grows below the fronds,
+known to camel travellers in the north. The dûm palm rope does
+not wear so well as the latter but is easier to manufacture. Every
+camel-man in Air spends a certain part of the day making rope,
+twisting the fronds from split ribbands about ¼-½″ broad,
+bundles of which he carries about; he sits on the ground talking and
+twisting, using his big toe to hold the end of the rope he has made,
+and weaving in strand after strand with incredible speed. The rope
+is nearly all two-stranded cable, but the tightness of twist and the
+finish vary with the use. Load ropes are very closely twisted cable,
+passed twice round the package at each end and terminating in a loop
+adjusted by a running half-hitch to raise or lower the load on the
+side of the camel. Lashing rope and rough nets are made of loosely
+twisted strands. The camel head rope is a long piece with a slip
+knot at one end passed over the lower jaw of the camel and pulled
+tight behind its front teeth. Hobble ropes are stout lengths passed
+round one foreleg, then twisted and passed round the other, leaving
+about 18″ of movement between the limbs: the ends are secured by
+passing a knot through a small loop. Carefully made rope is beaten
+with a stone to make the strands pack tightly.
+
+Loading camels is hard work and can only properly be done by two
+men. The pack-saddle is put on the kneeling camel, which is prevented
+from rising by slipping one of his knees through a looped hobble rope,
+which, when not in use, is carried round the animal’s neck. The
+camel protests vigorously in season and out of season and pretends
+to bite the men. They work stripped to the waist, wearing only their
+trousers tucked up to the thigh, and the inevitable veil. They stagger
+under 150 to 200 lbs. loads, swinging them on to the camel’s back,
+slipping the loops through one another and securing them with the
+two sticks. The camel is then released, gets up with a jerky movement
+resembling a deck chair being opened, and probably throws its burden
+to the ground immediately, when the operation recommences. If this
+does not happen at once the head rope is secured to the next camel
+in front with a half-hitch that can be released by pulling the free
+end. By the time fifty camels have been loaded, at least five in
+an endeavour to graze on the same bush have bumped into one another
+and their loads have fallen off. The operation of loading may take
+place in the early morning when it is cool, or before dawn when it
+is always cold, or at noon when the temperature is like a furnace;
+it is always tedious and tiresome and bad for the temper, which the
+incessant complaining of the camels aggravates.
+
+Eventually the caravan moves off. The camel-men walk along, watching
+their loads if they are conscientious, and when everything is going
+well they climb up on their camels and sit on the loads. They jump
+up on to the neck of the camel after pulling its head down and so
+reach the top, but they never kneel a camel after it has started
+on the march until the day’s journey is over, unless the load
+has been thrown or has slipped very badly. The guide takes the
+head of the caravan and the march starts. The Tuareg of Air know
+their mountains as well as the average Londoner knows London: they
+can find their way along the more important tracks. For the less
+known ways a special guide must be found: in the outer deserts the
+reliable guides can be counted on the fingers of both hands. Efale,
+the leader of the “Taghalam” and veteran of the Eastern Desert,
+T’ekhmedin and Kalama on the northern routes—are all resourceful,
+patient and observant men when travelling, but complete autocrats whose
+orders cannot be questioned. Their knowledge of the roads depends on
+estimation of time and memory and not on any supernatural powers. They
+know the stars[212] and have some sense of direction, but especially
+do they know every fold of ground and almost every bush. Their powers
+are remarkable but not inexplicable; their observation and memory
+rarely fail them, but for obvious reasons they do not care to travel
+by night. Once started the march goes on hour after hour. The heat
+grows more intense. The narrow path winds down the bed of a valley or
+among the trees on the banks, or over rocky plains or amid sand dunes.
+
+In Air the vegetation exists principally along the valleys. In the
+south the dûm palm grows in veritable forests or in low thickets,
+when it resembles the dwarf palm. The _Acacia Adansonii_, _Acacia
+Arabica_ (“Tamat” in Temajegh), _Acacia Tortilis_ (the “Talha”
+of the Arabs and “Abesagh” or “Tiggeur” in Temajegh), as
+well as two or three other varieties, are common. They occasionally
+grow to very large dimensions. The Aborak (_Balanites Ægyptiaca_)
+also does very well; trees with trunks up to 2 feet in diameter are
+common in the larger valleys, and in North-eastern Air I have seen
+some up to 3½ feet across. The bushes and grasses are innumerable,
+but flowers are rare, except for the yellow and white mimosa blossom
+on the trees. Nearly all the trees and bushes are thorned, some with
+recurving barbs which are dangerous for the careless rider. If burr
+grass is less frequent than in the south, spear grass abounds and is
+almost as painful. Vegetation in Air defends itself against pasturing
+animals vigorously but vainly, for the animals in the country seem
+to thrive on a diet of thorns, and man ends up by being the worst
+sufferer from these useless provisions of Nature. Thorns are not
+the only minor horror of life. How often after a long march has some
+delicious glade appeared at hand, cool and inviting. After angrily
+dismissing the suggestion to choose a camp site in the middle of an
+open river-bed where the sun on the sand will cook an egg in a few
+minutes, you throw yourself down to rest in deep green shade fanned
+by the breeze. The unwary traveller soon learns the consequences
+of disregarding native advice, for he will quickly arise from a bed
+of thorns with his clothes full of burrs, and his mouth full of bad
+words, while his whole attention will probably be directed towards
+dodging a large tarantula or scorpion or, happily less often, a little
+yellow-crested sand viper, than which there is hardly anything more
+deadly in all Africa.
+
+                                                              PLATE 24
+
+[Illustration: ABOVE: NECK WALLETS, POUCH, “STAR” GAME TRAP
+
+CENTRE: AMULET BAG, WOODEN LADLE, WOODEN SPOON, AMULET POUCHES
+
+BELOW: STRIP OF MATTING, LEATHER BOTTLE, HOUSEHOLD POTS OF CLAY AND
+HIDE, SKIN FOR CHURNING BUTTER]
+
+Apart from trades directly connected with camels the Tuareg have
+practically no industries. They neither dye nor spin anything, except
+a rough sewing thread of local cotton; nor do they weave in wool or
+cotton. Mats of two sorts are made; the one of palm fronds plaited
+in bands some two to three inches broad and sewn together spirally
+to form rectangles or ovals worked in varying degrees of fineness,
+the other made of stiff grass and thin strips of black leather. The
+technique of the latter is good: deep borders with an intricate
+geometric ornament are woven in the leather warp. Mat-making and
+leather-working are carried on by the women. They attain great
+skill, but although leather-working is usual all over the country,
+it is at Agades that the craft is especially well developed. Fine
+designs in coloured strips of leather are made on cushions, bags
+and pouches like a sort of embroidery. The industry is in the hands
+of a few women and is probably of Manding origin, brought to Air
+by the Songhai conquerors or even before. Decorated camel riding
+saddles, leather head ropes and travelling wallets or pouches of
+various shapes are made. The leather used is the goatskin locally
+tanned with the seed pod of the “Tamat” acacia, and dyed with
+red maize leaf or indigo. A certain amount of prepared leather is
+also imported from the south. In these articles the foundation is
+usually of black leather, which is ornamented with coloured strips
+or bands and metal studs. Camel head ropes are made of twisted or
+plaited leather strands with coloured tassels; the more elaborate,
+the finer are the strands used; the tassels are bound with coloured
+leather threads woven in patterns. The technique of these head ropes
+is the best of its sort I have ever seen. Cutting leather in strands
+to the thickness of coarse sewing thread is a highly skilled art,
+and all the more remarkable in that only knives are used, for scissors
+are unknown except in the blacksmiths’ equipment. I have seen cords
+for carrying amulets or pouches made of ten or a dozen threads, each
+less than ¹⁄₃₂″ thick, bound at intervals and at the ends.
+
+A most characteristic article is a flat rectangular envelope of
+leather some 6″ long × 3″ broad. It is only open at the bottom
+and slides up and down the two cords, by which a sort of portfolio
+is hung from the neck; this consists of four to six leather flaps in
+which amulets, trinkets, needles and papers are preserved. The black
+cover is ornamented with some stamped rectilinear pattern and has small
+tassels at the bottom. A similar object is the small leather amulet
+case about 3″ broad × 2″ long × 1″ deep, also slung round
+the neck, and provided with a lid like a box. A larger semi-circular
+pouch with a design in strips of coloured leather suspended over the
+shoulder by a long cord is typical Agades work. Triangular travelling
+bags of all sizes are made of soft leather, closed at the neck with
+a running cord; they vary in size from those 5 inches long for snuff
+to others 2 feet or more for clothing and food. Both these bags and
+ornamented goatskins for packing personal belongings have polychrome
+patterns on the surface, which is roughed and rubbed with moist
+dyes. The plaited head ropes and the surface dyeing of leather seem
+to be a more indigenous technique than the “Agades work” proper,
+in which the design is procured by appliqué strips.
+
+Carpentry is rudimentary and the craft akin to iron-working. The
+artisan, known as the “Enad” or smith, whatever his caste, is
+a person of standing in the community: he is a man whose advice is
+sought in council though he rarely becomes a leader. In the olden
+days the “Enad” is said even to have had a peculiar form of grave
+to distinguish his resting-place from that of other men, but however
+this may have been, there is nothing now to show that the smith of
+Air ever belonged to a separate race or caste. To-day the smith is
+only respected for his skill. The position is usually hereditary
+and includes the duties of the blacksmith, jeweller, carpenter and
+farrier, with the same set of tools for all these trades. His adze is
+an acute-angled crook of wood with a socketed iron cutting edge bound
+on to the point of the short limb; the form dates back at least to
+the Neolithic period of civilisation. The axe is equally primitive:
+the cutting edge, instead of having a socket, ends in a point
+which is fitted into a hole bored through the club head of a wooden
+haft. With these two tools, a few hammers, usually of European shape,
+tin-shears, pincers, files and chisels, the “Enad” contrives to
+turn out some remarkably fine work. Using only his adze he will cut
+spoons with a pointed bowl at a slight angle to the flat handle, or
+round ladles, from a solid block of “Aborak” wood. They are then
+ornamented with geometric patterns burnt on the handles around the
+edge. The Air “Enad” does not smelt iron, for all the presence
+of ironstone in the hills and magnetite sand in the river-beds. The
+only iron-working done is quite simple bending, beating or tempering
+on an anvil shaped like a huge horseshoe nail planted in the ground. A
+goatskin bellows closed by two wooden slats and a clay nozzle are used
+as in the Southland. The iron is heated in a hearth in the sand filled
+with charcoal. A certain number of inferior iron knives are forged,
+but the Tuareg of Air must be regarded as having hardly yet reached
+the iron-working age of evolution.
+
+The Agades blacksmith-jewellers melt down silver coins heated in small
+clay crucibles. They lose a lot of silver by oxidation, but the work
+is remarkably well finished, considering the primitive nature of their
+tools and the heavy hammers employed. The wooden household furniture
+will be described later; so far as there is any at all, it is well
+made, but rough. The principal skill of the smiths is displayed
+in making and decorating camel riding saddles and certain U-shaped
+luggage rests, to which particular reference will be made hereafter.
+
+The Tuareg riding saddle, or “tirik” (“t’iriken” in the
+plural) in Temajegh, or “rahla” in Arabic, is a highly efficient
+production, combining comfort with extreme lightness. It consists
+of a circular seat over an inverted V frame which fits across the
+withers of the camel. High above the seat are a broad, tall cantle
+shaped like a Gothic arch and large cross pommel. The whole saddle
+weighs perhaps 10 lbs. at the most. Its equipment includes a quilted
+saddle cloth over the withers and a single plaited leather girth two
+inches broad. No iron is used in the saddle, except for two rings
+which pull by diagonal straps from the underside of the seat over the
+flat Ʌ shaped frame of the saddle. The girth is permanently attached
+to these straps at one end, the other end is lashed to the ring on
+the off-side straps by a leather thong. The seat, cantle and pommel
+are made of separate pieces of wood held together by raw hide, which
+is pulled over them wet and dried in place; the violent contraction
+of the hide holds the component parts together as firmly as if they
+were screwed or dovetailed. The broad Ʌ sides which fit over the
+withers are of soft tanned leather stretched over a rectangular frame:
+the upper part is covered with leather over hide and wood. The common
+saddle has dark red leather over the seat and cantle and black leather
+over the cross pommel and along the edges of the cantle. The elaborate
+decoration of the more ornate patterns is invariably the same. In this
+variety the seat and edging are of red and black leather as previously
+described, but the back of the cantle and the front of the cross pommel
+are covered with pale green leather, on which is applied a geometric
+decoration of horizontal and diagonal strips of stamped and fretted
+silver or white metal, with red cloth showing through the holes. Every
+example I saw had the same green leather background on the front of
+the pommel and back of the cantle. I observed no instance where the
+ornament was on a different background or where green leather without
+the silver metal design had been used. Where the design comes from
+I have no idea; it is remarkably well executed and dignified without
+being so barbaric in splendour as the horse saddles of the Sudan. Every
+element of the construction and ornament is traditional and rigidly
+adhered to. I can offer no suggestions regarding its origin, but can
+only note its presence. Some symbolism is probably involved.
+
+                                                              PLATE 25
+
+[Illustration: LEFT: BRIDLE STAND AND SEAT
+
+CENTRE: CAMEL RIDING SADDLE WITH PLAITED GIRTH AND THONG
+
+ABOVE: PLAITED LEATHER CAMEL BRIDLE AND LEATHER HOBBLE
+
+RIGHT: WOODEN ARCH OF CAMEL PACK SADDLE]
+
+Where a man can afford to have a leather bridle he usually dispenses
+with the running noose which, when rope is used, is slipped over the
+camel’s lower jaw behind the front teeth. The leather bridle is
+fitted to a head collar consisting of an arched iron nose-piece with
+a curved iron jowl-piece attached to one side by a brass or copper
+link ring. The bridle is fastened to the other end of the jowl-piece
+and runs through a ring on the nose-piece itself, so that any pull on
+the bridle closes the former on to the latter, compressing the jaws
+of the camel. The nose-piece is kept in position by a horizontal band
+of plaited leather attached to the ends and passing round the back of
+the camel’s head below the ears. The top of the arched nose-piece
+is usually shaped into a loop on to which a crest of black ostrich
+feathers may be attached.[213] As an alternative or in addition to
+this equipment the riding camel often also has a nose-ring in the
+left nostril for a light rope or leather bridle. The nose-ring is
+the mark of a good riding camel, but is sometimes not employed for
+guiding the animal, as its use necessitates light hands to avoid
+injuring the beast.
+
+In addition to its lightness the Tuareg riding saddle has the
+inestimable merit of bringing the weight of the rider over the
+shoulders of the camel, or in other words over the part where the
+animal is strongest. The hinder parts of the camel are sloping and
+can carry no weight; all the heavy work is done by the fore-legs. The
+rider, sitting in the saddle, which must be arranged with padding
+if necessary over the front part of the withers to bring the seat
+horizontal, rests one foot against the vertical part of the camel’s
+neck just above its curve, holding on to the neck with a prehensile
+big toe. The other leg is crooked below and falls over the opposite
+shoulder of the camel at the base of the neck. Bare feet are essential
+for good riding, as, in addition to enabling some grip to be obtained,
+they are used to guide the camel with recognised “aids.” With
+a broad cantle and a high pommel between the legs a far better grip
+can be obtained than on the Arabian saddle, on which a good seat is
+entirely a question of balance. Provided the saddle cloth under the
+Tuareg saddle is properly adjusted there is practically no galling of
+the withers or sides. If provisions or water-skins are carried they are
+slung under the seat of the riding saddle, their front ends attached
+to the girth rings, their rear ends tied together behind the hump,
+resting on a small pad to prevent rubbing over the backbone.
+
+The large goatskins for water and small ones for meal do not differ
+from those used throughout the East. The goat is skinned without
+cutting the hide except around the neck and limbs: the skin is peeled
+off the carcass and well greased. The legs are sewn up and roped
+for slinging: rents or holes are skilfully sewn up or patched with
+leather and cotton thread so that they do not leak. A new skin recently
+greased with goat or sheep fat is abominable, as the water becomes
+strongly impregnated with the reek of goat. But water from a good
+old skin can be almost tasteless, though such skins are hard to come
+by. Some of the water one has drunk from goatskins beggars description;
+it is nearly always grey or black, and smelly beyond belief. The
+one compensation is that the wet outside of the skin keeps the water
+deliciously cool owing to constant evaporation. With a riding saddle,
+a skin of water and a skin of meal or grain as his sole equipment,
+the Tuareg reduces the complications of travelling to a minimum.
+
+His weapons are few but characteristic. First and foremost he wears
+a sword, called “takuba,” as soon as he reaches man’s estate,
+and before even he dons the veil. His sword has been romantically
+associated with the Crusaders and I know not who else. It is a
+straight, flat, double-edged cutting sword of the old cross-hilted type
+up to 3 ft. 6 ins. long by 2-3½ ins. broad below the hilt, tapering
+slightly to a rounded point. The guard is square and broad and the
+hilt is short, for the Tuareg have small hands. The pommel is flattened
+and ornamented. The hilt and guard form a Latin cross. The type never
+varies, though of course the blades differ greatly in quality and form,
+ranging from old Toledo steels with the mark “Carlos V” on them
+to an iron object called a “Masri” blade made in the north. Some
+are elaborately ornamented, but the most prized are plain with two
+or three slight canellations down the middle; they are probably of
+European manufacture. The commonest Masri blades bear two opposed
+crescent “men in the moon” faces as their mark; another cheap
+variety has a small couchant lion. The Tuareg prizes his sword as
+his most valued possession and many, like Ahodu, speak with pride of
+a blade handed down in their families for generations. His particular
+sword was reputed to have magical properties, for it had been lost in a
+fight at Assode, where the owner, rather than allow it to be captured,
+had thrown it from him into the air, only, through the instrumentality
+of a slave, to find it again many years afterwards, buried deep in the
+rocky ground on a hillock near the site of the battle. The sword is
+worn in a red leather scabbard slung from two rings by a cotton band
+over the shoulder. The edges of the blades are kept very sharp. As a
+weapon these swords are quite effective. Ahodu in a raid received a
+sword wound from a blow which had glanced off his shield; it ran from
+the left shoulder to the left knee, and had cut deep into his arm and
+side. It would have killed most Europeans; he not only recovered but
+had to ride four days from the scene of the fight back to Air.
+
+Two sorts of spears are used, the wooden-hafted with a narrow
+willow-leaf socketed blade and an iron socketed butt, and one made
+throughout of metal. The latter, called “allagh,” is a slender and
+beautiful weapon up to six feet long.[214] The head is very narrow,
+not above an inch broad: the greatest breadth is half-way down the
+blade, which projects on either side of a pronounced midrib. Below the
+head are one or more pairs of barbs in the plane of the blade. The
+haft is round and about half an inch in diameter, inlaid with brass
+rings. Two-thirds of the way along the haft is a leather grip; below
+that is an annular excrescence, and then the haft is splayed out,
+terminating in a chisel-shaped butt 1½″-2″ broad. These spears
+are used as lances or as throwing weapons. They are graceful and
+well-balanced, but are not made locally. Wherever they appear the
+influence of the Tuareg can seemingly be traced. It was from this
+people also that the cross-hilted sword probably came to be adopted
+in the Sudan, while they themselves certainly learnt its use in the
+Mediterranean lands, perhaps even from the Romans.
+
+Sheath knives some 6″ long, with fretted or inlaid brass hilts and
+red leather or leather and brass sheaths, are worn at the waist. The
+arm dagger is the most typical of all Tuareg weapons. They seem to be
+the only people to use it: it has a small wooden cross hilt and a long,
+narrow, flat blade. This weapon is worn along the forearm, the point
+to the elbow, the hilt ready for use under the hand: the sheath has a
+leather ring which is slipped over the wrist. The hilt is held in the
+hand, knuckles upward and two fingers each side of the long member
+of the cross. It is, in fact, a short stabbing sword, the handiest
+and most redoubtable of all the weapons of the People of the Veil.
+
+For defence they have large shields[215] roughly rectangular in
+shape and as large as 5 ft. × 3 ft., of sun-dried hide from which
+the hair has been removed. The best are made in Elakkos and some
+parts of Damergu of oryx hide. The edges are bound in leather, but
+the shield remains stiff yet fairly flexible, as it consists of only
+one thickness of hide. The corners are rounded and the sides somewhat
+incurved, the bottom being usually a few inches broader than the top. A
+loop in the centre of the top side is used to hang the shield from the
+camel saddle. In use it is held in the left hand by a handle attached
+behind about a third of its length from the top rim. There are no
+arm loops, as the shield is too ungainly to move rapidly in parry,
+though its size effectually protects the whole body. The hide of
+the white oryx is extremely tough and is said to turn any sword-cut
+and most spear-thrusts. The shield is especially remarkable for
+its ornamentation. Some of the more elaborate have metal studs with
+roundels of red stuff near the edges, but an uncoloured cruciform
+design worked on the surface by a series of small cuts always appears
+in the upper part of the shield on the centre line. The design in
+all examples I have seen, and probably in most cases, is much the
+same and is certainly symbolic, for we hear of the shield and cross
+ornament being engraved on rocks. The design seems to be derived
+from a Latin cross, the lower and longer arm of which terminates
+in a group of diagonal members, usually three on each side, forming
+a radial pattern. In this form it resembles nothing so much as the
+Christian cross standing on a radiating mass representing light or
+glory, but certain examples have the radiating marks at the top as
+well as at the bottom of the cross.
+
+The Tuareg does not usually use either bows and arrows or the throwing
+iron with its many projecting knife-blades. Instances are not wanting
+in which these weapons have been used, but they are neither typical
+of the equipment of the Tuareg nor natural to his temperament. Where
+they have been used they have been consciously borrowed from some
+neighbouring or associated people, such as the Tebu, who use the
+throwing iron extensively. The People of the Veil have one most
+especial vaunt, which is that they fight with the _armes blanches_
+and disdain insidious weapons like arrows. The advent of civilisation
+has brought them the rifle, which they are as proud to possess as
+any fighting man must be, but they have never been seduced from the
+sword, spear and knife which are their old allegiances. It is common
+to hear a Tuareg say that he would be ashamed to stoop to the infamy
+of the Tebu: he will explain that whatever happens the Tuareg will
+never creep up to a camp at night and cut his enemy’s throat in the
+dark. He will fight fair and clean, attacking with spear and sword,
+preferably by day. He prides himself on the distinction which he
+draws between murder by stealth and killing in a fight or raid. He
+may be a liar and not live up to his vaunt; but to have the ideal at
+all is remarkable; it must be said to his honour that on the whole he
+has proved that he can live up to his self-set standard. In all the
+bitter fighting with the French during the last two generations I am
+only aware of one instance in which the Tuareg have stooped to what in
+their own view was treachery, and that was when they tried to poison
+the survivors of the Flatters Mission after the attack at Bir Gharama.
+
+Their tactics in war are the usual ones of desert fighting. Guerilla
+warfare, ambushes, surprise attacks and harassing descents on
+stragglers are all known. On one occasion in an attack on a French
+patrol, which had exacted a fine of camels from a tribe, the men came
+up in the dark on the opposite side of the square to that on which
+the animals were lying and called to them, whereupon the animals,
+recognising the voices of their masters, rose and swept through the
+sleeping camp, which was over-run and decimated. In the desert men
+neither give nor get quarter, for prisoners and slaves are encumbrances
+to free movement. In ordinary raids the losing side is either destroyed
+or dispersed.
+
+                                                              PLATE 26
+
+[Illustration: TUAREG SWORD AND SHEATH, SHIELD, ARM-SWORD AND SHEATH
+AND TWO KNIVES]
+
+As far as possible the Tuareg fight according to their code, which in a
+less cynical age would be called chivalrous. They obey the injunctions
+of Islam neither to destroy palm trees nor to poison wells. They
+will give water in the desert to their worst enemy. They will lie and
+deceive their opponent whenever possible, but they will not infringe
+the laws of hospitality. When they have given the “Amán” or peace,
+they do not break their word. They are faithful to the tribes which
+they take under their protection and to those who have received their
+“A’ada” or “right of passage,” confirmed with the “Timmi”
+or oath suitable to the occasion. Their reputation as base fighters
+has little real foundation. Every case of which I have heard, when
+such an accusation was brought against them, has resolved itself into
+some surprise attack by a raiding party, the essence of whose success
+depended upon an unexpected descent upon an unsuspecting enemy. Of
+their courage I will write nothing, for it is too easy to exaggerate;
+but their proverb says: “Hell itself abhors dishonour.”
+
+
+[Footnote 201: Singular: Ers. Water-scrapes in the sand of
+valley-beds.]
+
+[Footnote 202: Or Efaken.]
+
+[Footnote 203: See Plate 35.]
+
+[Footnote 204: See the Kel Geres group in Appendix II.]
+
+[Footnote 205: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 385.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Misnamed the Dogam Mountains on the Cortier map. Dogam
+is to the east. The Ighaghrar valley runs south and then, assuming
+the name of Tagharit, west, and then on to the Talak plain. This
+valley does not run into the Auderas valley as the Cortier map shows.]
+
+[Footnote 207: The “Assada well” of the Cortier map.]
+
+[Footnote 208: Quite close to the Nabarro of Barth. The name is not
+given on the Cortier map.]
+
+[Footnote 209: Specifically it is not as much as a man can heap on
+his open or hold in his half-closed hand.]
+
+[Footnote 210: Cf. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 467 and 479.]
+
+[Footnote 211: In Masquerey’s Temajegh dictionary as “iril”
+and “irillan” respectively.]
+
+[Footnote 212: The Great Bear is called “Talimt,” the Cow Camel;
+the Pleiades are the “Chickens.”]
+
+[Footnote 213: See Plate 36.]
+
+[Footnote 214: In Plate 47 Sidi is carrying such a spear flying the
+author’s pennant.]
+
+[Footnote 215: The round shields mentioned by Duveyrier as in use
+among the Northern Tuareg are unknown in Air. See Plates 22 and 26.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                          ARCHITECTURE AND ART
+
+
+The Bagezan group looms large in Central Air, but even its general
+features are unknown. The mountains have neither been reconnoitred nor
+mapped. The area they occupy figures as a blank on the Cortier map. I
+travelled around Bagezan and climbed up into one broad valley in the
+heart of the massif, but my own additions to the cartography hereabouts
+are confined to a few details along the towering sides. Buchanan in
+1919-20 crossed the western side, from Towar to a valley which runs
+into the Anu Maqaran basin, where it is called Abarakan. A detachment
+of Jean’s first patrol to Air visited the southern valleys. But
+no European has ever entered the eastern or north-eastern part of
+the group. The reason for this apparent lack of enterprise is due to
+few of the mountain tracks being fit for camels; many of them are not
+even suitable for donkeys, and the complications of travelling in this
+sort of country, where none of the inhabitants will act as porters,
+thus become considerable.
+
+The massif rises some 2000 feet above the general level of the central
+plateau, except in the north-east, where the latter at 3500 feet above
+the sea is itself over 500 feet higher than in the north and west. The
+principal peaks must be well over 6000 feet, the bottoms of the upland
+valleys perhaps 3500 to 4000 feet above the sea. Many of the latter
+contain perennial streams, and rumours reached me of a small lake
+somewhere in the unexplored north-eastern part; but this may only be
+a fairy tale. The southern sides of Bagezan fall almost vertically on
+to the central plain between Towar and Arakieta on the upper Beughqot
+valley. Several small villages are hidden in the folds of the mountains
+above, wherever there is a permanent supply of water. In some cases
+the streams are sufficient to irrigate a few gardens; at one or two
+points there are some date palms and the only lime trees in Air. The
+climate is cooler and everything ripens some four to six weeks later
+than on the plateau below. Frost is common in the winter.
+
+A few of the villages, notably those like Tasessat and Tadesa, near the
+southern edge of the massif, have been visited by French patrols. In
+addition settlements known as Atkaki, Emululi, Owari, Agaragar and
+Ighelablaban have been reported to exist, but generally speaking,
+owing to the difficulties of intercommunication, the villages are
+almost unknown. They are said to consist of stone houses apparently
+of the earliest period associated with the Itesan tribes, in whose
+country the mountains lay. Some of the houses, however, differ from
+any of those encountered in other districts of Air.
+
+In order to see the type of country and visit some of the people
+of the mountains I climbed from Towar up to the Telezu valley,
+where there were some Kel Bagezan, to-day a composite tribe made up
+of portions of Kel Tadek imghad and various Kel Owi elements. They
+are under the chief Minéru or El Minir, who owes allegiance to the
+Añastafidet. My way from Towar led past the ruined town of Agejir
+to the Tokede valley, which soon turned east and disappeared into the
+mountain. I subsequently found that the Tokede was the same valley as
+the one called Telesu higher up and Towar further down. The path turned
+west along the foot of Bagezan, past a scree of enormous boulders,
+ranging from five to twenty-five feet across, on which numerous
+families of red monkeys were playing. There we turned, T’ekhmedin,
+Atagoom and myself, and wound up the side of the mountain by a path
+so steep and rough that a self-respecting mule would have walked
+warily. The camels went up and up over loose stones. The left side
+dropped away precipitately into the deep valley which divides massifs
+of Bagezan and Todra. A stream roared in a gorge hundreds of feet
+below at the foot of a cliff of gleaming rock. Still we climbed over
+stones and boulders by a two-foot path gradually turning north and
+then north-east and then east. We followed up a narrowing tributary
+bed of the stream in the gorge until we came to a pass between bare
+earth-coloured hills, the tops of which were only a few hundred feet
+above us, and at last dropped gently down the other side past some
+grazing camels which seemed interested in our arrival and followed
+us inquisitively into Telezu. An enclosed plain opened out full of
+big green trees and grass with wonderful pasture and plenty of water
+in the sand. It ran from west to east before turning and narrowing
+southwards to fall over the edge into the Tokede below. The valley was
+shut in all round by low peaks and rough crags along the sky-line. One
+had no impression of being so far above the plateau of Air on a higher
+table-land. The great summits of Bagezan had become small hills.
+
+There was no other way out of Telesu except on foot, either over the
+hills or down the ravine made by the stream falling towards Tokede,
+so we returned as we had come, after drinking milk with the Kel
+Bagezan who were living there. The descent was terrific; the camels
+had to be led and we only made Towar by nightfall. After reaching the
+bottom of the scree we cut off a corner instead of going by Agejir,
+and marched towards the standing rock of Takazuzat (or Takazanzat),
+which looks like the spire of a cathedral, on the edge of the Ara
+valley near the isolated peak of In Bodinam.
+
+All the ways up to the Bagezan villages are similar, if not
+harder. The agility of the camels that have to negotiate these paths
+is unbelievable until it has been experienced.
+
+The only account which I can give of the houses of Bagezan is
+second-hand, and this is the more unfortunate, because Jean’s
+description[216] of them as the first houses in Air does not
+correspond with the character of the earliest ones I saw. I will
+quote his exact words, as the point is important: “Les premières
+constructions édifiées furent Afassaz et Elnoulli; maisons à dôme
+central recouvrant une grande pièce sombre entourée de nombreuses
+dépendances; l’étage aujourd’hui effondré avait été solidement
+étayé par des piliers de maçonnerie à large et forte structure.”
+To Afassaz, a large group of villages in a valley east of Bagezan,
+we will turn later; Barth erroneously supposed it lay near Towar,
+having apparently confused it with Agejir. “Elnoulli” I was
+entirely unable to trace under this name, and concluded that Emululi,
+which is one of the Bagezan villages, was intended.
+
+                                                              PLATE 27
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE TYPES.]
+
+                                                              PLATE 28
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE TYPES.]
+
+My interest in Tuareg architecture was first aroused near Tabello,
+east of Bagezan, a point reached while I was circumnavigating
+the massif. From Auderas we had been to visit T’imia, whence we
+returned to the Abarakan valley. We then climbed laboriously up the
+bed of the Teghazar[217] tributary, and so reached the plateau east
+of the Central massif. We camped at about 3500 feet, by the spring of
+Teginjir. The water here is strongly mineralised, and comes out of
+the ground at about 90° F. charged with carbonic acid gas. Within
+a short distance of the spring is the volcanic crater and cone of
+Gheshwa,[218] the only recent vent which I came across in Air. It was
+visited and described by Von Bary, but curiously enough is neither
+referred to in other works nor shown on the Cortier map. The cinder
+cone is small and rather broken down on the west side, but the sides
+are still exceedingly steep and covered with loose scoriæ. The lava
+flow which came out of the vent extends from the foot of the cone,
+for some five miles to the south-east; it appears to have originated
+in the course of a single eruption. The lava stratum is level and
+about 20 feet thick, overlying the Teginjir plain, which consists of
+a surface alluvium from the neighbouring mountains, and, at one point,
+a disintegrating crystalline outcrop. The lava is acid and vesicular,
+resembling in appearance recent flows from Vesuvius or at Casamicciola
+on the island of Ischia in the Bay of Naples. The surface of the
+Teginjir flow proved indescribably rough and devoid of vegetation;
+it has as yet had no time to disintegrate and is undoubtedly still
+in the same twisted and cracked form which it had assumed during the
+cooling process. E.S.E. of Mount Gheshwa are two small black hillocks
+which appear to be minor cinder cones, not connected with any lava
+flows. The eruption which formed the Gheshwa cone and neighbouring lava
+flow is certainly posterior to the general configuration of the plateau
+and is a most recent geological phenomenon, but I found no tradition
+among the natives of any volcanic activity within living memory.
+
+The ground drains eastward from Teginjir along the southern side of the
+T’imia massif to the Anfissak valley, named after the buttress hills
+which form the south-east corner of this group. East of Anfissak the
+plain extends towards and beyond Mount Mari in the north; a number
+of hillocks litter the plain to the south. The caravan road from
+Tripoli to the Sudan runs down this plain by the Adoral valley past
+Mari well, which is now filled in, by Anfissak well, and by Adaudu
+and the Tebernit water-holes to Beughqot. Thence it goes due south
+to Tergulawen and over the Azawagh to Damergu and Nigeria.
+
+A short distance to the south the Anfissak valley changes its name
+to Tamanet, so called after a watering-place which we reached in
+one day’s march from Teginjir. At least it was meant to be a
+watering-point, but we found that insufficient rain had fallen that
+year in Eastern Air and there was no water in the sand of the valley
+bed. We camped and left next day on a short ration of water over one
+of the most difficult parts of Air which I encountered in the whole
+of my journey. The plain is not boldly accidentated, but the valleys
+have cut deep into the disintegrating plateau. Their sides are steep
+and the flat places between them are so thickly covered with boulders
+that the area is almost impossible to cross. We eventually reached the
+Tebernit[219] valley just above Adaudu and sent camels up the valley
+to find water at a point called Emilía on the way to Ajiru. Our
+supply had completely run out. It was thirsty work waiting for the
+watering party to return, and one’s worst apprehensions were of
+course aroused. I prowled about to relieve the tedium, and found a
+place where a ridge of rock crossed the bed or channel of the valley. I
+began digging in the sand to find water, for it seemed a likely place
+for an “Ers,” as there was an old village site near by. Sure
+enough I found water about two feet down, and everyone cheered up,
+as the Emilía party was not due back for several hours. The place
+became known to the expedition as “Rodd’s Ers.”
+
+Marching from here to Tabello was light work; we camped in the valley
+where the Arakieta tributary comes down from Bagezan near a small
+hut village, and then made an easy stage to the rendezvous of the
+salt caravan. The valley known as Tabello we discovered to be the
+upper part of the Beughqot: it was another example of the confusing
+habit of giving a multitude of names to a single system. Each section
+bears a different name to which a traveller, according to where he
+happens to be, may refer. The Ajiru, Tellia, Tebernit and Afasas are
+really the same valley; similarly the Telezu, Tokede, Towar, Tessuma
+and Etaras are another, while the Abarakan, T’imilen, Agerzan,
+Bilasicat, Azar and Anu Maqaran are also one and the same watercourse.
+
+The country east of Bagezan now belongs to the Kel Owi
+confederation. The northern part of the plain is the country of the
+Kel Azañieres, but before their advent the Immikitan came as far
+south as Tamanet. The Kel Anfissak, living presumably at Barth’s
+well of Albes, are a Kel Azañieres sub-tribe. Ajiru was the home of
+Belkho and the head-quarters of the Igermaden; but Tabello belonged
+to the Igademawen. It was at Ajiru that Von Bary was detained as a
+virtual prisoner by Belkho until he decided to abandon his projected
+journey to the Sudan.
+
+The countryside had evidently at one time been quite thickly
+inhabited, but presumably before the immigration of the Kel Owi,
+for nearly all the ruined villages contained a characteristic type
+of house, which every Tuareg agreed was built by the Itesan, who of
+course came to Air long before the Kel Owi. In the Beughqot valley
+where it is called Tabello a great deal of water is available all the
+year round in the sand, and consequently several villages sprang up
+on both banks. The largest group, which will be described in detail,
+is the northernmost on the west bank, called Tasawat. The houses here
+are all of the characteristic “old type,” which is culturally far
+the most advanced dwelling in Air. Many of the buildings here are very
+well preserved except for the roof, which in almost every instance
+has collapsed. In the Tabello houses the walls are for the most part
+well preserved, but elsewhere in Air the constructional material was
+less good, for little remains of the oldest type dwellings but the
+ground plan.
+
+The oldest houses, which I will call the “A type,” are rectangular
+in plan and have two rooms, a larger one with two or three outer doors,
+and an inner one with one door in the partition wall and no outer
+doors. All the houses of this type and most of the later houses in
+Air are oriented in the same direction, namely, within a few degrees
+of north and south, with the smaller room at the northern end. There
+were a few exceptions in the fourth group which I examined at Tabello;
+they were houses on a N.N.W.-S.S.E. line, or oriented E.-W. with
+the small room at the west end. The latter is an interesting point,
+because although the Air dialect of Temajegh contains a proper word
+for north (“tasalgi”), the word for west (“ataram”), which
+in some other dialects of the language has acquired the significance
+of north, is also sometimes used for this cardinal point.
+
+                                                              PLATE 29
+
+[Illustration: TIMIA: “A” AND “B” TYPE HOUSES AND HUT CIRCLES]
+
+[Illustration: TABELLO: INTERIOR OF “A” TYPE HOUSE]
+
+The big rooms of these “A type” houses in all the village groups
+examined varied but little in size, the largest one I measured being
+29 ft. × 14 ft. inside. The small rooms varied rather more, ranging
+between 9 ft. and 12 ft. in length, the breadth being the same as for
+the big room. The head room was in all cases remarkable, one house I
+measured being as much as 12 ft. from the floor to the underside of
+the dûm palm rafters of the roof. In every instance the height was
+more than sufficient for a man to stand upright, a feature which does
+not obtain in the later houses. The large room was usually provided
+with three doors, the east and west ones being of similar dimensions,
+the south door rather smaller. In two cases in one group at Tabello
+and in other instances in the north I noticed that the east doors of
+the old houses had small buttresses outside as if to enhance their
+importance, though in one house the east door had been reduced to a
+small aperture; but this was exceptional. Buttresses were not observed
+on any of the west doors. In two cases I noticed here there was no
+south door, an omission which also occurred elsewhere among the later
+houses. The east and west doors, varying slightly according to the
+size of the house, were 4 ft. or more in height by 3 ft. 6 in. to
+4 ft. in breadth. In all the Tabello houses the door openings were
+recessed on the inner side to take a removable wooden door some ten
+inches broader and taller than the opening itself. The recess was
+continued for a sufficient space laterally to allow the frame to
+be pushed to one side without taking up room space. One side of the
+recess was provided with an elbow-hole in the outer wall of the house
+about 2 ft. from the ground for access to a latch for securing the door
+frame. In the later houses, but not at Tabello, the sliding frame door
+gave place to one swinging from stone sockets in the threshold and
+lintel; these doors are in some cases over 3 ft. broad and cut out
+of one piece of wood: they also were provided with a latch or bolt
+fitting into a catch in the inner part of the elbow-hole by which
+the door was secured and sometimes locked with a rough padlock of
+Tripolitan or Algerian manufacture. No doubt the door frames of the
+earlier houses were provided with a similar latch and lock, but none
+of the woodwork has survived. The neatness of design of the sliding
+door recess was particularly striking in these dwellings.
+
+The threshold of the doors in the older houses was on the floor level,
+which was a few inches above the outside level. The larger rooms had
+quadrangular niches of different dimensions at odd points in the walls,
+as well as certain peculiar and characteristic niches in the partition
+walls. The inner rooms were provided with small niches made of pots
+built into the walls; in many cases there were four shelves across the
+corners some 3-4 ft. from the ground made of heavy beams, evidently
+intended to carry considerable weights. The surfaces of these shelves,
+like all the inner walls of both rooms, were carefully plastered with
+mud mortar whitened or coloured with earths similar to those used in
+the washes on houses at Agades. In one case a dado or wainscot of a
+different colour had been applied with a finger-drawn zigzag border
+of another shade. The stucco surfaces were brown, earthy crimson,
+ochre, yellow or white.
+
+One characteristic feature was observed in all the “old type”
+houses which still had walls standing of sufficient height for
+something more than the mere ground plan to be seen. On either side
+of the doorway in the partition or north wall of the large room there
+was a niche of very peculiar shape. The top was rather like a Gothic
+arch, and a recess was cut out in the base. The niches and the door
+in some cases were ornamented with an elaborate border, in other
+cases they were entirely unadorned. The shape of the niche, however,
+was constant and the size generally uniform. The style of decoration
+will be seen in Plates 29 and 30.
+
+The later houses in Air are clearly an adaptation of the earlier type,
+for they have many common characteristics. These houses I have called
+the “B type” to distinguish them from the “A” or “Itesan
+type.” The “B houses” also are rectangular but single-roomed; for
+the most part they too are oriented north and south. An Imajegh whom
+I questioned on this point at Iferuan said he did not know why this
+was so, but that all the correct houses of nobles were built in this
+manner, including the one in which his own family had always lived. He
+added that the three usual outside doors were called Imi n’Innek,
+the Door of the East, the Imi n’Aghil, the Door of the South, but
+the west door, instead of being called the Imi n’Ataram, was called
+the Imi n’Tasalgi, which properly means the Door of the North. When I
+asked him to explain this curious fact, he told me that it was because
+the Tuareg came from there, a statement which seemed inadequate, albeit
+significant. The confusion of west and north is especially curious;
+and the explanation of the house oriented E. and W. at Tabello is
+probably due to a misunderstanding on this point in the mind of the
+early builder. The problem is not unconnected with the varying sense
+of the word Ataram. Analogies between the “A” and “B” types of
+house are not, however, confined to those peculiarities of orientation
+and doors. A door in the north wall of the “B type” houses is very
+rare; on the other hand, in the majority of examples of this type
+I noticed that there was a long, very low niche on that side of the
+room. These recesses were not more than four or five inches high by
+eighteen to twenty-four inches long; they were used for keeping the
+Holy Books in and for no other purpose. The position of these niches,
+it is true, was not absolutely constant, nor was the type of niche
+for the Holy Books in the north walls always that shape, but the
+conclusion I reached from their frequent occurrence was that they in
+some way correspond to the ogive niches of the earlier houses, which
+I conceive had an indisputably ritual or religious significance. In
+a “B type” house at Assarara in Northern Air I came across two
+rectangular niches in a west wall which were obviously developments of
+the ornamented ogive niches of the “A type” house, and may also
+have been used for Holy Books, but this example of displacement with
+the varying and fortuitous practices adopted in the later dwellings
+convinced me that the use which had prescribed the earlier fashion was
+in process of being forgotten as modern times were approached, and that
+no explanation was therefore likely to be obtained by consulting local
+learned men. In the “B type” houses, as in the earlier dwellings,
+there was usually a profusion of other niches in the walls serving
+different household purposes.
+
+The niches and the style of ornamentation of the “A type” houses
+of Air occur in the Sudan, but the formality of planning, the constant
+orientation and the ritualistic properties of the recesses, so far
+as I know, have no analogies outside Tuareg lands. I am not aware
+that attention has hitherto been drawn to these points either in the
+accounts of Air prepared by the French or in descriptions of dwellings
+in other parts of Africa, with the exception of one reference in
+Richardson’s account of his travels in 1845-6 in the Fezzan. He
+describes the houses at Ghat as having niches, and, from sketches he
+made, some of them are evidently of the same type as those in the Air
+houses of the first period.[220] They afford a problem which requires
+elucidation and which might throw much light on the cultural contacts
+of the Tuareg, among whom they seem to be traditional.
+
+                                                              PLATE 30
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE INTERIORS.]
+
+The constant type of the houses, despite their disparity of date, is
+so marked that it cannot be fortuitous. I examined in the course of
+my stay in Air the villages and towns of Auderas, Towar, Agejir, the
+Tabello and Afassaz-Tebernit groups, T’imia, Assode, T’in Wansa,
+Igululof, Anu Samed, T’intaghoda, Tanutmolet, Iferuan, Seliufet,
+Agellal, Tefis and Anu Wisheran, and found the “A” and “B
+types” or their derivatives predominant to an extent which made
+it quite clear that some fundamental principle was involved in their
+construction. The earlier houses betray so highly developed a technique
+of building that we are clearly concerned with the remnants of a
+far higher cultural state than that which the Tuareg now possess. I
+say “remnants” advisedly, for since the date of the “A type”
+dwellings there has been a progressive deterioration in the art of
+construction. Technically, in Air, what is best is earliest. The
+first houses of the Tuareg were obviously planned and executed with
+care. The walls, where still standing, measured about 2 ft. 9 in. to
+3 ft. at the base, tapering 9 to 12 in. to the top. The inside faces
+were perpendicular, all the taper being on the outside, where it
+is clearly visible in the profiles of the corners. The outsides of
+the walls were roughly faced with mud stucco; the insides were more
+carefully plastered to produce a very smooth surface, which in the
+best houses appears to have been procured with a board; hand marks
+on the plaster surface seemed rare. The dûm palm rafters of the
+roofs, door lintels and tops of recesses were carefully placed so
+that any curve of the wood was upward in order to give as much height
+as possible. The most noticeable feature in the construction of the
+“A type” houses was certainly the squareness and accuracy of the
+corners, which were sharp and cleanly finished. The later houses were
+less carefully executed and the corners, instead of being square, were
+rounded both within and without. The walls were less perpendicular
+and straight, the rectangular planning was sometimes out of true,
+the stucco-work, while better conserved on the outer walls owing
+to their more recent date, was manifestly rougher; there was often,
+nay usually, hardly room to stand upright inside the dwelling.[221]
+
+The constructional material of both types of house was observed
+to vary very much according to the supplies available on the
+spot. Small stones up to six inches long set in mud mortar are
+generally used. The coursing of the stones was carefully levelled,
+and in the “A type” very regular; a deterioration was seen in the
+later dwellings. The influence of the Sudanese style of construction
+is reflected in one or two houses at Tabello, where dried mud cakes
+have been used instead of stones; but even in these cases the mud
+cakes have been used like stones, set in mud mortar, levelled and
+regularly coursed, and contrasting with the more irregular methods
+of the Southland. Generally speaking the numbers of “A” and “B
+type” houses in Air built only of mud seemed exceedingly small. In
+the stone, as in the mud constructions, some re-surfacing every year
+after the rains must have been inevitable.
+
+The roofs are made of palm fronds, brushwood and mud mortar with a low
+parapet around the edge, and often with six pinnacles, respectively
+at the four corners and half-way along the longest sides.
+
+The ruins of the “A type” houses at Tabello and Afasas were nearly
+always surrounded by other derelict buildings within an enclosure
+of large stones marking a sort of compound. The enclosures were not
+formal; they sometimes surrounded the whole house, sometimes only
+one side. The outhouses in the compound had no particular character:
+they were storehouses or the dwellings of the slaves. The buildings
+were as formless as the main houses were formal: they were either
+one-roomed or many-chambered with or without inter-communicating
+doors. They rarely adjoined the “A type” buildings, and were
+invariably more roughly constructed, many more of them being built
+of mud. In the “B type” settlements one was struck with the
+greater absence of outhouses and enclosing walls. Where subsidiary
+dwellings existed there had been a tendency to build them on to the
+main dwelling. A large number of both “A” and “B” houses in
+the Ighazar had wooden porches or shelters outside the east door,
+and were surrounded by a sort of wooden fence or stockade.
+
+Such are the two most characteristic types of house in Air. Other forms
+of dwellings I will refer to as the “C,” “D” and “E types.”
+The last-named “E type” can be disposed of immediately, for it
+is of no particular interest in connection with the Tuareg. Plate 28
+gives the plan of one such a house formerly inhabited by Fugda, chief
+of T’imia, before the inhabitants moved to the present village and
+lived in huts. It is characteristic of the Southland both in design
+and construction, and, like all the recent “E type” houses,
+was built of mud.
+
+The “D type” is a many-roomed dwelling, apparently occupied by
+several families. The largest example I saw was at Tabello. The plan
+is given on Plate 28. In this case the construction was of stone and
+mud, but principally of the former. The technique was very inferior;
+several periods of construction were observable. The individual
+dwellings in this group were apparently at least four, consisting of
+areas numbered in the plan 1 to 7, 8 to 10, 13 to 17, and 20 to 26,
+respectively. Areas numbered 4, 9, 21, 22 and 24 were courtyards,
+the entrance to 21 having holes in the wall for wooden bars, and
+being apparently designed as a cattle-pen. The group had at least
+one well in area 16, and possibly another one in 12, though the
+latter might only have been a grain-pit. Another example of the “D
+type” house situated in the Afassaz valley group is given on Plate
+28. It lay at the foot of a rock, beneath which there is a permanent
+water-hole in the sand. A few hundred yards away was a village of “A
+type” houses. Along the valley in the same vicinity were enclosures
+of dry stone walls on the tops of the hills bordering the valley. I
+hazard a conclusion that these “D type” dwellings were used by the
+inhabitants of the area when the larger settlements were abandoned by
+the Itesan and Kel Geres in their move westward as a result of raiding
+from the east.[222] The “D type” dwelling is a semi-fortified
+work, or at least a defensible building where several families who
+had remained in a dangerous area might congregate for safety in times
+of trouble. These dwellings with the hill-top enclosures along the
+Afassaz valley are the nearest approach to fortifications which I
+discovered in Air.
+
+The last type of house to be described represents a later development
+of the “A type.” The “C type” houses retain many of the
+characteristics of the earlier buildings, and although it is not always
+easy to date them, their preservation indicates that they are more
+recent. The rectangular formality of the earlier type survived but
+the orientation has been lost. The technique in many cases is better
+than in the “B type”; but the ogive niches are absent and the
+interior stucco-work was often very rough. The various forms which
+the plan may take are given in Plates 29 and 30. Some of the “C
+type” houses belong to the Itesan period and are descended from the
+“A type” building, while some of them are certainly late Kel Owi
+houses. The town of Agejir, north of Towar, from which the plans on
+Plate 27 are taken was an Itesan settlement, probably founded when
+these tribes moved away from the plain east of Bagezan. Here I found
+only one true “A type” house, but as there must be over 300 ruined
+houses, I may well have missed many more. The state of the buildings
+here was very bad owing to the lack of good mud mortar, which has
+preserved those at Tabello. The better houses at Agejir seemed to
+fall into two categories: the one a single-roomed structure of about
+20 ft. × 10 ft. internal dimensions, having usually two doors in the
+centre of the longest or east and west sides; the other a two-roomed
+structure. In the latter, the larger room was about the same size as
+in the single-roomed dwellings, the smaller room being about 10 ft. ×
+7 ft.; the common wall was not pierced, which may have been due to the
+use of inferior building materials. All the other buildings at Agejir
+were formless quadrangular structures, but the two types described
+are clearly descended directly from the “A type” house.
+
+Of the three villages at Towar, the modern one is a collection of mud
+huts; the older site on the same bank is a group of single-roomed
+“B type” houses, while the oldest of the three settlements is
+on the west bank and is called the Itesan village. Among the twenty
+ruined houses which I examined there I found three very good examples
+of the “A type,” correctly oriented north and south, in addition
+to several others of the single-roomed variety, the better ones being
+similar to those at Agejir. The 100 odd houses on this site were in
+too ruinous a condition to be readily identifiable.
+
+The houses in Northern and North-eastern Air will be described in
+a succeeding chapter, but the subject cannot here be left without
+reference to certain dwellings which I encountered at Faodet at the
+head of the Ighazar basin. Here, side by side with some ordinary “B
+type” dwellings, were a few straw and thatch huts of about the same
+size constructed on a rectangular plan in obvious imitation of the
+neighbouring masonry dwellings. They were correctly oriented and had
+flat thatched roofs. Their inhabitants, though using an unsuitable
+material, had evidently tried to construct that type of dwelling which
+they felt was more correct for permanent occupation than the temporary
+round huts, a more suitable shape, of course, for brushwood, grass
+and matting construction. This example of innate sense of formality
+is most significant.
+
+It is possible to draw certain conclusions on the style of Tuareg house
+construction in Air, even without the material evidence necessary
+for a more detailed study or comparative dating. Could excavation
+be undertaken, information would not be lacking, for pottery and
+stratified débris abound, only, unfortunately, time was not available
+for such investigations in the course of my journey.
+
+The “A type” houses, according to the unanimous tradition of
+the present inhabitants, were built by the Itesan. Their vicarious
+distribution in Air suggests that all the Tuareg of the first wave
+used this style of dwelling. That fewer have survived in areas
+from which they were dispossessed by the Kel Geres and Kel Owi is
+natural. It is not, therefore, fortuitous that the present Tuareg
+call the houses Itesan rather than Kel Geres, despite the later
+association of the two groups of people; whatever claim has been
+put forward on behalf of the latter for a share in the earlier
+architectural development I am inclined to regard as simply due
+to their comparatively recent historical association. The later
+immigrants do not appear to have been so troubled by traditions of
+the formality which imbued their predecessors. In the essentially
+Kel Geres areas west of the Iferuan-Auderas-Agades road, other than
+the part which the Itesan occupied astride the line in the Auderas
+area, the “A type” houses occur, but are rare. The “B” and
+transitional “C types,” predominate. Nevertheless these Kel Geres
+“B type” houses are larger and better in technical execution than
+the late “B type,” which are known to have been made and used
+by the Kel Owi. The latter in their dwellings display a more formal
+conception than the Kel Geres; many of the old characteristics, like
+orientation, arrangements of the doors, ritual niches and proportion
+come out more strongly in North-eastern Air than, for instance, in
+the Agellal and Sidawet areas. The formless quadrangular buildings
+of Assode with very few of the old peculiarities are apparently Kel
+Geres work. The influence of the first or Itesan immigrants was,
+however, still sufficiently powerful to render their technique of
+construction in many respects superior to that of the Kel Owi.
+
+The persistence of the characteristics of the Itesan period among
+the later Kel Owi, in fact its existence till quite recently among
+all the Air Tuareg in one form or another, is proof that we are not
+concerned with any fortuitous manifestation. Both the sentiments held
+by the people to-day and the occurrence of rectangular straw huts on
+the “B type” plan at Faodet, substantiate this conclusion. But
+if I am right in my feeling that the characteristics in question
+were more strongly present among the first Itesan or Kel Innek wave
+and among the third or Kel Owi wave than among the Kel Geres, then
+the explanation is tenable that the features are derived from the
+civilisation of the Lemta or Fezzanian branch of the Tuareg, who,
+we shall see, are the original stock from which the first and last
+wave of immigrants into Air were probably derived, the former by way
+of the Chad countries, the latter also from the north or north-west,
+but perhaps by way of the Adghar of the Ifoghas and Tademekka.[223]
+This line of reasoning, which is put forward very tentatively,
+indicates that the Fezzan requires to be examined in some detail
+before an advance in the solution of the problem surrounding the
+cultural origin of the Air house can be made. Even if the evidence
+of their houses were all, I should be satisfied that the culture of
+the Air Tuareg was a shadowy memory of some higher civilisation. I
+will hazard no guess regarding its first cradle, but only suggest
+that some clues may be found in the Fezzan.
+
+Another aspect of Tuareg architecture in Air remains to be examined. It
+concerns the style of their mosques. These buildings are comparatively
+numerous and all on much the same plan. The simplest form is a long,
+narrow construction running north and south with a “Qibla”
+in the centre of the east side. It is noteworthy that in several
+cases the “Qibla” gives the impression of having been added to
+the building, after the main walls had been erected, but this may
+only be an illusion due to defective workmanship. The larger mosques
+have one or more “aisles,” the wall or walls between them being
+pierced at many points to give the illusion of columns supporting
+the low roof. With the exception of one at Agejir, the head room of
+all the mosques I examined never exceeded 6 feet. Even the mosque at
+Assode, which was the largest in Air, had so low a ceiling that it
+was scarcely possible to stand upright anywhere inside. In one or two
+examples which I saw there was a separate construction, consisting
+of a single or double “aisle,” standing some feet away, west of
+the mosque proper. These buildings were of the same dimensions from
+north to south as the latter and served as alms-houses or “khans”
+for the distribution of food to the poor, who were also allowed to
+sleep there when travelling from village to village. In the mosque of
+Assode and in that of Tasawat in the Tabello group of villages certain
+portions of the sacred building were reserved for the worship of women,
+or as schools. In the Tasawat mosque the windows of the “harim”
+enclosure looked into the main part of the mosque, but had lattice
+gratings of split palm fronds crossing one another diagonally. This
+mosque was certainly later than any of the “A type” houses in
+the vicinity. Its construction was indifferent, but noteworthy for
+the elaboration of the holes pierced in the partition walls, every
+alternate one being shaped like the ogive niches in the partition
+walls of the “A type” houses with the same recess cut out of
+the base. Neither in these openings nor in the niches of the houses
+has the principle of the true arch been applied: the ogives were
+built up by a wooden cantilever framing set in the thickness of the
+walls. With the exception of the great mosque at Agades, which is
+of the same type as the other holy buildings in Air, Assode is the
+only example which possessed a minaret. It is curious that the early
+houses of the Tuareg should be so noteworthy for the height of the
+roof, while the mosques should be equally remarkable for the lowness;
+the feature is one associated with a late period of building.
+
+It is very difficult to date any of the mosques, or indeed any of
+the other buildings or graves in Air, absolutely, in the absence of
+archæological field evidence. Jean[224] has collected a tradition
+to the effect that the mosque of Tefis is the oldest in Air, and this
+accords with my information. He dates it, however, at 1150 years ago,
+and states that it was built by the Kel Geres, who, according to
+him, were the first Tuareg to reach Air. Though I cannot agree with
+the last part of this conclusion, I concur in finding that the Kel
+Geres were the first Tuareg to enter Air by the north, and that they
+were, therefore, perhaps responsible for the introduction of Islam
+into the country. If this should prove to be the case, it is indeed
+probable that they built the first mosques. But Jean’s acceptance
+of the traditional dating of the mosques is closely connected with
+the dates which he assigns to the advent of the Tuareg, namely, the
+eighth century A.D., a period which for reasons given elsewhere I am
+inclined to consider too early.
+
+The traditional date for the founding of the mosque at Tefis in
+the eighth century A.D. is hardly admissible, for it is more than
+doubtful whether Islam had spread so far south by that time. It is
+alternatively uncertain whether a Christian Church then existed in the
+land. By the year 800 A.D. Islam had only penetrated Tripolitania and
+Tunisia to a limited extent and in the face of much opposition which
+persisted for long. Jean’s dates must be regarded, not as absolute,
+but only as indicating a chronological sequence. The second mosque
+according to him was founded at T’intaghoda fifty years after the
+one at Tefis. The building, he states, was made by the Kel Owi, but if
+they were responsible for its construction the date must be set down
+as much later. My information agrees with its having been the second
+mosque in Air to be built; and this much of Jean’s information I
+accept, but discard its Kel Owi origin.[225] The third mosque was
+built at Assode about 100 years later than Tefis. The one at Agades
+followed after an interval of 40 years, 980 years ago, and is said to
+have been offered to the second Sultan of Agades as a present from
+the tribes. Chudeau adds to this information the additional detail
+that the minaret of the mosque of Assode, which, according to him,
+was 1000 years old, fell four centuries ago, but as the débris has
+not been cleared away to this day, the accuracy of the statement
+seems doubtful. Both Chudeau’s and Jean’s dates are all too
+remote. Undue importance must not be attached to the round figures
+in which the Tuareg are prone to reckon their traditional history.
+
+                                                              PLATE 31
+
+[Illustration: MOSQUES.]
+
+                                                              PLATE 32
+
+[Illustration: MOSQUES.]
+
+The etymology given by the Arabs to the word “tarki” or
+“tawarek,” even if not strictly accurate, indicates that the
+People of the Veil adopted the Faith of Islam long after the other
+inhabitants of North Africa. When they did so, they appear to have been
+lukewarm converts and to have retained many practices which the Prophet
+directed good Moslems to abhor. At Ghat, which was ever under their
+influence and where numbers of them have always lived, the tradition
+of their recent conversion may be found in the two parts of the town,
+known as the Quarter of Yes and the Quarter of No, from the people
+who accepted or refused Islam. At so late a period as when the Kel
+Owi arrived at the end of the seventeenth century A.D. the Kel Ferwan
+whom they drove out of the Iferuan valley in Northern Air were still
+“heathen,” though we are not told what their religion was. A very
+early date for the mosques of Air is therefore inherently improbable
+even if the Kel Geres did found Tefis as the first permanent place of
+worship for the new Faith. Assuming that the Kel Geres came to Air in
+the eleventh or twelfth century, the foundation of T’intaghoda mosque
+some 400 years later is not improbable; and it is not wholly impossible
+to reconcile such a date with the implications involved in the story
+of the gift of the mosque of Agades to the second Sultan of Air, who,
+we believe, reigned half-way through the fifteenth century. I prefer to
+consider that the mosques as a whole are not very old. Their style of
+construction demonstrates them to be more recent than the “A type”
+houses, though admittedly this view might have to be altered in the
+event of excavations providing additional or contradictory evidence.
+
+Apart from the numerous places of prayer marked by a “Qibla” of
+a few stones laid on the surface of the ground or by a quadrilateral
+enclosure of small stones, I only came across one site which might
+have been a pre-Moslem place of worship adapted to the later Faith. In
+the upper part of the River of Agades, on the south shore below the
+cliffs, at the entrance of the gulf where the Akaraq valley joins it,
+there is a square enclosure marked by what looks like the remains of
+a wall of which only the foundations on the ground level survive. The
+walls may never at any time have been more than a few inches high;
+what remains is of stones set in mud cement. At each of the four
+corners of the square there was a large stone. The four sides, each of
+some 15 ft. long, were true and square and oriented on the cardinal
+points. The enclosure was obviously not that of a hut, nor like the
+ground-plan of any of the houses in Air. In the centre of the eastern
+side at a later period two standing stones had been set up. The stones
+were fossil trees, some other fragments of which were lying loose on
+the top of the neighbouring cliff. They had obviously been brought by
+human agency, as curious or interesting stones, from another place
+at no very remote period.[226] The two standing stones were about 2
+ft. 6 in. apart. They were intended to mark the east, but were quite
+clearly later additions to the place, for they were merely standing,
+and not built into, the foundation of the enclosure. They were not even
+symmetrical or exactly in the centre of the side. The enclosure may,
+I think, be regarded as a pre-Moslem place of worship and not merely as
+a dwelling-house, because the “Qibla” pillars of an Islamic place
+of prayer could as readily have been set up elsewhere, had there not
+been a deliberate design to convert a site from one religious use to
+another. Its form does not resemble that of any of the usual buildings
+of Air. In the vicinity was a group of graves, some of which were
+circular enclosures, while others, obviously more recent in date,
+were oblong and correctly oriented from the Moslem point of view.
+
+The graves and tombs of Air might well form the object of interesting
+archæological excavation. Many of them display an indubitably
+non-Moslem appearance. The most common type which continues throughout
+the period of Tuareg occupation in one form or another is a ring
+of stones set on edge around a raised area covered with small white
+pebbles. The grave is too low to be termed a tumulus or mound, it is
+convex or shaped like an inverted saucer, but the centre rises only
+a few inches above the surrounding ground. The ring of stones may
+be roughly circular, oval or elliptical. In the Moslem period the
+graves are definitely oblong, the major axis being directed north
+and south, in order that the body may be placed in the grave with
+the head turned towards the east. The older graves were the round,
+or elliptical enclosures, the latter with no fixed orientation; the
+earlier they are the more nearly circular they seem to be. This is
+especially noticeable in the case of the graves near, and probably
+contemporary with, the “A type” houses at Tabello. A large central
+circular grave is often surrounded by smaller oval ones lying in any
+direction, clustering about a more important burial.
+
+The later Moslem graves are smaller, but the practice of covering the
+surface with white pebbles or chips of quartz continues. The shape
+becomes narrower, less circular and more inclined to turn into a
+rectangle. The appearance of head-stones or head and feet stones,
+which the Arabs call “The Witnesses,” coincides with correct
+Moslem orientation, but even in modern times it is rare to find any
+inscription. The few I saw were rough scratchings in Arabic script and
+sometimes, in T’ifinagh, of some simple name like “Muhammad”
+or “Ahmed.” I only saw one instance, at Afis, of an inscription
+of any length; it recorded the interment of a notable sheikh, and
+was scored with a pointed tool on a potsherd. Neither in the houses
+nor in the graves of Air is there any evidence of the Tuareg having
+attempted to cut stone. Even the petroglyphs are hammered and scratched
+but not chiselled.
+
+A great deal has been written about the funerary monuments of North
+Africa known as the “argem.”[227] They are found in many parts of
+the Northern Sahara, in the Ahnet mountains and the Adghar n’Ifoghas,
+and in the Nigerian Sudan, but not in Tuat. They have been reported
+in the Azger Tassili, at In Azawa on the north road from Air and at
+several points in Air. Bates reports them in the Gulf of Bomba and
+in the Nubian cemeteries of Upper Egypt.[228]
+
+They are enclosures of piled stones varying in shape from round to
+square, but generally the former; or they take the form of tumuli
+containing a cist or tomb. In certain cases the graves are described
+as surrounded by concentric circles of stones. The distribution of
+these “argem” recalls immediately the geographical situation of
+the Tuareg. It would be easy to assume that their existence was due
+to this people, were it not for the difficulty that the monuments all
+appear quite late in date. To quote Gautier[229]: “En résumé la
+question des monuments rupestres du Sahara, funéraires et religieux,
+semble élucidée, au moins dans ses grandes lignes. Le problème
+d’ailleurs, tel qu’il se pose actuellement, et sous réserve de
+découvertes ultérieures, est remarquablement simple. En autres pays,
+en particulier dans les provinces voisines d’Algérie et du Soudan,
+le passé préhistorique se présente sous des aspects multiples. En
+Algérie les redjems abondent, mais on trouve à côté d’eux
+des dolmens, quelques sépultures sous roche, pour rien dire des
+Puniques et Romaines. Au Soudan, comme on peut s’y attendre, en un
+pays où tant de races sont juxtaposées, le livre de M. Desplagnes
+énumère des tombeaux de types divers et multiples, poterie, grottes
+sépulcrales, cases funéraires, tumulus.[230] Rien de pareil au
+Sahara. On distingue bien des types différents de redjem, les caveaux
+sous tumulus du nord qui sont peut-être influencés par les dolmens et
+sépultures romaines, les redjems à soutaches du Tassili des Azguers,
+les chouchets du Hogar qui semblent nous raconter l’itinéraire
+et l’expansion des nobles Touaregs actuels. . . . Parmi tant de
+pierres sahariennes entassées ou agencées par l’homme, on n’en
+connaît pas une seule qu’on peut soupçonner de l’avoir été par
+une autre main que Berbère.” But here the difficulty appears, for
+“ceci nous conduirait à conclure que les Berbères ont habité le
+Sahara dans toute l’étendue du passé historique et préhistorique
+si d’autre part tous ces redjems ne paraissaient récents. . . . Les
+mobiliers funéraires contiennent du fer, et on n’en connaît pas un
+seul qui soit purement et authentiquement néolithique. Cette énorme
+lacune est naturellement de nature à nous inspirer la plus grande
+prudence dans nos conclusions. D’autant plus que, après tout,
+les monuments similaires algériens, dans l’état actuel de nos
+connaissances, ne paraissent pas plus anciens.”
+
+While the distribution of “argem” seems then to coincide with,
+and be due to the Tuareg, the “Berbères” to whom Gautier refers
+arrived in North Africa and spread into the interior before the
+advent of the metal ages. The last word has certainly not been said
+regarding the age of these monuments, and in spite of this difficulty
+of dates I have little hesitation in finding in them evidence of
+the individuality and racial detachment of the Tuareg stock from
+that of the other Libyans, who do not seem to have used this funerary
+apparatus. After all, the late neolithic and early metal ages in inner
+Libya were hardly separate from one another, and in the south, where
+we know the Tuareg are only fairly recent arrivals, the lateness of
+the “argem” is readily understandable. But if we believe them to
+be due to the Tuareg, the earliest remains in the north must be far
+older than Gautier supposes.
+
+Although certain remains of a presumed funerary or religious nature
+in Air have been described as “argem,” it has apparently escaped
+notice that both the pre-Moslem as well as the later graves of the
+country are all linear descendants of the older and more pretentious
+monuments. Yet if the term has any significance at all, there has
+been a tendency perhaps to describe rather too many enclosures as
+“argem.” Certain examples illustrated by Gautier are probably
+devoid of any spiritual significance. There are in Air, for instance,
+especially in the north of the country near Agwau, a number of groups
+of concentric stone circles, which were simply enclosures round
+temporary huts or tents. The old hut circles of the T’imia village
+(Plate 29) show clearly how an isolated example might be assumed to
+have been a prayer or religious enclosure. Again, the circular heaps of
+stones at Elazzas resemble the “argem” illustrated by Bates[231]
+so much that one might be tempted to conclude that they were such,
+if it did not happen to be known that they were the raised plinths
+on which huts used to be constructed. A deduction drawn from the
+occurrence of the latter might indicate that the origin of the true
+“argem” was derived from a desire to commemorate in death the only
+permanent part of a man’s hut dwelling in life. Such an explanation
+is not only permissible but even probable; it is even possible that
+in some cases tombs were actually made in the very floor of the hut
+or side of the pedestal where the deceased had lived.
+
+In the lower Turayet valley in Southern Air I passed a number of
+graves which seemed to suggest an intermediate type between the large
+prehistoric “rigm” and the later small enclosure of stones covered
+with white pebbles. The Turayet graves were small circular platforms
+like the hut foundations at Elazzas, but not more than 10 ft. in
+diameter with vertical sides a few inches above the ground level and
+flat tops covered with white stones. The occurrence of these tombs
+on the Turayet valley, not far from the mouth of the Akaraq valley,
+where also is perhaps a pre-Moslem place of worship, and the existence
+of what may prove a pre-Moslem urn burial cemetery at Marandet, all
+of which places are in the extreme south of Air, are interesting
+points when it is remembered that the first Tuareg inhabitants of
+Air came to the country from the south. It may nevertheless be pure
+coincidence that there seemed to be fewer obviously ancient monuments
+in Northern Air than in the southern part.
+
+The absence of funerary inscriptions is in marked contrast with the
+profusion of rock writings in Air. Written literature is, however,
+almost non-existent, but traditional poetry takes its place. The
+esteem in which poetry is held and the popularity which it enjoys
+are proof of the intellectual capacity which is present in this people.
+
+When it is realised that, alone among the ancient people of
+North Africa, the Tuareg have kept an individual script, it seems
+extraordinary that drawing, painting and sculpture should have remained
+in so primitive a state. Even if we are to admit that the earliest and
+therefore the best of the rock drawings of North Africa are the work of
+the ancestors of the Tuareg, it is hardly possible to qualify them as
+more than interesting or curious. Few of them are beautiful. Some of
+the “Early Period”[232] drawings were executed with precision and
+care, but even if full allowance is made for the possibility of their
+having been coloured there are hardly any artistic achievements of
+merit. They do not bear comparison with the bushman drawings of South
+Africa, still less with the magnificent cave paintings of the Reindeer
+Age in Europe. But while some doubt exists regarding the authorship of
+the early drawings, the later North African pictures can be ascribed
+to the Tuareg without any fear of controversy. The Tuareg are still
+engaged in making them, but this modern work is even more crude. The
+drawings have become conventionalised; the symbols do not necessarily
+bear any likeness to the objects which they purport to represent.
+
+The rock drawings in Air display continuity from bad examples in
+the style of the early period down to the modern conventionalised
+glyphs. In most cases both the early and the late work is accompanied
+by T’ifinagh inscriptions. The earlier drawings represent animals
+which exist, or used to exist, in Air. The most carefully executed I
+saw were in the valley leading up from Agaragar to the pass into the
+Ighazar basin above Faodet. The place was near some watering-point,
+used by the northern Salt Caravan from Air to Bilma. The pictures were
+somewhat difficult to see as they had in part been covered by later
+drawings. The execution was rough, consisting of little more than an
+outline with a few markings on the bodies of some of the animals. As
+in the late petroglyphs there was no chiselling or cutting: the lines
+were made by hammering with a more or less suitable instrument and then
+by rubbing with a stone and sand. Among the animals thus represented,
+the giraffe and the ostrich in a wild state survive south of Air. An
+antelope with sloping quarters and large lyre-shaped horns, the ox,
+the camel, the donkey, a horse, a large bird, and the human figure,
+both male and female, could also be traced. The large antelope I
+cannot identify for certain, but the large bird is probably the
+Greater Arab Bustard.
+
+In the later work the conventionalised symbols remain fairly
+constant. The ox is shown as a straight line with four vertical lines
+representing legs, a clear indication of the hump, and two short
+horns. The rectangular camel symbol had become so debased that for
+a long time I was at a loss to interpret it. The representations of
+the human figure are only curious inasmuch as they emphasise the long
+robe worn by the Tuareg and sometimes the cross bands over the breast,
+so typical of the Libyans in the Egyptian paintings. An interesting
+point in these rudimentary examples of the pictorial art is that even
+in the early period they portray a similar fauna and habit of life
+to those of to-day. A faint Egyptian influence may be detected in
+the human figures. I know of no drawings in Air to compare with the
+ones found by Barth at Telizzarhen, nor any which appeared to have
+a religious significance. The most interesting example is certainly
+that of the ox and cart referred to in the following chapter.
+
+The necessity of pictorial expression was evidently less felt
+than that of poetry, a condition to which nomadism has undoubtedly
+contributed. Yet even in ornament and draughtsmanship the Tuareg
+seem once to have reached a higher plane of civilisation in the past
+than that which they now possess and which their life has led them
+progressively to abandon.
+
+They have little knowledge of history outside their own tribal or group
+lore with the exception of that modicum of knowledge derived from a
+superficial study of the Quran. At the same time, men like Ahodu have
+heard and remembered stories of the past such as those of Kahena, Queen
+of the Aures, and of her fighting against the Arabs. Their knowledge
+of local geography is enormous, of the general form or shape of North
+Africa small. They know of the Mediterranean and their language has
+a word for the sea. They have heard of the Nile, of Egypt, of the
+Niger and of Lake Chad, but they have only very vague inklings of
+the existence of Arabia or of the whereabouts of Istambul, where the
+Defender of the Faith lived. They can draw rough maps of local features
+on the sand and understand perfectly the conception of European maps on
+a wider scale. When I showed them an atlas with a map of the world and
+laboriously explained that it was a flat representation of a spherical
+object, Ahodu and Sidi surprised me by saying that they knew that the
+world was round, and that if you went in by a hole you would eventually
+come out on the other side. Duveyrier and others have been surprised
+at the knowledge of European countries and politics which they have
+found in the Sahara. The communication of news between distant parts
+of Africa is highly developed and at times astounding.
+
+                                                              PLATE 33
+
+[Illustration: TIFINAGH ALPHABET]
+
+If only on account of their script the Tuareg have deserved more
+attention in this country than they have received. I have no intention
+at this juncture of examining either T’ifinagh or Temajegh in detail,
+as they require study in a volume dedicated to them alone; but, as
+an ancient non-Arabic script which has survived in Africa, I cannot
+refrain from a brief description of the former. T’ifinagh is an
+alphabetic and not a syllabic script, but owing to the abbreviations
+practised in writing and the absence of all vowels except an A
+which resembles the Hamza or Alif, it has come to resemble a sort
+of shorthand. It is usually necessary to know the general meaning of
+any writing before it can be read. The T’ifinagh alphabet consists
+of between thirty and forty symbols varying somewhat from place to
+place. Duveyrier[233] collected an alphabet of twenty-three letters
+used in the north: Hanoteau,[234] who wrote the best grammar of
+Temajegh yet published, gives twenty-four letters: Masquerey[235]
+gives twenty-three letters for the Taitoq dialect and script: Freeman
+found twenty-five in the Ghadamsi Tuareg dialects. In addition to these
+letter symbols there are about twelve ligatures of two or sometimes
+three letters. All these signs are used in Air, but there are also
+certain additional symbols which may be alternative forms. Of the
+twenty-three to twenty-five letters in T’ifinagh, some ten only
+have been derived from the classical Libyan script as exemplified by
+the bilingual Thugga inscription now in the British Museum. Of these
+ten letters perhaps five have Punic parallels, while for the thirty
+known Libyan letters six Phœnician parallels have been found. It has
+hitherto been assumed[236] that the T’ifinagh alphabet was descended
+from the Libyan, which, it may be noted, has not yet been found in
+any inscription proved to be earlier than the fourth century B.C. Many
+theories have been advanced for the origin of the Libyan script, but
+Halévy is usually accepted as the most reliable authority on the
+subject. He supposed that the Libyan alphabet was derived from the
+Phœnician with the addition of certain non-Semitic symbols current
+nearly all over the Mediterranean. If this were universally admitted
+as the correct view it would still not be possible to explain why the
+T’ifinagh alphabet contains so many symbols which are not common
+to either the Libyan or Punic systems. On evidence which cannot here
+be examined in detail, it seems easier to believe that the ancestors
+of the Tuareg brought to Africa, or copied from a people with whom
+they had been in contact before reaching the Sahara, an alphabet
+replenished by borrowing certain symbols from a Libyan system partly
+founded on the Phœnician one. A consideration of this problem, like
+the one which concerns the Temajegh language itself, must be left
+to experts to resolve. As much false analogy and loose reasoning
+have been used on this question as on the subject of the origin of
+the Libyan races. One thing only seems to me to stand out, namely,
+that the T’ifinagh alphabet and Temajegh language were not evolved
+in Africa but came from without, probably from the east or north-east,
+into the continent, where they developed independently. To postulate an
+Arabian origin, for instance, for T’ifinagh and Temajegh could not be
+construed as evidence in support of any theory regarding the origin of
+the Tuareg themselves. Linguistic evidence is notoriously unreliable
+from the anthropological point of view, since more often than not it
+only indicates some cultural contact. The most interesting aspect of
+the linguistic question is the evidence which it may afford regarding
+the cultural development of the older Tuareg. In their present stage
+of development there is no reason for them to have retained, still less
+for them to have evolved by themselves, any form of script. Their mode
+of life does not necessitate the use of writing: they are for the most
+part illiterate or are in process of becoming so. To have had and in
+so far as they still use T’ifinagh, to have retained an individual
+script, is to my mind the most powerful evidence in favour of the
+conclusion to which I have already on several occasions referred,
+namely, their far higher degree of civilisation in the past.
+
+In Air, T’ifinagh is dying out. One tribal group is famous for
+having retained it in current use more than any other section of
+the Southern Tuareg. The Ifadeyen men and women still read and write
+Temajegh correctly if somewhat laboriously. They use it for sending
+messages to each other or for putting up notices on trees or rocks,
+saying how one or other of them visited the place. Among most of the
+other tribes a knowledge of T’ifinagh is confined to the older women
+and a few men. The younger generation can neither read nor write either
+in T’ifinagh or in Arabic: the scribes and holy men usually only
+write in Arabic script. In the olden days all the Tuareg women knew
+how to write and it was part of their duties to teach the children.
+
+The rocks of Air are covered with inscriptions which have neither
+been recorded nor translated. Owing to the changing linguistic forms
+of Temajegh and the absence of any very fixed rules for writing it,
+it is difficult to decipher any but the modern writings. Words are not
+separated, vowels are not written, and where one word ends with the
+same consonant with which the following one begins, a single symbol
+is usually written for the two.
+
+                                                              PLATE 34
+
+[Illustration: ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN TIFINAGH]
+
+T’ifinagh script may be written from left to right or from right
+to left, or up and down or down and up, or in a spiral or in the
+boustrophedon manner. The European authors who have written of Temajegh
+have variously reproduced T’ifinagh running from right to left
+and from left to right, but the two best authorities, Hanoteau and
+de Foucauld,[237] have adopted the former direction. It ill becomes
+me to differ from such learned authorities, but the existence of
+certain inscriptions in Air leads me to believe that the left to
+right manner was, there at least, perhaps the most usual system. On
+Plate 40 is reproduced an _Arabic_ inscription written by a Tuareg in
+Arabic characters running in the wrong direction, namely, from left to
+right, nor do I think the writer would have made this mistake unless he
+had been accustomed so to write in the only other script of which he
+could have had any knowledge, namely, T’ifinagh. The inscription,
+of course, records the common “La illa ilallah Muhammed rasul
+Allah.” I came across two or three other instances of the same sort.
+
+The T’ifinagh inscriptions in Air, like the pictures with which
+they are so often associated, belong to all periods. Some of them
+certainly date back to the first Tuareg invasion.
+
+There is a tradition that the Quran was translated into Temajegh
+and written out in T’ifinagh, a most improper proceeding from the
+Moslem point of view. But no European has seen this interesting book,
+which is said to have been destroyed. It may possibly have survived in
+some place, for Ahodu told me he had once seen a book in Air written in
+T’ifinagh, though all the documents which I found in the mosques were
+in Arabic calligraphy. Until a “Corpus” of T’ifinagh inscriptions
+has been compiled it will be very difficult to make much progress.
+
+Such a collection would assist in the study of Temajegh itself,
+for the language is in a somewhat fluid state, tending to vary
+dialectically from place to place and period to period. It is one
+of the languages termed “Berber,” the only connection in which I
+am prepared to admit the use of this word. By many it is considered
+the purest of the Berber forms of speech. Although related to such
+dialects as Siwi and Ghadamsi, and to western forms like Shillugh or
+the Atlas languages, Temajegh is distinct; it was not derived from
+them but developed independently, and probably preserved more of the
+original characteristics.
+
+The relationship of the original tongue to the Semitic groups of
+languages has not yet been defined. The two linguistic families
+have certain direct analogies, including the formation of words from
+triliteral verbal roots, verbal inflections, derived verbal formations,
+the genders of the second and third persons, the pronominal suffixes
+and the aoristic style of tense. Nevertheless there are also certain
+very notable differences, like the absence of any trace of more than
+two genders, the absence of the dual form, and verbs of two or three
+or four radicals with primary forms in the aorist and imperative
+only. Berber does not appear to be a Semitic language. But the two
+are probably derived from a common ancestor.
+
+The Air and Ahaggar dialects of Temajegh differ somewhat from each
+other. They are mutually quite intelligible, and so far as I could
+judge not more diverse than English and American. Barth stated that,
+unlike the rest of the Air Tuareg, the Kel Owi spoke the Auraghiye
+dialect, which is the name often given to the Ahaggar language. The
+name is, of course, derived from the Auriga or Hawara ethnic group,
+which, as we shall see, is the name of the parent stock of most of
+the Ahaggaren tribes. I have it on the best authority, however, of
+Ahodu, ’Umbellu and Sidi, that the Kel Owi language does not differ
+materially from the dialect of the rest of Air and am therefore at
+a loss to be able to explain Barth’s statement.
+
+The absence of the Arabic ع (_’ain_) in Temajegh necessitates its
+transcription by the letter غ (_ghen_) which is so characteristic
+of Berber. In all words, therefore, adopted from the Arabic, and
+especially in proper names like ’Osman, ’Abdallah, ’Abdeddin,
+etc., the forms Ghosman, Ghibdillah, Ghabidin are used. The Temajegh
+letter (_yegh_) ⵗ or _ghen_ is common and so strongly _grasseyé_
+that it becomes very similar to an R. The difficulty of transcription
+of the T’ifinagh into European languages is therefore very
+considerable,[238] for the R and Gh sounds are very confusing. In
+some T’ifinagh inscriptions the Arabic letter ع is frankly used
+when Arabic words occur.
+
+The great feature of the Temajegh language and of the Tuareg is the
+diffusion of poetry. It is unfortunately impossible to give any
+examples in this volume, but the collections made by Duveyrier,
+Hanoteau, Masquerey, Haardt,[239] and de Foucauld[240] show the
+natural beauty and simplicity of this art among the People of the
+Veil. Their prosody is not strict, but nevertheless displays certain
+formality. Iambic verses of nine, ten and eleven syllables are the
+most usual forms of scansion, with a regular cæsura and rhymed or
+assonated terminations. In the matter of rhymes there is considerable
+freedom: the use of similarly sounding words is allowed. Terminations
+like “pen,” “mountain” and “waiting” would, for instance,
+all be permissible as rhymes. Poetry is sung, chanted or recited with
+or without music. The themes cover the whole field of humanity, from
+songs of love or thanksgiving to long ballads of war and travel. The
+Tuareg are in some measure all poets, but the women are most famous
+among them. They make verses impromptu or recite the traditional
+poems of their race which are so old that their origin has been
+forgotten. One hears of women famous throughout the Sahara as the
+greatest poets of their time.
+
+Their way of life is attractive. These famous ladies hold what is
+called a “diffa,” which is a reception or “salon.” In the
+evening in front of their fires under an African night they play their
+one-stringed “amzad” or mandoline and recite their verses. Men
+from all over the country come to listen or take part. They seem to
+live and love and think in much the same manner as in Europe those of
+us do who retain our natural feelings. Only perhaps there are fewer
+_grandes dames_ in Europe now than in the Sahara.
+
+Poetry, music and dancing are all to a great extent branches of a
+single art in so far as they all depend on rhythm and seek to express
+the emotions. In Air the syncopated music of the negro has had more
+influence than in the north, so the “amzad” is less common. Their
+other instruments are drums, but the lilt of their dance is rather
+different from that of the south. Their improvised drums are most
+ingenious. There is the hemispherical calabash floating in a bowl
+of milk, the note of which varies according to the depth to which
+the gourd is sunk, and the millet mortar with a wet skin stretched
+over the mouth by two parallel poles weighed down with large stones
+lying across their ends. The other various drums of the Southland
+are also known and used by those who can afford them. The dances of
+the Tuareg men are done to a quick step on a syncopated beat. The
+most effective one is a sword dance by a single man running up to
+the drum and executing a series of rapid steps, with the sword held
+by both hands at arms’ length above the head. I have never seen
+any women dancing among the Air Tuareg and it is said not to be their
+practice. This may be so, for even among the men dancing is relatively
+uncommon and has probably been borrowed from the south. It seems
+hardly to be consistent with their grave and dignified demeanour,
+of which poetry is the more natural counterpart.
+
+
+[Footnote 216: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 82 and 176.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Called Assingerma on the Cortier map. Teghazar is the
+diminutive of Ighazar, and means a small river or torrent.]
+
+[Footnote 218: Also spelt Reshwa. Von Bary calls the cone Teginjir,
+which is inaccurate.]
+
+[Footnote 219: Which is also called Tellia, as Barth refers to it.]
+
+[Footnote 220: Richardson, _op. cit._, Vol. II. p. 71.]
+
+[Footnote 221: Naturally many more of the “B” houses than of the
+“A” class still have the roof on them.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Cf. Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 223: The evidence for these movements is in Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 224: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 225: Jean throughout regards the Kel Owi as very ancient
+inhabitants of Air, but if due allowance is made for (as I think)
+this error and his traditions are not taken to refer to an earlier
+period than the one with which this group is associated, they are
+still valuable, from the comparative point of view.]
+
+[Footnote 226: Fossil trees exist in the sandstone hills of Eghalgawen
+and T’in Wana, a few miles away.]
+
+[Footnote 227: Or “rigm” or “rigem” in the singular.]
+
+[Footnote 228: Bates, _op. cit._, App. I.]
+
+[Footnote 229: Gautier, _op. cit._, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 230: Desplagnes: _Le plateau Central Nigérien_.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Bates, _op. cit._, App. I., Figs. 90, 93 and 94.]
+
+[Footnote 232: According to the classification of Pomel and
+Flamand. Cf. Frobenius: _Hadshra Maktuba_, and Flamand, _Les Pierres
+Ecrites_.]
+
+[Footnote 233: Duveyrier, _op. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 234: Hanoteau, _Grammaire de la Langue Tamachek_, Algiers,
+1896.]
+
+[Footnote 235: Masquerey, _Dictionnaire et Grammaire Touaregs_
+(Dialect des Taitoq).]
+
+[Footnote 236: As, for instance, by Bates, _op. cit._, p. 88,
+following Halévy.]
+
+[Footnote 237: De Foucauld, _Dictionnaire Touareg-Français_, 2
+Vols., Alger.]
+
+[Footnote 238: Hence the difficulty surrounding the writing of Ghat,
+or Rat or Rhat. I have used “gh” through this volume, but the
+French usually use “r.”]
+
+[Footnote 239: See especially MM. Haardt and Dubreuil’s account of
+the Citroën Motor Expedition across the Sahara.]
+
+[Footnote 240: In R. Bazin’s life of Père de Foucauld.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+                          RELIGION AND BELIEFS
+
+
+Nominally at least all the Tuareg of Air are now Moslems with the
+possible exception of some of the Imghad of the Ikazkazan, who were
+described to me as Kufara (heathens). Nevertheless, even to-day the
+Tuareg are not good Moslems, and though, as a general rule, they
+say their prayers with regularity, they are remiss in such matters
+as ablutions. These they never perform except with sand or dust,
+which the Prophet enjoined were only to be resorted to on journeys
+or where water was scarce.
+
+As was explained at the beginning of this volume, the word “Tuareg”
+is not used by the people themselves. It is used in the first
+place by the Arabs, in a somewhat derogatory sense. Barth makes no
+doubt about the etymology of the word Tuareg, or, as he spells it,
+Tawarek. “. . . if the reader inquires who gave them the other
+name (_i.e._ Tuareg), I answer in full confidence, the Arabs; and
+the reason why they called them so was probably from their having
+left or abandoned their religion, from the word ترك (as in),
+‘tereku dinihum’; for from other evidence which I have collected
+elsewhere it seems clear that a great part of the Berbers of the
+desert were once Christians . . . and that they afterwards changed
+their religion. . . .”[241] The name is written either with a ك
+or a ق, but according to the learned traveller more often with the
+former letter. The form “Terga” or “Targa” would, however,
+if the word is identical radically with “Tuareg,” point to ق
+being correct in a country where this letter so often becomes a
+hard ج in the local Arabic. The singular form of “Tuareg” is
+“Tarki” or “Tarqi,” with both forms of plural, توارك
+and تاركيون. Duveyrier[242] and nearly all other authorities
+agree in accepting this etymology, though some have suggested
+that it meant “The People of the Sand.”[243] Others add, as
+an alternative explanation for the ترك derivation, that it was
+not so much Christianity from which they fell away but Islam after
+their conversion, and in support of this their laxity in ritual is
+quoted. Duveyrier says that they were the “Abandoned of God” on
+account of the delay in their conversion to Islam and the numerous
+apostasies which occurred, or else because of their evil and violent
+habits of life. There is no doubt of the reproach attaching to the
+word, but the etymology is unsatisfactory. In its original usage it
+seems to have referred rather to a section of the Muleththemin than
+to the whole race[244]: if this observation is correct the religious
+flavour attaching to the word is misleading, and it becomes simply a
+proper name belonging to a section analogous to that of the Sanhaja
+and Hawara.
+
+The Tuareg of Air observe the usual religious feasts, but their fasting
+during Ramadhan, which they call Salla Shawal, like their ablutions,
+is usually excused on the grounds that they are travelling. On the
+first day of Ramadhan it is customary to visit the graves of ancestors
+and friends. The feast of Salla Laja or Laya is held on the tenth day
+of the moon of Zu’lhajja;[245] it is known in Turkey and Egypt as
+Bairam. On this occasion sheep are slaughtered and the people feast
+for three days. The feast of Bianu on the 20th of Muharrem is a sort
+of Saturnalia, and very similar to certain festivities described as
+occurring in Ashanti. The feast lasts for a day and a half and is
+marked by scenes of joy and happiness, for it commemorates God’s
+forgiveness of humanity after the Flood. There is much dancing and
+love-making and laughter, and the old people, the children and the
+unmarried persons of the villages and camps are sent out of the
+settlements while the revelries are in progress. The feasts of the
+Birthday of the Prophet and of the Beginning of the Year are also
+celebrated. It is customary when a journey is successfully completed
+to give a sheep to be sacrificed for the poor, and when there is much
+sickness among men or camels the same habit obtains. When three of
+our camels had died in rapid succession at Auderas we were urged to
+make sacrifice, and did so with three sheep.
+
+                                                              PLATE 35
+
+[Illustration: MT. ABATTUL AND VILLAGE]
+
+I regret that I was never sufficiently fluent in Temajegh to learn much
+of the superstitions of the Tuareg of Air. Such information can only
+be obtained after prolonged residence among a people, and superficial
+conclusions are worse than useless. There is no doubt that underlying
+all their Islamic practices they hold fundamental beliefs dating
+from their earlier religious practices, regarding which only very
+few indications are available. The existence of certain apparently
+Christian survivals led Duveyrier and other authorities to assert
+that the Tuareg were Christians before they were converted to Islam,
+and I am prepared to accept this view in spite of the denials which
+have been expressed by so eminent a writer as Bates. De Foucauld,
+I understand, was also doubtful of their having been Christians,
+for among the earlier beliefs which he found to be retained by
+the Tuareg of Ahaggar he detected the remains of a polytheistic
+rather than a monotheistic system. Bates has laboriously collected
+all the references to religious beliefs among the Eastern Libyans,
+and any reader interested in the subject cannot do better than refer
+to his work, for even as far as Air is concerned I can add nothing
+thereto.[246]
+
+There are certain incontrovertible facts which demonstrate
+the influence, at least, of Christianity among the People of the
+Veil. Much has been written of their use of the cross in ornament,
+nor can its so frequent occurrence be entirely fortuitous. I am
+aware that the cross is a simple and effective form of decoration
+which any primitive people is likely, unless formally prohibited,
+to have used; but I find it hard to believe that the Tuareg, who,
+after all, are not so very primitive in their culture, however
+much of it they may have lost, had no other inducement than a lack
+of imagination to drag in at every turn this symbol which their
+religion expressly forbids them to use. Their cross-hilted sword,
+which has been likened to a Crusader’s, may be a chance example of
+the use of a design which is as convenient as it is simple, but the
+tenacity with which they cling to the form, and only to this form,
+is none the less curious. The cross in T’ifinagh script for the
+letter “Iet” (T) is doubtless a pure accident occasioned by the
+rectilinear character of the alphabet. But in that case the absence of
+the equally convenient diagonal or St. Andrew’s cross is strange. In
+other instances the appearance of the cross can be even less lightly
+dismissed. The traditional form of ornamentation on the Tuareg shield
+is purely and simply the Latin cross rising out of what in design,
+apparently, is a traditional representation of glory or light, depicted
+as a radiating mass. Bates argues that the occurrence of a drawing of
+a shield with a cruciform design thereon upon a rock in Tibesti is an
+argument against the view which I have adopted, and that the use of
+this symbol is probably due to a former practice of sun worship which
+he finds widespread in Libya. But when it is realised how much the
+Tuareg of Air, to consider only one group, raided in that direction,
+and how natural it would be for them to commemorate a success by
+drawing their shield and cross, which they regard as characteristic
+of themselves, on a rock, his explanation seems rather lame. In the
+curved top of the iron camel head-piece of Air I am inclined to see
+another survival of the cross, such as also is probably the square top
+of their spoons. The pommel of their camel saddle, a design which is
+always strictly maintained, is another convincing example, especially
+if the whole equipment is compared with the Tebu sort. In construction
+the Tuareg and Tebu saddles are very similar, though the cantle of
+the latter is generally low. The pommel of the Tebu saddle takes the
+form of a short upright member without any crosspiece or cruciform
+tendency; it rarely rises much above the level of the rider’s
+legs. It may be said, on the contrary, that the cross pommel of the
+Tuareg saddle is the most prominent part of their whole gear. It is
+of no practical value whatsoever, for the grip of the rider’s legs
+never reaches as high as the projecting arms of the cross-top, and it
+is extremely inconvenient for rapid mounting or dismounting in their
+flowing robes. The cross is also extensively used in ornamenting the
+leather-work of the saddle, and it plays a considerable part in the
+traditional metal-work of the more expensive quality.
+
+                                                              PLATE 36
+
+[Illustration: ORNAMENT.
+
+   1. “Agades Cross,” ornate form.
+
+   2, 3 and 4. “Agades Crosses,” debased forms from Damergu.
+
+   5. Necklaces.
+
+   6. Bridle Stand.
+
+   7. Ornamental strip around door at Agades made of tin plate.
+
+   8. Finial to border on riding saddles.
+
+   9. Wooden spoon.
+
+  10. Iron head-piece of camel-bridle.]
+
+In the course of my wanderings I saw two examples of sticks which
+are planted in the ground when camp is pitched; they have a crook
+on one side and are surmounted by a small cross of the same shape
+as the one on the camel saddle. On these sticks are hung the bridles
+and ropes when the camels are unsaddled. They are planted outside a
+man’s tent, and sometimes indicate his high position or prosperity.
+
+At Agades I saw a house door ornamented with a border of tin plate in
+which was cut the cross and ball design shown in Plate 36. A similar
+example of the cross in design is in the characteristic Agades cross
+which will be described later.
+
+In addition to this evidence of the use of the cross, certain words
+in Temajegh seem to be so closely associated with Christianity as to
+require more explanation than the suggestion that they were borrowed
+from the north in the course of contact with the Romans or other
+Mediterranean influence. The commonest of these words are given in
+the following list:[247]
+
+  _Word in Temajegh._     _Meaning._  _Suggested derivation._
+
+  “Mesi”                  God.        Messiah.
+
+  With “Mesina,”       {  My God,
+  “Mesinak.”           {  Thy God.
+
+  “Amanai.”               God.        Adonai (suggested by
+                                      Duveyrier).[248]
+
+  “Amerkid.”              Religious   From the Latin: merces, mercedis.
+                          merit.
+
+  “Abekkad.”              Sin.         „   „    „     peccatum.
+
+  “Tafaski.”              Feast day.   „   „    „     Pasca, or
+                                      from some later form of the
+                                      word meaning Easter.
+
+  “Andjelous,” or         Angel.      From the Latin: Angelus.
+  “Angelous.”
+
+  “Aghora,” or “Arora.”   Dawn.        „   „    „     Aurora.
+
+In Air, God is referred to either as Mesi or as Ialla, which, of
+course, comes from Allah. But there seems to be a slight difference in
+the use of the two words, for when Ahodu and others talked of praying
+they spoke of Ialla, but when he said to me that they were aware
+there was only one God, who was mine as well as theirs, Mesi was used.
+
+The cumulative effect of all this evidence is to my thinking too
+great for Bates’ view that the occurrence of the cross among the
+Tuareg is merely due to the survival of certain practices connected
+with the worship of the sun.
+
+The Tuareg believe in Heaven and in Hell and in the Devil, but the
+latter seems to be a somewhat vague personage in their cosmos. Much
+more present are the good and evil spirits with which their world,
+as that of all Moslems, is peopled. Belief in these spirits among the
+Tuareg, however, is probably older than Islam, for they also assert
+the existence of angels who are indistinguishable from those of various
+Christian Faiths. Unfortunately the angels are less active in Air than
+the many other sorts of spirits who haunt the country. Among the latter
+are the Jinns or Elijinen,[249] as they call them, which are ghosts
+living in certain places or the spirits which attack people and send
+them mad. Certain country-sides are known to be haunted by the sounds
+of drumming, and curious things happen to people who visit these
+parts after dark. The spirits have to be fed, and bowls of porridge
+and water are left out for them at night; they are invariably found
+empty next morning. Occasionally the spirits make merry: then they can
+be heard to play the drum and dance and sing. Elijinen speak Temajegh
+and sometimes Arabic: people have spoken with them. The spirits are
+rarely harmful, though they occasionally play practical jokes like
+deceiving travellers or frightening sheep or goats. From time to time,
+however, they do torture unfortunate people who displease them.
+
+The most powerful spirits in Air are identified with the mountains just
+north of Iferuan, called Ihrsan, opposite which are the mountains of
+Adesnu. In the olden time they fought against one another, the one
+armed with a spear and the other with a sword. In the equal combat
+Adesnu was transfixed and remains split to this day, while the crest of
+Ihrsan was battered with the sword and retains a serrated poll. They
+do not fight any more, but they often talk to one another. Aggata
+in Central Air is also the home of a spirit population, and so is
+Tebehic in the south.
+
+Spirits are part of the every-day life of the universe. No one doubts
+their existence. They may be found anywhere, even in the open desert,
+where their drums are often heard. Evidence of such noises is so
+circumstantial; although I have never experienced them myself, I cannot
+fail to believe that they are heard. Some physical explanation on the
+lines suggested by the late Lord Curzon in an essay must certainly
+be accepted.[250]
+
+The spirits which obsess men and women are more serious. I was
+able to observe a case at Auderas, where Atagoom’s sister became
+possessed—an affliction to which she had been liable for a long time
+at irregular intervals. Her fits lasted from one to seven days. She
+used to lie crouched and huddled all day, sometimes in uncomfortable
+postures, but not apparently suffering from muscular contraction or
+fits or spasms. At night she used to wander about oblivious of her
+surroundings, waking up the children or treading on the goats. Then
+she would seize a sword and wave it about, thinking she was a man and
+dancing like a man. It was said that if she could only get some sleep,
+the spirit would go away, so I provided a sleeping draught which her
+relations joyfully promised to administer. But they failed in their
+endeavours because the spirit, of course, knew what the medicine
+was and made the patient refuse to take it! The treatment for these
+possessions is both kind and sensible. Atagoom’s relations sat
+around her trying to attract her attention, calling on her by name,
+and saying familiar things to her. All the while they beat a drum
+to distract the spirit’s attention, and she was constantly called
+or given things to hold or shown a child whom she knew. As soon as
+the glassy stare leaves the patient’s eye, and the attention can be
+caught, even for a moment, a cure is certain. Persons afflicted in this
+way are usually women; it will happen to them at the time they first
+become aware of men, which is not necessarily when they first marry,
+but this rule also has many exceptions. Atagoom’s small brother,
+aged about twelve years, was shortly afterwards afflicted in the same
+way, but his access only lasted one day.
+
+The difficulty of exorcising spirits, at which the Holy Men of Ghat,
+for instance, are said to be very proficient, is, as Ali explained,
+that most of the people in Air who can read the Quran do not understand
+it sufficiently well to do any good. Of course it was useless, he
+added, to make charms unintelligently against the “jenun.” In
+Air there was only one man who is really proficient. El Mintaka, the
+scribe of Auderas, the man from Ghat, was said to know the method,
+but it was not his speciality and he had not been very successful.
+
+The consensus of opinion is that, unlike many of the spirits at Ghat,
+where they take the form of objects like pumpkins rolling down the
+road in front of people who happen to be walking about at night,
+those in Air do not assume visible shape. The spirit which attacks
+women, nevertheless, is stated to have been seen by some people and
+to have the aspect of a dragon; it is called “Tanghot.” Ghosts,
+more especially the ones who live near tombs and deserted villages,
+are called “Allelthrap.”
+
+A famous legend in Air is that of the column of raiders which by
+the mercy of Allah was swallowed up suddenly as a result of the
+prayers of the Holy Man Bayazid. They were on the point of capturing
+Agades when the ground opened before them, and in proof thereof the
+Hole of Bayazid is shown to this day. The famous event lives on in
+memory because at that place the water, which we have already seen
+is naturally somewhat saline and foul in the immediate vicinity
+of the city, is said to have been poisoned by the corpses of the
+band. There is another story, too vague to record, of a legendary
+hero or religious leader called Awa whose tomb in the Talak area is
+an object of devotion. The rumour may repay investigation, for the
+tomb was mentioned to me in connection with the religious practices
+of the Air Tuareg before they became Moslems.
+
+Divination is resorted to by means of the Quran, and also by playing
+that curious game resembling draughts which is so widespread all
+over the world. In Air the game takes the form of a “board” of
+thirty-six holes[251] marked in the sand. Each player has thirteen
+counters made of date stones, or bits of wood, or pebbles, or camel
+droppings. The object of the game is to surround a pawn belonging
+to one’s adversary, somewhat on the principle of “Noughts and
+Crosses.” The game is called “Alkarhat” and when a Holy Man
+presides, the winner of three successive games carries the alternative
+submitted for divine decision. Another form of divination is resorted
+to by women who desire to obtain news of their absent husbands or
+lovers; they sleep on certain well-known tombs, and thus are favoured
+with a vision of their desire. The women of Ghadames and of the Azger
+Tuareg do the same. The practice appears to be identical with that
+described by Herodotus as current among the Nasamonians. It is also
+reported by Mela of the people of Augila.[252]
+
+The consequence of these beliefs in spirits is that amulets are much
+in demand. They are especially in request to ward off the direct
+influence of particular evils, which are, of course, more especially
+potent when the local Holy Men have not been sufficiently regaled with
+presents. There is no man in Air who does not wear an amulet—usually
+a verse of the Quran in a leather envelope—somewhere on his
+person. The more modest may confine themselves to a little leather
+pouch tied in the white rag which is worn around the head to keep
+the veil in place. On the other hand, Atagoom, whose wealth permitted
+him the luxury, had little leather pouches sewn on to every part of
+his clothing in addition to some twenty-five strung on a cord round
+his neck. The manufacture of these amulets is the principal source of
+revenue to the Holy Men of Air. Besides verses written out on paper
+or skin other objects are also used. Lion claws are very efficacious,
+and in some cases fragments of bone of certain animals are good. I
+saw one bag containing the head of a hawk, and another filled with
+pieces of paper covered with magic squares. These leather amulet
+pouches are the principal ornament worn by men, with the exception
+of the “talhakim,” a most interesting object, the distribution
+of which in Africa still remains to be ascertained.
+
+The “talhakim” is an ornament shaped like a triangle surmounted by
+a ring with three little bosses on its circumference. The material used
+for making these objects is red agate or white soap-stone or turquoise
+blue glass. They are so prized in the Sahara and Sudan that cheaper
+varieties of red and white china or glass were made in Austria before
+the Great War for trade purposes. The stone “talhakim” are not
+made in Air. They come from the north. I have it on the authority
+of Ali that they are not made at Ghat or in the Fezzan either,
+I have, however, still to learn where they actually are made. The
+stone “talhakim” are beautifully cut and invariably of the same
+design. The upper part of the triangle is sometimes slightly thicker
+than the point, and in all cases is divided from the ring part by a
+ridge and one or two parallel lines with the addition, in some cases,
+of little indentations. I can neither find nor suggest any explanation
+of the significance of the design. It may be the prototype of the
+Agades cross, but I do not think it likely. The bosses on the ring
+are essential to the design, and somewhat similar, therefore, are
+agate rings which I used to see worn in the same way as ornaments
+strung on leather cords around the neck; they seemed too small to be
+worn on the finger. Most of them had on one side three little bosses
+analogous to those on the upper portion of the “talhakim.” These
+rings also came to Air from the north.
+
+The flat tablet or plate of stone or wood hung around the neck,
+which is so widespread throughout the East, occurs in Air, but is not
+common. The finest example I saw was worn by a man at Towar; it was
+made of white soap-stone without any inscription on either surface,
+but was very thin and finely cut.
+
+The women but not men wear necklaces of beads, or beads and small stone
+ornaments, resembling small “talhakim.” It has been suggested
+that these little objects were similar to those which are known,
+as far afield as Syria, to have been derived from stone arrow-heads
+conventionalised as trinkets after they had ceased to be used for
+weapons. In Air, however, I am convinced the necklace ornaments are
+intended as small “talhakim,” and I am loth to believe that
+the latter are conventionalised arrow-heads both on account of
+the difficulty presented by their large size and also on account
+of the essential upper ring portion, which points to a different
+origin. Circular bangles and bracelets with an opening between two
+knobs such as are worn in the north are affected by the Tuareg women;
+they are made of brass and copper and in some cases of silver. The
+workmanship of the latter, considering that they are made by the
+local blacksmith with his ordinary tools, is remarkably good. On
+these bracelets the knobs are surprisingly accurate cubes with the
+eight corners hammered flat, forming a figure having six square and
+eight triangular facets.
+
+Of all the Air ornaments the so-called Agades cross is the most
+interesting. The lower part is shaped like the cross on the pommel of
+the camel saddle; its three points terminate in balls or cones. The
+fourth or upper arm of the cross fits on to a very large ring similar
+to that on the “talhakim,” and curiously enough also provided
+with three excrescences, though in this case all near one another at
+the top of the circle. An elaborate form worn by Ahodu’s wife had
+a pierced centre, but this was not generally a part of the design. A
+conventionalised form was seen among the Fulani and Kanuri of Damergu,
+where in one case the shape had been so lost that it had become a
+simple lozenge suspended from a small ring. In all the examples which
+I saw in Air the large ring of the ornament was obviously, as in the
+“talhakim,” an essential part of the whole; all the rings also had
+the three protuberances on the circumference. The cross is worn by men
+and women alike; it is referred to as the Ornament of the Nobles. They
+regard it as characteristic of themselves. The stone “talhakim”
+is worn in the Sudan, but the Agades cross is only known in Damergu,
+where it has been borrowed as a result of contact with the Tuareg,
+and in a debased form. In Air it seems as characteristic of the race
+as the face veil, and like the latter it is never put off, as are
+the amulet pouches and garments when heavy work necessitates stripping.
+
+                                                              PLATE 37
+
+[Illustration: ABOVE: FLAT SILVER ORNAMENTS, “TALHAKIM” OF RED
+STONE, BLUE AND WHITE PASTE, AND SILVER, SILVER HEAD ORNAMENT FOR WOMEN
+
+BELOW: UNFINISHED AND FINISHED ARM RINGS, SILVER “AGADES CROSS,”
+RED STONE SIGNET RING]
+
+The origin of both “talhakim” and cross must remain matters of
+conjecture. The former may or may not be, but the latter certainly
+is, peculiar to the People of the Veil; its occurrence is yet another
+example of the deep-rooted habit of mind which inculcates the use of
+the cross among the race. The ideal explanation, in view of the common
+characteristics of the ring and three excrescences thereon, would be
+that the “talhakim” and cross had an identical origin. But the
+cross suggests association with Christianity, while the large ring
+points rather to some derivation from the Egyptian Ankh: the latter
+in my own opinion is more probable.
+
+Two other adornments there are in Air, both restricted to men: a flat
+plaque and stone arm rings. The former is a flat rectangular piece of
+tin or silver, usually 2½ to 3 inches long by 1 inch broad, with some
+slight embossed design on the surface. It is often worn on the head,
+tied by two little thongs or threads to the band of stuff which is
+used to secure the veil around the forehead. The ornament may simply
+be a metal form of amulet pouch, but it certainly bears a striking
+resemblance to a fibula, which in the course of time for the sake of
+easier manufacture is turned out without a pin. The plaque is also
+worn on the shoulder, like certain classical brooches were on the
+Roman togæ, from which the white robes of North Africa are said to
+be descended.[253]
+
+No man among the Tuareg will be seen who does not wear one or more arm
+rings, usually above the elbow and upon either or both arms. The rings
+are of two main types, a cylindrical ring some ¾ to 1 inch deep by
+⅛ to ¼ inch thick, and of the circumference of a man’s forearm,
+with two or three ridges on the outer surface, and a flat ring some
+¼ inch thick, of the same inner circumference, and ¾ to 1 inch
+broad. The second type is the most important and appears to be the
+traditional sort. Deep significance is to be attached to the custom
+of wearing these rings, and there are differences attributed to the
+numbers and position of the rings on the arms. But whilst I was well
+aware of the importance of these usages, I was unable to ascertain
+their precise interpretation. Only it is clear that boys do not wear
+the rings, that a ring is worn when the sword is girt on, that in the
+first place only one ring is worn, and that once a ring has been put
+on it is not again put off. The rings of all types should be made of
+stone. In Air a soft argillaceous stone of a greenish-grey hue found
+in the eastern hills is used. The rings are cut by hand without a
+lathe from a lump of stone about one inch thick. The rough ring is
+smoothed and fined down with rasps and files and finally cleaned
+with sand and water. The traditional flat rings tend to taper from
+the inner to the outer circumference. When the cutting and shaping of
+the rings have been finished, they are dipped in fat and then baked,
+to give the slightly porous stone a deep black colour and a polished
+surface. The flat rings seem to be very important, for they are passed
+on from father to son. They are often mended with riveted brass plates
+if they happen to have been broken, and sometimes bear inscriptions,
+for the most part only names, in T’ifinagh. Of late, rings appear
+to have been made of a hard baked clay which is also dipped in fat,
+but they break too readily.
+
+Elaborate and fanciful explanations have been suggested for the
+practice, which has a sacred or at least mystic association. One
+author, who shall be nameless, has suggested that the rings were
+worn—and presumably he saw a Tuareg with many rings on both
+arms—to enable a man to crush his enemy’s skull when they closed
+in battle. I myself cannot offer any explanation worthy of much
+consideration. I must, however, note that such rings, especially when
+worn, as some always are, above the elbow, and also at the wrist,
+afford a valuable protection to the vulnerable arm muscles against
+sword-cuts. Nevertheless, if such was the reason for their first use
+they have become traditional with the lapse of time.
+
+The last of these matters to which I propose to allude is the use of
+the Veil, a practice which has certainly assumed a ritual form. No
+self-respecting Tuareg of noble or servile caste will allow himself
+to be seen even by his most intimate friends without a veil over his
+face. The habit has no analogy in the practice of the Arabian Arabs,
+who sometimes cover their faces with the ends of their head-cloths
+to protect the mouth and face against the sun and sand. This is a
+hygienic device[254]; the Tuareg veil is more mysterious. Not the
+least of the difficulties connected with the veil is, that it is not
+mentioned by classical authors in referring to people in North Africa
+who seem to be the ancestors of the present Tuareg and otherwise to
+correspond to descriptions of the latter. It is only with the advent
+of the Arabic writers that these same people are first referred to
+by the name of Muleththemin, the Veiled People.
+
+The veil or “Tagilmus” is a long strip of indigo cloth woven and
+dyed in the Sudan. The best quality is made of six narrow strips
+about one inch wide sewn together, edge to edge. The material and
+the open stitching leave plenty of room for the air to pass through,
+and even a considerable degree of transparency. The veil is put on
+in the following wise: about one-half of the length is folded over
+three times into a band only 2½ inches wide. The part where the full
+breadth begins is placed over the forehead low enough to cover the
+nose; the narrow band is to the right, the broad part to the left. The
+latter is then passed round the back of the head and looped up under
+the narrow part, which is wound around the head on top of the broad
+portion so as to hold the latter in place. The broad part over the
+nose is pulled up into a pleat along the forehead and forms the hood
+over the eyes, being called “temeder.” There remains a long loop
+of the dependent broad portion held by the narrow fastening band:
+it hangs loosely from over the right ear, behind which it is passed,
+over to the left ear, behind which the end is brought and passed,
+under the narrow fastening band running round the head. The lower
+part of the veil thus falls below the wearer’s chin in a loop,
+both ends being under the narrow band which holds them in place. The
+centre of the strip is taken and placed on the bridge of the nose,
+and all the slack is pulled in from the two points over the ears. The
+lower part of the veil, called “imawal,” should now hang from the
+bridge of the nose over the mouth and chin without touching them;
+the upper edge from the nose to the lobes of the ears ought to be
+nearly horizontal. Thus worn, the veil leaves a slit about ½ to 1
+inch wide in front of the eyes, which, with a small part of the nose,
+are all that one can ever see of a Tuareg’s face.
+
+In this veil the men live and sleep. They lift the “imawal” up to
+eat but in doing so hold their hand before the mouth. When the veil
+requires re-fixing, a man will disappear behind a bush to conceal his
+features even from his own family. These rigorous prescriptions are
+to some extent less strictly observed in the south among the younger
+generation, but they belong to the pride of race of the Tuareg. Even
+when the French induced some Tuareg to visit Paris, they declined
+to allow their photographs to be taken unveiled. They declared that
+they had no Moslem prejudices on the subject but firmly refused to
+entertain the idea.
+
+What is the explanation of this curious habit? Every unlikely theory
+has been advanced, from that of the desire of raiders to conceal their
+faces in order to escape recognition, to the one which suggests that
+the Tuareg were the Amazons of the classics, and that the habits
+adopted by men and women respectively in such a society had become
+confused. Of this order of hypotheses the simplest one is that which
+explains the veil as a purely hygienic accessory designed to protect
+the wearer against the blinding glare and the sand of the desert:
+from the first use of the veil for this purpose the habit gradually
+became so innate as to acquire a ritual significance.
+
+But none of these theories are really tenable: the Tuareg recognise
+each other, and foreigners can do the same in a short time, as easily
+in the veil as a man of another race without the veil. The Tuareg are
+not the Amazons of the classics, at least in the form in which popular
+beliefs have conceived the latter; nor is there, as a matter of fact,
+any reason to suppose that the Amazons, either male or female, veiled
+themselves. There is no logic in only the men veiling their faces and
+the women going unveiled if the veil were really intended for hygienic
+purposes; still less is any explanation of this nature reasonable
+for the use of the veil at night or in the rainy season. Yet almost
+all Tuareg, unless they have become denationalised, would as soon
+walk unveiled as an English man would walk down Bond Street with
+his trousers falling down. No other race in the world possesses
+this peculiar habit, though some among the population of the Fezzan
+and the Sudan in contact with them have adopted it. The habit is
+essentially characteristic of the Tuareg. It is as typical of them
+as the cross-hilted sword, the cross-pommelled saddle, the status of
+their women, and their T’ifinagh script.
+
+On attaining the age of puberty, Tuareg youths in Air put on the
+large trousers which all Moslems should wear, and soon afterwards they
+begin to carry a sword and wear an arm ring. The first event may take
+place when they reach sixteen or seventeen; the others, two or three
+years later. As soon as they have put on the dress of a man they are
+inscribed in the register of the Holy Man of their village or tribe
+and they commence their individual existence. The veil, however,
+is sometimes not donned until the mature age of twenty-five years;
+in no case is it worn until several years have elapsed after the sword
+is girt on. The ceremony of putting on the veil for the first time is
+accompanied by much rejoicing in the family and feasting and dancing.
+
+Two aspects of this habit strike one. In the first place the ceremonial
+significance to which I have already alluded is very apparent, and in
+the second place the comparatively late age at which the veil first
+begins to be worn is curious in an Eastern people, where physical
+development takes place early in life. A parallel may perhaps be
+noticed in the late date at which marriages take place in Air. I
+questioned Ahodu closely about these practices connected with the veil,
+but obtained no satisfactory information: he had nothing to say on
+the subject except that a man was not a proper man until he had put
+on the veil. And there, for the moment, one must leave the matter.
+
+The veil will be found wherever the Tuareg live, and only when the
+riddle of their origin is solved will an explanation probably be
+forthcoming. Equally obscure is the absence of any reference to the
+veil among them until the time of the Arab authors. But up to the
+present no reasonable theory has been advanced.
+
+Mention has been made on several occasions of the Holy Men of
+Air. As is natural among superstitious people, they have always been
+a powerful part of the community. In mitigation, it must be said that
+they have probably had a hard fight to keep the Tuareg in the way of
+Islam at all. Where Europeans have been concerned their influence
+has been uncompromisingly hostile. It was certainly the Inisilman,
+as they are called in Temajegh, of T’intaghoda who tried to have
+Barth and his companions killed on more than one occasion. The attack
+on the Foureau-Lamy Mission at Iferuan was also due to them. Their
+counsel to fall on the French expedition a second time would have
+prevailed at Agades had it not been for the advice of Ahodu and the
+common-sense of the Sultan, who replied to their promptings that
+if the attack failed he would have to face the consequences alone,
+while they, in the name of God and the Faith, saved their own skins.
+
+With an effete monarch and lazy Añastafidet at Agades, the most
+important men in Air to-day are Inisilman like Haj Musa of Agellal,
+Haj Saleh of the Kel Aggata at Agades, Agajida of the Kel Takrizat,
+’Umbellu of T’imia, and Abd el Rahman of the Ikazkazan. Their
+influence is not exerted through sectarian organisations nor has any
+“tariqa” like that of the Senussi taken root in Air. The Tuareg
+have repeatedly come under the influence of the Senussiya, especially
+during the late war, but in Air at least they never became affiliated
+to the sect. They have continued to regard its tenets as heretical
+and its policy as selfish.
+
+A certain number of the Air tribes such as the Igdalen, Kel Takrizat,
+Isherifan, etc., are reputed to be holy. The Igdalen are said not to
+carry or resort to arms, but use only pens and prayer. It is difficult
+to ascertain the exact nature of the distinction which they possess
+over other noble tribes, but the same differentiation is known among
+other sections of the People of the Veil. They cannot and do not
+claim descent from the Prophet, nor are their lives any holier or in
+the main different from those of their fellows. The Kel T’intaghoda
+who are Inisilman are reputed even in Air to be great scoundrels. The
+Kel Takrizat are not less warlike than other tribes. Their _raison
+d’être_ must be sought in the shadowy past to which all problems
+surrounding the early religion of the Tuareg are still relegated. On
+this subject too little information is at present available.
+
+The people of Air belong to the Maliki persuasion of Islam, as a result
+of the teaching of a great leader who came amongst them in the early
+sixteenth century. His name was Muhammad ben Abd el Kerim el Maghili,
+surnamed El Baghdadi, and he was the Apostle of Islam in the Central
+Sudan. El Maghili belonged to Tilemsan and was born either at that
+place or in Tuat, where he was brought up. He was a contemporary
+of El Soyuti (A.D. 1445-1505), the Egyptian, whose encyclopædic
+works were destined to perpetuate Moslem learning of the fifteenth
+century. El Maghili was a man of bold and enterprising character. By
+his uncompromising fanaticism he stirred up massacres of the Jews
+in Tuat, which he eventually left in order to convert the Sudan. He
+preached in Katsina and in Kano, as well as in Air.[255] “Living
+in the time when the great Songhai empire began to decline from that
+pitch of power which it had reached under the energetic sway of Sunni
+Ali and Muhammad el Haj Askia, and stung by the injustice of Askia
+Ismail, who refused to punish the murderers of his son, he (El Maghili)
+turned his eyes on the country where successful resistance had first
+been made against the all-absorbing power of the Asaki, and turned
+his steps towards Katsina.” On his way thither he passed through
+Air, where he preached and gave to those Tuareg who were already
+Moslems a way of salvation, and to the others the first beginnings
+of their present Faith. He founded a mosque at Abattul near Auderas,
+and one of his sons is said to have been buried there; the tomb at
+least is described as his. A short distance away on the road north
+from Auderas he knelt to pray in the Erarar n’Dendemu at the point
+known as Taghist, and the place was marked by a roughly rectangular
+enclosure of stones with a semi-circular bay in the eastern side near
+a small tree marking the Qibla. Travellers always stay there to make
+their prayers by the road. The place is remembered and far-famed as the
+“Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” but others call it the “Msid
+Sidi el Baghdadi,” the name by which he is usually known in Air,
+where men who have lived long in the East often earn this surname. His
+stay in Air was not entirely peaceable, for he was eventually driven
+out by these lax Moslems on account of his uncompromising attitude. It
+is reported traditionally that he was attacked by a party of Aulimmiden
+in Western Air, but was not apparently killed, for thereafter he again
+preached in Katsina. He eventually heard that one of his sons had
+been murdered in Tuat, probably by the Jews, for motives of revenge,
+and he set out for the north once more, but died before reaching the
+end of his journey. It is probably to this period that the attack in
+the west on his person must be referred. His death occurred between
+A.D. 1530 and 1540. El Maghili left behind him the greatest name of
+any religious teacher in Air and in the Central Sudan. Twenty volumes
+of his works on law and theology, in addition to a correspondence in
+verse and prose with El Soyuti,[256] have survived in various places.
+
+Near the “Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” which is only one
+of many similar prayer enclosures in Air, are some mounds of loose
+stones. On every important road such enclosures and mounds may be
+seen. The simplest form of praying-place is a semi-circular line
+of stones; the larger places have a rectangular plan like the
+mosques. Whenever a standing camp is set up, a place of prayer
+is cleared and marked, and once made these hallowed areas are not
+disturbed. The mounds of stones by the roadside mark spots where some
+holy man has stopped to pray or where some equally important but long
+since forgotten incident has befallen. But although oblivion may
+have overtaken the event, passing caravans continue to commemorate
+the place; each man picks up a stone and throws it on the heap. The
+habit is good, for it clears the paths of loose stones. I acquired much
+respect by observing the custom scrupulously myself. I made my men do
+the same, and so assisted in perpetuating a highly commendable and
+utilitarian practice. Thanks to the many prayers which El Baghdadi
+must have said all over the neighbourhood, the paths over the
+Erarar n’Dendemu have been cleared of loose stones. The heaping of
+stones serves the additional purpose of marking tracks in a difficult
+country. Where rocks abound or the exact way through a defile is hard
+to find, it has also become the habit to indicate the way by placing
+different coloured stones in little heaps on the guiding rocks. It is
+a superstition that if the traveller does not either add to a mound
+or help to mark a path, some evil will befall him by the way.
+
+In spite of the proselytising of El Baghdadi and the Holy Men of Air,
+much of the older Faith remained. They were unable to eradicate the use
+of the cross. The people are also given at times to using camel bells
+despite the injunctions of the Prophet, who denounced it as an object
+associated with Christianity. It is also possible to see in the status
+of women the practice of monogamy, the ownership of property by women,
+and the treatment of the wife as her husband’s equal, survivals of
+a state of society which must in many respects have been regarded by
+El Baghdadi as heretical and tending towards Christian ideals.
+
+Is there after all any difficulty in accepting the view that the Tuareg
+were Christians before Islam in the Near East became victorious over
+all that schismatic and heterogeneous Christianity of the Dark Ages
+which did so little credit to the religion which we profess? There
+was a time when the Bishoprics of North Africa were numbered by the
+score. What was more natural than that Christianity should have spread
+into the interior? When the Arabs first came into Africa, we are told
+by Ibn Khaldun and El Bekri that they found in Tunisia and Algeria a
+majority of the population apparently Christian. Certain “Berber”
+tribes, however, were Jews, while the Muleththemin, in part, were
+heathens. The profession of Judaism by people including the inhabitants
+of the Aures hills, who had Kahena the Queen as their leader in the
+eighth century A.D., means no more than that they professed some form
+of monotheism which is not inconsistent with Aryan Christianity. But
+in any case Christianity was quite sufficiently widespread to have
+accounted for the survival of certain beliefs among the People of the
+Veil. Even so remote a part of Africa as Bornu was known to have been
+subjected to the influence of Coptic Christianity from the Nile Valley,
+and we have Bello’s testimony that the Gober chiefs were Copts.[257]
+Why, then, should not the Tuareg have been Christians too?
+
+Neither to Islam nor to Christianity, however, can be attributed what
+is susceptible only of explanation as a survival of totemism. The
+Northern Tuareg[258] believe that “they must abstain from eating
+birds, fish and lizards, on the score that these animals are their
+mothers’ brothers. This reason at once suggests that these taboos
+are both totemic and matriarchal in their origin”; but while the
+facts have been alluded to by many authors, the possibility that the
+taboos may be of recent and therefore of Sudanese, origin has not
+been sufficiently taken into account.[259] As against their southern
+origin—for birds and fishes are recognised as totemic animals, in
+Nigeria, for instance—it may be pointed out that no proscription
+against these animals obtains in Air. Instead, however, another taboo
+is strongly indicated in the belief which the Tuareg of the latter
+country hold, that the harmless and vegetarian jerboa is second
+only in uncleanliness to the pig. Any food or grain which the jerboa
+has touched must be destroyed, but rats and mice are not abhorred,
+and the large rat or bandicoot of the Southland is even eaten. Bates
+cites examples of the ceremonial eating of dogs among the Eastern
+Libyans, and considers that this may also have been a taboo animal,
+but these rites are not found in Air, where the eating of dogs,
+pigs, horses, donkeys or mules in any circumstance is regarded as
+infamous. Incidentally the prohibition regarding pigs is probably very
+old, for Herodotus states that none of the Libyans in North Africa bred
+swine in his day, and the women of Barca abstained from eating pork,
+as well as in certain cases cow’s flesh, on ritualistic grounds.[260]
+
+                                                              PLATE 38
+
+[Illustration: MT. ARWA: DRAWN BY T. A. EMMET FROM A SKETCH BY
+THE AUTHOR]
+
+I have a distinct impression of an animistic view of nature among
+the Tuareg in Air, but I am unable to base it on any tangible
+evidence. Herodotus tells us that the Libyans sacrificed to the sun
+and moon,[261] and Ibn Khaldun[262] certainly states that the early
+Berbers generally worshipped the sun. Bates deduces that the Eastern
+Libyans revered the sun, and connects their rites with bull worship
+and the Egyptian deity Amon. The only surviving Libyan name for
+the solar deity is preserved by Corippus as Gurzil.[263] A trace of
+sun worship survives in Air perhaps in association with the Kel Owi
+tribes. When the sun is veiled by white cloud in the early morning
+and the temperature is low, it is customary to say that “it is as
+cold as the mother of the Kel Owi,” or “the mother of the Kel
+Owi is cold.” I asked for an explanation of the remark, and was
+told that the sun was the mother of the Kel Owi, and that when the
+early morning air was cold the saying was used, for the Kel Owi are
+known to be ungenerous and mean.
+
+The weather superstitions of the Tuareg are numerous. The climate
+on certain mornings of the year is heavy and still, with a thick
+cirro-cumulus cloud in the sky; when this occurs it is held to presage
+some evil event. A north-west wind, with the thick haze which so
+often accompanies it, indicates the advent of raiders from the north,
+probably because in the past some famous raids have occurred in this
+weather. Similarly a haze without wind, or a light north-east breeze
+and a damp mist, are warnings of Tebu raids. The fall of a thunderbolt
+is a very evil omen, as also is the rare form of atmospheric phenomenon
+to which the general name of “Tufakoret” is given. It consists
+of a slight prismatic halo around the sun in the clear morning sky
+when there is no evident sign of rain. The phenomenon is probably
+due to the refraction of low sunlight in semicondensed water vapour
+derived from heavy dew. A sunset behind a deep bank of cloud causing
+a vivid or lurid effect but obscuring the disc of the sun is also
+called “Tufakoret” and is equally a bad sign. A morning rainbow
+“Tufakoret” was seen in Air shortly before the late European war
+broke out. An ordinary rainbow in wet weather is a good omen.
+
+The two most noticeable virtues among the Tuareg, that of patience
+and of a sense of honour, have not come to them from Islam. They are
+attributable to something older. Their patience is not that of quietism
+or of fatalism. It is rather the faculty of being content to seek in
+the morrow what has been denied in the present. They take the long
+view of life and are not querulous; they are of the optimistic school
+of thought. Theirs has seemed to me the patience of the philosopher
+and not the sulky resignation of a believer in pre-ordained things.
+
+Their ethical standards of right and wrong, while differing profoundly
+from our own, and in no way to be commended or condemned in our shallow
+European way, seem to come from some older philosophy, some source
+less obvious than their present religion. Not only have they standards
+which the Quran does not establish or even approve, but they hold
+certain codes of conduct for which there can be no legislation. When
+right and wrong, or good and evil, are not obviously in question,
+and a Tuareg will still say that a man does not do a thing because
+it is dishonourable and an action such as no Imajegh would commit,
+it must mean that his forefathers did learn in an ancient school to
+seek some goal which is no reward in the present material life.
+
+Such development is only found in societies, whether Christian,
+Moslem or otherwise, which have for long been evolving under the
+guidance of a few men who have learnt much and taught much. Yet
+the feet of the Tuareg are not now kept in this way; their conduct
+is unconscious. They are no community of philosophers seeking by
+choice to live in primitive conditions for the betterment of their
+souls. They hold what they have as an inheritance of grace from bygone
+generations. In mind, as in custom, they are very old. Only a slight
+glow of the past glory remains to gild the meanness of their perpetual
+struggle and the eternal hardship of existence. It is doubtful whether
+they could still be caught and moulded afresh. There is too little
+left of the now threadbare stuff; it just survives in the clean air
+of the desert; it would fall to pieces in the atmosphere of more
+luxurious circumstance. And then, nothing would remain but lying
+tongues and thieving hands unredeemed by any saving grace.
+
+
+[Footnote 241: _Op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 227-8.]
+
+[Footnote 242: _Op. cit._, p. 317.]
+
+[Footnote 243: From “Reg” or “Areg,” an Arabic geographical
+term for a certain type of sandy desert.]
+
+[Footnote 244: _Vide infra_, Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 245: Not, I think, Zu’lqada, as Jean, _op. cit._, p. 224,
+suggests. It is properly the greater Bairam, though sometimes known
+as the Lesser. Sale: _Koran Prelim. Dis._, § VII.]
+
+[Footnote 246: Bates, _op. cit._, Chap. VIII.]
+
+[Footnote 247: Cf. Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 414. Cortier: _D’une
+rive à l’autre. . . ._, p. 283. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. V. p. 570.]
+
+[Footnote 248: Perhaps a connection with “Amana,” pardon, etc.,
+may be suggested.]
+
+[Footnote 249: From the Arabic “el jenun.”]
+
+[Footnote 250: Curzon: _Tales of Travel_, p. 261. “The Singing
+Sands.”]
+
+[Footnote 251: Jean says forty: cf. _op. cit._, p. 215.]
+
+[Footnote 252: Herodotus, IV. 1723. Mela, i. 8. Duveyrier, _op. cit._,
+p. 415. Ben Hazera: _Six mois chez les Touareg du Ahaggar_, p. 63.]
+
+[Footnote 253: Worn by Arabs and Berbers but not, normally, by Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 254: The illustration of the Persian in Maspero’s _Histoire
+Ancienne_, Chap. XIII, is an example of the use of the head-cloth in
+early times as a protection in the Arabian manner.]
+
+[Footnote 255: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 386-7; Vol. II. pp. 74
+and 76; Vol. IV. p. 606.]
+
+[Footnote 256: C. Huart: _Arabic Literature_, pp. 383-4.]
+
+[Footnote 257: _Vide infra_, Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 258: Cf. especially Ibn Khaldun _ed. cit_., I. 199-209.]
+
+[Footnote 259: Bates, _op. cit._, pp. 176-7.]
+
+[Footnote 260: Herodotus, II. 18 and 47, and IV. 186.]
+
+[Footnote 261: _Ibid._, IV. 188.]
+
+[Footnote 262: Ibn Khaldun, IV. p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 263: Corippus, Johannis, IV., _passim._]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                      NORTHERN AIR AND THE KEL OWI
+
+
+When I returned to Auderas from Tabello I found the valley had dried
+up very much. The hamlets were already in great part deserted. The
+people had moved out of the settlements with their flocks in search
+of better pasture than could be found on the parched trees and straw
+of the little valleys. Ahodu, temporarily relieved of his authority
+pending an adjudication in Agades on a dispute regarding the possession
+of certain date palms, was living about two miles down the valley with
+a part of our camels and his own goats and sheep. I was now anxious to
+stay as short a time as possible in this part of the country, since I
+wanted to see the north during the time which remained before I was due
+to return to England. Ahodu himself was unable to come with me, but he
+provided as guide an Imajegh called Sidi from his own Kel Tadek people
+at Auderas. With a few camels, my servant and two other men I set
+forth once more on November 3rd by the now familiar road to the Assada
+valley. Camping there on the second day out, I met a large caravan
+of Kel T’imia bound for Damergu via Agades. They were ostensibly
+trading in dates but were in reality destined for the Southland to
+undertake transport work in Nigeria during the winter months.
+
+The weather was very pleasant, but in the open country the temporary
+watering-places were fast disappearing. The maximum day temperatures
+varied between 90° and 95° F. in the shade; the nights were already
+fresh with temperatures as low as 42° F.
+
+On the following day after leaving the Assada camp I did a thirty-mile
+march along the valley, past the site of Aureran well with a few ruined
+stone houses both there and on the way there, and then up a side
+valley under Mount Arwa Mellen. At the mouth of the Tegidda valley
+my track branched off from the road which I had followed earlier
+in the year with Buchanan to T’imia. I proceeded north into the
+Anu Maqaran basin over the low pass to which both Barth and Foureau
+refer. From the col a long sweep of grassy plain ran gently down to
+the great valley of Central Air. It is here called T’imilen after the
+mountains which lie on the north bank of the section higher up, where
+it is named Abarakan. The T’imilen mountains are a continuation
+of the small Agalak massif which was just visible to the north;
+its south-west face lying on my right was very imposing with steep
+and rugged sides. Straight in front of the pass, beyond the valley,
+a gap appeared between the broken mass of the Agalak and a small,
+bold mountain called Aggata on the left hand. The gap, wherein were
+framed the distant mountains of Northern Air, proved to be a basin
+containing the Agalak and Aggata tributaries of the main T’imilen
+valley. I camped within an hour of the pass, a few hundred yards
+from the north bank of the main bed at the deep well of Aggata,
+not far from the mountain which is also called by that name.
+
+When the Bila and Bagezan massifs appear on the southern horizon,
+one may be said to have entered Northern Air. While the north-eastern
+part is more properly the country of the Kel Owi tribes, the whole
+area north of the central massifs, including the western plain and
+the towns of Agellal, Sidawet and Zilalet, was largely under their
+influence. This part of Air is a rugged plateau crossed by wide
+valleys and broken by only relatively small mountain groups. The most
+distinctive feature is the number of little peaks which rise abruptly
+into sharp points and ridges. But though small they are no mere conical
+hillocks, for they are crowned with the pinnacles and towers usually
+associated with the Dolomites. T’iriken, for instance, on the way to
+Assode, has a triple crest rising out of a crown, like the fangs of a
+tooth. T’imuru is a saddle-backed ridge with turrets along the crest
+like the spikes on a scaly reptilian back. Asnagho, near Agellal, is
+shaped like an axe; the one profile is sharp as a blade set on edge,
+the other flat and long. Most beautiful of all are Arwa and Aggata,
+soaring out of the plain like dream castles, with battlements and
+keeps and curtain walls perched high above the cliffs and screes of
+the lower glacis. The landscape is rather less coloured than in the
+centre or south, for until the edge of the northern mountains of Air
+is reached there are hardly any big trees or green vegetation in the
+valleys. But the same red and black of the rocks against a blue sky
+and straw-coloured ground prevail.
+
+Aggata well proved copious but somewhat stagnant. Agalak well is
+also deep and similar. It is the country of deep wells, and they are
+ascribed to the first Tuareg, the Itesan. They are anything up to 100
+feet or more deep and 10 to 12 feet broad. The sides are carefully
+dry-walled with rough basalt boulders. The well mouths are slightly
+raised above the level of the ground and surrounded by great logs
+of wood, scored with rope-marks. They are undoubtedly the work of
+highly-skilled diggers and may be pre-Tuareg. Many of them require
+cleaning out, but none of them seems to have fallen in.
+
+                                                              PLATE 39
+
+[Illustration: MT. AGGATA: DRAWN BY T. A. EMMET FROM A SKETCH BY
+THE AUTHOR]
+
+I slept quite quietly at Aggata and was disappointed at not hearing
+the Drums of the Spirits which haunt the mountain. The next day I
+again marched some thirty miles, around Aggata and T’imuru peaks,
+where there is an old deep well, now, alas! silted up, and reached
+Assode, once the most considerable town in Air after Agades. The
+plain was flat and the going good, even over the scattered rock
+outcrop. Mirages were showing all the time. The mount of T’in Awak,
+north of the point I was making for, shone in the dancing air like
+a chalk hill standing in a blue lake. There was no shade and it was
+hot. We were all tired and disappointed by the elusive valley which
+continually crept away beyond another ridge, so when Assode was finally
+reached we were very glad. The Agoras, or “The Valley” by which the
+town lies, is not inspiring; and the site is marked by no prominent
+feature. The position, however, is otherwise interesting. The Agoras
+rises in the Agalak-T’imia massif and joins the basin of Northern
+Air not far north of Assode; the low hills on the north bank of the
+Agoras surround the town like the rim of a saucer. The position is
+not artificially fortified, but could readily have been defended,
+were it not that the only well lies some hundreds of yards distant
+from the houses in the bed of the valley.
+
+Assode is said by Jean[264] to have been built by the Kel Owi for
+the first Añastafidet, but is certainly older than that. It very
+possibly dates from the first immigration of Tuareg. The reputed date
+of its foundation in A.D. 900 is therefore far more probable than that
+which Jean’s statement implies. Nor is there any reason to follow
+Barth[265] in setting it down to be of recent origin simply because it
+is not mentioned by Arabic authors. The superficial extension of the
+place is considerable, but the settlement belongs to various periods,
+and not all the 1000 ruined houses were probably ever inhabited
+at the same time. Although it is completely abandoned to-day, the
+population, even in Barth’s time, had become scanty, for he heard
+that only eighty houses were occupied, despite the fact that it was
+then, as in former and also more recent times, the official place of
+residence of the Añastafidet.[266]
+
+On a small rise in the middle of the little basin is the mosque,
+the largest building in Air.[267] The minaret fell many years ago,
+but the mosque is still well preserved in spite of the rain which,
+since the evacuation of 1918, has gradually been breaking down the
+roof. The saucer in which the town lies warrants the construction
+of a minaret to serve, like the one at Agades, as a watch-tower. The
+general plan of the building may be gathered from Plate 32. The roof
+is low, as in all the Air mosques. The various outhouses and separate
+portions were used as khans and as schools. It once boasted a large
+library, the rotting remains of which I collected. I made up a whole
+camel load of these manuscripts[268] and took them to Iferuan, where
+I placed them in charge of the local alim, who turned out to be El
+Mintaka from Auderas. The books in part proved to be the remains of the
+private library of El Haj Suliman of Agellal, who possessed over 1000
+volumes; he lived in the last century and belonged to the Qadria sect.
+
+North of the mosque was the quarter where the Añastafidet used
+to live. The houses seemed to be mainly of the “A type.” The
+dwellings further south were more numerous, and included examples of
+all types and periods. The houses for the most part were surrounded
+by low compound walls and lay close together along narrow streets and
+lanes. No particular details are worth recording except the presence
+in many of the houses of grain pits, some of which had been used for
+concealing belongings and might repay investigation.[269]
+
+The most interesting feature of Assode, considering its size, was
+the absence of all traces of garden or date cultivation. The town was
+obviously inhabited only by camel-owners and their domestic slaves. It
+was a trading depot and a metropolis, but not a productive centre,
+for even the pasture in the neighbourhood is limited. The selection
+of the place as the residence of the Añastafidet must have been due
+to its convenience as a centre for the tribes of the Confederation of
+Kel Owi. It also suited the conditions of their trade, and therefore
+probably that of their predecessors in the area, the first Tuareg
+to enter Air. As a strategic position it was admirably located, well
+within the borders of the plateau, and consequently not liable to be
+easily raided from without; tactically, also, it was defensible. It is
+interesting to note that of the thirty to forty wars, most of which
+were in Air and Tegama, mentioned in the Agades Chronicle, only two
+are recorded at Assode, whereas Agades was repeatedly involved. Assode
+was, to my mind, unquestionably the first real capital of the country,
+before Agades or any town in Tegama assumed an important rôle.
+
+The great Kel Owi tribes in modern times are the Kel Azañieres, the
+Kel Tafidet and the Ikazkazan. The major part of the confederation
+lived in North and North-eastern Air; the Ikazkazan alone were in the
+west with sections ranging as far afield as Damergu and Elakkos. A
+little research makes it clear that both the Kel Azañieres and the
+Kel Tafidet are “Kel name” sections of older “I name” tribes;
+in the course of time they became so powerful and numerous that their
+parent stems were obscured. Of the latter three main stocks can still
+be traced, in addition to the Ikazkazan, certain unattached Imghad
+tribes, and several settled communities. The three parent tribes bear
+the names of Imaslagha, Igermaden, and Imasrodang.
+
+The Imaslagha include the important Kel Azañieres tribes of the
+Azañieres mountains in the extreme north-west of Air, as well as the
+Kel Assarara of the north-eastern plain. When the Kel Owi entered Air,
+this stock occupied the area of the Immikitan and Imezegzil tribes
+of earlier Tuareg known as the People of the King.[270] It contains
+several ancient “I name” sections which might also be considered
+as separate stocks, were it not that on the one hand they never split
+up into “Kel name” tribes associated with definite localities,
+and, on the other, that they continued to be traditionally connected
+with the parent Imaslagha stems until to-day. These “I tribes” are
+the Izeyyakan, who are also said to be People of the King and may in
+fact have been a part of the latter division absorbed by the Kel Owi,
+the Imarsutan, and the now almost extinct Igururan, represented by
+one surviving section, the Kel Fares, who take their name from Fares
+water and pasture in the far north of North-eastern Air on the edge
+of the desert. If the Izeyyakan were originally People of the King,
+their absorption would afford a precedent for a similar process which
+can be observed in progress among the Immikitan who have fallen under
+the political influence of the Imaslagha stock of tribes. The Imarsutan
+are said to have come from an unidentified place called Arsu, which is
+presumed not to be in Air. In popular parlance all these tribes have
+collectively come to be known as the Kel Azañieres, but, although of
+the same Imaslagha stock, the Kel Assarara are usually not included
+under this head. The Kel Assarara with the subdivision, Kel Agwau
+and Kel Igululof, were the people of Annur, the paramount chief of
+Air in Barth’s day. Their villages are along the great valley of
+North-eastern Air, for which the Tuareg have no one name. They call
+the valley after the various villages on its banks, and these in turn
+are named from the neighbouring tributaries. It is into this basin that
+the Assode Agoras flows. The Kel Assarara fall into a somewhat separate
+category from the Kel Azañieres because Annur had made them into a
+powerful people, his own position being in reality far greater than
+either that of the Amenokal or the Añastafidet. It was due to him that
+his tribe acquired independent status in genealogical systems. Barth
+gives a good picture of the chief, and it is worth reproducing as
+the impression of a traveller who had no reason to be prejudiced in
+favour of the Air Tuareg, having at that time recently been attacked
+and nearly massacred by them.[271] “We saw the old chief on the day
+following our arrival. He received us in a straightforward and kindly
+manner, observing very simply that even if, as Christians, we had come
+to his country stained with guilt, the many dangers and difficulties we
+had gone through would have sufficed to wash us clean, and that we had
+nothing to fear but the climate and the thieves. The presents we spread
+out before him he received graciously, but without saying a single
+word. Of hospitality he showed no sign. All this was characteristic. We
+soon received further explanations. Some days afterwards he sent us
+the simple and unmistakable message that if we wished to proceed to
+the Sudan at our own risk, he would place no obstacle in our way;
+but if we wanted him to go with us and protect us, we ought to pay
+him a considerable sum. In stating these plain terms he made use of
+a very expressive simile saying that as the ‘leffa’ (or snake)
+killed everything she touched, so his word, when it had once escaped
+his lips, had terminated the matter in question—there was nothing
+more to be said. . . . Having observed Annur’s dealings to the very
+last, and having arrived under his protection safely at Katsena, I must
+pronounce him a straightforward and trustworthy man, who stated his
+terms plainly and dryly, but stuck to them with scrupulosity (_sic_);
+and as he did not treat us, neither did he ask anything from us,
+nor allowed his people to do so. I shall never forgive him for his
+niggardliness in not offering me so much as a drink of ‘fura’
+or ‘ghussub water’ when I visited him, in the heat of the day,
+on his little estate near Tasawa, but I cannot withhold from him
+my esteem both as a great politician in his curious little empire,
+and as a man remarkable for singleness of word and purpose.”
+
+                                                              PLATE 40
+
+[Illustration: ROCK DRAWINGS.]
+
+Annur was killed in 1856 by raiders from Bilma, which he had
+frequently attacked. As another example of a similar type of chief,
+I will copy the entry made in my diary when Ahodu and Sidi described
+to me Annur’s successor, Belkho of Ajiru, chief of the Igermaden
+during the last years of the nineteenth century. “He was the last
+independent ruler of Air. He was small and rather hunched, but with
+authority unquestioned from Ghat to the Sudan. His raids were swift,
+well planned and executed in a manner which betrayed imagination. He
+had a great reputation for generosity, combined with personal magnetism
+of such a remarkable nature that his power was believed to be derived
+from communing with the spirits. ‘We used,’ said Sidi, ‘to see
+him sitting near the fire at night when he was travelling or raiding,
+crouched with his back turned on his companions, saying no word,
+but looking into the darkness with the firelight flickering on his
+small form, casting shadows in the distance, where his friends among
+the spirits sat and conferred with him!’”
+
+Belkho’s people, the Igermaden, are the parent stock of the Kel
+Tafidet, who not only became the most distinguished tribe in the
+Confederation, but also gave their name to the administrative ruler
+of the Kel Owi and the Confederation generally. They inherited the
+Tafidet mountains in the easternmost parts of Air and include an
+old “I name” tribe, the Igademawen. The name Igermaden seems to
+associate them with Jerma or Garama in the Fezzan, but I am aware of
+no particular reasons for supposing that they came to Air from there,
+though it may once have been theirs in the remote past. There are,
+incidentally, numerous names of places in Air containing the root
+‘Germa’ in their composition.
+
+The third group of the Kel Owi, the Imasrodang, occupied the Ighazar
+valley and villages, whence they drove the Kel Ferwan. Certain small
+nuclei of People of the King, however, remained in this area, as we
+have seen also occurred elsewhere. The Imasrodang deserve no particular
+comment except that a section, the Kel T’intaghoda, is reputed to
+be “holy.” There is no justification in their conduct for the
+description. They are the lords of the servile people of Tamgak,
+as well as of the so-called “Wild Men of Air.”
+
+I never succeeded in seeing these curious people. Their origin is
+a deep mystery. Buchanan on his first journey ran across a party of
+them in Northern Air, but they come down very seldom from Tamgak and
+betray the utmost nervousness of any strangers. The Tuareg call them
+Immedideran and admit that they are noble, though not of their own
+race. They emphatically deny that these people are negroid. They are
+said to speak a language which the Tuareg do not understand. When
+they meet any Tuareg they are reputed, probably quite untruly, to
+hold their noses as if to indicate that they smelled a bad or at
+any rate a curious smell. According to Sidi, who has seen them, they
+live in Tamgak in a very primitive state, wearing hardly any clothes
+except a few rags or skins. They nevertheless all affect the Veil, but
+although they possess many sheep and goats, the camel seems strange
+and unfamiliar to them when they come down to the valleys to sell
+their animals. They live neither in houses nor in huts nor in tents,
+but in very low shelters made of three uprights of stone or wood, with
+a fire in front and a roof of skins or grass. The Tuareg know nothing
+of their origin, but say that they were there before the Veiled People
+came. They are apparently as fair as the Tuareg themselves, and not
+negroid in type, but who they are it is not possible even to surmise,
+unless they are the Leucæthiopians of the classics.
+
+                                                              PLATE 41
+
+[Illustration: ROCK DRAWINGS.]
+
+The Ikazkazan group are the junior partners of the Kel Owi, but
+probably the most numerous group in the Confederation of the Children
+of Tafidet. They range as far south as Elakkos, which sometimes makes
+one wonder if they are perhaps a non-Kel Owi tribe which threw in
+its lot with these people when they entered Air. Their many tribes
+are grouped into two main divisions, the Kel Tamat (the People of the
+Acacia) in the north, and the Kel Ulli (the People of the Goats) in
+the south, both of which appellations are in the nature of distinctive
+nicknames to distinguish the two geographical units. The names may
+have a totemic significance, in which case the Kel Tagei (the People
+of the Dûm Palm) and Kel Intirza (the People of the Asclepias) could
+be cited as other examples of the practice. There is no particular
+reason for calling the People of the Goats by this name, since they
+own as many camels as do the other Tuareg and are not in any way the
+only tribe to keep goats. Their occupation of Elakkos is reputed,
+probably rightly, to be fairly recent. The most important tribe of
+the northern section is the Kel Gharus (the People of the Deep Well)
+in Talak—with their dependent Imghad, the Ahaggaren.
+
+Such, briefly, is the Kel Owi tribal system. From Assode I determined
+to examine their country in the great north-eastern basin of Air
+contained between the mountain groups of Afis, Taghmeurt, Azañieres
+and Tafidet. Somewhere in this area clearly was the village and valley
+of T’intellust where Annur lived and where Barth’s expedition
+made its head-quarters in Air. The name does not figure on the French
+maps, and since such indications as I had received from native sources
+seemed to be confused, I was determined to find it for myself.
+
+The country east of Assode was a broken plain, out of which only
+one small massif emerged, the Gundai[272] hills, standing isolated
+and compact against the background of the eastern mountains. Between
+Gundai and T’imia the country is drained by the Unankara valley,
+which is crossed by the trans-Saharan caravan road on its way from the
+Ighazar to Mount Mari. The watering-point of Unankara lies below Gundai
+opposite the Talat Mellen hills: from there a branch off the Tarei tan
+Kel Owi runs up to T’imia village by a very difficult road along a
+watercourse which is the upper part of the Assode Agoras. Whenever in
+the south-eastern plain I crossed the main Kel Owi road and plotted
+the point on a map compiled from my compass traverse, I was impressed
+by the directness and straightness of its course across country. From
+Mount Mari southward the line was almost due north and south; at that
+point a change of direction takes place, and a line drawn somewhat
+west of north from Mount Mari to Unankara and produced, would, as
+the road does, pass within a short distance of Assatartar and enter
+the Ighazar between T’intaghoda and Iferuan. The upper part of
+the great caravan road in Air is as straight as the southern section
+across the Azawagh and Damergu. Great age alone can account for the
+directness of the road and the worn tracks on the rocky ground. Its
+conquest and tenure by the Kel Owi is only an episode in the history
+of one of the oldest roads in the world.
+
+Leaving three men with my baggage at Assode to take care of themselves,
+Sidi and I on two camels set out to look for T’intellust, which
+he had often visited in his younger days. I passed one or two small
+settlements of stone houses, including Assadoragan, near Assode, and
+T’in Wansa, and reached Igululof after crossing or ascending a number
+of small valleys which flowed from Gundai into the Agoras. Igululof is
+a largish village with a date grove and the remains of some gardens;
+the houses were nearly all of the “B type” and were still filled
+with the household effects of the inhabitants who had evacuated the
+country in 1918. Apart from the usual collections of skins for water
+and grain, mortars, saddle-stone querns and pottery, the frequent
+occurrence of beds and furniture deserves mention as indicating the
+prosperity of the communities in the past. One also saw here, as
+elsewhere in these northern villages, swinging doors hewn out of one
+piece of wood set in stone sockets. The trees from which they were
+cut must certainly have been four feet in diameter, a few such were
+still to be seen in all the larger valleys. In one house I remarked
+a wooden bridle stand with a broadening top like the capital of a
+column surmounted by four wooden horns, on which were hung looped
+bridle ropes and halters. There were examples of low kidney-shaped or
+rectangular seats standing not four inches from the ground cut out
+of blocks of wood: they were used by the women when preparing food,
+and constituted the nearest approach to a chair in a country where
+it is the universal custom to sit on mats on the ground. Many of
+the houses had long rectangular racks of palm ribs up to 10 ft. × 5
+ft. × 1 ft. deep slung from the roof, with the household effects,
+which they were intended to contain, still in their places. The
+niches were filled with the pots and skins and trinkets of the former
+owners. The spectacle of desolation produced by these pathetic human
+remains made one sympathise profoundly with the unfortunate people
+who had had no time even to save their few worldly goods.
+
+By far the most important household implement appeared to be the
+double luggage rest which was conspicuous in all the houses. It
+consists of a pair of U-shaped wooden crutches on a short round pole,
+which is planted in the ground. The upper or U-part of these rests,
+in the ordinary variety, has plain flat surfaces some four inches
+broad by a half-inch thick. The elaborate variety has a broader front
+member which spreads gradually from some four inches at the base,
+where it joins the round pole or leg, to a breadth of twelve to
+fifteen inches. The tops of these members are flat or stepped down
+in the centre, so as to make the corners appear like wide projecting
+horns. Their front surfaces were very elaborately ornamented with
+brass ribs and silver, lead or zinc studs. The brass was nailed on
+or hammered into the surface of the wood as an inlay. Brass sheet
+fretted in patterns with green leather or red stuff behind it covered
+the larger spaces. The designs were geometrical and somewhat analogous
+to the ornamentation on the camel saddles, but rather more varied. The
+workmanship was excellent and displayed the most finished craft in
+Air. These rests were traditionally used in pairs on the march to
+keep valuable merchandise and baggage out of the wet. Their great
+weight—as they measure up to 5 ft. high and 2 ft. 6 in. between
+tops of the arms, and are always cut in one piece from a log of hard
+wood—in practice rendered it impossible to use them much on the road,
+and they have consequently become articles of household furniture. So
+far as I know, both the shape of the objects themselves and the
+designs which ornament them are traditional and peculiar to the Tuareg.
+
+                                                              PLATE 42
+
+[Illustration: ORNAMENTED BAGGAGE RESTS]
+
+In view of their having been so recently inhabited and being at the
+same time so similar to the older “A type” houses, these houses
+were very interesting, as they showed the mode of life of the earlier
+Tuareg. Within, the floors were neatly sprinkled with sand or small
+quartz gravel; two rings of stones containing coarser pebbles marked
+the places where personal ablutions were performed or where rubbish was
+collected. A group of large stones represented the hearth. The absence
+of windows and the lower roofs and doors make the more recent houses
+seem rather dark, but otherwise they are quite pleasant dwellings. The
+older houses must have been most comfortable. Their cleanliness,
+as early travellers remarked, depended on the owners: judging by the
+state of their present-day huts they were very well kept.
+
+Crossing to the north of the broad Igululof valley, Sidi and I entered
+a very rough plateau covered with large ochreous and brown boulders;
+it was intersected by numerous small valleys and gullies flowing north
+into the main basin. We climbed laboriously over a steep ravine and
+up a pass between two hillocks where there was a way down into the
+further valley of Anu Samed.[273] It was already late in the evening
+and the sun was setting on our left: in front the whole plain of
+the basin of North-eastern Air was spread out with a great green and
+white snake of a bed winding through it. In the distance along the
+horizon were the fantastic purple mountains which reach from Tamgak
+to Tafidet along the edge of the desert. We descended slowly in the
+dusk into the Anu Samed ravine, and lay down to sleep where this
+tributary enters the stream bed of the nameless basin. Night came on
+immediately. I made some cocoa, but we had to put out the fire as soon
+as possible, for this is the way by which raiding parties enter Air
+from the east. There is no permanent habitation nearer than T’imia
+or Iferuan, fifty miles away to the south and west respectively. The
+country was impressive and rather frightening.
+
+Next morning I said I wanted to go to T’intellust. We set off up the
+main valley in an east to north-easterly direction; it was filled with
+big trees and had a series of small villages on either bank. After
+riding for some hours Sidi turned to me and asked me if I wanted
+to go to T’intellust village or to the House of the Christians. I
+supposed the latter was some old French Camel Corps camp, but expressed
+mild curiosity about it. I asked him why, particularly, it was so
+called. Sidi replied that in the olden days when his father was alive,
+he had told him that some Christians had come to the valley and had
+lived with the chief Annur. This interesting information decided me to
+make for the House of the Christians, which proved to be not so very
+far from T’intellust village itself, a settlement of “B type”
+stone houses with a few enclosures and brushwood huts. It lay on the
+north side of the great bed, which here was several hundred yards broad
+and contained many large trees between various flood channels. As we
+approached a group of large trees south of the village I saw some
+piles of brushwood. They turned out to be the ruins of two thatch
+huts. I dismounted, tethered the camels and again questioned Sidi,
+who repeated his story, adding that the Christians were three white
+men of whom he supposed I knew, for they had not been French. Because
+they were great men and friends of Annur their houses had neither been
+inhabited nor pulled down since they went away. Their dwellings had
+been left slowly to decay, but not before the place had been called
+after them, the House of the Christians.
+
+Sidi had vouchsafed this information unsolicited; he had no idea of
+what I was coming to seek. There is no doubt that the ruined huts
+are the remains of the camp occupied by Barth and his companions in
+1850. When they reached T’intellust after narrowly escaping massacre
+at T’intaghoda, they had camped on a low hill to the south of the
+village where Annur himself was living. Another attack, by robbers
+this time, took place there, and for greater safety they moved their
+camp rather nearer to his village. It was this second camp which I saw.
+
+                                                              PLATE 43
+
+[Illustration: T’INTELLUST]
+
+Little remains to-day of the falling huts. There was a small wooden
+drinking-trough and a semicircle of stones to mark the east, to which
+their servants knelt in prayer. Three-quarters of a century have
+passed and gone, but their camp has never been touched, “because
+they were the friends of Annur,” who had given them his word
+that they would be safe in Air. Barth’s speculation was fulfilled
+when he said: “This spot being once selected the tents were soon
+pitched, and in a short time there rose the little encampment of the
+English expedition. . . . Doubtless this said hill will ever remain
+memorable in the annals of the Asbenawa as the ‘English Hill,’
+or the ‘Hill of the Christians.’”[274] And so it has come
+to pass. The site induced in me a justifiable glow of pride. Her
+Majesty’s Government had sent the first successful expedition to
+Air. A German, Heinrich Barth, assisted by another compatriot of
+his, had been Richardson’s companions. Their memory survives in
+the land as the white men who were not French and who did not come
+as conquerors but as the friends of Annur. In the light of history,
+the broad-mindedness of the statesman who selected a German to assist
+Richardson in his work on behalf of Her Majesty’s Government is only
+less worthy of praise than the loyalty with which Barth carried out his
+task when lesser men would have considered themselves free to return
+to Europe after accomplishing only a fraction of what he achieved.
+
+                                                              PLATE 44
+
+[Illustration: BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST]
+
+[Illustration: BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST]
+
+Neither T’intellust nor Oborassan, a little further up the valley,
+deserve any special mention. Annur had houses in both villages, though
+his official residence was in the latter. They are small settlements
+of a nomadic people, dependent upon camels and goats for sustenance,
+and lie near the point where the great valley receives the waters
+of Gundai by a large tributary from the south. The west side of the
+mountains of Tafidet also drain into the main basin, the upper part
+of which eventually turns north-east towards the Taghmeurt n’Afara
+hills. These mountains are the last barrier which divide the plateau
+of Air from the desert. The plain north of T’intellust and the right
+bank of the valley bed are low, rocky and devoid of vegetation. Along
+the western side of the plain runs the Agwau valley. Agwau village,
+marked by a white hillock, is the principal settlement of the Kel
+Agwau section of the Kel Assarara tribe in the Imaslagha group of the
+Kel Owi. It boasts a number of houses of the “B type,” a small
+mosque, a few “A type” dwellings and many large circles which
+were once hut enclosures.
+
+Marching west from Oborassan and T’intellust towards Agwau, there
+were few landmarks of any note along the north side of the main
+valley. I gradually left the line of the main bed and skirted some low
+rocky ground, which reaches for some distance towards the north. Beyond
+Agwau I crossed a grassy plain in the direction of a big group of bare
+mountains, one side of which is called the Assarara and the other the
+Afis massif;[275] it is an isolated southern spur of the great Tamgak
+formation just visible behind it in the north-west. The Agwau torrent
+flows down between its eastern side and the plain of North-eastern
+Air. A road from the great nameless valley runs northwards up its
+course and eventually leaves the mountains for the desert by Fares
+and T’iwilmas watering-points.
+
+The most important settlement of this north-eastern basin of Air is
+Assarara, a small town lying in a cranny between two boulder-strewn
+peaks which rise suddenly out of the gentle slope of the northern
+bank of the main valley. Here I spent a night after looting a number
+of ethnological specimens from deserted houses, mainly of the “B
+type.” The dwellings were all well built and were still filled with
+abandoned household goods: several had stucco decorations derived
+from the older “A type” house decoration which has already been
+described. There were also a mosque and khan. Thence I returned to
+Assode by Assatartar village, crossing the Tarei tan Kel Owi as it
+emerges from the plateau south of the main valley by the little left
+bank ravine called Azañieres.[276]
+
+By the next day I had again set forth towards the north, halting after
+the first march at Afis village, not far from Assarara, but on the
+other side of the Afis massif. There also I saw a number of stone
+houses and another mosque. The country in a sense was dangerous,
+because the neighbouring watering-point called Agaragar, has often
+proved to be the favourite camping-ground for raiders entering
+Air from the north. It happened while I was taking an astronomical
+observation during the night at about 1 a.m. that a sudden wind arose
+in the valley, and the camp woke up with a sense of foreboding. The
+air seemed filled with impending danger, of which the camels also
+became aware. Almost at once a camel was seen silhouetted on a ridge
+against the dark sky. Amadu, my servant, seized a rifle and quickly but
+silently woke up Sidi and the camel men. They said that a raid was upon
+us, and with difficulty I restrained them from firing indiscriminately
+into the night. We took up our positions behind the baggage in the
+black shadow of a tree under which we were camped. But the camel on the
+sky-line turned out to be one of my own beasts which had strayed, and
+calm was restored. We had received a visitation from the great god Pan.
+
+On the following day we crossed the Agaragar valley and wound slowly
+up a defile towards the upper part of the Ighazar basin. We climbed
+to a pass over a spur of the Tamgak mountains. The rocks all round
+were covered with drawings and inscriptions, for the way was very
+old. It was the road of the Northern Air salt caravan which went to
+Bilma from Iferuan by Faodet, Agwau, Taghmeurt n’Afara and the pool
+of Agamgam on the edge of the desert in the far north-eastern corner
+of the mountains. From Agamgam the caravan used to march by an easier
+route than the southern track which is now followed to Ashegur well,
+north of Fashi and from that place to Bilma.
+
+From the pass the road fell steeply to Faodet in an amphitheatre of
+great hills, a picturesque place, and important on account of a good,
+deep well. Although the houses were few the site proved interesting
+by reason of the existence of rectangular grass huts constructed
+at great labour to preserve the traditional type of the Tuareg
+house. They provided an excellent example of the tenacity of custom,
+for the material of which they had been built was totally unsuited
+to their shape or plan.
+
+The upper waters of the Ighazar basin collect in three valleys which
+unite between T’intaghoda and Seliufet. On the way down the valley
+from Faodet, the village and palm grove of Iberkom were passed, whence
+a fine valley runs up into the heart of Tamgak and provides some
+degree of communication between T’iwilmas or Fares on the desert,
+and the villages in the Ighazar. Further on we come to Tanutmolet
+village, remarkable for a modern elaboration of the “B type”
+house displayed in the strictly rectangular but many-roomed dwelling
+shown in Plate 27. T’intaghoda is interesting as possessing an early
+mosque and several fine “A” and “B type” houses covered with a
+stucco of red earth. Most of the houses had been built on two low hills
+standing in the bottom of the valley. There are no gardens near them
+nor any palm grove. The importance of the merchants and holy men who
+used to live there had made of T’intaghoda the capital of Northern
+Air. A little further on begins the palm grove of Seliufet, and from
+there date palms and gardens continue all the way to Iferuan, with a
+chain of almost contiguous settlements on both sides of the valley bed.
+
+At Iferuan the French established a small fort in 1921 near the site
+where the Foureau-Lamy expedition had camped and had been attacked some
+twenty years before. The fort is valueless except for the moral support
+it may offer to induce the local Tuareg to return to their old villages
+from the south. The Senegalese soldiers of the garrison are not mounted
+and would be powerless to do anything in the event of a raid. By the
+end of 1922 some families, but only a few compared with the numbers
+who lived there before the war, had returned to their homes.
+
+Iferuan was a very delightful place. The peak of Tamgak stands pointing
+like a finger to heaven on the edge of the massif. The gardens and
+the groves of palm trees, some of which, alas! have died through lack
+of attention during the years of neglect since 1917, give the area a
+distinctly fertile aspect. It is impossible to say how many palm trees
+there are in the Ighazar, but they must run into many thousands. There
+are said to be 4250 at Iferuan alone. This number exceeds the next
+largest single group at In Gall west of Agades, where there are some
+4000 trees, and the former are only a part of the total in the Ighazar.
+
+The date palm is a comparatively late arrival in Air, where it was
+introduced from the north. The trees are a cross of the Medina and
+Fezzan varieties. As elsewhere in North Africa, each tree is an
+immovable asset like a house, and often does not belong to the same
+man as the ground on which it is grown.
+
+At the foot of the palms were numerous gardens growing vegetables
+and grain. The fort had a wonderful kitchen garden with all sorts
+of melons, gourds and welcome European green food. The French
+officer in command of the post used to declare that Iferuan was the
+Switzerland of the Sahara, and the cool climate seemed to justify his
+praise. The Tuareg buildings had nothing remarkable about them with
+the exception of the large mosque of Tefgun not far away, and the khan
+or caravanserai built on the Arab plan. The Sudanese habit of making
+large clay amphoræ and baking them _in situ_, for the storage of
+wheat and millet grown in the gardens, has been adopted in Iferuan,
+and to my knowledge not elsewhere in Air.
+
+Although the open desert on the way to Ghat is not reached much before
+In Azawa, several days further north, now, as in the past, Iferuan
+is the last permanently inhabited point in Northern Air. Between
+these points the mountain mass of Fadé has first to be crossed;
+it contains several watering-points and some pastures, and huts
+were occasionally built at a pool called Zelim, but they had no
+permanence. The mountains and the watering-places have long since
+been abandoned by their old owners, the Ifadeyen and Kel Fadé and
+now belong to the Ikazkazan and Kel Tadek tribes.
+
+At Iferuan several important roads meet. The road from Air to Tuat
+and to Ghat, which is the main north and south caravan track across
+the Central Sahara, and the Haj road from Timbuctoo to Cairo, all
+three have a stage in common from Iferuan to In Azawa. The Haj road
+used to leave the Niger at Gao and enter Air at In Gall, whence it
+skirted the western edge of the plateau and then turned into the
+mountains to Iferuan: after passing In Azawa and Ghat it ran through
+Murzuk, Aujila and Siwa to Cairo. From Iferuan there are also several
+roads to the west, while the northern of the two alternative eastern
+roads across the desert to Kawar equally started from there, running,
+as already stated, by way of Taghmeurt n’Afara, Agamgam and Ashegur.
+
+In seeking to identify Air with the Agisymba Regio of the Roman
+geographers, Duveyrier presumed that the Fezzanian Garamantes were in
+the habit of visiting the plateau in ox-drawn chariots or wagons. If
+they had, in fact, done so, it is logical to suppose the road they used
+would have come to Iferuan or one of the Ighazar villages. Indeed he
+states that he heard rumours of a direct road from Murzuk or Garama
+to Air, a “Garamantian way” which passed through a place called
+Anai, where there were rock drawings similar to those found in Algeria
+and Tripolitania. This Anai was south-west of Murzuk and must not be
+mistaken for the better known Anai of Kawar, which is north of Bilma
+on the Murzuk-Chad road.
+
+I was at particular pains to inquire into the existence of this
+road from all the most prominent guides and personages in Air whom I
+could find. It would have been peculiarly interesting to establish
+its existence, for Duveyrier says, “_La voie, avec ses anciennes
+ornières_, est encore assez caractérisée pour que les Tebou,
+mes informateurs, qui en arrivaient, n’aient laissé dans mon
+esprit aucun doute à ce sujet.”[277] Other writers, presumably
+on his authority, have added that where this road crossed the sand,
+stone flags were laid for the wheels to pass over. Duveyrier’s
+informers stated that the petroglyphs at Anai represented ox-drawn
+vehicles, and that the road also passed by way of Telizzarhen, where
+Barth discovered the famous rock drawings depicting men with animal
+heads.[278] While the broad valley at T’intellust would afford easy
+passage for a wheeled vehicle, there is no way to the south for any
+but pack transport. There are no signs of any road for vehicles ever
+having existed either east or west of the Bagezan massif. The great
+Kel Owi road is only fit for pack animals; and although many parallel
+tracks are visible in the open country there are numerous defiles where
+a single path only a few inches broad occurs. I am convinced that
+wheeled transport could never have been used anywhere in Central or
+Southern Air. But, it may be asked, could chariots have arrived even
+as far as T’intellust or Iferuan? There are only three ways into the
+plateau from the north-east that are at all suitable even for loaded
+camels. They are (_a_) through the Fadé mountains to Iferuan, (_b_)
+by Fares water and the Agwau valley to the great north-east basin,
+and by Taghmeurt n’Afara to T’intellust. The first two are not
+practicable for wheeled traffic, and on hearsay evidence the third
+one is equally out of the question. I do not, therefore, think that
+wheeled transport could ever even have entered Air from the north or
+north-east, though wagons might, of course, have come as far as the
+borders of the mountains to points such as Fares or Agamgam, provided
+the surface of the desert were hard enough. This cannot be determined
+until Anai and the country between it and Air have been visited.
+
+If any direct road between these areas ever existed, it is very
+unlikely to have run straight from Anai to T’intellust, as
+Duveyrier’s map shows. In my inquiries I heard in all of only four
+roads across the Eastern Desert: (_a_) the southernmost from Damagarim
+by Termit;[279] (_b_) the direct road to Fashi and Bilma from Southern
+Air, starting at Tabello; (_c_) the old Kel Owi Taghalam road from
+Agamgam to Ashegur, whence one branch goes north to Jado oasis and
+the other south to Fashi; and (_d_) a northern road from Fadé to Jado
+direct. Guides like Efale, who know every part of the Eastern Desert,
+state that there is no road from Air direct to Murzuk which does not go
+either by way of Jado or by way of the usual caravan road between Kawar
+and the Fezzan. The northernmost road from Fadé to Jado runs through
+two places called Booz and Ghudet, where water is found a short way
+below the surface; Efale travelled this way in his youth. He told me
+that it was known to and used by Tebu raiders to-day. But there are no
+deep wells on this track to be filled up to prevent raiders passing
+down the old Garamantian way, as Duveyrier implies was done. From
+Jado it, of course, is possible to reach Murzuk either by Anai or by
+joining the usual Chad road via Tummo. The existence of this northern
+Anai is certainly substantiated, and Jado, a Tebu oasis with a palm
+grove, is known to exist. It is called by this name among the Arabs,
+but Agewas by the Tuareg of Air and Braun by the Tebu themselves. The
+place has been reconnoitred by certain French officers, one of whom,
+a commandant of the fort of Bilma, I had the good fortune to meet. He
+was aware of the story of a flagged road, but after visiting Jado
+several times found no trace of any such track and did not believe
+in its existence. That the Garamantes and, indeed, other inhabitants
+of the Fezzan at one period in history used chariots drawn by oxen
+is quite likely, but it is highly improbable that they ever ventured
+so far afield in them as Air.
+
+The existence of a road between Air and the Fezzan may be admitted
+as possible, but only on condition that it is not made to run direct
+between these countries. South of Anai it would almost certainly
+pass through Jado, and thence may have reached the plateau either by
+Ghudet and Booz to a water-point called Temed[280] on the eastern
+edge of Fadé north of the Tamgak group, or else by Ashegur and
+Agamgam north-east of T’intellust. This is not the road of the
+Garamantes on Duveyrier’s map; and beyond this his story cannot
+be further substantiated. As against this line of argument it must
+be observed that Von Bary[281] during this stay in Air collected
+information which led him to believe that there was a road from
+Air to Jerma by way of Anai. It is implied that it went direct, but
+he was never able to learn any details and was probably influenced
+by Duveyrier’s statements. He heard that there were some traces
+visible, but found no evidence to confirm the report of flagstones,
+wheel-marks or sculpture along its course.
+
+There is nevertheless one piece of evidence which militates in some
+measure against my belief that chariots never were seen in Air, and
+that is a rock drawing which I found in Air on a boulder in the Anu
+Maqaran valley just west of Mount Arwa. The drawing is reproduced
+in Plate 41. In the conventional manner adopted in these designs it
+represents oxen pulling four-wheeled vehicles. The identification
+of the ox is confirmed from the many other similar pictures of
+this animal on rocks in Air. The object behind it must apparently
+be a cart. The whiteness of the marks in the Anu Maqaran drawing
+appears to indicate that it is a comparatively recent production,
+although the colour and degree of patination of Saharan drawings are
+of course no real criteria, for weathering is notoriously uneven in
+its action. Near the drawing of the ox and chariot, but on a different
+boulder, was the magic square shown in the same figure. Both drawings
+were in a very sheltered place and seemed contemporary. The evidence
+of this picture of the chariot or wagon is too unreliable and slender
+to establish any theory, but it is certainly difficult to understand
+where the draughtsman obtained his idea except as a result of seeing
+chariots drawn by oxen, a condition which does not, I think, obtain
+in the Fezzan to-day. Wheeled vehicles have only been known in the
+Sudan since they were imported by Europeans during the last twenty
+years, and I am not aware that even those are ox-drawn. Furthermore,
+although the most puzzling point about the Anu Maqaran rock drawing
+is its apparent modernity, which is paradoxical in view of the disuse
+of wheeled vehicles in the Sahara, it is almost certainly older than
+this century. Yet the application of an ox to a cart is not likely to
+have been imagined by any Tuareg who had not seen an instance of it,
+and there seems to be no adequate reason for him to reproduce his
+knowledge on a rock in Air even if chance had taken him so far afield
+as the Mediterranean littoral, where he might have seen the equipage,
+unless it had in some way become associated with Air.
+
+The identification of Air with the Agisymba Regio of the Romans has
+been accepted by many authorities other than Duveyrier. It raises the
+whole problem of the Roman penetration of the Sahara. They are known
+to have administered the Fezzan, and it is even pretended that they
+reached the Niger, but evidence on this point is more scanty. Doubtless
+as the exploration of the Central Sahara is carried out systematically
+further evidence of their penetration will come to light. I am, for
+instance, not aware that any remains have actually been found at Ghat,
+though the city, which was known to them as Rapsa, was almost certainly
+that place and was visited in 19 B.C. by Cornelius Balbus. The Roman
+remains discovered by Barth on the road from Mizda over the Hammada
+el Homra to Murzuk are better known. This route seems to have been
+opened about the time of the Emperor Vespasian, and to have rendered
+possible or at least easier the occupation of the Fezzan, which had,
+however, already been visited by military expeditions earlier than
+that reign. Pliny writes: “Ad Garamantes iter inexplicabile _adhuc_
+fuit. Proximo bello, quod cum Œensibus Romani gessere auspiciis
+Vespasiani Imperatoris, compendium viæ quatridui deprehensum est. Hoc
+iter vocatur ‘Præter caput saxæ.’” Evidently the road was
+called by the natives, even in those days, by the same name which it
+now possesses, for the Pass over the Red Rock Desert at 1568 feet above
+the sea is still known to the Arabs as “Bab Ras el Hammada.”[282]
+In about A.D. 100[283] Septimius Flaccus penetrated from the Fezzan
+into Æthiopia at the head of a Roman column; Julius Maternus marching
+from some point on the coast to Garama had joined forces with the
+Garamantes in order to proceed southward together against various
+Æthiopian bands. By this date, then, it is probable that an occupation
+of the Fezzan had been accomplished, for this alone would justify
+a further advance or punitive expeditions on such a scale against
+raiders from the south. Indeed, from the account given by Pliny[284]
+of Cornelius Balbus’ expedition of 19 B.C. to the Fezzan, it might be
+supposed that the occupation of Southern Tripolitania and the Central
+Sahara had taken place a century earlier. The identification of the
+cities conquered by Balbus has not been satisfactory except in the
+case of Cydamus, Cillaba or Cilliba, Tabudium,[285] Rapsa and Jerma,
+respectively Ghadames, Zuila,[286] Tabonie, Ghat and Garama; the last
+named being the capital of the Garamantes and of the whole Fezzan,
+a position which later passed on to other places and finally to Murzuk.
+
+These operations of Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus have been
+held to concern Air. The latter, ἀπὸ Γαράμης ἅμα τῷ βασιλεῖ τῶν
+Γαραμαντίων ἐπερχομένῳ τοῖς Αἰθιόψιν ὁδεύσαντα τὰ πάντα πρὸς μεσημβρίαν
+μησὶ τέσσαρσι ἀφικέσθαι εἰς τὴν Ἀγίσυμβα. . . .[287] It is important
+to try to identify the area, since it appears to be the most southerly
+point to which Roman geographical knowledge is recorded as having
+extended. Duveyrier, arguing, on what may in any case be a false
+premise, that because Pliny mentions no camels in Africa there were no
+camels, concludes with the fantastic statement that the Romans must
+have used wheeled transport on their expeditions, and that that is why
+the “Iter præter caput saxæ” played such an important part in their
+operations; but I have seen no evidence which might lead one to suppose
+that this route over the Hammada el Homra was fit for wheeled traffic.
+The Garamantes were said by Herodotus to have used wagons drawn by four
+horses.[288] From this Duveyrier concludes that at a later date oxen
+were substituted for horses, and that in virtue of a perfectly
+imaginary road from Murzuk by way of Anai Air must be the Agisymba
+Regio. He gives no convincing reason for the identification, but
+implies that by a process of elimination it must be so. The name
+Agisymba and Bagezan have been connected by displacing the terminal
+and initial syllables respectively of the two words, but undoubtedly
+it was not this so much as the existence of a Garamantian road which
+appealed to the learned author.
+
+One of the principal objectives which I had in mind in visiting Air
+was to seek evidence of Roman penetration. In the course of their long
+historical knowledge and occupation of the Fezzan, it seemed natural
+for the Romans to have explored the Air road. But I found no remains,
+nor evidence whatsoever of their penetration, not even at points
+which had considerable strategic value. Some more fortunate traveller
+than myself may one day chance upon an inscription or a camp. Such a
+discovery in so vast and little known a land is quite conceivable,
+but up till now the weight of evidence is against the Romans ever
+having come to Air. There is a certain historical analogy in the fact
+that the Arabs never invaded the country either. Their influence on the
+Tuareg of Air was confined to an unenthusiastic conversion to Islam in
+comparatively recent times. On the other hand, the Arabs in the first
+century of the Hijra, like the Romans, seem to have descended the Chad
+road at least as far as Bilma, and again, Arab influence in Central
+Africa east of the lake is at least as strong as, and perhaps even
+greater than, the Western Arab-Moorish influence on the Upper Niger.
+
+I am, however, much more inclined to regard Tibesti and not Air as
+the Agisymba Regio. We find the Arabs in the Fezzan evidently feeling
+the same necessity of expansion southwards along the Chad road as did
+the Romans. By 46 A.H. the Fezzan had already twice been conquered
+by the Arabs, first in 26 A.H., soon after the occupation of Egypt
+had been completed and the attention of Islam was turned to North
+Africa, and again when the inhabitants had cast off their servitude
+to the Arabs. Okba ibn Nafé was induced by this breach of faith[289]
+to leave his army, which was on its way to conquer Ifrikiya (Tunisia
+and Western Algeria), at Sert in the Great Syrtis, and to lead an
+expedition to reconquer the desert. He took Wadan and Jerma, near
+Murzuk, and the last strong places of the country, and asking what
+lay “beyond,” learnt of the “people of Hawar,”[290] who had
+a fortress on the edge of the desert at the top of an escarpment. It
+was said to be the capital of a country called Kawar, the name which
+is borne even to-day by the depression along which the main caravan
+road passes south through Bilma and other small villages, any one of
+which may have been their stronghold, which El Bekri[291] also calls
+Jawan. After a march of fifteen nights Okba came to this place and
+eventually captured it. At one moment his expedition nearly perished
+of thirst, but according to the story Okba’s horse found water in
+the sand and saved the column, wherefore the place was called Ma el
+Fares, the “Water of the Horse.” This point is now spelt Mafaras
+on the Murzuk-Kawar road in about Lat. 21° 15′ N.[292]
+
+The Romans seem to have had much the same experience as the Arabs,
+though we can identify the movements of the latter with greater
+certainty. The expedition of Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus
+started from Garama. Now an expedition from the Fezzan proper
+to Negroland would normally have proceeded along the Chad road,
+which runs south, and not in the direction of Air, which lies
+south-west. Furthermore, we have already seen that there is no direct
+road from the Fezzan to Air save by making a detour via Jado and
+crossing the worst part of the desert. Had the Romans intended to use
+the Air road to Negroland they would assuredly have started from Rapsa
+(Ghat) and not from Garama; alternately had they started from Garama
+and proceeded by way of Ghat, it is likely to have been mentioned,
+nor would the enterprise have been so directly connected with the
+Garamantes. After marching south from Garama the expedition reached the
+Agisymba Regio. But if the Air mountains are neither south of Garama
+nor on a direct road from that place, both these conditions do apply to
+Tibesti. This country lies due south of the eastern Fezzan and there
+is a direct road from Garama by way of Tibesti to Negroland, though
+it is not so well known as the main Chad road. The latter trade road,
+however, and the Tibesti mountains seem to fit the description of the
+course taken by the expedition sufficiently well, and clearly better
+than the Air road and plateau. The Romans, we are told, marched for
+three months to the south; it may be objected that this would be an
+inordinately long time to take on a journey to Tibesti and that Air,
+being somewhat further away from Garama, is the more probable. But
+expeditions may take longer or shorter times to traverse any particular
+desert road according to the difficulties encountered, the fighting
+sustained and the pasturage available on the way for the transport
+animals, and I do not think that any conclusion can be drawn from the
+reported length of the march. A period of three to four months might
+as easily bring one expedition from the Fezzan to Tibesti or to Air
+as it would be insufficient for another under different conditions
+but on the same road to get more than half-way.
+
+                                                              PLATE 45
+
+[Illustration: ASSARARA]
+
+If circumstantial evidence seems to point to Tibesti, there is also
+that of the place names given in the account. The Agisymba Regio
+contained the mountains of Bardetus, Mesche and Zipta. No similarity
+to these names can be found in Air, but in Tibesti the first may well
+be the area and massif round the village of Bardai, while Mesche
+may be a Latinised form of Miski, a valley and group south-west of
+Bardai. For Zipta I can offer no suggestion.
+
+Like the Romans and the Arabs the modern Turks also penetrated Tibesti
+as a consequence of their occupation of the Fezzan in an attempt to
+stop the Tebu raiding. History is curiously consistent in that we
+have no evidence of the Arabs or the Turks having penetrated Air. The
+Romans, I assume, probably did not do so either.[293]
+
+The Romans must have come into contact with the Tuareg in the Fezzan,
+where the latter, it might be assumed from Arab evidence alone, were
+early established if they did not actually constitute the majority of
+the original population. It is possible to trace in Roman records
+the names of certain well-known Tuareg tribes. The description
+which Corippus gives of the Ifuraces, the Ifoghas tribe of the
+Southern Tuareg, corresponds accurately with that of the present-day
+camel riders of the Sahara. In a description of an encounter with
+the Byzantine forces under John, the general himself cuts down a
+camel with his sword and the rider falls with the accoutrements and
+paraphernalia, which are those of a Tuareg on campaign or in battle
+to-day.[294] The activities of the Circumcelliones during the troubles
+described by Opatus[295] during the Donatist heresy in North Africa
+in the course of the fourth century A.D. remind one irresistibly of
+those of the Tuareg. These bands of marauders from the desert came
+into Southern Tunisia and Algeria on swift and remorseless errands of
+plunder for the greater glory of their heretical Faith. They lived in
+the barren hills of the outer waste and descended to burn churches,
+sack houses and carry off live-stock with such deadly efficiency and
+ease that the motive power of their organisation can only have come
+from a spirit which considers raiding a national sport. “When they
+were not resisted they usually contented themselves with plunder,
+but the slightest opposition provoked them to acts of violence and
+murder. . . . The spirit of the Circumcellians, armed with a huge
+and weighty club, as they were indifferently supplied with swords and
+spears, and waging war to the cry of ‘Praise be to God’ . . . was
+not always directed against their defenceless enemies, the peasants of
+the orthodox belief; they engaged and sometimes defeated the troops
+of the province, and in the bloody action of Bagai they attacked in
+the open field, but with unsuccessful valour, the advance guard of
+the Imperial cavalry.”[296]
+
+So in later years the Tuareg of Ahaggar, disdaining any but _les
+armes blanches_, fell in ranks under the rifle fire of the French
+troops at Tit.
+
+But it is curious that in none of these and other early descriptions of
+the Tuareg is any mention made of their outstanding characteristics,
+so obvious to the person who sees them for the first time—the Face
+Veil worn by the men. It seems very strange that none of the classical
+and post-classical authors should have recorded a feature which so
+distinguishes these people from other races. There is no reference to
+the Veil until we come to the first Arab authors, when the whole race
+is immediately described by this very peculiarity, as the Muleththemin,
+ملثّمين,the “Veiled Ones,” a second form plural past
+participle from the root لثم, which also forms the word _litham_,
+لثام, the Arabic name for the Veil itself. How it came about
+that the Arabs should be the first to record the use of the Veil is
+a problem to which I have been able to find no satisfactory solution.
+
+
+[Footnote 264: Cf. remarks in Chap. VIII regarding the dating of the
+mosques in Air.]
+
+[Footnote 265: Barth did not himself, unfortunately, visit
+Assode. _Op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 376.]
+
+[Footnote 266: There were sixty-nine inhabited houses in 1909, with
+200 inhabitants, according to Chudeau. _Op. cit._, Vol. II. p. 66.]
+
+[Footnote 267: I could not trace any other of the seven mosques
+referred to by Barth, nor is the great mosque decorated with columns
+as he says, unless the pierced walls supporting the roof can so be
+described. There is no “mimbar.”]
+
+[Footnote 268: Some of them were quite old and had painted borders
+and coloured letters. The work was all, however, rather rough; no
+T’ifinagh writing was found. I had no facilities for examining the
+work in detail.]
+
+[Footnote 269: People have stumbled upon small beehive grain pits
+in Air cut in the rock away from villages. In these no doubt the
+Tuareg who were hastily cleared out of Air in 1918 hid their small
+treasures. They will in many cases remain undiscovered perhaps for
+centuries and will prove the happiness of some later archæologist.]
+
+[Footnote 270: The significance of the name “People of the King”
+will be explained in Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 271: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 360-1.]
+
+[Footnote 272: Or Bundai; Barth has “Bunday.”]
+
+[Footnote 273: The Cortier map is somewhat inaccurate hereabouts.]
+
+[Footnote 274: “Asbenawa,” from “Asben,” the alternative
+name for Air in Southland, is the name which is there given to the
+Tuareg. Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 334.]
+
+[Footnote 275: Wrongly called Tamgak on the Cortier map. The name
+Tamgak is only given to the larger group on the north of the Ighazar.]
+
+[Footnote 276: Not in any way, of course, connected with the Azañieres
+mountains, which are many miles away.]
+
+[Footnote 277: The italics are his. Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 458.]
+
+[Footnote 278: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 197. That the road should
+have run from Telizzarhen to Anai and then to Air is very doubtful,
+as this would have entailed a very devious route. What, doubtless,
+was meant was that it ran from Murzuk or Garama via Anai to Air.]
+
+[Footnote 279: See Appendix III.]
+
+[Footnote 280: Temed is a mountain north of Tamgak: there is a pool
+below the peak in a cave on which the prophet Elijah is reputed by
+the Tuareg to have lived.]
+
+[Footnote 281: Von Bary’s diary, _op. cit._, p. 192.]
+
+[Footnote 282: “The Gate of the Head of the Desert.”]
+
+[Footnote 283: Ptolemy (Marinus of Tyre), I. 8, sec. 4 seq.]
+
+[Footnote 284: Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, V. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 285: Tabudium and Thuben are both mentioned, either of
+which might be the well of Tabonie on the Mizda Murzuk road.]
+
+[Footnote 286: In the Fezzan: there are several places of this name
+elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 287: Ptolemy, _loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 288: Herodotus, IV. 183.]
+
+[Footnote 289: Narrative of Ibn Abd el Hakim in Slane’s translation
+of Ibn Khaldun, _op. cit._, Appendix I to Book I.]
+
+[Footnote 290: I think this name has nothing to do with Hawara but
+is derived from Kawar (see below).]
+
+[Footnote 291: _El Bekri_, ed. Slane, 1859, p. 34. Cf. Jawan,
+جاوان or, حاوار = Hawar, or خاوار = Khawar? Kawar.]
+
+[Footnote 292: El Noweiri tells the same story of a later expedition in
+Morocco led by Okba. If only for the fact that no place of this name
+can be found on the route of the latter expedition, the attribution
+of the incident to the Kawar campaign is justified, though there are
+also other reasons for accepting this identification.]
+
+[Footnote 293: See Schirmer’s note on Von Bary’s diary, _op. cit._,
+p. 192.]
+
+[Footnote 294: Corippus, Johannis, IV. 1065-83 _et passim._]
+
+[Footnote 295: De Schis. donatistarum, _passim._]
+
+[Footnote 296: Gibbon: _Decline and Fall_, Chap. XXI.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+                   THE ANCESTRY OF THE TUAREG OF AIR
+
+
+After the close of the classical period, the works of that great
+historian and philosopher, Abu Zeid Abd el Rahman ibn Khaldun, are our
+most fruitful source of information regarding North Africa. Himself
+a native of North Africa, whose inhabitants he esteemed inferior
+to none in the world, Ibn Khaldun compiled a monumental _History of
+the Berbers_, which has become a classic in the Arabic language. His
+lifetime, falling between A.D. 1332 and 1406, was still sufficiently
+early for him to have had experience of conditions and people before
+they had fallen so completely under the influence of the Arabs as
+we find them a century or two later. On the subject of the Tuareg,
+or Muleththemin as he calls them, the work is perhaps a little
+disappointing, for the author seems to have drawn his material from
+several sources; he is not wholly free from contradictions. To avoid,
+however, adding unduly to the complications attending a study of the
+divisions of the Tuareg in the Central Sahara, it will be preferable
+in the first instance to examine the account of another historian,
+Leo Africanus. Hassan ibn Muhammad el Wezaz el Fazi or el Gharnathi,
+to give him his full name, was also a North African, but born, probably
+in A.D. 1494 or 1495, at Granada. In the course of his life he became
+converted to Christianity, when he relinquished his original name. He
+travelled extensively in North Africa, and after living for some time
+in Rome, died at Tunis in 1552.[297]
+
+According to Leo,[298] in the interior of Libya there was a people
+who wore the Litham or Veil. The nations of this people were called
+Lemtuna, Lemta, Jedala, Targa,[299] and Zenega; in other lists the
+names are given as Zenega or Sanhaja, Zanziga or Ganziga, Targa, Lemta
+and Jedala. While “Lemta” and “Lemtuna” have been regarded
+in some quarters as two forms of the same name, the groups are only
+ethnically connected, inasmuch as both were Muleththemin. In Leo’s
+descriptions of the deserts of Inner Libya the Lemta figure in the
+country between Air and the Tibesti mountains; the northern part of
+their area is almost identical with the present habitat of the Azger
+Tuareg. The Lemtuna, on the other hand, as we shall presently see,
+were a subdivision of the Sanhaja who lived much further west. The
+passage is a little obscure, but I find it difficult to agree with
+the interpretation put upon it by the learned editors of the Hakluyt
+Society in their reprint of Leo’s works.
+
+[Illustration: LEO’S SAHARAN AREAS
+
+F. R. del.
+
+Emery Walker Ltd. sc.]
+
+Leo writes:[300] “Having described all the regions of Numidia,
+let us now proceed with the description of Libya, which is divided
+into five parts. . . .”
+
+“The drie and forlorne desert of Zanhaga which bordereth the
+westward upon the Ocean Sea and extendeth eastward to the salt pits of
+Tegaza”[301] is clearly the Atlantic area, now called Mauretania by
+the French, between Southern Morocco and the Upper Niger and Senegal
+rivers. The Zanhaga are the Sanhaja, a famous part of the Muleththemin
+early in their recorded history, but now fallen into great decay.
+
+The second area appears to be east of the first. The great steppe and
+desert area bounded by Southern Morocco and Southern Algeria in the
+north, and by the Niger country from Walata[302] to Gao[303] in the
+south, is divided into two and shared between the Sanhaja in the west,
+inhabiting his first area, and the Zanziga or Ganziga in the east,
+inhabiting his second area. The latter names are akin to the former
+and the people, if not identical, are probably related.
+
+The third area was inhabited by the Targa. It commences from the
+desert steppe west of Air and extends eastwards towards the desert
+of Igidi.[304] Northward it borders on the Tuat, Gourara and Mzab
+countries, while in the south it terminates in the wilderness around
+Agades and Lower Air. The boundaries of this area are quite clear:
+they include the massifs of Air and Ahaggar and the deserts immediately
+east and west of the former.
+
+The fourth and fifth areas we will come to later.
+
+Leo is obviously attempting to describe the principal geographical
+divisions of the Sahara and the Veiled People inhabiting them. The
+boundaries of each area are given in terms of intervening deserts,
+or of countries inhabited by sedentaries or by other races which
+did not wear the Veil. His divisions, therefore, are not deserts
+but habitable steppe or other types of country bounded by deserts,
+or non-Tuareg districts.
+
+Some confusion reigns in regard to the third area, the eastern limit
+of which is described as the Igidi desert. What is known as the
+Igidi desert to-day is a dune area south-west of Beni Abbes in South
+Western Algeria; but the position of this Igidi, lying as it does on
+the road from Morocco to Timbuctoo, cannot be the _eastern_ boundary
+of the third area. This Igidi is, in fact, in the northern part of
+the second area, which is that of the Zanziga. Now this second area
+is said to contain a desert zone called “Gogdem,” a name which
+cannot now be traced in that neighbourhood, though the well-defined
+Igidi south-west of Beni Abbes immediately jumps to the mind as a
+probable identification. The eastern boundary of the third area, which
+includes Air, or, as Leo calls it, “Hair,” must lie between these
+mountains and those of Tibesti. This vast tract is in part true desert,
+with patches of white sand dunes, and in part desert steppe with scanty
+vegetation; it also contains a few oases. In it is one particular area
+of white dune desert crossed by the Chad road and containing a famous
+well called Agadem.[305] One of two hypotheses is possible: either
+the names “Igidi” and “Gogdem” in the paragraphs[306] dealing
+with the second and third areas respectively have become transposed in
+the text and Gogdem is to be identified with the Agadem dune desert,
+or else the whole phrase relating to the desert of Gogdem has been
+bodily misplaced at the end of the section dealing with the Zanziga
+area, instead of standing at the end of the succeeding paragraph on
+the Targa area, in which case Leo would be calling the Agadem dunes
+the Gogdem desert, within or near another Igidi[307] waste. Agadem is
+quite sufficiently important as a watering-point on a most difficult
+section of the Chad road to give its name to the area, nor is it hard
+to account for the corruption of the name into Gogdem[308]—such
+changes have occurred in many travellers’ notes.[309] The first
+hypothesis is the most probable; it affords a simple explanation of
+an otherwise obscure passage and renders Leo’s boundaries lucid.
+
+The fourth of Leo’s areas inhabited by the Lemta is described as
+extending from the desert east of Air _as far as_ the country of the
+Berdeoa. This area seems to be that in which the Chad road and the
+wells to the east of it are found. It would include a part of the
+desert of Agadem, the Great Steppe north of Lake Chad, and oases like
+Jado and the Kawar depression.
+
+The fifth and last area is that _of_ the people of Berdeoa; it adjoins
+the Fezzan and Barca in the north, and in the south the wilderness
+north of Wadai, including presumably Tibesti and the Libyan desert
+west of the Nile Valley. It is said to extend eastward to the deserts
+of Aujila, though north-eastward would have been a more accurate
+definition.
+
+Between the people of Berdeoa and the Nile Valley are the Egyptian
+oases inhabited by the Arabs and some “vile” black people.
+
+Leo’s description of the Sahara is far from being incorrect or
+confused; his information may be summarised as follows:[310]
+
+
+  _Areas I and II._—South of Morocco and Western Algeria; north
+  of the Niger and Senegal rivers; between the Atlantic littoral and
+  the Ahaggar and Air massifs with their immediately adjacent deserts
+  or steppes. Inhabitants: Sanhaja in the west and Zanziga in the east.
+
+  _Area III._—Air and Ahaggar, with their adjacent areas; south of
+  Tuat, Gourara and Mzab, and north of Damergu. Inhabitants: Targa.
+
+  _Area IV._—Desert and steppe between Air and Tibesti from
+  Wargla and Ghadames in the north to the country of Kano and Nigeria
+  generally in the south, including the country of Ghat and the Western
+  Fezzan. Inhabitants: Lemta.
+
+  _Area V._—The Libyan desert of Egypt, the Cyrenaican steppes
+  and desert, a part of the Eastern Fezzan and Tibesti, Erdi and
+  Kufra. Inhabitants: the people of Berdeoa with Arabs in the
+  north-east and some blacks in the south-east.
+
+
+In the fourth area the Lemta were in the country where the Azger now
+live, but the southern and the eastern sides have since been lost to
+the Tuareg. Kawar, whence the Tuareg of Air fetch salt, is under the
+domination of the latter, but, like the other habitable areas on the
+Chad road and in the Great Steppe, is now inhabited largely by Kanuri
+and Tebu. There is nothing improbable in the statement that the Lemta
+covered the whole of the fourth area. We have quite other definite
+and probably independent records of the Tuareg having lived in the
+Chad area and in Bornu, whence they were driven by the Kanuri, who are
+known to have conquered Kawar in fairly recent historical times.[311]
+
+The people of Berdeoa are the only inhabitants of any of the
+five areas who were not Muleththemin. I have little doubt that
+they are the inhabitants of Tibesti, where the town or village of
+Bardai is perhaps the most important of the permanently inhabited
+places. To-day they are Tebu, a name which seems to mean “The
+People of the Rock,”[312] with an incorrectly formed Arab version,
+Tibawi. The racial problem which they present can only be solved
+when they are better known. Keane[313] assumes that they are the
+descendants of the Garamantes, whose primeval home was perhaps in
+the Tibesti mountains. He notes the similarity of the names of their
+northern branch, the Teda, and a tribe called the Tedamansii, who seem,
+however, to have lived too far north to be connected with them.[314]
+The Southern Tebu or Daza section is certainly more negroid than the
+northern, and there are reasons for not accepting the view that the
+Garamantian civilisation was the product of a negroid people. Leo[315]
+records the discovery “of the region of Berdeoa,” which from the
+context is probably a misreading for _a_ “region of the Berdeoa”
+in the Libyan desert of Egypt. The area is described as containing
+three castles and five or six villages. It is probably the Kufra
+archipelago of oases. The story of accidental discoveries of oases
+is also told of other places; Wau el Harir,[316] an oasis in the
+Eastern Fezzan, was reported to have been found by accident in 1860,
+and the Arab geographers relate similar stories of other points in
+the Libyan desert. The accounts of Kufra by Rohlfs and Hassanein Bey
+go to show that before it became a centre of the Senussi sect, with
+the consequent influx of Cyrenaican Arabs and Libyans, the population
+was Tebu. The identity of Berdeoa, which I think must be Bardai, was
+the subject of some controversy before circumstantial accounts of
+its existence were brought back by travellers in modern times. The
+name was for long assumed to be a misreading for Borku or Borgu, as
+D’Anville suggested. In Rennell’s map accompanying the account of
+Hornemann’s travels at the end of the eighteenth century the town
+(_sic_) of Bornu north of what is presumably meant to represent Lake
+Chad is a mislocation for Bornu province, while Bourgou in Lat. 26°
+N., Long. 22° E. is intended to represent Bardai in Tibesti, the
+Berdeoa of Leo. The “residue of the Libyan desert”[317] (_i.e._
+other than that of the Tebu people of Berdeoa), namely, Augela (Aujila
+oasis) to the River of the Nile, we are told by Leo was inhabited
+by certaine Arabians and Africans called “Leuata,” a name which
+coincides with the Lebu or Rebu of Egyptian records. Idrisi places
+them in the same area as Leo, calling them Lebetae or Levata. The
+stock is referred to under the general name of Levata or Leuata
+by Ibn Khaldun in several connections. An ethnic rather than a
+tribal name seems to be involved, and this is natural if they are
+the descendants of the Lebu. Bates concludes that in the name of
+this people is the origin of the classical word “Libyan.”[318]
+The Leuata[319] assisted Hamid ibn Yesel, Lord of Tehert, in a war in
+Algeria against El Mansur, the third Fatimite Khalif. In A.D. 947-8,
+when El Mansur drove Hamid into Spain, the Levata were dispersed into
+the desert; some who escaped found refuge in the mountains between
+Sfax and Gabes, where they were still living in Ibn Khaldun’s day;
+others he places in the Great Syrtis and in the Siwa area. In Byzantine
+times they are shown in the Little Syrtis. El Masa’udi states that
+the Leuata survived in the Oases of Egypt. Their principal habitat is,
+in fact, not far from the country of the Lebu, who were in Cyrenaica
+according to Egyptian records. Both the Tehenu further east and the
+Lebu are known to have been subjected to pressure from the Meshwesh
+in the west, and some fusion between the two may well, therefore,
+have occurred. The ancestors of the Levata of Arab geographers and
+the modern Libyan inhabitants of Siwa and the northern oases of the
+Western Desert of Egypt are either the product of this fusion or the
+descendants of the Lebu alone. The Levata and Lebu seem to have this
+in common, that they are probably a non-Tuareg Libyan people immigrant
+from across the Mediterranean at the time of the invasions of Egypt
+by the Libyan and Sea People. In the course of history they were
+displaced and reduced; only in the north-east of the Libyan desert
+did they remain at all concentrated or homogeneous.
+
+The Targa who inhabited the third area of Leo concern this volume most
+particularly, as their zone includes Air as well as Ahaggar. So long as
+the Tuareg were believed to be only a tribe they were identified with
+the Targa, but when the former term was discovered to have a wider or
+racial significance it was not clear, unless it was a proper name,
+why Leo used it of any one section of the Muleththemin. The exact
+significance only appears when Ibn Khaldun’s narrative is considered.
+
+In his History of the Berbers Ibn Khaldun attempted to make a
+comprehensive classification of the Libyans. After working out
+a comparatively simple system which emphasises both the obvious
+diversity as well as the superficial appearance of unity[320] of the
+population of North Africa, he proceeds to elaborate more complex
+schemes of classification which are difficult to reconcile with one
+another. He seems throughout to have derived his information from
+two or more sources which he was himself unable to co-ordinate.
+
+Ibn Khaldun divides the Libyans into two families descended from the
+eponymous heroes, Branes and Madghis, a theory which recognises the
+difficulties involved by the assumption that they all belonged to a
+single stock. The division may be traced even to-day. In many Libyan
+villages the inhabitants are divided into two factions which, without
+being hostile, are conscious of being different. The factions are
+not found among the nomadic tribes, where opportunities for living
+in separate places are greater than in the sedentary districts,
+but their existence among the latter, however, is hardly otherwise
+explicable than by the assumption of separate racial origins. This
+view is suggested by Ibn Khaldun’s classification, and also by
+the result of a detailed examination of the different constituent
+elements of the Libyan population. Among the Tuareg, whom I consider
+belong to a single stock, different from that of the various races
+which composed the other Libyans, these factions do not exist even
+in the villages where tribal organisation is in process of breaking
+down and people of different clans live together under one headman.
+
+Out of deference to the patriarchal system of the Arabs—a habit of
+mind which pervades their life and often distorts their historical
+perception—Ibn Khaldun has given to the two Libyan families of
+Branes and Madghis a common ancestor called Mazigh. Both “Madghis”
+and “Mazigh” are probably derived from the common MZGh root
+found to be so widespread in North African names.[321] All three are
+almost certainly mythical personages. The selection of Mazigh as the
+common ancestor points to an attempt having been made, in accordance
+with patriarchal custom, to explain the one characteristic which
+is really common to all the Libyans including the Tuareg, namely,
+their language. While the MZGh root is not at all universally used as
+the root of a national appellation, its occurrence in various parts
+of North Africa might well allow one to talk of “Mazigh-speaking
+People,” or, as we might more comprehensibly say, “Berber-speaking
+People.” And so I would confine the use of both “Berber” and
+“Mazigh” to a linguistic signification, analogous to that of the
+word “Aryan,” which simply denotes people, not necessarily of the
+same racial stock, speaking one of the Aryan group of languages.[322]
+
+Ibn Khaldun places the home of most of the divisions of the Beranes
+and Madghis Libyans in Syria. They were, he says, the sons of Mazigh,
+the son of Canaan, the son of Ham, and consequently related to the
+Philistines and Gergesenes, who did not leave the east when their
+kinsmen came to Africa. All Moslems possess a form of snobbishness
+which is displayed in their attempt to establish some connection,
+direct or indirect, with an Arabian tribe related to the people of
+the Prophet Muhammad. In Morocco this feeling is so strong that it is
+common to find Libyan families free from all admixture with the Arab
+invaders, boasting ancestral trees descended from the Prophet. The
+Maghreb is full of pseudo-Ashraf; a term in the Moslem world which
+is properly reserved for the descendants of the Leader of Islam. The
+same occurs in Central Africa. Much of the legendary history of the
+Libyans relating to an eastern home may therefore be discounted as
+attempts on the part of Moslem historians to connect them with the
+lands and race of Islam. Nevertheless, even when all allowances have
+been made for this factor there remains to be explained a strong
+tradition of some connection between North Africa and the Arab
+countries. Not only is it commented upon in all the early histories,
+but it is to some extent still current to-day among the people. I am
+not convinced that it cannot be explained by the presence among the
+Libyans of one element which certainly did come from the East in the
+period preceding and during the invasions of Egypt, when the people
+of the Eastern Mediterranean co-operated with the Africans in their
+attacks on the Nile Valley. The undoubted occurrence of migrations
+within the historical period both from Syria and from the east coast
+of the Red Sea are alone sufficient, if the characteristic of Moslem
+snobbishness is taken into account, to account for such traditions
+regarding their home. It is unnecessary to attribute these stories
+to the original appearance of the Libyans proper in Africa even if
+their cradle is to be looked for in the East. This may be inherently
+probable, but must be placed at so remote a date as to ensure that
+traditions connected therewith were certainly by now forgotten.
+
+Ibn Khaldun divides the families of Branes and Madghis respectively
+into ten and four divisions. Four of the ten Beranes people, the Lemta,
+Sanhaja, Ketama and Auriga, are called the Muleththemin, or People
+of the Veil.[323] The descendants of Madghis, with whom we are not
+concerned, include the Louata or Levata. The hypothesis previously
+brought forward for their non-Tuareg origin gains support from the
+fact that in Ibn Khaldun’s classification they are not placed in
+the same family as the People of the Veil.
+
+We now come to Ibn Khaldun’s views regarding the origin of the
+Muleththemin. The four divisions of Lemta, Sanhaja, Ketama and Auriga,
+though in the Beranes group, he regarded as of a different origin
+to the other six sections. The inconsistency of the patriarchal
+classification is apparent. He states that certain traditions which
+he is inclined to accept as true connect the Sanhaja and the Ketama
+with the Yemen.[324] They were Himyarite tribes which came from the
+east coast of the Red Sea to Africa under the leadership of Ifrikos,
+the hero who gave his name to Ifrikiya, which is now called Tunisia. In
+examining the organisation and history of the Aulimmiden Tuareg who
+live between the Air mountains and the Niger bend, Barth[325] found
+that they also claimed to be descended from Himyer. Now the Aulimmiden
+in name and history are a part of the Lemta who migrated from the
+area in North Africa where the rest of the section still lives under
+the name of Azger, and where we are first able to identify them from
+our records. What is true in this respect of a part is true of the
+whole, and three out of the four divisions of the Muleththemin thus
+seem to be racially different from the other six Beranes divisions,
+the fourth section in question being the Auriga people, who are also
+called Hawara. The latter present one of the most difficult problems
+in the early history of North Africa. Suffice it here to state that
+in the course of the early Arab invasions many of them lost so much
+of their individuality that we must rely largely on Ibn Khaldun’s
+classification of them among the four divisions of the Tuareg for
+their early identity.
+
+There are then, according to Ibn Khaldun, two separate families of
+Libyans, and in one of these is a group apparently different racially
+from the remainder of the two families.
+
+It is a complicated classification which attempts to establish some
+sort of unity among all the Libyans, and at the same time indicates
+without room for doubt that the learned historian felt he was dealing
+with a mixed population. His difficulties are clear. His statements
+support the view that the Tuareg are separate from the rest of the
+people called Libyans, who are themselves composed of at least two
+stocks, though more than this regarding the origin of the Tuareg I
+should not yet feel entitled to deduce from his account.
+
+At a later stage, when the origins of the People of Air come to be
+examined, another reference will be found, in the writings of an
+authority in the Sudan, to the migration of a people from the east
+coast of the Red Sea into Africa. This Himyaritic invasion is so much
+insisted upon in various works that the presumption of a migration from
+that direction, with which the Tuareg were associated, is tempting,
+though it is not clear whether the Sudanese authority was merely
+copying Ibn Khaldun’s statements or whether he was working on
+independent information. I have mentioned the theory because it is
+one of the more usually accepted explanations of the origin of the
+Tuareg, but I do not think the problem can be so easily resolved. My
+own view is that the Tuareg are not Himyarites, but that the memory
+of an invasion from that quarter which undoubtedly did contribute to
+the population of Central Africa was adopted by their own traditional
+historians and accepted by Ibn Khaldun to establish a connection for
+the People of the Veil with the land of the Prophet. The migrations
+across the Red Sea are far more likely to have accounted for the
+early Semitic influence in Africa, especially in the Nilotic Sudan
+before the rise of Islam, and in Abyssinia, than for the origin of
+the Tuareg, who, I am convinced, were already in the continent at a
+far earlier date.
+
+Ibn Khaldun now introduces a further classification which again
+emphasises the separateness or individuality of the Tuareg. He states
+that among the Beranes were certain divisions collectively known as
+the Children of Tiski. Among these were the Hawara, Heskura, Sanhaja,
+Lemta, and Gezula. The Hawara we know were the same as the Auriga;
+the Sanhaja and Lemta have already been mentioned. The Heskura and
+Gezula may therefore be subdivisions of the Ketama, and the Children of
+Tiski, therefore, probably a collective term for all the Muleththemin
+as a whole.
+
+Ibn Khaldun’s writings are voluminous and have a baffling tendency to
+jump about from subject to subject. Having given us these explanations,
+which though complicated are comprehensible, he suddenly brings in a
+host of new names, and proceeds to inform us that the Muleththemin are
+descended from the “Sanhaja of the second race” and to consist
+of the Jedala or Gedala, Lemtuna, Utzila, Targa, Zegawa and Lemta
+divisions. It is not within the scope of this work to examine all
+the Tuareg groups in Africa in detail. To investigate the Zanziga of
+Leo’s second area or the Utzila or Jedala of Ibn Khaldun would only
+serve to complicate the issue which deals with the Tuareg of Air. But
+the Sanhaja, although they lived in the furthest west of the Sahara,
+played such an important part in the history of all the Tuareg that
+they must be briefly mentioned in passing.
+
+At one period nearly all the People of the Veil were united in a sort
+of desert confederation under the dominion of the Sanhaja. The era
+terminated with the death of Ibn Ghania in about A.D. 1233, some
+150 years before Ibn Khaldun wrote, even by which time, however,
+the inner parts of Africa had hardly recovered. The memory of the
+Sanhaja empire, which extended from the Senegal River to Fez and
+eastwards perhaps as far as Tibesti, survived in the additional
+classifications of Ibn Khaldun and in the stories about the Tuareg
+collected by his contemporaries. It is possible to suppose that
+the first ethnological systems he gives refer to the state of the
+Muleththemin before or during the Sanhaja confederacy, but that
+when he gives the list of names of six divisions descended from the
+“second race of Sanhaja” he is referring to the People of the
+Veil after the death of Ibn Ghania. At that time the name of the
+dominant group in the confederation had been given by the other
+inhabitants of North Africa generally to all the Tuareg. In the
+process of disintegration of the empire several truly Sanhaja tribes
+were absorbed by other Tuareg groups. It is difficult to accept the
+alternative view that the Sanhaja of the second race are a different
+people from the earlier Sanhaja, for such a conclusion would imply
+that the Muleththemin were made up of more than one racial stock,
+whereas their most obvious characteristic is unity of type and habit.
+
+The Sanhaja division of Ibn Khaldun’s first grouping are obviously
+the same as the people of Leo’s first area on the western side of
+the great desert which extends between Beni Abbes and Timbuctoo. After
+their period of fame they came on evil days, and were reduced to
+the position of tributaries when they lost many of their Tuareg
+characteristics. Their remnants are the Mesufa and Lemtuna tribes. The
+relationship of the Sanhaja and Lemta noted by Barth either means
+nothing more than that they were both Muleththemin, or dates from
+their association with each other during the Sanhaja empire; for they
+were ever separate ethnic divisions of the People of the Veil.
+
+Much trouble has been occasioned by the confusion of the names Lemta
+and Lemtuna. The apparent derivation of the latter from the former
+may also have been due to the association of the two main divisions:
+it is important only to emphasise that while the one is a subdivision
+of the Sanhaja now living in the north-west corner of the Sahara near
+Morocco, the other is a branch of the Tuareg race co-equal with the
+latter. It is in this confusion of names that the explanation is to
+be found of the statement so often heard and repeated by Barth, that
+the Lemta were the neighbours of the Moorish Walad Delim of Southern
+Morocco. The position of the Lemtuna makes this statement true of
+them, but not of the Lemta, whose home, both on the authority of Leo
+and on other evidence, was far removed from Mauretania, and, to wit,
+in the Fezzan. The erroneous association of the Lemta with the Walad
+Delim is largely responsible for the wrong account of the migrations
+of various sections of the southern and south-eastern Tuareg given
+by Barth and his successors.[326]
+
+But let us return to the people who were the ancestors of the
+Air Tuareg. The Hawara, according to Ibn Khaldun, El Bekri and El
+Masa’udi, inhabited Tripolitania, the deserts of Ifrikiya, and even
+parts of Barca. They lived, in part at least, side by side with the
+Lemta, Wearers of the Veil, who were “near,” or “as far as”
+Gawgawa. It has been assumed that this Gawgawa was the Kaukau of Ibn
+Batutah’s travels, and consequently Gao or Gaogao or Gogo or Gagho
+on the Niger. But it is more reasonably identified with Kuka on Lake
+Chad, and if this is so, the Lemta according to Ibn Khaldun extended
+precisely as far as the place referred to by Leo, in speaking of
+his fourth area.[327] It is clear that Ibn Khaldun meant “as far
+as” and not “near,” for in referring to the Hawarid origin of
+a part of the Lemta people he says that they may be so recognised
+“by their name, which is an altered form of the word Hawara: for
+having changed the و (_w_) into a sort of _k_ which is intermediary
+between the soft _g_ and the hard _q_, they have formed “Haggar.”
+The latter are, of course, the Ahaggaren, who then, as now, lived in
+mountains called by the same name a very long way from Kuka on Lake
+Chad; even so they were coterminous with the Lemta, a point which
+coincides with the evidence of Leo and others. Further indications of
+the extension of the Lemta as far as Lake Chad will be dealt with in
+the next chapter; they are confirmed both by the sequence of events
+in Air and by the occupation of Tademekka by the Aulimmiden-Lemta,
+culminating in A.D. 1640 when the former inhabitants of that area were
+driven towards the west.[328] All this would be incomprehensible if
+Gawgawa were identified with Gao on the Niger, or if Ibn Khaldun’s
+“near” were not interpreted as “towards” or “as far as.”
+
+It may appear strange to find Ibn Khaldun referring to the Hawarid
+origin of the Lemta when they are repeatedly given elsewhere by
+him as separate and co-equal divisions of the Muleththemin. It is
+possible that originally “Hawara” or “Auriga” may have been
+the national name of all the Tuareg, and that on the analogy of what
+we know happens in the case of tribes which have split up, one group
+may have retained the name of the parent stock. But if this ever did
+take place it must have happened long before the Moslem invasion, by
+which time the Tuareg had already become established in the divisions
+which we know; such an occurrence would have no practical bearing
+on conditions prevailing to-day. It is therefore easier to assume
+that all he meant to convey was the existence of a certain rather
+close connection between the Hawara and Lemta. We know in fact that,
+though not identical, the two groups have interchanged tribes, some
+of each division being found in the other one. This connection would
+account for the suspicious etymology of the word “Haggar,” which
+sounds uncommonly like an attempt on his part to prove philologically
+what is known traditionally to be the case.
+
+The Hawara as we know them to-day are not all Tuareg or even Libyans,
+although they were included among the Beranes families under the name
+of Auriga, and were specifically numbered among the People of the
+Veil. They were described as an element of great importance among the
+pre-Arab Libyans and reckoned co-equal with the Sanhaja. Ibn Khaldun
+does, however, add that at the time of the Arab conquest of North
+Africa they had assimilated a number of other tribes of different
+stock, which probably explains the rapid “Arabisation” of a part of
+them. It was the non-Tuareg part which became readily proselytised and
+so passed under the influence of the new rulers of North Africa. The
+Hawara were much to the fore in the occupation of Spain and generally
+in the Arab doings of the Fatimite era. Some of them in common with
+other Libyans supported the Kharejite schism in Islam; yet another
+part which had become “Arabised” established itself under the name
+of the Beni Khattab in the Fezzan, with their capital at Zuila. But
+those of them who most retained their Tuareg characteristics represent
+the original stock. In referring to certain Libyans by the name of
+Hawara, Ibn Khaldun is obviously not speaking of Tuareg people;
+one may therefore conclude that he means the strangers whom they
+assimilated.[329] Consequently I prefer to use the name “Hawara”
+for the whole group, but when the section which preserves its Tuareg
+characteristics is indicated the name “Auriga” is more applicable.
+
+It may be conceived that a people of such importance left some trace
+of their name among the Tuareg of to-day, in addition to the name
+“Haggar,” where Ibn Khaldun’s etymology seems suspicious. The
+name can be recognised in the form “Oraghen” or “Auraghen,” or
+in an older spelling “Iuraghen,” a tribe in the Azger group. The
+root also occurs in the name “Auraghiye” given to the Air dialect
+of the Tuareg language. These instances are valuable evidence.
+
+Duveyrier[330] records of the Oraghen tribe that “according to
+tradition they originally came from the neighbourhood of Sokna.[331]
+Before establishing themselves where they are now located, the
+tribe inhabited in succession the Fezzan, the country of Ghat, and
+Ahawagh, a territory situate on the left bank of the Niger, east of
+Timbuctoo. It was in this locality that the tribe divided; one part,
+the one under review, returned to the environs of Ghat, the other
+more numerous part remained in the Ahawagh. . . .” The Ahawagh or
+Azawagh is some way east of Timbuctoo, it is, in point of fact, as
+Barth rightly points out, the area south of Air. He says:[332] “Their
+original abode was said to be at a place called Asawa (Azawagh)[333]
+to the south of Iralghawen (Eghalgawen) in Southern Air.” While
+the exact sequence of movements thus recorded may not be accurate,
+the indications are of importance in considering the origin of the
+people of Air as they refer to a southward migration through Air and
+a partial return north. But whereas in the Azger country the Auraghen
+are a noble tribe, in the Southland they are a servile tribe of the
+Aulimmiden.[334] This fact is very significant and seems to provide
+an explanation of the ancestry of the Tademekkat and of some of the
+People of Air,[335] who are in part of Hawarid origin. The date of the
+expulsion of the Tademekkat people towards the west and north by the
+Aulimmiden prior and up to about A.D. 1640 coincides with the legend
+recorded by Duveyrier of a party of southern Auraghen who came to
+the assistance of their cousins among the Azger and helped to break
+the domination of the Imanen kings of the Azger. Those Auraghen who
+remained behind in the Tademekka country were eventually reduced to
+a state of vassalage and pushed westward during the general movement
+which took place in that direction.
+
+But in spite of the occurrence of a tribe with this name among the
+Azger, it is not the latter group but the Ahaggaren who were originally
+Auriga, even as the Azger were in essence Lemta, notwithstanding the
+considerable exchange of tribes which has taken place between the
+two groups.
+
+In another place I have had occasion to doubt whether the usually
+accepted derivation of the word “Tuareg” applied, as it now is, to
+all the People of the Veil was entirely satisfactory. The derivation
+seemed founded on the fallacy of “post hoc, ergo propter hoc.”
+The name Targa in Leo and Ibn Khaldun appears to be the same word
+as Tuareg, in a slightly modified form; but in these authors it
+is not used of all but only of a part of the Muleththemin. It is
+a proper name like Sanhaja, or Lemta, and the group which bears it
+is as important as the other main divisions. Now in one place Leo
+names the divisions of the Muleththemin as the Sanhaja, Zanziga,
+Targa, Lemta and Jadala; in another as the Sanhaja, Targa, Jedala,
+Lemta and Lemtuna, of which we can eliminate the last named as a
+subdivision of the Sanhaja. Elsewhere again he calls them the Sanhaja,
+Zanziga, Guenziga, Targa and Lemta. Further, in Ibn Khaldun we learn
+that the Sanhaja, Hawara, Lemta, Gezula and Heskura are in one group
+as the Children of Tiski, and again he divides the race into four
+divisions only, the Sanhaja, Auriga, Ketama and Lemta. Of these we
+can eliminate the Lemtuna as a part of the Sanhaja. Leo’s Zanziga
+and Guenziga are modifications of the latter name and were given to
+the Tuareg immediately east of them, probably during their desert
+confederation; Ibn Khaldun’s Heskura and Gezula seem to be two names
+for one division which possibly was the Ketama. Now if the remaining
+names are considered, it is noteworthy that in no one of the lists do
+the two names Targa and Hawara or Auriga occur. They are therefore
+quite likely to be different names for the same group. Furthermore,
+in Leo’s third area the veiled inhabitants of the Air and Ahaggar
+mountains are both called Targa, and the latter and a large part of
+the former are known to be Hawara. The conclusion is that “Targa,”
+so far from being merely a descriptive or abusive term, is another
+name for Hawara-Auriga. The fact that the dialect spoken in Air is
+called Auraghiye alone would justify Leo classifying the inhabitants
+both of Air as well as of Ahaggar under one term, namely, Targa, if,
+as is highly probable, the name is an alternative for Auriga or Hawara,
+or for at least a large part of them.
+
+Having suggested this equivalent we must return to the question,
+already foreshadowed, namely, whether, from an examination of
+the present tribes of the Ahaggaren and Azger groups of Tuareg,
+any conclusion can be drawn showing that at one and the same time
+a connection between the two divisions and a separate ancestry
+existed. It is necessary to postulate for the moment, as has already
+been done, that the Azger were the old Lemta, for the evidence can
+only be considered in detail a little later. It might have seemed
+more rational to deal with it now, especially as their history is of
+greater importance to Air than that of the Ahaggaren, but for various
+reasons which will become apparent it will be found more convenient
+to examine the latter first.
+
+In Air and in the south generally the two divisions are referred
+to collectively by the name of Ahaggaren. The reason is that the
+Azger are now so reduced in numbers that the world has tended to
+forget their name for that of their more powerful and prosperous
+western neighbours; the Ahaggaren on account of their trading and
+caravan traffic have also come more into contact with the outside
+world. The Azger, on the other hand, instead of becoming better known,
+as a result of the French penetration of the Sahara have migrated
+eastwards further and further away from Europeans into the recondite
+places of the Fezzan mountains, which they now only leave to raid
+Air or Kawar in company with rascals like the northern Tebu and the
+more irreconcilable Ahaggaren, who have refused to submit to French
+administration. Although in Air “Ahaggaren” has come to mean just
+Northern Tuareg, it has no strict ethnic signification.
+
+Many travellers in the Ahaggar country have heard the tradition current
+among the population that the Ahaggaren are considered originally to
+have formed part of the Azger division. Duveyrier[336] records that
+the Ahaggaren and cognate Tuareg to the north-west are divided into
+fourteen principal noble tribes:
+
+  Tegehe[337] Mellen,
+
+  Tegehe n’es Sidi,
+
+  En Nitra,
+
+  Taitoq,
+
+  Tegehe n’Aggali,[338]
+
+  Inemba Kel Emoghi,
+
+  Inemba Kel Tahat,
+
+  Kel[339] Ghela,
+
+  Ireshshumen,
+
+  Kel Ahamellen,
+
+  Ibogelan,
+
+  Tegehe n’Essakkal,
+
+  Ikadeen,
+
+  Ikerremoïn.
+
+Bissuel,[340] however, declares that the Taitoq, Tegehe n’es Sidi
+and Ireshshumen form a separate group of people living in the Adrar
+Ahnet, who are sometimes called collectively the Taitoq, but should
+more correctly be described as the Ar’rerf Ahnet. The noble tribes
+of this confederation, the Taitoq proper and the Tegehe n’es
+Sidi, claim to be of independent origin and not related either to
+the Ahaggaren or the Azger. The Ireshshumen are said to be a mixed
+tribe composed of the descendants of Taitoq men, and women of their
+Imghad, the Kel Ahnet. There are also four Imghad tribes: the Kel
+Ahnet and Ikerremoin, who depend from the Taitoq, and the Tegehe
+n’Efis (probably n’Afis) and the Issokenaten, who depend from
+the Tegehe n’es Sidi. These Imghad live in Ahnet, but in 1888 were
+as far afield as the Talak plain west of Air.[341] The Ikerremoin of
+the Ahnet mountains—though probably of the same stock as the noble
+tribe of the same name in Ahaggar—are a distinct unit; they were
+probably a part of the latter until conquered in war by the Taitoq. The
+Tuareg nobles of Ahnet may be considered a separate branch of the race,
+possibly descended from the Ketama. They are neither Auriga nor Lemta
+and probably not Sanhaja either. The Taitoq tribes must therefore be
+omitted from Duveyrier’s record.
+
+He states that a split occurred between the Azger and Ahaggaren. About
+fifty years before he was writing, or, in other words, about a century
+ago, the Kel Ahamellen, like other Tuareg tribes in the area, were
+under the rule of the Imanen kings of Azger. The latter rulers are
+described as of the same stock as the Auraghen and as “strangers”
+among the Azger. Such a description is logical if they were, as we
+may suppose, an Auriga stock living among the Lemta or Azger. The Kel
+Ahamellen were settled on the extreme west of the country held by the
+latter division, and according to the story became so numerous that
+they divided up into the sub-tribes whose names occur in this list,
+and so broke away from the allegiance of the Imanen kings. But if
+in Duveyrier’s day the Kel Ahamellen had only broken away from the
+Azger confederation as recently as fifty years previously, and were,
+as he also says, in a state of internal anarchy, it is out of the
+question for one clan to have increased sufficiently rapidly to form
+fourteen large noble sub-tribes covering an area reaching from Ghat
+to the Ahnet massif. The supposition is that the Kel Ahamellen did in
+fact break away from the Azger about then, for tradition is strong on
+this point, but that instead of being alone to form the new division
+they joined a group of other tribes already in existence, namely, the
+descendants of the original Auriga-Ahaggaren stock. It is immaterial
+whether the latter were also under the domination of the Azger Imanen
+kings a century or so before, though it may be remembered that this
+reigning clan was itself from Ahaggar.
+
+                                                              PLATE 46
+
+[Illustration: FUGDA (R.), CHIEF OF TIMIA AND HIS WAKIL]
+
+[Illustration: ATAGOOM]
+
+Kel Ahamellen, or the “White People,” is a descriptive and
+not a proper name, a circumstance which points to the view that
+such was not their original appellation. In the course of time the
+unit became divided into three tribes, the Kel Ahamellen proper, the
+Tegehe Aggali (dag Rali) and the Tegehe n’Esakkal. The “I name”
+of the original stock was lost, and so the group collectively bore
+the same label as the smaller Kel Ahamellen tribe. By the beginning
+of this century, when the French advance took place, the Ahaggaren
+were already organised under their own king Ahitagel. When their
+country was finally occupied, Musa Ag Mastan was reigning over them
+and contributed largely to the pacification. He continued as Amenokal
+of Ahaggar until his death in December 1916. Of the fourteen Ahaggar
+tribes, therefore, the three Kel Ahamellen are closely related to each
+other, and appear to constitute the Azger nucleus among them. There
+may, of course, be other Azger among the remaining eleven Ahaggaren
+tribes who are the Auriga element, but no other information seems at
+the moment available. The traditional connection of these two Tuareg
+divisions is so strongly associated with the three Kel Ahamellen that
+it is they who must be regarded as the most recent and perhaps as the
+primary or principal offshoot of the Azger among the Ahaggar people.
+
+The presence of the Kel Ahamellen in the west would account for the
+traditional common origin of the Ahaggaren and Azger. The warlike
+qualities of the latter would inevitably tempt a vain people even
+though of different stock to associate themselves with so famous a
+division. The fact that both Ahaggar and the Azger were at one time
+under the domination of the Azger Imanen kings would, moreover, have
+the same effect. That some explanation of the sort which I have given
+is correct seems to be clear from the two different forms in which
+the traditional connection is recorded. Ibn Khaldun postulated the
+Hawarid origin of the Lemta, and adduced as proof the etymology of
+the name “Haggar.” Duveyrier, on the other hand, declared that
+his researches led him to believe that the Ahaggaren were originally
+Azger.[342]
+
+The Azger, whom all are agreed to-day in regarding as a distinct
+group of Tuareg for all that they are connected with the Ahaggaren
+and the people of Air, range over the country between the eastern
+slopes of the Ahaggar mountains and Murzuk in the Fezzan. Whereas
+the Ahaggaren control the caravan roads between Algeria or Tuat and
+Ahaggar, and share with the Tuareg of Air the western tracks between
+their respective mountains, the Azger consider the roads from Ghat
+to the north and to the east as their own property. They share with
+the people of Air the main caravan track by way of Asiu or In Azawa
+to the latter country.
+
+It is very difficult to say much of the present state of the
+Azger. Their movement away from contact with Europeans and their
+intractable characteristics have kept them from becoming known. This
+is all the more regrettable, since, owing to their association with
+the Fezzan, a knowledge of their history and peculiarities might
+throw light on the puzzling problem of the Garamantian and Tuareg
+civilisations. They seem also, in spite of their very reduced numbers,
+to be the purest of all the Tuareg. Duveyrier’s[343] account of
+them is the best one which exists. They have always enjoyed a most
+remarkable reputation for courage and even foolhardiness. It is
+said that it takes two Azger to raid a village out of which twenty
+Ahaggaren would be chased.
+
+The Azger count six noble tribes, the Imanen, Auraghen, Imettrilalen,
+Kel Ishaban, Ihadanaren, Imanghassaten. The last-named tribe is of
+Arab origin descended from a Bedawi stock of the Wadi el Shati in the
+Fezzan. Its members are the fighting troops of the Imanen and have
+come to be regarded as Noble Tuareg. Though the People of the Veil
+recognise nobility or servility of other races, I know of no other
+instance where a foreign stock has achieved complete recognition
+among these people as Imajegh or Noble. In all other cases foreign
+stocks, even of noble caste according to the standards of the Tuareg,
+technically become servile when conquered or absorbed. In the case of
+the Imanghassaten, their assimilation to the nobility must have been
+due to the fact that they lived side by side with the Azger and were
+never conquered by them. In other instances of Arabs associated with
+Tuareg the racial distinction remains clear and is recognised. Among
+the Taitoq of Ahnet the Arab Mazil and Sokakna tribes supply the
+camels for the caravans crossing the desert to Timbuctoo, where the
+Arab Meshagra, who dress like the Tuareg, used to be associated with
+the veiled Kunta tribe until they were evicted by the Igdalen Tuareg
+from their homes and took refuge with the Aulimmiden.[344] But though
+associated with them, none of these three Arab tribes have ever been
+counted as Tuareg nobles.
+
+Parallel to the Azger Kel Ahamellen among the Ahaggaren are the
+Auraghen and Imanen in the Azger group, for they belong to the Auriga
+family. Other Azger tribes may also have been Auriga, but there are
+no records on the subject.
+
+Nearly all the Azger tribes have dependent servile tribes in addition
+to slaves, but there are two classes in the confederation described
+as neither noble nor servile but mixed in caste. These are the Kel
+T’inalkum[345] (the Tinylkum of Barth) and the Ilemtin tribes,
+and two tribes of Inisilman or Holy Men, the Ifoghas and the
+Ihehawen. These are accorded the privileges of nobles.[346]
+
+The name of the “Ilemtin” is interesting. It is another form
+of “Aulimmiden,” the Tuareg who live in the steppe west of
+Air, and is, of course, identical with “Lemta.” Moreover, the
+Ilemtin are in the very area where Leo had placed the northern part
+of the Lemta division. With their kindred the Kel T’inalkum, who
+also are neither noble nor servile, and perhaps with the Ihehawen,
+they represent the old parent stock of the Azger-Lemta. Their very
+antiquity, together with their tradition of nobility among the other
+tribes in the confederation, may be held to account by progressive
+deterioration for their curious caste. The Ifoghas and the Kel Ishaban
+are said to have been of the Kel el Suk or Tademekkat Tuareg: in the
+case of the former, at least, I do not think that this is so. They are
+a very widespread tribe in the Sahara, but indications will be given
+later showing that they too are probably Lemta. Their association with
+Tademekka is doubtless due to a part of them being found in a region
+to which they presumably migrated when the other Lemta people invaded
+Air from the south-east and also formed the Aulimmiden group.[347]
+
+In late classical times the northern part of the Lemta area of Leo
+was occupied by the Garamantian kingdom and by the nomadic Ausuriani,
+Mazices and Ifuraces.[348] The Ausuriani and Mazices were people
+of considerable importance and behaved like true Tuareg, raiding in
+company with one another into Cyrenaica and Egypt. The Maxyes, Mazices,
+etc., people with names of the MZGh root, seem to be the Meshwesh
+of Egyptian records. They are probably some of the ancestors of the
+Tuareg, and may be assumed to have been related to the Ausuriani,
+with whom they were always associated. The latter, who are also called
+Austuriani, are described by Synesius as one of the native people of
+Libya, in contrast with other Libyans whom he knew to have arrived
+at a later date.[349] Bates[350] thinks that the Ausuriani may be
+the Arzuges of Orosius. Now the form of the name Arzuges, and more
+remotely that of Ausuriani or Austuriani, points to an identification
+with the Azger. But that is not all. The position of the Ausuriani
+in late classical times agrees well with that given by Ammianus for
+the home of the Astacures, who are also mentioned by Ptolemy.[351]
+This name is intermediate between “Ausuriani” and “Arzuges,”
+and again is similar to “Azger.” Duveyrier[352] has come to the
+independent conclusion that these people under various but similar
+names must be identified with the Azger, who therefore for the last
+fourteen centuries appear to have occupied the same area in part
+that they do now. Their northern limit, it is true, has been driven
+south as a result of the Arab and other invasions of the Mediterranean
+littoral, and their southern territory has been lost to them, but in
+the main their zone has hardly changed.
+
+One may, however, adduce further evidence. Among the Lemta-Azger are
+the Ifoghas, a tribe of Holy Men. There is little doubt that these
+people are the Ifuraces of Corippus and others, whose position east
+of the Ausuriani is only a little north of where their descendants
+still live.[353] Incidentally both the area in which they live and
+the area in which they were reported in classical times may be held
+to be well within the boundaries of Leo’s Lemta zone. Last of all,
+there arises the question of the Ilaguantan or Laguatan of Corippus,
+who are not, I think, to be identified with the Levata or Louata, but
+are the people who gave the name to the country now called Elakkos,
+or Alagwas, or Elakwas, to the east of Damergu and south-east of Air,
+at the southern end of the Lemta area of Leo. In view of the course
+taken by the migration of the Lemta southwards there is nothing
+inherently improbable in the people, who in late classical times
+appear in the north, having migrated to a new habitat near the Sudan.
+
+The migration of the Lemta is intimately connected with the history
+of the Tuareg of Air, and accounts for the position of the Aulimmiden
+west of the latter country. In commenting on the organisation of the
+south-western division of the Tuareg, Barth[354] says that the whole
+group is designated by the name of Awelimmid, Welimmid or Aulimmiden
+(as they are known in Air), from the dominating tribe whose supremacy
+is recognised in some form or other by the remainder, “and in that
+respect even (the Tademmekat or) Tademekkat are included among the
+Aulimmiden;[355] but the real stock of Aulimmiden is very small.” He
+goes on to make the statement, which is obviously correct, and which
+my deductions absolutely confirm, that “the original group of the
+Aulimmiden (Ulmdn is the way the name is expressed in T’ifinagh)
+are identical with the Lemta,” the name probably signifying
+literally “the Children of Lemta, or rather ‘Limmid,’ or the
+name may originally have been an adjective.” As already stated,
+I do not agree with him that the Lemta, who became the Aulimmiden,
+descended from the Igidi in the north and drove out the Tademekkat,
+for I believe that the people in the north were the Lemtuna, living
+near the Walad Delim or Morocco, and that they were therefore a
+Sanhaja and not a Lemta tribe. If the Lemta had been in the area
+where Barth would have them, as opposed to where Leo placed them,
+it means that the latter’s account is fundamentally wrong. Nor
+would there be any adequate explanation of several phenomena just
+now indicated such as the westward movements of the Tademekkat and
+the presence of the Ilemtin in the Azger country.
+
+The vicissitudes of the Lemta and Auriga in the history of Air may
+be summarised as follows:—The Azger represent the old Lemta stock
+in the northern part of the area which Leo allocated to them. They
+are identical with the Ausuriani, Asturiani, Arzuges or Astacuri, and
+included the Ifoghas (Ifuraces) and Elakkos people (Ilaguantan). The
+Mazices are probably also in the same Lemta-Azger group, but I can
+find only circumstantial evidence for this supposition. The southern
+end of the Lemta area, which reached the Sudan between Lake Chad and
+Damergu, was lost to the Tuareg under pressure from the east. They
+were driven out of Bornu, where we shall see the Central African
+histories placed them in the early days. This part, as well as
+the Kawar road down which they came from the north, and the steppe
+north of Chad, was cleared of Tuareg by the Kanuri and Tebu from the
+east. In Elakkos, the country named by the tribe which in classical
+times was in Tripolitania, is the boundary to-day between Tebu and
+Tuareg. Progressive ethnic pressure from the east drove the eastern
+boundary of the Tuareg westwards, but it also forced the Lemta to
+find room in the west for their expansion. Some of the latter, as
+we shall see, entered Air from the south; others went on to occupy
+Tademekka and drove the inhabitants westward. The Lemta movement
+was of long duration and directly involved the first invasion of Air
+by the Tuareg: it took place south and then west, not, as Barth and
+others would have it, south-eastwards from North-west Africa. Before
+these movements took place Ahaggar was held by a Hawara stock which
+later received an admixture of Azger by the Kel Ahamellen who had
+split off from the latter. Air, which had first been occupied by
+a group of Lemta from the south-east, was then invaded by another
+wave of Tuareg from the north. They were almost certainly a Hawarid
+stock. By the time Leo wrote Air was therefore in a large measure
+occupied by the same race and group as Ahaggar, and like the latter
+was therefore rightly described as held by the “Targa popolo.”
+
+
+[Footnote 297: The works of Leo Africanus were published by the
+Hakluyt Society in three volumes in 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 298: Leo, III. p. 820.]
+
+[Footnote 299: The learned editor of the Hakluyt Society calls one of
+these nations the Tuareg. In my view all five nations were Tuareg,
+which term I have throughout used as equivalent to Muleththemin. Of
+these five nations, one apparently had Targa as a proper name.]
+
+[Footnote 300: Leo, III. p. 797.]
+
+[Footnote 301: In the Western Sahara north of the road from Arguin
+to Wadan, and probably near Sabha Jail.]
+
+[Footnote 302: North-west of Timbuctoo on the road to Wadan.]
+
+[Footnote 303: Also spelt Gago, near the north-west corner of the
+great Niger Bend. I have called it Gao throughout, as in the ancient
+and uncertain spellings it was often confused with Kuka on Lake Chad.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Leo, III. p. 799.]
+
+[Footnote 305: About Lat. 17° N., not to be confused with the town
+of Agades in Air.]
+
+[Footnote 306: Leo: on pages 798 and 799.]
+
+[Footnote 307: “Igidi” is more a term for a type of desert country
+than a true proper name. There are other Igidis in North Africa.]
+
+[Footnote 308: Compare also a name of similar type, the place called
+Siggedim, in about Lat. 20° on the road between Kawar and the Fezzan.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Compare Barth’s corruption of the name Gamram in
+Damergu to Gumrek. Cf. Chap. II.]
+
+[Footnote 310: The map on p. 331 gives a more accurate idea than the
+one in the first volume of the Hakluyt Society’s publication.]
+
+[Footnote 311: _Vide infra_, Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Cf. Kanem-bu = the people of Kanem.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Keane: _Man, Past and Present_ (new edition), p. 473.]
+
+[Footnote 314: Ptolemy, IV., sec. 3, 6. An emendation making
+the word read “the people of Cidamus” (Ghadames) is more
+tempting. Cf. Bates, _op. cit._, p. 63.]
+
+[Footnote 315: Leo, _op. cit._, III. 801.]
+
+[Footnote 316: Minutilli, _Tripolitania_, p. 413, and in El Bekri
+_passim._]
+
+[Footnote 317: Leo, _loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 318: In Byzantine times B and V were often
+interchanged. Cf. Βάνδιλοι for Vandal, _apud_ Justinian.]
+
+[Footnote 319: Ibn Khaldun, Book I. p. 234.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Unity, that is, in so far as all the non-Arab Libyans
+have been called Berbers and speak the same language.]
+
+[Footnote 321: Cf. Appendix V.]
+
+[Footnote 322: Cf. Boule: _Fossil Man_, p. 316.]
+
+[Footnote 323: Ibn Khaldun, _op. cit._, I. 273.]
+
+[Footnote 324: Ibn Khaldun, _op. cit._, I. 184 sq.]
+
+[Footnote 325: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. V. p. 553.]
+
+[Footnote 326: _Infra_ in this chapter and in Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 327: _Vide supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 328: This could only follow upon an invasion from the east
+or south-east, and not from the north or north-west, as Barth thought
+in consequence of his assumption that the Lemta were the Lemtuna near
+the Walad Delim. See Barth, _op. cit._ Vol. IV. p. 626.]
+
+[Footnote 329: An instance of the assimilation of an Arab tribe by
+the Tuareg will be found on examining the Azger group (_infra_ in
+this chapter).]
+
+[Footnote 330: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 347.]
+
+[Footnote 331: In the Fezzan.]
+
+[Footnote 332: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 231.]
+
+[Footnote 333: This Azawagh must not be confused with the Azawagh
+(Azawad) or Jauf, the belly of the desert north-west of Timbuctoo,
+though the two words are derived from the same root. _Supra_,
+Chap. II. See also Notes in Leo, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 198.]
+
+[Footnote 334: Barth, Vol. V. p. 557.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Namely, the Kel Geres. _Infra_, Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 336: _Op. cit._, p. 330.]
+
+[Footnote 337: “Tegehe” appears to mean “descendants” or
+“family” in the female line.]
+
+[Footnote 338: “Ag Ali” = son of ’Ali. The _’ain_ in Arabic
+when transliterated by the Tuareg becomes _gh_, and ’Ali, ’Osman,
+’Adullah, etc., become Ghali, Ghosman, Ghabdullah, etc. The _gh_
+in Temajegh is so strongly _grasseyé_ (as the French term the sound),
+as to be very nearly an R. It is consequently very often transliterated
+with this letter instead of _’ain_. The Ag ’Ali tribe is therefore
+very often referred to as the Dag Rali or Dag Ghali, the prefixed D
+being grammatical.]
+
+[Footnote 339: Sometimes written Kel Rela (cf. note 3).]
+
+[Footnote 340: Bissuel, _Les Touareg de l’Ouest_, Alger, 1888,
+p. 13 sq.]
+
+[Footnote 341: Bissuel, _loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 342: Cf. diagram showing the migration of the Air Tuareg
+on page 388.]
+
+[Footnote 343: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 330.]
+
+[Footnote 344: See von Bary, _op. cit._, pp. 181 and 190.]
+
+[Footnote 345: A descriptive geographical name, and perhaps originally
+a branch of the Ilemtin.]
+
+[Footnote 346: Schirmer perhaps rightly considers that the Ifoghas
+are less holy than Duveyrier imagined. They are as ready to fight
+as other tribes, and those in the south have not even the reputation
+of sanctity.]
+
+[Footnote 347: See Chap. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 348: Bates, _op. cit._, Map X, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 349: Cf. conclusions at the beginning of this chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 350: _Op. cit._, p. 68, note 7.]
+
+[Footnote 351: Bates, _op. cit._, p. 64.]
+
+[Footnote 352: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 467.]
+
+[Footnote 353: The presence of some Ifoghas west of Air will later
+be shown to be connected with the Tuareg migrations into Air.]
+
+[Footnote 354: _Op. cit._, Vol. IV. App. III. p. 552 sq.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Doubtless because they were conquered by the
+Aulimmiden.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                           THE HISTORY OF AIR
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                   THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TUAREG TO AIR
+
+
+The history of Air is inextricably mixed up with the problems of Tuareg
+ethnology. It is best to treat the various questions which arise as
+a whole. Information for all the earlier events is scanty. As has
+already become apparent in previous chapters, much must be based on
+deduction, since no early written evidence of the Air people exists
+but that contained in their rock inscriptions. In later years the
+practice arose of keeping book records or tribal histories in Arabic;
+they were designed to establish the nobility of origin of the various
+clans, a subject of continual dispute among the Tuareg; but most of
+these precious books, which used to be kept in the mosques or houses of
+the learned men, were lost when the whole of Air north of the Central
+massifs was cleared by French Camel patrols after the 1917 rebellion.
+
+For long the avowed policy of the French authorities was to remove
+the population of the mountains of Air lock, stock and barrel, and
+settle them in the lands of Damergu and the Sudan. The Tuareg, as
+may be imagined, took unkindly to living in the plains away from the
+mountains and desert to which they were used. They cannot be persuaded
+to settle on the land as agriculturists except after generations of
+contact with tillers of the soil, and even then they only adopt the new
+mode of life in a half-hearted fashion or as a result of intermarriage,
+and as a consequence lose their individuality. Besides embittering
+relations to an extent which may prove irremediable, the French
+policy was otherwise disastrous from a local point of view. After
+being driven out of their homes in the mountains, these people were
+not content to live in the half-way house of the Damergu plains or
+in Damagarim. Many of them moved out of French territory altogether
+into Nigeria, where they had no quarrel with the authorities and
+where existence was even easier than in the belt between the Sahara
+and the Sudan. As many as 30,000 Veiled People left Air; most of them
+settled in the Emirates of Kano and Katsina.
+
+Depopulation in Air allowed the desert to encroach. Wells fell in,
+gardens went out of tillage, and the live-stock of the country, more
+especially the camel herds, were reduced to a fraction of what they
+had been. These factors in turn contributed to make it harder than
+ever to reopen the old caravan roads, after they had been closed
+during the Great War. From the economic standpoint the possibility
+of obtaining any return from the military occupation of this part of
+the Sahara became more than ever problematical. Finally, the cruel
+evacuation of Air, for which there was no administrative excuse save
+that of short-sighted expediency, made it infinitely more difficult
+to obtain information regarding the origin and habits of a people
+who are in any case probably doomed to disappear before the advance
+of civilisation. The records in their mosques were abandoned to be
+rained on and gradually destroyed. Tradition is being lost among
+a younger generation in a new environment. In 1922 the policy of
+the French was reversed and the population was being encouraged to
+return to their homes, but one is inclined to wonder whether it was
+not already too late.
+
+In the course of my stay in Air I heard of two books on tribal lore
+and history. The one which appeared the most important had belonged
+to the family of Ahodu, chief of Auderas village, and had long been in
+the possession of his forefathers. In 1917, when the northern villages
+were cleared, the book was left in a hiding-place, but all my efforts
+and those of Ahodu to trace it were in vain. Later I heard of another
+similar work at Agades, but only after I had left the town. It is
+kept by a woman called Taburgula, and is quoted by the Kel Geres as
+their authority for the nobility, etc. of the tribes of the south.[356]
+
+Certain extracts from a Chronicle of Air have been collected and
+translated by H. R. Palmer, Lieut.-Governor of Northern Nigeria. The
+information was contained in the notes of a Hausa scribe, who seems to
+have compiled them on the authority of a manuscript which is probably
+still extant in Air. The compilation is not necessarily accurate, but
+ranks as good material, and has already been referred to in previous
+chapters as the Agades Chronicle.[357]
+
+Finally, there is the record of Sultan Bello, Emir of Sokoto, when
+Denham and Clapperton reached the Sudan in 1824. Bello was a great
+historian, and probably the most enlightened ruler in Africa of his
+day. He has left for us a history without which we should find it
+difficult to piece together the story of Air and the neighbouring
+countries.[358]
+
+Such information as it was possible to obtain to supplement these
+authorities and Jean and Barth was derived from numerous conversations
+with the older men whom I met in Air. By repetition and sifting
+it acquired sufficient consistency probably to represent, somewhat
+approximately, the truth. Apart from an inadequate knowledge of the
+language, I encountered another great difficulty in research. The years
+1917 and 1918 were so calamitous for the Tuareg that circumstances
+obliged them to change many of their habits of life and scattered their
+traditions. There was always a danger of being misled by assuming that
+present practices represented historical customs, or that deductions
+made in 1922 were necessarily as accurate as if the observations had
+been made in 1850.
+
+The early history of Air may be resolved into the answers to the three
+problems: When did the Tuareg reach Air? Where did they come from? And,
+whom did they meet on arrival? We shall deal with the last first,
+piecing together such scanty evidence as is at our disposal.
+
+The existence at an early date in North Africa of negroid people
+much further north than their present limit of permanent habitation
+is generally admitted. It is logical to suppose that Air, which is
+an eminently habitable land, was therefore originally occupied by a
+negroid race. In support of this supposition there is the testimony of
+Muhammad el Bakeir,[359] son of Sultan Muhammad el Addal, to the effect
+that the Goberawa originally possessed Air, under the leadership of
+“Kipti” or Copts. Bello adds that the Goberawa were a free people
+and that they were the noblest of the Hausa-speaking races. It is not
+clear what the mention of Kipti can mean, except that the influence
+of the Egyptian Coptic church was spread as far afield as Air;[360]
+and this is possible, for traces of Christianity from the Nile Valley
+can probably be found in the Chad area. It may, on the other hand,
+merely mean that there was a North African element in the racial
+composition of the Goberawa; and this is certainly true, for the Hausa
+people are not pure Negroes. Gober was the most northern Hausa state,
+and later the home of Othman dan Fodio, the founder of the Fulani
+empire.[361] The Agades Chronicle states that the people of Daura,
+who are regarded as the purest of the Hausa, whatever this people or
+race may eventually be proved to be, first ruled in Air; but they
+grew weak and were conquered by the Kanuri, who in their turn gave
+place to the Goberawa.
+
+Asben is the name by which Air is still known in the Southland, and
+the word is probably of the same root as “Abyssinia” and the Arabic
+“Habesh.” It may also perhaps be found in the name Agisymba Regio,
+but no significance need be attached to this, for the name seems to
+have been applied very widely in Africa to countries inhabited by
+negroid people.[362]
+
+The exact ethnic origin of the first negroid inhabitants of Air or
+their order does not signify very much, once their racial character
+is established. Although at first sight the presence of negroids
+might seem to account for the peculiar aspect of the city of Agades,
+its true explanation, as we have seen, must be sought elsewhere.[363]
+The date of the foundation of Agades is considerably later than the
+displacement of the early inhabitants of Air by the advent of the
+first Tuareg.
+
+In addition to the negroid people of Air, the first Tuareg are said
+by Bello to have found some Sanhaja in the country, by which term he
+presumably means some Western Muleththemin, who lived in the first
+or second of Leo’s zones. This is to some extent confirmed by Ibn
+Batutah’s accounts of the tribes which he encountered in these parts,
+but I have been unable to trace their descendants with any degree of
+certainty. Some of their descendants may probably be found in Azawagh
+and Damergu;[364] the Mesufa of Ibn Batutah are also quite likely to
+have been Sanhaja. Another tribe of the same name and origin occurs
+in North-west Morocco.
+
+The Goberawa capital at this time was T’in Shaman, like the later
+Agades lying at the southern borders of the country, a site naturally
+likely to be selected by a people of equatorial origin with homes
+further south. T’in Shaman or Ansaman is stated by Barth to have been
+some twenty miles from Agades on the road to Auderas; but I conceive
+this may be a slip. I was only able to find the name applied in Air
+to the wells of T’in Shaman, which lie in the direction given,
+but scarcely two miles from the city, near the site of the present
+French fort. Although the name appears to be a Libyan form it does not
+follow that the town was of Tuareg origin or was inhabited by them in
+early Goberawa days. Record of it has come to us from Tuareg sources,
+referable to a period when Tuareg and Goberawa were living side by side
+in Air, but we do not know the Goberawa form of the name. These two
+folk were both in the area before the first Tuareg immigration, when
+Libyan influence was already strong in Air, and also after the first
+immigration, but before the second brought in a sufficient number of
+Tuareg to effect the expulsion of the Goberawa.[365] A certain degree
+of civilisation must have existed in Air even in these early days,
+for several learned men, inhabitants of T’in Shaman, are mentioned
+by the historians of Negroland.[366] That it was not a Tuareg town
+is further shown by the information recorded, that when Agades was
+eventually founded in the fifteenth century A.D., it was from Ir
+n’Allem and not from T’in Shaman: Ir n’Allem may be doubtfully
+identified with a site north of Agades well within the defending hills
+near Solom Solom.[367] Of greater interest perhaps is the close analogy
+between the names of T’in Shaman or Ansaman and Nasamones, that great
+tribe of travellers on the Great Syrtis described by Herodotus. There
+is no doubt that with such caravaneers as we know lived in the north,
+the influence of the Tuareg in Air and the South generally must have
+been great for a long time before they settled there.
+
+Into Air, inhabited by negroids and Sanhaja, came the modern Tuareg
+of Air. What happened to the Goberawa in the process of time as a
+consequence of this movement can easily be assumed. Whatever may
+have been the terms of a peaceful settlement, the negroid people
+were either driven back into Central Africa here as elsewhere, or
+they became the serfs[368] of the conquerors, and were incorporated
+into the race as Imghad tribes. The darker element among them must
+certainly in part be accounted for in this manner.
+
+The modern Tuareg immigrants can broadly be divided into the three
+categories, of which the exact significance has already become
+apparent. They are the Kel Owi tribes who came into the country
+quite recently, the Kel Geres tribes and those septs collectively
+known as the People of the King. Of these, the Kel Geres, as well as
+a once separate but now associated tribe, the Itesan, are no longer
+in Air, but live in an area north of Sokoto, whither they migrated
+in comparatively recent times. It requires to be established whether
+the people who came to Air before the Kel Owi, all arrived at much
+the same time, or in different waves, when the respective movements
+took place, and who in each case were the immigrants.
+
+                                                              PLATE 47
+
+[Illustration: SIDI]
+
+
+                         THE FIRST IMMIGRATION
+
+
+Before attacking these problems, it will be necessary, because
+relevant to their solution, to consider the direction from which the
+invasion took place. Tuareg traditions without any exception ascribe
+a northern home to the race. They maintain that they reached Air from
+that direction in different waves at different times and by different
+routes. Ask any Tuareg of the older tribes about the history of his
+people and he will say, for instance: “My people, the Kel Tadek,
+have been in the country since the beginning of the world,” but he
+will add in the same breath: “But we are a people from the north,
+from far away, not like the niggers of the south.” They have a story
+to the effect that the Sultan of Stambul, seeing how North Africa was
+over-populated,[369] ordered the tribes which had taken refuge on the
+borders of the Libyan desert in the region of Aujila and the Eastern
+Fezzan to migrate and spread the true religion far afield. The Tuareg,
+with the Itesan leading, thereupon came into Air. Now, whatever else
+they were, the Libyans at the time of these early movements were,
+of course, not Moslems, nor is it likely that any Khalif or Emperor
+at Constantinople intervened in the way suggested. There is not even
+any reason to suppose that the migration occurred in the Moslem era,
+though we are not as yet concerned with dates. Such details as these
+are picturesque embellishments added in the course of time to popular
+tradition. I can agree that the Tuareg came _from_ the north; but I
+am less than certain that they came _by_ the north.
+
+North of Air, about half-way between the wells of Asiu and the Valley
+of T’iyut, there is a small hill called Maket n’Ikelan, which
+means in Temajegh, “The Mecca (or shrine) of the Slaves.”[370]
+This is said to have been the northernmost boundary of the old kingdom
+of Gober. At Maket n’Ikelan the custom was preserved among passing
+Tuareg caravans of allowing the slaves to make merry and dance and
+levy a small tribute from their masters. The hill was probably a pagan
+place of worship, but is important from the historical point of view,
+because tradition represents, somewhat erroneously as regards details,
+that there, “when the Kel Owi took possession of old Gober with
+its capital at T’in Shaman, a compromise was entered into between
+the Red conquerors and the Black natives, that the latter should not
+be destroyed and that the principal chief of the Kel Owi should be
+allowed to marry a black woman.” The story is interesting, though
+there has evidently been a slight confusion of thought, because
+there was already a large Tuareg population in Air before the Kel
+Owi came comparatively late in history; and it is not they who were
+the first Tuareg in the plateau. The marriage of the red chief with
+a black slave woman may be an allusion, and perhaps a direct one,
+to the practice associated with the Sultan of Air.[371]
+
+With the old frontier of Gober at Maket n’Ikelan one might from this
+story have supposed that the first Tuareg invaders met the original
+inhabitants of the country there and came to an agreement regarding an
+occupation of the northern mountains, whence they eventually overran
+the whole plateau. Although such a conclusion would seem to be borne
+out by such traditions as I have quoted of a descent from the north,
+the weight of evidence indicates the south-east as the direction
+from which the first Tuareg actually came. But this will be seen to
+be not incompatible with a northern home for the race. The view is
+only in conflict with the Maket n’Ikelan tradition if the latter
+is interpreted literally. The terms of the settlement of treaty need
+only be associated with a point in Northern Air, inasmuch as the site
+in question marked the frontier of the old kingdom of Gober, which
+the Tuareg eventually took over in its entirety from its ancient
+possessors. It need not be supposed that the Treaty was made _at_
+Maket n’Ikelan. I regard this old frontier point as merely symbolic
+of the event.
+
+The testimony of Sultan Bello regarding the first migration of
+the People of the Veil is most helpful.[372] “Adjoining Bornu,
+on the south side, is the province of Air (_i.e._ on the south side
+of Air). It is inhabited by the Tuareg and by some remnants of the
+Sanhaja and the Sudanese. This province was formerly in the hands
+of the Sudanese inhabitants of Gober, but five tribes of the Tuareg,
+called Amakeetan, Tamkak, Sendal, Agdalar, and Ajaraneen, came out of
+Aowjal[373] and conquered it. They nominated a prince for themselves
+from the family of Ansatfen, but they quarrelled among themselves
+and dismissed him.” Bello thereupon goes on to describe the Arabian
+origin of the Tuareg people.
+
+I agree with Barth[374] that these five tribes probably did not
+come from Aujila oasis itself, but his remark that one of the
+five tribes was “the Aujila tribe” is surely a mistake. Bello
+distinctly speaks of the five tribes by name as having come _from_
+Aowjal. Aujila seems never to have been the name of a people. As far
+back as Herodotus[375] it is already a place name. As for Bello’s
+reference to the selection of a ruler from a slave family, it is
+probably an allusion to the practice we have already examined,[376]
+for Ansatfen, _i.e._ n’Sattafan, means “of the black ones,” from
+the word “sattaf” = “black.” The fact that according to the
+Agades Chronicle the ninth Sultan was called Muhammad Sottofé (the
+Black), who ruled from A.D. 1486-93, and is referred to in Sudanese
+records, in some measure confirms the accuracy of Bello’s history.
+
+The story that the first Tuareg came from Aujila is nothing more than
+a reflection of their own tradition that they came from a far country
+in the north-east, where one of the most important and well-known
+points was this oasis, whence people had long been in the habit of
+trading as far afield as Kawar and even Gao. Aujila was a northern
+caravan terminus. The trade between Aujila and Kawar, as early as the
+twelfth century, is referred to by Idrisi,[377] and this reference
+is the more interesting as it indicates, though at a later period
+than that of the first Tuareg invasion of Air, a steady stream of
+traffic organised by the North-eastern Tuareg down the Chad road to
+Bornu and Kanem. This is most significant; it had probably been going
+on since the days perhaps of the Nasamonian merchant adventurers.
+
+The Agades Chronicle, on the authority of the learned Ibn Assafarani,
+says that the first Tuareg who came to Air were the Kel Innek,
+under a ruler called the Agumbulum; and that other Tuareg followed
+them. Now, Kel Innek means literally “The People of the East”;
+it is primarily a generic or descriptive term, and not a tribal
+proper name. Ibn Assafarani wrote from Asben, where the eastern
+country always and necessarily means the area around Lake Chad. Bello
+further mentions that when the Kanuri entered Kanem they settled
+there as strangers under the government of the Amakeetan, one of
+the five tribes previously mentioned as the first to enter Air. He
+also refers to the latter by the general name of Kel Innek. Again,
+one of the two tribes in Elakkos, between Air and Lake Chad, are the
+Immikitan, while we know from Leo that the Lemta Tuareg occupied an
+area extending from the north-eastern Fezzan to Kuka on Lake Chad.[378]
+This evidence, therefore, leads one to the conclusion that the first
+Tuareg, or at any rate some of the first Tuareg, to enter Air were
+not migrants from the north, that is to say, from Ghat or Ahaggar,
+but from Kanem and from Bornu in the south-east, which parts are
+racially connected with the Fezzan and not with the former areas. In
+the course of these movements a group of Immikitan remained in Elakkos,
+which, we have seen on the quite distinct evidence of the Ilagwas,
+was in any case connected with the Lemta country of the north.
+
+There exists to-day a sub-tribe of the Itesan bearing the name of
+Kel Innek. On the analogy of what occurred among the Kel Ahamellen,
+among the Ahaggaren, and in recent years in Air also among the Kel
+Tafidet, it is almost certain that we have an example here of a name
+originally applied to a sub-tribe and the whole group simultaneously
+but now used to differentiate a sub-tribe only. The Itesan of to-day,
+in spite of their connection with the Kel Geres, were, as will be
+explained later on, among the original invaders of Air, a fact which
+might in any case have been deduced from the survival among them,
+and not among other confederations, of the name Kel Innek.
+
+It appears unnecessary when such an easy interpretation of the
+available evidence is forthcoming, and above all when some of the
+names accurately recorded by Bello are still traceable in Air, to
+assume that they are erroneous. I cannot follow Barth at all when
+he is dealing with these early tribes. He seems to have created
+difficulties where they do not exist. It is not necessary to suppose
+that the five tribes came into Air to form an entrepôt for their
+trade between Negroland and Aujila or the north-east generally; the
+suggestion is so far-fetched that even Barth admitted that the whole
+affair was peculiar.[379]
+
+If an invasion of Air from the south-east took place, what provoked
+it? In order to establish even an approximate date, which Jean puts
+at about A.D. 800, without, however, giving his reasons, a digression
+into the story of Bornu is necessary.
+
+Bello, referring to the people east of Lake Chad, mentions an
+early invasion from the Yemen as far as Bornu. He calls the invaders
+“Barbars,”[380] which name, however, he seems later to transfer to
+the Tuareg, finally, however, reserving it for the Kanuri. Europeans
+nowadays, adding considerably to the confusion, have called the
+Libyans “Berbers” and the Kanuri “Beriberi.” The invasion
+from the Yemen is reported to have taken place under Himyer, but on
+the showing of El Masa’udi’s history, probably the most valuable
+for so mythical a period, Himyer has been confused with another hero,
+Ifrikos. There are other references to an invasion from Arabia across
+Africa in various authorities, including Ibn Khaldun. Whether the
+invaders were the Kanuri, as the name “Barbar” given to them
+by Bello seems to imply, or whether they displaced the Kanuri,
+causing the latter to move into Kanem and settle as strangers under
+the rule of the Immikitan, then resident in that region, or whether,
+in fine, the Kanuri are not a race but a congeries of people, it is
+both difficult and irrelevant here to determine. In the first case
+there are no difficulties about the application of the name Barbar
+to the Kanuri; in the second, the participation of the Kanuri in a
+movement connected with a people from Arabia might easily lead Bello
+to a confusion resulting in his identification of the Kanuri with, and
+his application of Barbar to, the latter. After the settlement of the
+Kanuri in Kanem and Bornu under the Tuareg, the name Barbar, originally
+that of the subject people, came to be applied to the inhabitants of
+the country as a whole, thus including the Tuareg. The persistence of
+the name is the more easily accounted for by the predominance later
+on of the people to whom it originally belonged, in spite of their
+situation in the beginning, for, as we shall see later, the Tuareg,
+their masters in the early days, were gradually displaced in Kanem
+and Bornu at a period which might coincide with their invasion of Air.
+
+The history of Kanem and Bornu, at first under a single government,
+is recorded in a chronicle collected by Barth.[381] It is, of course,
+not entirely trustworthy, but the salient facts are reasonably
+correct. The first king of Kanem, Sef, doubtfully referred to about
+A.D. 850, founded a dynasty and reigned over Berbers,[382] Tebu,
+and people of Kanem. This dynasty, called Duguwa, after the name of
+the grandson of Sef, continued until the end of the reign of Abd el
+Jelil or Selma I, who was succeeded in 1086 by Hume, the first king
+of the Beni Hume dynasty. Hume was reputed to be the son of Selma I,
+and the change of name in the ruling dynasty is attributed to the
+fact that the former was the first Moslem ruler,[383] whereas his
+predecessors were not. The chronology is confirmed by El Bekri’s
+statement,[384] written towards the end of the Beni Dugu dynasty,
+that Arki, the ante-penultimate king of the line in 1067, was a
+pagan. The dynastic change of name is even more important when the
+ethnic relation of the kings of the Beni Dugu and the Beni Hume are
+examined. During the period of the Beni Dugu, Bornu, according to
+Sultan Bello, was under the rule of the Tuareg. In the Chronicle two
+of the Duguwa kings are stated to have had mothers of the Temagheri
+tribe, while another was descended from a woman of the Beni Ghalgha
+bearing the Libyan name of Tumayu. The name Beni Ghalgha reminds one
+perhaps only fortuitously of the Kel Ghela,[385] while Temagheri may
+simply be a variant for Temajegh, which of course is the female form
+in the Air dialect of Imajegh, meaning a Tuareg noble, though I am
+told this etymology is unlikely. The importance of the women in the
+ancestry of these kings, as among all the Tuareg, is emphasised by
+the mention of their names. With the Beni Hume, on the other hand, the
+alliances seem to have been contracted, no longer with Tuareg women,
+but from Hume’s successor, Dunama I, till the reign of Abd el Jelil
+or Selma II, with Tebu women. In any event there are good reasons
+to believe that the change in the name of the dynasty at the end of
+Selma I’s reign in 1086 means more than a mere change in religion;
+it marks the passing of the power of the Tuareg in Bornu.[386]
+
+The year 1086 may therefore also mark approximately the first wave of
+the Tuareg migration into Air. The immigration was probably gradual,
+since tradition records no single event or cataclysm to account for
+the changes which took place, which have, on the contrary, to be
+deduced from stories like that of Maket n’Ikelan and the change
+in the name of a dynasty. But 1086 is probably the latest date of
+the migration into Air and it may have been earlier. The invaders
+were the five tribes already mentioned, together with or including
+others which it would be difficult to trace by name, though one of
+them was probably the Itesan. All the tribes concerned can be traced
+among the People of the King, most of them in Air, though the Igdalen
+are on the south-eastern fringe of the plateau. The Itesan, whose
+dominant position in Air involved them in the vicissitudes of the Kel
+Geres, shared in their expulsion from the mountains. But the others
+belong to the Amenokal, and none of them to that later personage,
+the Añastafidet.
+
+The Beni Hume dynasty in Bornu may be regarded as a Tebu dynasty or
+a negroid dynasty with Tebu alliances. The Chronicle makes this line
+continue until its expulsion from Kanem by the Bulala, a negroid
+people from east of Lake Chad, early in the fourteenth century,
+and its final extinction with the Bulala conquest of Bornu itself in
+the fifteenth century. The Beni Hume line seems in reality to have
+terminated in 1177, when Abdallah, or Dala, came to the throne. His
+half-brother, Selma II, is described as the first black king of
+Bornu, his predecessors having been fair-skinned like the Arabs. It
+is this reign which really seems to mark the advent to power of the
+negroid Kanuri, to which Bello makes allusion, even if it is not to be
+looked for earlier with the rise of the Beni Hume themselves. Bello
+describes the occurrence in the following terms:[387] “They came
+to Kanem and settled there as strangers under the government of
+the Tawarek . . . but they soon rebelled against them and usurped
+the country.” But I am nevertheless not disposed to consider the
+Beni Hume negroid Kanuri, so much as a Tebu or similar stock,[388]
+for, in the reign of Dunama II, the son of Selma II, we find, after a
+series of marriages with Tebu women, an apparently definite change of
+policy. No more Tebu women are recorded as the mothers of kings, and
+instead the great Dunama II, who ruled from 1221 to 1259, waged a war
+which lasted seven years, seven months and seven days against these
+people. As the result of this campaign he extended the jurisdiction
+of the empire of Kanem over the Fezzan, which remained within its
+borders for over a century.[389]
+
+The fall of the Duguwa in Bornu at the end of the eleventh century was,
+then, the ultimate reason for the first Tuareg invasion of Air. We
+should thus have a fairly satisfactory date were it not probably to
+be regarded only as the latest limiting date, since the overthrow of
+the Tuareg dynasty probably only marked the culmination in Bornu of a
+steadily growing ethnic pressure from the east and north. An additional
+reason for assuming a late date for the invasion of Air is the detail
+recorded by Bello, that when the Kel Innek arrived they found some
+Sanhaja tribes already there. Now the true Sanhaja confederation was
+not brought into being until the beginning of the eleventh century,
+the most probable period for tribes of this division to have wandered
+as far afield as Air. It follows that the invasion of the Kel Innek
+should be placed later than that or towards the end of the century.
+
+There is scarcely any evidence regarding the earliest period at which
+it might have taken place. It may be possible to arrive at an estimate,
+when the results of further researches into the history of Bornu have
+been made public. It would be most interesting to learn, for instance,
+when the first Tuareg reached Bornu and Kanem. Is their presence there
+as a ruling caste to be ascribed to the very early days, or are they
+to be considered as having come in at a comparatively late epoch? It
+is difficult to reconcile their presence there in the earliest times
+with their failure to fuse to a greater extent with the local negroid
+population and their consequent retention of the individuality which
+they still possessed when they entered Air.
+
+In the four centuries preceding A.D. 850, when the first Beni Dugu king
+ascended the throne, there are no recorded events in North Africa very
+likely to have caused extensive emigration of the Tuareg of the Fezzan
+to Equatoria, other than the Arab conquest; the only other invasion,
+that of Chosroes with the Persians in A.D. 616, does not seem to have
+had a far-reaching effect, or to have been accompanied by foreign
+immigration on a large scale. The first invasion of the Arabs in the
+seventh century was only small and at first did not cause widespread
+ethnic disturbances.[390] Okba invaded the Fezzan in A.H. 46 with
+only a small expeditionary force; the previous expedition of A.H. 26
+was probably not larger. Arab pressure only began to become intense
+in the eighth century, when the conquest of Spain after Tariq’s
+exploits in A.D. 710 had become an accomplished fact. And then there
+followed another pause until the Hillalian invasion in the eleventh
+century took place.
+
+On the other hand, the presence of Tuareg in the earliest days in
+the lands east of Lake Chad would find some justification in the
+position recorded of the Temahu in the southern part of the Libyan
+desert by Egyptian records. They might also explain the mysterious
+Blemmyes and the Men with Eyes in their Stomachs referred to by the
+classical authors.
+
+On the whole I prefer not to speculate too much along these lines for
+fear of plunging into deep waters connected with the people of the
+upper Nile basin. I shall simply regard the Tuareg of Bornu as a part
+of the Lemta of the Fezzan, which we may assume from various sources
+they were. In consequence, however slender the evidence, it becomes
+difficult to avoid the conclusion that the Tuareg reached Bornu from
+the north along the Bilma road in the course of the Arab invasions
+of the eighth century. They remained as rulers of the country until
+they were driven from there also, in consequence of increasing Arab
+pressure in the Fezzan and in Equatoria itself, for in the middle of
+the eleventh century the Hillal and Soleim Arabs are found extending
+their conquests as far as Central Africa. Their fighting under Abu
+Zeid el Hillali against the Alamt (Lemta) Tuareg in the Fezzan is
+still remembered in the traditions of the Equatorial Arab tribes.
+
+All we can say with any degree of certainty is that somewhere between
+the eighth and eleventh centuries the Lemta Tuareg eventually emigrated
+from the Chad countries. In due course the first five tribes reached
+Air, with Elakkos and Damergu behind them already occupied. But in
+Air they only peopled the whole land later on. Some of the Tuareg
+of this emigration never entered Air at all or stayed in Damergu,
+but moved still further west to form with other groups from the north
+the Tademekkat and Kel el Suk, as well as some of the communities of
+Tuareg on the Niger. Subsequent historical events isolated the Air
+tribes, and when other waves of Tuareg joined them, their original
+relationship with the western Tuareg and the Aulimmiden had been
+forgotten. The origin of the latter is to be explained in this wise,
+and not by supposing that they arrived from Mauretania, as Barth would
+have it.[391] The further westward movement of the Tuareg from Lake
+Chad is borne out by a reference in Ibn Khaldun’s works to some
+Itesan[392] under the name of Beni Itisan among the Sanhaja.
+
+Tradition represents that the oldest people in Air are those known
+to-day as the People of the King and the Itesan to whom the most
+evolved handiwork in the plateau, including the deep wells, is
+attributed. With the Itesan are associated all the older and more
+remarkable houses in Air. The form and construction of these buildings
+evidently had a great influence on the subsequent inhabitants,
+but as they are all found in an already evolved type, it is clear
+that the tradition and experience necessary for building them must
+have been brought from elsewhere. In accepting the view that these
+houses are the work of the Itesan and not of the later immigrants I
+can only follow the unanimous opinion of the natives to-day, who are,
+if anything, too prone to attribute anything remarkable to them. It
+may, of course, be discovered later that the Itesan had nothing
+to do with any of these works, and it is all the more curious that
+in their present habitat north of Sokoto they should have shown no
+similar architectural propensities. It is also strange that most of
+the “Kel names” among the Itesan are derived from places west of
+the Central massifs, while most of the large settlements containing
+the best so-called “Itesan” houses are on the east side. But the
+houses and wells in Air do not seem to be associated with the Kel
+Geres, with whom the Itesan now live, and there seems to be no doubt
+whatever in the minds of the natives that they are the works of the
+latter and not of other immigrants.
+
+The architectural technique shows that the race was in process of
+cultural decay when it reached Air, and that under the influence of
+new environment the memory and tradition of this civilisation were
+lost with remarkable rapidity. The succession of events and the causes
+culminating in the migration of the Chad Tuareg are not inconsistent
+with such a decline of culture, but only a thorough investigation of
+the Fezzan will probably throw any light upon its derivation.
+
+The popular view of the origin of these stone buildings bears out the
+separate identity of the Itesan and the Kel Geres. It is obvious that
+the two divisions must have entered Air at different times; and since
+the Itesan were therefore among the first invaders, the Kel Geres must
+have come in later. This traditional version is further consistent with
+facts already noticed, in that among the People of the King in Air
+and among the Itesan it is possible to trace the names of the first
+recorded tribes to enter Air, whereas their names do not occur among
+the Kel Geres. Apart from proving the separate origin of the Itesan and
+the Kel Geres, these facts leave little room for doubt that the Itesan
+formed part of the group that was the first to invade the plateau.
+
+The names of the five tribes, mentioned by Bello in his history,
+were, as we have seen above, the Immikitan, the Igdalen, the Ijaranen,
+the Tamgak, and the Sendal. Of these the Immikitan are found with the
+Igdalen among the People of the King in Air to-day, while the Ijaranen
+survive among the Itesan tribes who now live in the south. The Sendal
+and the Tamgak are mentioned as late as 1850 in the Agades Chronicle,
+when there is no doubt that they were a people of the king, since
+they are referred to as the allies of the Sultan Abd el Qader in a
+war against the Kel Geres.
+
+The first Tuareg lived in Air as a minority and as foreigners. It
+is possible they represented only a fraction of the Tuareg who were
+moving and that the greater part went on into the west. The Agades
+Chronicle, describing the advent of the Itesan, records that they
+“. . . . said to the Goberawa, ‘We want a place in your town to
+settle.’ The Goberawa refused at first to give them a place, but in
+the end agreed. The Itesan refused the place as a gift, but bought a
+house for 1000 dinars. Into this house they led their chief, and from
+there he ruled the Tuareg of the desert. War, however, soon ensued
+between the Goberawa, supported by the Abalkoran, and the Itesan. The
+result of this war was that the Goberawa went back into Hausaland,
+while the Abalkoran went west into the land of the Aulimmiden.”
+The Abalkoran had just before in the Chronicle been described as
+a priestly caste associated with the Goberawa, but among the Air
+Tuareg the name Iberkoran or Abalkoran is the name of the Aulimmiden
+themselves. The record has suffered chronological compression, but
+clearly implies that the Goberawa were still in South Air at a time
+when the Aulimmiden had already reached their habitat west of the
+mountains. The latter is an event which some authorities consider
+fairly recent, but my view, already put forward elsewhere, is that
+the Aulimmiden are not a group of Hawara people who left the Fezzan
+some time between 1200 and 1300, as Ibn Khaldun suggests, nor yet
+people from Mauretania; I prefer to believe that they are Lemta who
+originally migrated to their present habitat from the Chad regions
+at much the same time as the first Tuareg invasion of Air took place.
+
+The statement that the Abalkoran left Air to join the Aulimmiden
+tends to support the view that this Air invasion was only part of a
+general westerly movement.
+
+
+                         THE SECOND IMMIGRATION
+
+
+The second wave of immigration was that of the Kel Geres. Jean believed
+that the Kel Geres were among the first arrivals because he wrongly
+assumed that they were identical with the Itesan. An examination of
+the names of the various groups[393] discloses the fact that whereas
+many Itesan tribes have “Kel names” derived from known localities
+in Central Air, for the most part in the Auderas neighbourhood,
+of the Kel Geres tribes only the Kel Garet, Kel Anigara and the Kel
+Agellal have names similarly derived.[394] Traditionally the Kel Geres
+reached Air by way of the north. They also are associated with the
+story of over-population in the Mediterranean lands. They arrived,
+according to Jean, in considerable numbers, and settled in the part
+of Air which is west of the road from Iferuan to Agades by way of
+Assode and Auderas.[395] East of this line in later days lived the
+Kel Owi, and presumably, at this early period, the original five
+tribes. The assumption is confirmed by certain evidence, for although
+the Itesan tribe names refer to an area lying across this line, the
+only territorial Kel Geres tribe names refer to an area west of it;
+the country, on the other hand, known to have been occupied by some
+of the first immigrants is, as would be expected, to the east. With
+the exception of the Igdalen, who moved in recent years, most of the
+older People of the King were also east of this line, before the Kel
+Owi scattered them.
+
+The present Itesan-Kel Geres group in the Southland is said to number
+forty-seven tribes divided as follows:[396]
+
+  Itesan        6 tribes of the Itesan.
+
+  Kel Geres    12    „     „    Tetmokarak.
+
+                6    „     „    Kel Unnar.
+
+                5    „     „    Kel Anigara.
+
+                6    „     „    Kel Garet.
+
+               12    „     „    Tadadawa and Kel Tatenei.
+
+The principal tribal names of the Itesan which retain the more familiar
+place names of Air are the Kel Mafinet, Kel T’sidderak, Kel Dogam
+and Kel Bagezan or Maghzen, all of them derived from places in the
+neighbourhood of Auderas.[397] Among the Kel Geres the name of the
+Kel Garet records a habitat somewhat further north, the Kel Agellal
+of the Kel Unnar probably came from Agellal, and the Kel Anigara from
+an area still further north.
+
+It is difficult to accept the view that the first Tuareg to enter Air
+arrived in the eighth century, even if it is only for the reason that
+the surviving “Itesan” houses could not for so long a time have
+remained in the state of preservation in which some of them are now
+found. I am personally not disposed to regard the first immigration
+as having taken place much before the latest date previously suggested
+as a limit, namely, the end of the eleventh century.
+
+The invasion of the first tribes left the mountains with a mixed
+population of Tuareg and Goberawa; the disappearance of the latter
+as a separate race was only accomplished when the second or Kel Geres
+invasion took place. The Kel Geres so added to the Tuareg population
+in Air that henceforward the country must be regarded as essentially
+Tuareg, and this probably accounts for the tradition that the Kel
+Geres conquered the country, and as they came in both from the north
+and by the north, it doubtless gave rise to legends such as that of
+Maket n’Ikelan.
+
+Failing more definite evidence than we now possess, I regard the Kel
+Geres movement as a part of a Hawara-Auriga emigration from the north
+to which Ibn Khaldun alludes. This does not exclude the possibility
+of some nuclei of Hawara having gone west of Air to join either the
+Aulimmiden or the Tademekkat or both groups. In fact, such a course
+of events would explain the distant affinity with, yet independence
+of, the Aulimmiden which is insisted upon by many authorities. We
+know that by the time Leo was writing he regarded both Ahaggar and
+Air as inhabited by Targa, while the Fezzan and the Chad road were
+inhabited by Lemta. The Ahaggaren I have previously tried to show
+were, in the main, Hawara. Now the advent in Air of a large mass from
+this division under the name of Kel Geres would warrant his grouping
+of both plateaux under one ethnic heading. The Hawara movement from
+the Western Fezzan and between Ghat and Ahaggar may be placed in the
+twelfth century, and therefore not so very far removed from the first
+immigration into Air from the south-east. It can also be accounted
+for by similar causes, namely, the growing pressure of the Arabs,
+perhaps as a sequel to the Hillalian invasion.
+
+Following the two initial migrations, it may be assumed that small
+nuclei of Tuareg continued to reach Air. These would to-day be
+represented by such of the People of the King as are not to be
+connected with either the first five tribes or with the Kel Geres.
+
+
+                         THE THIRD IMMIGRATION
+
+
+The third wave was that of the Kel Owi. On Barth and Hornemann’s
+authority they arrived in modern times, while according to Jean they
+arrived in the ninth century. Barth’s researches, which in all cases
+are more reliable than those of Jean, who appears usually to have
+accepted native dates without hesitation, led him to believe that
+the Kel Owi entered, in fact conquered Air, about A.D. 1740. They
+are not mentioned by Leo or any other writers before the time of
+Hornemann (A.D. 1800), who obtained such good information about them
+that his commentator, Major Rennell, also assumed their arrival to
+be recent.[398] By the end of the nineteenth century the Kel Owi
+had already achieved such fame that of all Tuareg known to him,
+Hornemann only mentions them. He adds in his account that Gober
+was at this time tributary to Air, a detail consistent with other
+records. Barth’s very late date[399] for the arrival of the Kel
+Owi nevertheless presents certain difficulties. It is clear on
+the one hand that it could not have been the Kel Owi who made the
+arrangement of Maket n’Ikelan, and that it must therefore have been
+the Kel Geres or their predecessors, but it is further difficult to
+see how a people could have entered Air in such numbers as to become
+the preponderant group within barely one hundred years and to have
+evicted the firmly rooted Kel Geres tribes so soon. That the Kel Owi
+should have appropriated the historical credit for the settlement of
+Maket n’Ikelan is easy to understand, for it was they who held the
+trade route to the north out of the country, but the early expulsion of
+the Kel Geres indicates a numerical superiority which, unfortunately,
+native tradition does not bear out.
+
+It is noteworthy that no Kel Owi tribe is represented in the election
+of the king, which supports the view that they had not yet reached
+Air when the local system of government from Agades was devised.
+
+“The vulgar account of the origin of the Kel Owi from the female
+slave of a Tinylcum who came to Asben where she gave birth to a boy
+who was the progenitor of the Kel Owi . . . is obviously nothing but
+a popular tale. . . .”[400]
+
+The story collected by Jean, which purports to explain the two
+categories of tribes in Air to-day, the Kel Owi confederation and
+the People of the King, is not more authentic.[401] He tells how,
+after the arrival of the Sultan in Air, the Kel Geres kept away from
+his presence, while the Kel Owi ingratiated themselves and secured
+their own administration under the Añastafidet. The Sultan, however,
+wishing to create his own tribal group, divided the Kel Owi amongst
+themselves, and this is the origin of the People of the Añastafidet
+and the People of the King. In their efforts to ingratiate themselves,
+the Kel Owi of Bagezan which, as we have seen, was Itesan country
+at the time, sent as a present to the Sultan a woman named T’iugas
+with her six daughters of the Imanen tribe of the north; these women
+had been sent from the north to cement good relations between Air and
+Azger.[402] The six sisters nominated the eldest as their speaker and
+the Sultan gave her authority over the rest. She was followed by the
+next two sisters, and these three are the mothers of the three senior
+tribes of the Kel Owi, namely, the Kel Owi proper, the Kel Tafidet
+and the Kel Azañieres.[403] The other three women refused to accept
+the leadership of the eldest sister and placed themselves under the
+authority of the Sultan direct; and they were the mothers of the
+Kel Tadek, Imezegzil and Kel Zilalet.[404] The details of the story
+are obviously a Kel Owi invention. They are designed to establish
+nobility and equality of ancestry with the older and more respected
+tribes. The legend, however, probably also contains certain indications
+of truth, notably in the allusion to the Imanen women from the north,
+since there does exist an affinity between that tribe and the Itesan,
+though it must, of course, be understood that the Kel Bagezan of the
+story were an Itesan sub-tribe, and not the later Kel Bagezan of the
+Kel Owi group. With these conditions the story becomes intelligible
+as a legendary or traditional account. It is not meant to be taken
+as literally true, and is not even a very widely accepted version of
+the origin of the present social structure in Air, but it is amusing,
+for it shows how on this as on every other occasion the Kel Owi have
+attempted to claim antiquity of descent equal to that of the tribes
+they found on their arrival.
+
+Two other traditions which I collected are best summarised by quoting
+the following extract from my diary, written while at T’imia,
+a Kel Owi village in the Bagezan mountains. One of the big men in
+the village was the “’alim” ’Umbellu, a fine figure of a
+man, old and bald but still powerful and vigorous, with the heavy
+noble features of a Roman emperor. He used to be the keeper of the
+old mosque, and is said to be one of the most learned men in the
+country. I had examined the ruined sanctuary, in which he had not set
+foot since it was desecrated by the French troops after the Kaossen
+revolt, and found some fragments of holy books, which I restored to
+’Umbellu in the present mosque at T’imia, a shelter of reeds and
+matting. From him I received the same sort of confused account which
+others besides myself had heard. “. . . He says that the Kel Owi
+are not pure Tuareg, but that some Arabs _or_ (_sic_) Tuareg of the
+north came down to Northern Air and mixed with the local population,
+which stock became the Kel Owi Confederation; but whether these people
+came as raiders or settlers he could not say. He was, however, quite
+clear that they had come from the Arab country.[405] Then in almost
+the same breath he told me that the Kel Owi are descended from a
+woman who came from the north and lived in Tamgak, where she mated
+with one of the local inhabitants and became the mother of all these
+tribes. He added that she was a Moslem at a time when the Kel Ferwan
+(a non-Kel Owi tribe, or People of the King, then living in Iferuan)
+were heathen, but whether Christians or pagan he could not say.”
+
+The second story is analogous to that which Barth heard.
+
+Generally speaking traditions give the two separate versions, which
+are rather puzzling. If the account of the woman who settled in Tamgak
+is taken as a legendary record of the indigenous growth of the Kel Owi
+tribes, it must be supposed that their forefathers were in Air for much
+more than two hundred years, and Jean’s date would consequently not
+be out of the question. Against this must be set the other version,
+that they arrived quite recently, a view which is supported unanimously
+by all the other Tuareg. It was, we have seen, confirmed by Barth’s
+researches and deduced by Rennell from information collected by
+Hornemann. The compact organisation and the definite division which
+exists between them and the other tribes in Air would also point
+to their having a separate origin and being comparatively recent
+arrivals; they are still organised in an administrative system which
+has not yet had time to break down and merge into the régime of the
+other tribes. Furthermore, no mention is made of the Kel Owi by any
+of the earlier authors, which, if negative evidence, is nevertheless
+significant in the works of an authority like Leo, especially as,
+apart from the ethnic distinction which might have been overlooked,
+the dual government of the King and the Añastafidet is too remarkable
+a feature to have escaped his discernment. The balance of testimony
+is therefore in favour of attributing a fairly recent date to their
+arrival, though perhaps not so late as Barth would have us believe. I
+myself make no doubt that they were late arrivals: I only differ with
+the learned traveller in a small matter of the exact date.
+
+But what impelled them to migrate it is difficult to say. Barth thought
+that they could be traced to an earlier habitat in the north-west,
+and that the nobler portion of them once belonged to the Auraghen
+tribe, whence their dialect was called Auraghiye. I have no evidence
+on this point except that of Ahodu, who gave me to understand that
+the language of the Kel Owi was not different from that of any other
+Tuareg tribe in the plateau, and he added that he had not heard
+the name Auraghiye employed to describe it, though he knew that it
+was applied to the dialect spoken in Ahaggar. Barth’s testimony,
+otherwise, is acceptable.
+
+Jean is of the impression that they are essentially of the same race
+as the Kel Geres, who were probably Hawara. If this deduction is true,
+three possibilities require to be considered. The Kel Owi may have
+been an Auraghen tribe living to the north or north-east of Air among
+the Azger; or, they may have been among the older Auraghen people,
+to use this term in its wider sense, namely, of the Auriga-Hawara,
+represented by the Ahaggaren, to whom, of course, the Azger Auraghen
+of to-day belong; or, lastly, they may be descended from the Auraghen
+of the west, from the Tademekkat country. The last is the soundest
+view in the present state of our knowledge, though the second is also
+quite probable.
+
+The Tademekkat people, we know, were driven from their homes in
+A.D. 1640 by the Aulimmiden. While some of them were driven out to the
+west, some at least found their way back into the Azger country.[406]
+It is no less probable that others may have gone to Air by a roundabout
+route. In that case Barth’s date for the arrival of the Kel Owi
+in Air seems to be at least fifty years too late. During the last
+half of the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries they would have
+been finding their way into Northern Air in small groups. This is
+not inconsistent with the appearance at Agades of an Amenokal with
+a Kel Owi mother, if the admittedly tentative date of 1629 given in
+the Agades Chronicle is placed a decade or so later.
+
+I am inclined to regard the arrival of the Kel Owi in Air as having
+taken place in the latter half of the seventeenth century. According
+to the Agades Chronicle they were already fighting the Kel Geres
+at Abattul, west of the Central massif, in 1728, some time before
+Barth’s date; and this obviously implies an earlier arrival in
+the north of the plateau, for their entry must have taken place from
+that direction and not from the south. But a recent date, taken in
+conjunction with the dominant position which the Kel Owi occupied and
+their separate political organisation, further implies that they came
+in considerable numbers, a conclusion which is at variance with one
+set of native traditions. They could not otherwise in two hundred years
+have achieved so much as they did by the beginning of the century.
+
+[Illustration: THE MIGRATIONS OF THE AIR TUAREG]
+
+We know that their coming was followed by an economic disturbance
+of far-reaching importance. They first occupied North-eastern and
+Northern Air; the later phase of their penetration is recorded in
+the statement that the Kel Owi and the Kel Geres lived side by side,
+west and east of the Iferuan-Auderas-Agades road. The eastern plains
+of Air, according to Ahodu of Auderas and ’Umbellu of T’imia,
+had by this time been evacuated by the Itesan and the early settlers,
+but the invasion of the Kel Owi must have led also to the expulsion
+of the early settlers from the northern marches. The removal of the
+Kel Ferwan from the Iferuan area, and of the Kel Tadek from their
+territories north of Tamgak to the west and the south, probably took
+place in this period. The Kel Owi movement, though accompanied by
+frequent disturbances, was gradual. At T’imia, where the original
+inhabitants, according to ’Umbellu, were Kel Geres, they were only
+displaced in the time of his own grandparents by a mixed band of
+settlers from various Kel Owi tribes then living in the Ighazar in
+Northern Air. ’Umbellu is a man of about sixty now, so this event
+may have been one hundred years ago, at a time, in fact, when we should
+still expect the southward movement of the Kel Owi to be in progress.
+
+More recently still the south-eastern part of the country was
+distributed among certain of their clans. The large Itesan settlements
+like those near Tabello had already been abandoned and were never again
+permanently inhabited; some dwellings were built later by the Kel Owi,
+but never on so large a scale as in the previous epoch. The extant
+houses and ruins are mostly of the first period; a few only show
+a transitional phase to the later Kel Owi type. Sometimes a compact
+block of contiguous buildings is to be found, possessing the character
+of a fortified settlement. It would seem that this defensible type of
+habitation had been evolved during the period after the Itesan were
+known to have been driven out by Tebu raiding and before the Kel Owi
+arrived. These dwellings betray certain features alien to the Tuareg,
+which may be explained by supposing that they were used by the serfs of
+the Itesan when their lords had retreated west of the Bagezan massif.
+
+With the occupation of the eastern part of Air by the Kel Owi,
+the ancient caravan road which has run from time immemorial by
+T’intaghoda, Unankara, Mari, Beughqot and Tergulawen fell into
+their hands. It is the easiest road across the Air plateau, and
+perhaps for this reason, but more probably because they always had
+propensities of this sort, they developed such commercial ability
+that they rapidly made for themselves a dominant place in all trade
+and transport enterprises between Ghat and the Sudan. But although
+their efficiency in organisation gave them the control of the road,
+they certainly did not create it. But they did create a monopoly
+which deprived the Kel Geres of their legitimate profit.
+
+The hostilities which soon broke out between the Kel Owi and
+the Kel Geres could lead to only one of two possible solutions,
+the expulsion or extermination of one of the rivals. Such economic
+problems are, of course, not always realised at the time when they
+are most urgently felt, and the current record of events to which
+they give rise is therefore often slightly distorted. Here, however,
+even the popular version shows that the real cause of the disturbances
+was an economic one. The Kel Owi began by appropriating the half of
+a country in which they were new-comers. They proceeded to demand
+the serfs and slaves whom the Kel Geres had possessed since their
+subjugation of the negroid peoples of Air. This impossible demand gave
+rise to considerable strife and was referred for arbitration to the
+reigning Sultan of Agades. The Hausa elements were supported by the
+Kel Owi for political reasons and as far as possible abandoned their
+former masters. The Sultan seems to have maintained the neutrality
+for which he stood, and even to have prevented the tribes which
+owed allegiance to him directly and belonged to neither party from
+taking sides in the dispute.[407] He was nevertheless unsuccessful,
+and after years of desultory fighting the Kel Geres abandoned
+Air for Adar and Gober to the west of Damergu and to the north of
+Sokoto. They retained their rights in the election of the Amenokal,
+to whom they continued to owe nominal allegiance through their chiefs,
+and were allowed to continue to use certain Air place-names in their
+tribal nomenclature. In the last century they repeatedly interfered
+in choice of the Sultan, and they still consider themselves to this
+day a part of the Air Tuareg, although their hostility against the
+Kel Owi never died. They evacuated the country with all the slaves
+and serfs whom they succeeded in retaining. It is possible that a
+few of the older non-Kel Owi tribes of Air and Damergu went with them.
+
+If Barth’s date for the arrival of the Kel Owi were accepted,
+this migration should have occurred in the end of the eighteenth
+century. But as a matter of fact the movement took place earlier. Jean
+states that an arrangement for the evacuation was reached in the reign
+of the Sultan Almoubari or El Mubarak, who ruled thirty-four years,
+from A.D. 1653 to 1687. If the agreement was made at the end of his
+reign, the date for the immigration of the Kel Owi in accordance with
+previous information falls in the neighbourhood of 1640, to which
+epoch the reign of Sultan Muhammad Attafriya, who was deposed two
+years after his accession by the Itesan, can be assigned. The Kel
+Geres did not, however, leave the country directly the arrangement
+was made, and in the meanwhile continued the struggle. In 1728 the
+Kel Owi and the Itesan were still fighting in Air, the latter being
+defeated at Abattul, near Auderas. Halfway through this century the
+Itesan were fighting in the Southland and attacked Katsina in company
+with the Zamfarawa. It is at this time that the Kel Geres seem to
+have obtained a footing in the lands of Adar and Sokoto, though the
+Itesan still refused to settle there. In 1759 there is recorded a war
+between the Kel Geres and the Kel Tegama at the cliffs of Tiggedi,
+in which the latter were defeated. This war was followed by another
+in 1761 between the Kel Geres and the Aulimmiden, where, however, the
+former suffered. In the same year the Kel Owi and the Kel Geres fought
+each other at Agades. In this period the Amenokal Muhammad Hammad,
+who had come to the throne in 1735, changed places twice with Muhammad
+Guma, according as the Kel Owi or the Kel Geres faction prevailed. The
+former, restored to the throne in 1763, undertook an expedition with
+the men of Air against the King of Gober, and was severely defeated
+in 1767. In order to avenge the defeat, a truce between the warring
+Tuareg was finally concluded after a century of fighting. The combined
+men of Air then marched on, and defeated Dan Gudde and cut off his
+head. This event may be held to mark the final settlement of the
+Itesan and Kel Geres in the Southland. Their success accounts for
+Hornemann’s report that at the end of the nineteenth century the
+Tuareg were masters of Gober. Internecine hostilities continued, but
+henceforth the Itesan and the Kel Geres are no longer described as
+fighting the Kel Owi but the men of Air, as in 1780 and again in 1788,
+when they made their nominee, Muhammad Dani, Sultan at Agades. In 1835
+the Amenokal, Guma, was captured in Damergu by the Kel Geres after a
+massacre of the Kel Owi. It was only in about 1860 that hostilities,
+which were in full progress in Barth’s day, finally ceased.
+
+Why, it may be asked, did the Itesan and not all the rest of the
+pre-Kel Geres people of Air leave in consequence of the Kel Owi
+invasion? The question is not easy to answer, but the surmise is that,
+as the largest and most important group, they became most involved
+in the struggle. With their departure and that of the Kel Geres
+the remaining people became leaderless: having no confederation
+of their own they clustered around the person of the Sultan, and
+so came to be known as the People of the King. Yet, on account of
+their ancestry and nobility, the Kel Owi sought to attack them and
+arrogate to themselves the principal rôles in history, like the story
+of the peace of Maket n’Ikelan and that of the Imanen women. These
+claims are consistent with the characteristic which is felt to-day in
+relations with them—the arrogance of the parvenu. The ascendancy
+of the noble Itesan has continued in the Southland as it existed in
+Air. They lead the Kel Geres division, with whom fate had made them
+throw in their lot. They remain primarily responsible for the choice
+of the Sultan even to-day.
+
+Enough—too much perhaps—has been said of the three migrations of
+the Tuareg people into Air. It would be tedious to continue on that
+narrow subject. The complexity of the tribal organisation of the Air
+Tuareg has also been made patent in the earlier attempts to discover
+their social life. It is unfortunately impossible, even if space were
+available, to allocate the various clans of whose existence report
+has reached us to the larger groups or waves of immigration which
+have been examined. Lists of the tribes which have survived are given
+in Appendix II to this work: they have been arranged in such system
+as was feasible, using the information collected by Barth, and Jean,
+and by myself. But the classification is unsatisfactory, since there
+is, in many instances, but little evidence. The organisation of the
+Kel Owi is, of course, the easiest to ascertain and it was briefly
+outlined in Chapter X, but the People of the King are really more
+interesting both because they were the earliest arrivals and because of
+their association with the Itesan culture of the old houses and deep
+wells. Among the People of the King the most valuable anthropological
+data are to be collected. They brought such civilisation as Nigeria
+possessed in the Middle Ages from the Mediterranean, having absorbed
+and forgotten much of it on the way and since those epochs.
+
+
+                    IDENTIFICATION OF EXTANT TRIBES
+
+
+Before passing on to a brief summary of Central African history as
+a frame into which to fit the Air migrations, I would like to leave
+on record for some future student to use such conclusions as I have
+been able to reach regarding the descendants of the first invaders
+of Air recorded by Sultan Bello.
+
+The geographical areas of the Kel Owi and People of the King
+respectively had almost ceased to be distinguishable even before
+the 1917 revolution added to the prevailing confusion. In so far
+as it is at all possible to lay down broad definitions, Central
+and West-central Air belonged to the People of the King, Northern,
+North-eastern and Eastern Air to the Kel Owi, or People of the
+Añastafidet, and Southern Air, or, as it is more properly called,
+Tegama, to the servile tribes. The Talak plain was diversely populated.
+
+The first immigrants, the Immikitan, Sendal, Tamgak, Igdalen,
+Ijaranen and probably Itesan, have for the most part survived
+in some distinguishable form in or around Air. The survivors are
+all, of course, as is to be expected, People of the King. The only
+exceptions are certain nuclei which are known to have been absorbed
+by the Añastafidet and his people.
+
+In addition to the survivors in Air there are some Igdalen north of
+Tahua, while others are Imghad of the Tarat Mellet[408] tribe of the
+Ifoghas of the west. These Imghad may have been a part of the Air group
+of Igdalen captured in war, or may represent a westward emigration of
+a part of the stock which came on evil days in Damergu. Generally,
+I regard the presence of these Igdalen in the west as confirming
+Bello’s account of their early arrival in the Air area from the east;
+it may also be taken to substantiate my view that the first wave of
+Tuareg to the El Suk country came from the south-east and not from
+the north.[409]
+
+How far can the tribes which are known to exist to-day or whose names
+have been recorded by modern travellers be associated with these
+groups of early immigrants? A critical examination[410] of the tribes
+reveals at least six main tribal groups of the People of the King in
+Air itself, that is to say, six groups in which the respective tribes
+either acknowledge themselves to be, or can be shown to possess,
+certain affinities pointing to a descent from single stocks; but
+not all of these can with certainty be identified with Bello’s
+named clans. These six extant groups are the Kel Ferwan, Kel Tadek,
+Immikitan, Imezegzil, Imaqoaran and Ifadeyen.
+
+Two of them, in some ways the most important, have no proper names of
+their own at all: both the Kel Ferwan and Kel Tadek are named after
+places, respectively Iferuan in the Ighazar of Northern Air, and the
+Tadek valley. Neither of these groups, which have the reputation of
+great antiquity and nobility, can be affiliated to any of the other
+four groups; they are indubitably separate clans which in the course
+of ages have lost their old “I names.” Returning to the five
+old tribes of Bello we nevertheless find certain points of contact
+between records and actual conditions, as well as certain differences:
+
+  _Bello’s tribes._         _Modern groups._
+
+                            {  Immikitan.
+    Immikitan          =    {
+                            {  Imezegzil.
+
+    Igdalen            =       Igdalen.
+
+    Ijaranen           =       Ijanarnen (of the Itesan).
+
+    Sendal             =           ?
+
+    Tamgak             =           ?
+
+         ?             =       Kel Ferwan.
+
+         ?             =       Kel Tadek.
+
+         ?             =       Imaqoaran.
+
+         ?             =       Ifadeyen.
+
+    (Itesan)           =       Itesan.
+
+In discussing tribal origins in Air and comparing my results with
+those of Jean, I found the greatest difficulty in sorting out the
+tribes of the Immikitan and Imezegzil groups: so much so that I am
+inclined to think that both clans represent the old Immikitan stock
+which split into two main branches some time ago. The widespread use
+of the name Immikitan for Tuareg makes it possible that the original
+stock of the People of the King was Immikitan in the first instance;
+in that event, on the analogy of other Tuareg tribes, when one clan
+grew unmanageable in size, new groups were formed, only one of which
+retained the original nomenclature as a proper or individual name—a
+process which no doubt occurred before any migration out of the Chad
+area took place. But that is too far back to consider.
+
+Leaving the Ifadeyen out of account for the moment we are left with the
+Kel Ferwan, the Kel Tadek and the Imaqoaran to compete for the right
+of descent from the Tamgak and Sendal. A remote ancestry is indicated
+by their undoubted nobility and antiquity. The original home of the
+Kel Tadek in a valley flowing out of Tamgak and the association of the
+Tamgak tribe with the Tamgak massif suggest that these groups may be
+identified, in which case the Sendal might be the ancestors of the Kel
+Ferwan. Nevertheless there is also a possibility that the descendants
+of the Sendal are the old tribes of Damergu. That the descendants of
+the Sendal are to be sought for south of, rather than in Air proper,
+is further indicated by the record of a war between the People of Air
+against the Sendal in Elakkos as late as 1727.[411] The Kel Ferwan,
+would, thus, be descended from the Damergu-Elakkos Tuareg directly,
+and from the Sendal therefore only indirectly, if their origin indeed
+is to be sought in this early wave of immigration at all.
+
+The selection of the Sultan of Agades being in the hands of the tribes
+who traditionally sent the deputation to Constantinople after the
+arrival of the Kel Geres in Air, and the object of the mission being
+to settle a dispute as to who should be king, it would be natural to
+find all the contestant groups represented on the delegation. The Kel
+Owi would, of course, not figure among them, for they had not at that
+time reached Air. Now the names of tribes charged with sending the
+delegation is given by Jean, and I accept his version because all the
+information which I procured on the subject was very contradictory;
+and the list is most interesting. It is given as: the Itesan and
+the Dzianara of the modern Itesan-Kel Geres group, and the Izagaran,
+Ifadalen, Imaqoaran and Immikitan of the other Tuareg. The Itesan we
+know about; the Dzianara were a noble part of the Kel Geres but are
+now extinct: it is natural that both these should be represented. The
+Izagaran and Ifadalen survive as names of noble Damergu tribes, while
+the Immikitan and Imaqoaran represent the older clans of Air proper,
+all four, of course, owing allegiance to the King. From their “I
+names” these tribes all seem to be old; we have no reason from any
+other evidence to believe that any recent arrivals are represented
+in the list. The very choice of representatives from each of three
+groups may consequently be taken to indicate that these tribes were
+regarded as the oldest or most important units in each division. It
+is tempting, therefore, to suppose that the Izagaran and Ifadalen are
+the descendants of one of the tribes in the first wave of Tuareg which
+came from the south-east, and therefore perhaps of Bello’s Sendal.
+
+Another version of the method adopted to select the first Amenokal
+is recorded in the Agades Chronicle, which states that the persons
+responsible for the task were the Agoalla[412] T’Sidderak, Agoalla
+Mafinet and Agoalla Kel Tagei. The story relates how the Agumbulum,
+the title of the ruler of the first Tuareg to enter Air, namely the Kel
+Innek, desired to settle the differences which had arisen in regard
+to the government, but was unable to find anyone to send to Stambul
+until an old woman called Tagirit offered to send her grandsons,
+who were the chieftains in question. The story emphasises what will
+have been noticed on the subject of the origin of the Kel Owi, namely,
+that the tribes of Air generally claim a woman either as ancestress or
+as a prominent head. The first two names are those of certain Itesan
+sub-tribes who, from residence in these mountain areas, which still
+bear the same names in Central Air, had adopted geographical Kel
+names, and conserve them to this day in their modern habitats in the
+Southland. The Kel Tagei is another subdivision of the Itesan, and,
+though a servile tribe of this name exists in the Imarsutan section
+of the Kel Owi, it is probably a portion of the former enslaved during
+the later civil wars of Air.[413]
+
+This alternative story is not necessarily contradictory to the
+first version of the deputation to Stambul, even though it does
+not allow the remaining tribes of the People of the King to have a
+share in the election. Since, however, the Itesan were certainly the
+dominant tribe in Air until the arrival of the Kel Owi, the omission
+is comprehensible; it is a statement of a part for the whole. If it
+has any significance it tends to support the view that the Itesan
+were, in fact, a tribe of the Kel Innek from the Chad lands, as I
+have supposed, and not a part of the Kel Geres group.
+
+The Imaqoaran and Kel Ferwan, however, remain a difficult problem. The
+latter are in many ways peculiar and seem to differ in many ways
+so much from their other friends in the division of the People of
+the King, that although I have no direct evidence on the subject, I
+half suspect them of having come to Air from some other part than the
+south-east and at a later period than the first wave. Certain it is
+that they specialised in raiding westward, where they obtained their
+numerous dependent Imghad. Furthermore, in Cortier’s account of the
+history of the Ifoghas n’Adghar there are stories of the formation of
+this western group of Tuareg tending to show that while a part of the
+division probably came from the north, the bulk of the immigration
+was from the east. He says that after the Kel el Suk reached the
+southern parts of the Sahara, they divided into two groups. The two
+groups fought, and one section, which had apparently settled in Air,
+was victorious, whereupon a part migrated into the Adghar, where the
+other section had already established itself and had founded the town
+of Tademekka. In the fighting, which continued, there seems to have
+been considerable movement between the two mountain groups; the Kel
+Ferwan portion of the People of the King in Air may therefore be more
+nearly related to the western group than to the other Air folk.
+
+The Ifadeyen are associated with Fadé, which is the northernmost
+part of the Air plateau. To-day they are very friendly with the Kel
+Tadek, and some people have even suggested that they were of the same
+stock. There is, however, another tribe, the Kel Fadé, the similarity
+of whose name suggests, quite erroneously, an identification. The
+Ifadeyen are known to be a very old tribe, while the Kel Fadé are
+known to have been formed at about the time of the arrival of the
+Kel Owi in Air and to have lived in the Fadé mountains, whence the
+Ifadeyen were already moving south. Barth speaks of the Kel Fadé
+as a collection of brigands and vagabonds, and implies that they
+were mainly outlaws of mixed parentage. A part of them is certainly
+Kel Owi and composed of those elements which went on living in the
+northern mountains when the main body entered Air, while another
+part is almost certainly Ifadeyen; as a whole they remained outside
+the Kel Owi Confederation as People of the King. Until about thirty
+years ago the Kel Fadé used to maintain that the Ifadeyen were their
+serfs; after many disputes the matter was referred to the paramount
+chief of the Kel Owi, who, after consulting various authorities,
+decided that the Ifadeyen were noble and free. Their chief, Matali,
+nevertheless preferred to evacuate the northern mountains completely
+in favour of the Kel Fadé in order to avoid further friction, and
+since then, a full generation ago, they have been gradually moving
+south to the Azawagh, where they pasture in the winter, withdrawing
+to Damergu in the dry season. Their original history might have been
+easier to ascertain had it not been for the fact that despite its “I
+form” their name is a placename, though it is possible that they
+gave their name to Fadé and did not take it from their habitat. The
+presence of the Ifadeyen in an area west and north of country which
+we know the Kel Tadek held, and their association with the latter,
+render it likely that we are, in fact, dealing with one and the same
+stock, namely, the descendants of the Tamgak.
+
+The Ifadeyen are renowned all over Air for their pure nomadism, and
+above all for the fact that they are almost the last of the Tuareg
+in the Southern Sahara to retain the current use of the T’ifingh
+script with a knowledge of reading and writing it. This learning,
+as is usual among Imajeghan tribes, reposes with the women-folk,
+one of whose principal functions is to educate the children; it is
+consistent with their supposed origin as one of the oldest and purest
+of all the tribes in Air.
+
+As a result of the foregoing argument the following suggestions for the
+main tribes of the People of the King hitherto mentioned can be made:
+
+               _Tribes of the King_ (_Division I_).[414]
+
+                        {                   { Immikitan,
+                        {   Immikitan       {
+                        {                   { Imezegzil.
+                        {
+                        {   Igdalen           Igdalen (Damergu:
+                        {                     Division IV).
+                        {
+    Bello’s five tribes {   Tamgak            Represented by the Kel
+    generically called  {                     Tadek and ? Ifadeyen.
+    _Kel Innek_,        {
+    originally from the {   Ijaranen          Representing the Itesan,
+    Fezzan, where the   {                     which includes:
+    _Imanen_ are also   {
+    found.              {   (Itesan)            Ijaranen,
+                        {
+                        {                       _Kel Innek_,
+                        {
+                        {                       _Kel Manen (Imanen)_.
+                        {
+                        {   Sendal            Represented by the Damergu
+                        {                     and Elakkos Tuareg, who
+                        {                     include:
+                        {
+                        {                       Izagaran,
+                        {
+                        {                       Ifadalen.
+
+                            ?                 Imaqoaran.
+
+                            ?Western Tuareg   Kel Ferwan.
+
+                            Mixed             Kel Fadé.
+
+                                                              PLATE 48
+
+[Illustration: EGHALGAWEN POOL]
+
+[Illustration: TIZRAET POOL]
+
+
+[Footnote 356: Letter to the author from G. W. Webster, Resident at
+Sokoto, dated 20/6/1923.]
+
+[Footnote 357: _Journal of the African Society_,
+No. XXXVI. Vol. IX. July 1910. Further references in this chapter
+will be omitted.]
+
+[Footnote 358: Denham and Clapperton: _Account of the First Expedition_
+(Murray), 1826. Vol. II. p. 38 seq.; App. XII.]
+
+[Footnote 359: As reported by Bello, Denham and Clapperton,
+_loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 360: It is to these doubtless that Jean is referring when
+he speaks of Egyptian influence in Air. Jean, _op. cit._, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Cf. Leo, _op. cit._, Vol. III. p. 828.]
+
+[Footnote 362: Cf. also Asbytæ and Esbet with references in Bates,
+_op. cit._, passim. The root is probably, if a generalisation is at
+all permitted, applicable to the earliest negroid, or Grimaldi race
+survivors, in North Africa.]
+
+[Footnote 363: _Vide supra_, Chap. III.]
+
+[Footnote 364: Cf. _supra_, Chap. II.]
+
+[Footnote 365: Cf. _infra_.]
+
+[Footnote 366: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 337.]
+
+[Footnote 367: _Vide supra_, Chap. IV.]
+
+[Footnote 368: But not necessarily the slaves.]
+
+[Footnote 369: As was the case, for instance, in the days of the
+Eighth and Ninth Dynasties of Egypt.]
+
+[Footnote 370: “Akel” (plu. _ikelan_) primarily means “negro,”
+and from that “a slave.”]
+
+[Footnote 371: _Vide supra_, Chap. III.]
+
+[Footnote 372: Denham and Clapperton, _loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 373: _I.e._ Aujila.]
+
+[Footnote 374: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 460.]
+
+[Footnote 375: Herodotus, IV. 172.]
+
+[Footnote 376: In Chap. III.]
+
+[Footnote 377: Idrisi: ed. Jaubert, Vol. I. p. 238.]
+
+[Footnote 378: Cf. Chap. X.]
+
+[Footnote 379: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 460.]
+
+[Footnote 380: To adopt Clapperton’s spelling.]
+
+[Footnote 381: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. IV. App. IX and Vol. II.]
+
+[Footnote 382: _I.e._ Libyans, and not, at this period or in this
+context, Kanuri.]
+
+[Footnote 383: According to Maqrizi _apud_ Barth, Vol. II. pp. 635
+and 265.]
+
+[Footnote 384: El Bekri, _op. cit._, p. 456.]
+
+[Footnote 385: A tribe of the Ahaggaren.]
+
+[Footnote 386: In a communication to the author, Mr. H. R. Palmer,
+Resident in Bornu, writes: “After hearing probably all the extant
+tradition on the subject of the early rulers of Kanem, my belief
+is that the so-called Dugawa were Tuareg of some kind, and that the
+appellation Beri-beri applied originally to them and not to the Teda
+element which later on preponderated and gave the resulting Kanemi
+empire its language, _i.e._ Kanuri.”]
+
+[Footnote 387: Denham and Clapperton, _op. cit._, Vol. II. p. 396.]
+
+[Footnote 388: Though the Tebu are probably themselves a Kanuri stock,
+a distinction may be drawn between them and the more negroid Kanuri
+of Bornu and the Chad lands.]
+
+[Footnote 389: See Abul Fida (French ed.), pp. 127-8 and 245; El
+Idrisi (ed. Jaubert), p. 288. At the time of El Maqrizi the empire
+of Kanem extended from Zella (Sella), south of the Great Syrtis,
+to Gogo (Gao) on the Niger. El Maqrizi lived from 1365 to 1442:
+Abul Fida died in 1331 writing his history, which was finished down
+to the year A.D. 1329.]
+
+[Footnote 390: Other than a wholesale emigration of Franks and
+Byzantines to Europe.]
+
+[Footnote 391: Cf. Chap. XI. _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 392: See Appendix II. and elsewhere in this chapter, also
+Ibn Khaldun, _op. cit._, Vol. II. p. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 393: In Appendix II.]
+
+[Footnote 394: Consider the proportion of such names in
+the Itesan group, and in the forty-six Kel Geres tribes,
+respectively. Cf. Appendix II.]
+
+[Footnote 395: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 396: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 113, and Barth, _op. cit._,
+Vol. I. p. 356, also Appendix II. to this volume.]
+
+[Footnote 397: Cf. Appendix II. Tribes having the same place names now
+in Air are not related to these clans; their history is independently
+established.]
+
+[Footnote 398: Hornemann’s _Journal_, French ed. p. 102 seq.]
+
+[Footnote 399: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 400: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 343. The Tinylcum
+(T’inalkum) is an Azger Imghad tribe: cf. Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 401: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 90-1.]
+
+[Footnote 402: Jean calls them Ahaggaren, but only because all the
+northern Tuareg are in Air called Ahaggaren irrespective of whether
+they come from the Azger, Ahaggar or Ahnet divisions. In addition
+to these Imanen among the Azger and Itesan, there are also some on
+the Niger who are probably the product of the same early migrations
+which took the five tribes, including the Itesan, into Air.]
+
+[Footnote 403: Compare the grouping in Appendix II. and the comments
+in Chap X.]
+
+[Footnote 404: See Appendix II. All these three tribes are People of
+the King, though the Kel Zilalet are rather mixed, being sedentaries.]
+
+[Footnote 405: This in Air means the west or north-west. The reference
+may be to the Hawara, regarding whom this type of confusion has always
+obtained: cf. Arab-Tuareg elements in Hawara group, _vide_ Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 406: Cf. Chap. XI. with reference to Duveyrier’s
+information.]
+
+[Footnote 407: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 92-3.]
+
+[Footnote 408: Meaning “The White Goat.” Perhaps a survival
+of Totemism.]
+
+[Footnote 409: _Vide supra_, Chap. XI.]
+
+[Footnote 410: See Appendix II. Division I. for details of People of
+the King in Air, and Division IV. for the Damergu Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 411: Agades Chronicle.]
+
+[Footnote 412: _I.e._ chief of a tribal group.]
+
+[Footnote 413: The Imarsutan Kel Tagei may also have merely
+fortuitously acquired this name, which only means the People of the
+Dûm Palm, and is therefore not very individual.]
+
+[Footnote 414: In Appendix II.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+                    THE HISTORY OF AIR (_continued_)
+
+
+                                PART II
+
+                 THE VICISSITUDES OF THE TUAREG IN AIR
+
+
+As a division of Tuareg the people of Air cannot be said to have
+achieved great deeds in the history of the world as did the Sanhaja;
+but as a part of the race they can justly claim to share in its
+glory. That they brought culture and the amenities of civilisation
+from the Mediterranean to Central Africa has been mentioned several
+times. This progress in the past was responsible for the prosperity
+of Nigeria to-day.
+
+The People of Air are a small and insignificant group of human beings
+considered by themselves alone. It may only be when that characteristic
+of the Englishman displays itself and he seeks to extol the virtues,
+charm and history of some obscure race, that such a people assumes,
+in his eyes at least, an importance which to the rest of the world
+may seem unjustified. There is probably no race so vile, so dull or
+so unimpressive but that some Briton will arise as its defender, and
+aver that if properly treated it is the salt of the earth. I am not
+unconscious of the dangers of this frame of mind, but being acutely
+aware of the mentality, I trust that this characteristic will not
+have led me over-much to conceal the unpleasant or unfavourable.
+
+A chapter which attempts to deal summarily with the history of the Air
+Tuareg[415] set in its appropriate frame of Central African history
+must inevitably seem in some measure a justification for the trouble
+taken to piece together an obscure and complex collection of facts
+relating to the country and its people. But the darkness surrounding
+the arguments contained in the preceding account of the migrations of
+the Air tribes has seemed so impenetrable that instead of closing the
+book at this point, I have felt moved to give the reader some rather
+less indigestible matter with which to conclude.
+
+To obviate the accusation of attaching unwarrantable importance to
+the People of Air, it may be well to state that the population of the
+country is small. It was never very large. Perhaps 50,000 to 60,000
+souls, including the Kel Geres and the other clans in the Southland,
+would have been a conservative estimate in 1904. At that time Jean,
+numbering only the People of Air and some of the Tuareg of Elakkos
+and Damergu, arrived at a tentative figure of 25-27,000 inhabitants,
+but he was certainly misled by his local informants into thinking
+that the tribes were smaller than they really were. Nor did he take
+all the septs of Air and the Southland into account. His estimate
+included somewhat over 8000 People of the King, rather more than
+8500 People of the Añastafidet, 4-5000 Irawellan, 2000 slaves and
+2500-3000 mixed sedentaries in Agades and In Gall.[416] At the time
+of the prosperity of Agades the population of these countries, not
+including detached sedentaries and other groups lying far afield,
+may have attained a maximum of 100,000.
+
+It is impossible to estimate the total numbers of Tuareg in North
+Africa with any accuracy. It would be interesting to make a serious
+study of the numbers and general state even of those in French
+territories.
+
+The internecine struggles of the Air Tuareg are hardly interesting,
+and have only been mentioned where relevant to the origin and movements
+of the three immigrations. The wars between the different divisions,
+like the Ahaggaren and the Azger, are not really more valuable in
+a general survey. But even to summarise the principal events in Air
+in the broad outlines is easier than to describe in a few words the
+events which took place in the Central Sahara and the Central Sudan
+during the 1000 years of history which have elapsed since first,
+in my view at least, the Tuareg reached these mountains from their
+more ancient northern home.
+
+In early times the Tuareg were already in North Africa. They can be
+distinguished probably as early as the Fifth, and certainly as early
+as the Twelfth, Dynasty in Egypt. We can follow much of what they
+were doing and trace where they were living in Roman times, but it
+is less easy to discern the groups which composed the immigrant waves
+of humanity into Air until about the time when the first of them came
+to the south, and even then the picture is obscure.
+
+When Air was first invaded by the Tuareg it was called Asben and was
+part of the kingdom of Gober, a country of negroid people who lived
+both in the mountains and to the south. But before the first invasion
+took place there was already Libyan influence in the country, both
+due to the northern trade which had gone on since the earliest times
+conceivable, and also on account of the Sanhaja Tuareg, whose power
+and glory had extended thus far eastwards.
+
+The first invasion consisted of tribes who had formed part of a mass of
+Tuareg of the Lemta division originally from, and now still settled in,
+the Fezzan and Ghat areas. These people had descended the Kawar road
+to Lake Chad. They had occupied Bornu, perhaps in the early ninth
+century A.D., or even before. The Goberawa of Air or Asben seem
+to have received a slight admixture of Libyan blood derived from
+the northerners who travelled down the caravan road to the Sudan;
+the people of Bornu were more purely negroid, and more so than their
+northern neighbours and probably kinsfolk, the Tebu of Tibesti. The
+Tuareg who were settled in Bornu were subjected to pressure from the
+east and north, at the hands of the Kanuri from east of Lake Chad,
+and of the Arabs. In due course, after being kings of Bornu for many
+generations the Tuareg began to move westwards. Some of them reached
+Air, leaving settlers, or having previously settled the regions of
+Elakkos and Damergu. The date of this movement cannot be fixed with
+any accuracy; it is probably not as early at the eighth century, but
+is certainly anterior to the great Kanuri expansion of the thirteenth
+century. An early date is suggested by Barth and accepted by Jean,
+probably merely on account of the incidence of the first Arab invasion
+of North Africa, though as a matter of fact the forces of Islam for
+the sixty years which elapsed after the conquest of Egypt were not
+really sufficiently numerous to occasion great ethnic movements. The
+six centuries between A.D. 700 and A.D. 1300 are very obscure;
+but if any reason must be assigned for the first invasion of Air by
+the Bornu Tuareg, it was probably due to the Hillalian invasion of
+Africa. For this and other reasons it may, therefore, be placed in
+the eleventh century.
+
+With the opening of the Muhammadan era we find a kingdom at Ghana in
+Western Negroland with a ruling family of “white people” and the
+Libyan dynasty of Za Alayamin (Za el Yemani) installed at Kukia.[417]
+Gao, on the Niger, was already an important commercial centre at
+the southern end of the trade road from Algeria. In A.D. 837 we
+read of the death of Tilutan, a Tuareg of the Lemtuna,[418] who was
+very powerful in the Sahara; he was succeeded by Ilettan, who died
+in 900; the latter was followed by T’in Yerutan as lord of the
+Western Sahara. He was established at Audaghost,[419] an outpost
+of the Sanhaja, who appear at this time to have dominated Western
+Negroland, including even the great city of Ghana,[420] and to have
+carried on active intercourse between the Southland and Sijilmasa in
+Morocco. This and the succeeding century are notable for the influence
+of the Libyan tribes, in the first instance through the Libyan kings
+of Audaghost, and later, at the beginning of the eleventh century,
+by the desert confederation which Abu Abdallah, called Naresht,
+the son of Tifaut, had brought into being. It was at this time that
+the preacher and reformer, Abdallah ibn Yasin, arose and collected
+in the Sahara his band of Holy Men called the “Merabtin,” who
+were destined to play such a large rôle in the history of the world
+under the name of Almoravid in Morocco and in Spain. Throughout the
+latter part of the eleventh century and in the whole of the twelfth,
+the really important element in all the Western Sahara and Sudan was
+the Sanhaja division of the Tuareg of the west, and though nothing is
+heard of the effects of their rule on Air, they must nevertheless have
+been considerable. The Mesufa branch of the Sanhaja were, according to
+Ibn Batutah, established in Gober, south of Air; the influence of the
+Sanhaja in Air itself as well as in Damergu is also recorded. West of
+Air was the city of Tademekka, nine days northwards from Gao. We also
+hear of the Libyan towns of Tirekka, between the Tademekka and Walata,
+and Tautek six days beyond Tirekka; all these appear to have sprung
+up under the Sanhaja dominion as commercial centres in the same way
+as the later city of Timbuctoo. Agades, at this time, had not yet
+been founded.
+
+At the beginning of the thirteenth or end of the twelfth century the
+second invasion of Air took place. Until now the Tuareg immigrants
+had lived side by side with the Goberawa despite the assistance
+which the former must have derived from the Sanhaja influence in the
+land. The new invaders were the Kel Geres, and their advent led to the
+expulsion or absorption of the negroid people. Together with the former
+inhabitants and under the leadership of the dominant Itesan tribe,
+the Tuareg consolidated their independence in Air. This might never
+have been achieved had it not been for the Sanhaja empire in the west;
+there is no doubt that the success of the latter contributed directly
+to the Bornu and Air movements.
+
+By the time Ibn Batutah made his journey through Negroland in
+A.D. 1353, Tekadda, some days south of the mountains, as well as Air
+itself were wholly Tuareg.
+
+Between Gao and Tekadda he had journeyed through the land of the
+“Bardamah, a nomad Berber tribe,”[421] whose tents and dietary
+are described in a manner which makes it clear that we are dealing
+with typical nomadic Tuareg. The Bardamah women, incidentally, are
+said to have been very beautiful and to have been endowed with that
+particular fatness which so struck Barth. At Tekadda the Sultan was a
+“Berber” (Libyan) called Izar.[422] There was also another prince
+of the same race called “the Tekerkeri,” though further on Ibn
+Batutah refers to him somewhat differently, saying, “We arrived in
+Kahir, which is part of the domains of the Sultan Kerkeri.” From this
+Barth deduces that the name of the ruler’s kingdom, which included
+Air but apparently not Tekadda, was “Kerker,” but we have seen
+that the chief minister of the Sultan of the Tuareg is called the
+Kokoi Geregeri, and it is to this title that I think Ibn Batutah is
+referring. Nevertheless, as a branch of the Aulimmiden in the west is
+also called Takarkari, this may signify that the plateau was at this
+period under the influence of those western Tuareg who have in history
+often exerted a preponderating part in the history of Southern Air.
+
+The expansion of Bornu under Dunama II in the thirteenth century
+had, in the course of the conquest of the Fezzan, brought about the
+occupation of Kawar and other points on the Murzuk-Chad road. This
+could not but have had a serious effect on the economics of Air on
+account of the Bilma salt trade, and there is a tradition of a war
+with Bornu in about A.D. 1300. Raiding on a large scale across the
+desert no doubt also took place. By the middle of the fourteenth
+century, however, the greatness of Bornu had commenced to decline;
+the reigning dynasty was suffering severely at the hands of the “Sô
+people,” who were the original pagan inhabitants of the country. They
+had succeeded in defeating and killing four successive Kanuri rulers,
+and only twenty years after Ibn Batutah’s journey there were sown
+in the reign of Daud the germs of that internal strife which led to
+the complete expulsion of the Bornu dynasty from Kanem and continuous
+warfare between these two countries.
+
+In the west, on the other hand, the power of the empire of Melle
+was still, if not quite at its height, at least unmenaced by any
+serious rival. With the death of Ibn Ghania in A.D. 1233 the Sanhaja
+Confederation had come to an end. There then arose on the Upper Niger
+a leader called Mari Jatah I. After making himself master of two of
+the greatest negroid peoples of the west, he was succeeded by Mansa
+Musa, the founder of the empire of Melle. Mansa Musa, or, as he was
+also called, Mansa Kunkur Musa, after adding to his dominions all the
+famous countries of Western Sudan, turned eastwards and conquered
+Gao, on the Middle Niger. He also subjected Timbuctoo, which had
+been founded about the year A.D. 1000 by the Tuareg of the Idenan
+and Immedideren tribes during the Sanhaja period, but its conquest
+only served to increase its prosperity as a trading centre. It was
+visited and inhabited by merchants from all over North Africa.
+
+It is interesting, in considering the history of Melle, to observe
+an attempt which was made at this early period, in a country so long
+considered by Europeans as savage and barbarous, to solve a problem
+of government on more rational lines than has ever been tried in
+modern Europe. A dual system of administration was organised to deal
+with races foreign to the authority of the central government. There
+was a national and a territorial bureaucracy: the feature of the
+government was that Melle was divided territorially into two provinces,
+or vice-royalties, concurrently with which there were three separate
+ethnic or national administrations. It almost goes without saying that
+the military administration was kept strictly apart from the civil.
+
+With the death of Mansa Musa and the succession of his son Mansa Magha,
+in 1331, the fabric of the empire began to fall in pieces. Timbuctoo
+had been successfully attacked in 1329 by the King of Mosi, who
+expelled the Melle garrison. A little later the prince, Ali Killun,
+son of Za Yasebi, of the original Songhai dynasty of Gao, escaped
+with his brother from the court of Mansa Magha, where they had been
+living as political prisoners in the guise of pages. They acquired some
+measure of independence and, though again subjected by the succeeding
+king of Melle, Mansa Suleiman, in about 1336 commenced to lay the
+foundations of the later Songhai empire on the Middle Niger. Mansa
+Suleiman recaptured Timbuctoo, which at this time, inhabited by
+the Mesufa, had begun to take the place of the older Tuareg centre,
+Tademekka, further east. The Mesufa, whom we last saw south of Air,
+were doubtless being pushed back west again by the pressure of the
+Aulimmiden and migrants from the East.
+
+In 1373 the Vizier of Melle, another Mari Jatah, usurped the power
+from the grandson of Mansa Magha and reconquered Tekadda, but it
+was the last flicker of life in the old empire. The opening years of
+the fourteenth century saw a succession of weak kings and powerful
+governors who were not strong enough to resist the incursions of
+the Tuareg from the desert. Timbuctoo was conquered in 1433 from the
+Mesufa by some other Tuareg, probably from the west or north-west,
+under Akil (Ag Malwal), who declined to abandon his nomadic life
+and installed as governor Muhammad Nasr el Senhaji from Shingit in
+Mauretania. The Tuareg at this time were everywhere victorious but
+destructive. They never succeeded in consolidating their power into
+an empire. In this era of their ascendancy Agades was founded in
+about the year 1460, just as Sunni Ali, the son of Sunni Muhammad
+Dau, ascended the throne of Gao and changed the whole political map
+of North Africa by prostrating the small surviving kingdom of Melle
+and finally setting up in its place the Songhai empire.
+
+The incessant bickering and local feuds had driven the Tuareg of
+Air to come to some arrangement by which, nominally at least, they
+could consolidate themselves against the powers of the Sudan. They had
+agreed to have a Sultan, and he was installed, and not long afterwards
+the Amenokalate was set up in Agades, at a most eventful period in
+Central African history. The empire of Songhai on the Niger seemed
+invincible. By 1468 Timbuctoo had been overwhelmed and the governor
+driven out; Akil, the Tuareg, was forced to flee westwards. The city
+was plundered and the occupation of Western Negroland commenced. In
+the meanwhile the Portuguese had planted the factory of Elmina on
+the Guinea coast, and Alfonso V was succeeded by João II, who sent
+an embassy to Sunni Ali.
+
+Sunni Ali met his death by drowning in 1492, and was followed by his
+son Abu Bakr Dau, and at a short interval by Muhammad ben Abu Bakr,
+called Muhammad Askia, the greatest of all the kings of the Sudan,
+and one of the greatest monarchs in the world of the fifteenth
+century. He appears to have ruled with great wisdom, depending
+on careful administration rather than on force to maintain his
+prestige. In addition to Melle itself and Jenne, which had already
+fallen, Ghana and Mosi in the far west were added to Songhai. After a
+pilgrimage of great pomp across Africa and through Egypt, Haj Muhammad
+Askia turned his attentions to the east. Katsina was occupied in
+1513 as well as the whole of Gober and the rest of Hausaland. It was
+inevitable, to stop the Tuareg raiding down in the settled country,
+that Air should be added to his dominion as well.
+
+In 1515 Askia marched against Al Adalet, or Adil, one of the twin
+co-Sultans of Agades, and drove out the Tuareg tribes living in the
+town,[423] replacing them with his own Songhai people, a colonisation
+from which the city has not recovered to this day. He remained in
+occupation a year, and was called the “Cursed.” The conquest
+is unfortunately not mentioned by Leo,[424] who only refers to
+the expedition against Kano and Katsina; and this is all the more
+unpardonable, for he had accompanied his uncle on an official visit to
+Askia himself. Leo clearly regards Agades at the time he was writing
+as a negro settlement. According to traditions current in the city,
+numbers of Tuareg were massacred by Askia’s men, but however many
+Songhai may have been planted there, and however many Tuareg expelled,
+there is no doubt that considerable numbers remained behind to mix
+with the southerners and form the present Emagadesi people. The
+town must have been in a very flourishing state at that time:
+“the greatest part of the citizens are forren merchants” who
+paid “. . . large custom to the king . . . on their merchandise
+out of other places.” But apart from the yearly tribute of 150,000
+ducats due to the King of Gao, the conquest of Air does not seem to
+have affected the independence of the Tuareg, as no mention is made
+of a Songhai governor, while the King of Agades, already within a
+few years of the time of Leo’s journey, is reported to have kept
+a military force of his own.
+
+The contemporaries of Askia in Kanem and Bornu were Ali, the son
+of another Dunama, and later, Ali’s son, Idris, both kings of
+such renown that their country appears on European maps as early as
+1489. Not to be outdone by the Songhai kings, whose emissaries had
+reached Portugal, Idris sent an embassy to Tripoli in 1512. Under the
+son of Idris, Muhammad, who ruled from 1526 to 1545, the kingdom of
+Bornu reached the summit of its greatness. This remarkable century
+in Central Africa deserves examination in greater detail, but lack
+of space makes it impossible.
+
+Agades was perhaps at the height of its prosperity before and
+immediately after the conquest of Muhammad Askia. The scale of life
+in which Air shared is shown by the description of Muhammad Askia’s
+pilgrimage in 1495. He was accompanied by 1000 men on foot and 500
+on horseback, and in the course of which he spent 300,100 mithkal
+of gold. The prosperity of Agades continued until the commencement
+of the nineteenth century, but in a form far different from what
+it must have been in the sixteenth century, when it served as an
+advanced trading-post or entrepôt for Gao, at that time the centre
+of the gold trade of the Sudan and probably the most flourishing
+commercial city in Central Africa. The gradual desertion of Agades,
+almost complete by 1790, when the bulk of the population migrated to
+Katsina, Tasawa, Maradi and Kano, commenced in 1591, at which date
+Gao, the parent city from the commercial point of view, had fallen
+to be a province of the Moroccan empire.
+
+The heritage of Muhammad Askia was beyond the power of his successors
+to maintain. Intestine wars and intrigues broke down the authority of
+the central government. Revolts took place in Melle, and the covetous
+eyes of Mulai Ahmed, the Sultan of Morocco, in 1549, were turned
+towards Negroland. He demanded the cession of the Tegaza salt-mines,
+and though this insult was avenged by an army of 2000 Tuareg invading
+Morocco in 1586, Tegaza was captured by the Moors soon afterwards and
+the deposits of Taodenit, north of Timbuctoo, were opened instead. The
+final blow fell three years later, when Gao was entered by Basha
+Jodar, the eunuch-general of Mulai Hamed, with a Moroccan army. The
+final struggles of Ishak Askia in 1591 were unavailing. Henceforth
+Moroccan governors reigned over the Western Sudan with garrisons in
+Jenne, Timbuctoo, Gao and elsewhere. In 1603 Mulai Hamed el Mansur
+of Morocco died, with the whole of Western Africa under his rule.
+
+Power in the west thus passed once more from the negroid to the
+northern people, but traditions of empire persisted in the centre. In
+1571 there came to the throne of Bornu, Idris Ansami, known more
+usually from the place of his burial as Idris Alawoma. His mother seems
+from her name—’Aisha-Kel Eghrarmar—to have been a Tuareg; she
+had the reputation of great beauty. After consolidating his empire to
+the east, Idris conquered Hausaland as far west as and including Kano,
+where he must have come into contact with the Songhai empire, just then
+in process of passing under the rule of Morocco. So Idris Alawoma[425]
+turned his attention to the north-west, and undertook three expeditions
+against the Tuareg, the last one of which was against Air itself,
+the first two presumably being against more southern tribes. The
+chronicle of Idris’ expeditions is not clear enough to identify
+the exact areas of his operations. The first one was described as a
+raid, and the second, an expedition against a tribe. The operations
+against Air started from Atrebisa and passed Ghamarama, doubtfully
+identified with Gamram in Northern Damergu, after which a host of
+Tuareg was overtaken in the open desert between the town, Tadsa,
+and Air, and many were slaughtered. Idris returned to Munio by way
+of Zibduwa and Susubaki. At an earlier date than these expeditions
+his vizier had fought a battle with the Tuareg, who had come with a
+numerous host of Tildhin (?)[426] and others to attack him at Aghalwen,
+which is Eghalgawen in Southern Air, on the road to the Southland.
+
+Having broken the power of the Air Tuareg, Idris Alawoma ordered
+the Kel Yiti, or Kel Wati, who were living in his dominions, to
+raid north and north-west in order to keep the tribes in a properly
+chastened frame of mind, until they were obliged to sue for peace and
+acknowledge their allegiance to the kingdom of Bornu. Barth thinks the
+Kel Wati are to be identified with the Kel Eti, or Jokto, a mixed Tebu
+and Tuareg people in the parts near Lake Chad. This is probably the
+period of raids in South-eastern Air, previously referred to, which
+obliged the Itesan to abandon their eastern settlements and move west
+into the heart of the mountains. The supposition is borne out by the
+record of Idris’ expedition against the Tebu of Dirki and Agram,
+or Fashi, which was followed by a long stay at Bilma and the opening
+up of relations with the north. All these events fall into the first
+twelve years of Idris Alawoma’s reign: of the last twenty-one we
+know little.
+
+In 1601 at Agades, Muhammad ben Mubarak ibn el Guddala, or Ghodala,
+deposed the Amenokal Yussif ben el Haj Ahmed ibn el Haj Abeshan,
+and reigned in his stead for four months. Yussif recaptured the
+power and ben Mubarak fled to Katsina and Kano, but returning to Air
+entered Agades with a body of men from Bornu. He went on to Assode,
+and then retired within a short time to Gamram in Damergu. Yussif
+in the meanwhile had collected men in the Southland of Kebbi and
+returned to the charge. Ben Mubarak again fled to Bornu, but was
+later captured, and died in prison. This period of hostility between
+Air and Bornu led Idris Alawoma’s grandson Ali ben el Haj Omar ben
+Idris to wage several wars against the Sultan of Agades, though he
+was once himself besieged in his own capital by the Tuareg and their
+allies. To the wars in this reign, lasting from 1645 to 1684 or 1685,
+belong the events which Jean has recorded incorrectly as occurring
+in 1300,[427] in the reign of the eighth Sultan before Lamini.[428]
+The latter is, of course, the famous Muhammad el Amin el Kanemi of
+Denham and Clapperton’s expedition, who was, in fact, the eighth
+Sultan before Ali ben Idris.
+
+Tradition in Air and the Agades Chronicle at this point agree tolerably
+well with the Bornu Chronicle. The Bornu king laid siege to Agades,
+where Muhammad Mubaraki (1653-87) was reigning, and defeated the
+Tuareg, who, after a number of engagements in the Telwa valley,
+retired to the fastness of Bagezan. Their resources enabled them
+to hold out for three years against the Bornuwi forces, who were
+starving in the lowlands. The war of 1685 is called in the Agades
+Chronicle the War of Famine. The people of Bornu eventually withdrew
+eastwards over the desert, hotly pursued by the Tuareg all the way to
+the well of Ashegur, north of Fashi, which, as will be remembered, had
+previously been occupied by Idris Alawoma. Deserted by their Sultan,
+the Bornuwi were surprised, and left 300-400 prisoners in the hands
+of the Tuareg, who, from now on to the present day, have exercised a
+paramount influence over these oases, where they developed the salt
+trade with the Sudan[429] through Air. The gold trade of Songhai,
+at one time so important in Agades that it had its own standard
+weight for the metal, which long after its disappearance continued
+to regulate the circulating medium of exchange, was replaced by the
+salt traffic as an asset of much value.[430]
+
+The campaigns of Idris Alawoma and of Ali repeated the effects of the
+earlier Kanuri pressure on the west. Evidence of the tendency of the
+southern Tuareg to move west has been noticed on several occasions. The
+effect of the Bornu campaigns was to exert pressure on the Aulimmiden,
+which culminated in their attacks on the Tademekkat people and
+eventually in the Kel Owi immigration into Air. The sequence of events
+in Air has already been related; the successes of the Aulimmiden
+contributed directly and indirectly to the decline of Agades as a
+commercial centre. By 1770 they had captured Gao. Under Kawa, in 1780,
+they established a dominion over the north bank of the Niger at Ausa;
+these were doubtless some factors which influenced the Kel Geres in
+their decision to abandon Air as a result of the arrival of the Kel
+Owi. The westward move of the Aulimmiden before the Kanuri of Bornu,
+who were suffering from the reaction which follows greatness, had left
+an area correspondingly free for the Kel Geres to occupy. The middle
+of the century had been taken up in desultory fighting between Air and
+the south. The next notable event had been in 1761—an attack on Kano
+by the Kel Owi and the defeat of the Kel Geres by the Aulimmiden in the
+same year. The inroads of the Fulani into Hausaland had commenced, but
+as yet Othman dan Fodio had not established himself in Sokoto, or the
+ruling families of Fulani in all the large towns of the Central Sudan.
+
+                                                              PLATE 49
+
+[Illustration: EGHALGAWEN AND THE LAST HILLS OF AIR]
+
+The protection of the salt trade led to continual struggles between Air
+and Bornu. An expedition by the Sultan of Agades, in about 1760,[431]
+to Kuka on Lake Chad is probably part of the war of Bilma in 1759
+referred to in the Agades Chronicle as having been made by Muhammad
+Guma, the son of Mubarak. The Sultan was accompanied by the Kel Ferwan,
+and returned with a war indemnity of 2000 head of cattle and a promise
+that trade would not be subjected to interference.
+
+The occupation of part of Damergu by the Kel Owi Tuareg is of course
+recent, though it had been seized by the earlier immigrants at the
+same time as Air, with this difference, that the negroid inhabitants
+were never driven out or absorbed as in the mountains. The Kel Owi
+interference and immigration took the form of successful raiding or
+warfare to keep open the caravan road into the south. The fate of
+Damergu in all this long period of history was to be squeezed between
+the Tuareg on two sides and the Sudan empires on the other two.[432]
+
+The modern period commences with the passage through Air of the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission. Beyond what has already been said, it is
+impossible to discuss this phase, as it is still too recent, but the
+French version is contained in Lieut. Jean’s admirable review of
+French colonial policy in the _Territoires du Niger_.
+
+
+[Footnote 415: Some notes on the early history and the origins of the
+Tuareg race will be found in a paper by the author in the Journal of
+the R.G.S. for Jan. 1926.]
+
+[Footnote 416: Jean: _op. cit._, Chap. XIII; and Chudeau: _Le Sahara
+Soudanais_, p. 72.]
+
+[Footnote 417: Fifteen days east of Ghana in the Upper Niger
+country. Not to be confused with Kuka on Lake Chad, or with Gao (Gago)
+on the Middle Niger. Kukia is called Kugha in el Bekri and Cochia by
+Ca’ da Mosto (Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. IV., pp. 583-4).]
+
+[Footnote 418: As we have seen, a section of the Sanhaja, and nothing
+to do with the Lemta.]
+
+[Footnote 419: Audaghost was for long confused by European geographers
+with Agades, or, as soon as the first news of Air was received,
+with Auderas. Audaghost was in Mauretania between Tegaza and Walata.]
+
+[Footnote 420: South-west of Walata and west of Timbuctoo: for all
+these places see Map I in Vol. I. of the Hakluyt Soc., edition of
+Leo Africanus.]
+
+[Footnote 421: Ibn Batutah, French ed., IV. p. 437.]
+
+[Footnote 422: Variant, Iraz, French ed., IV. pp. 442, 445.]
+
+[Footnote 423: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. IV. p. 603; Vol. I. p. 461.]
+
+[Footnote 424: Leo, _op. cit._, Vol. III. pp. 829 seq. and 846.]
+
+[Footnote 425: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. II. p. 653.]
+
+[Footnote 426: The word may be a corruption of Kindin, the Kanuri
+name for the Tuareg.]
+
+[Footnote 427: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 428: Who did not die 400 years, but barely 100 years, ago,
+in 1835.]
+
+[Footnote 429: Jean is, of course, quite unjustified in dragging in
+the Kel Owi. His information, owing to the fact that the Kel Owi had
+always favoured the French expansion both during the Foureau-Lamy
+expedition and when Jean occupied Air, seems to be derived largely
+from this source, which is as prejudiced as the accounts given by
+all parvenus in the world when discussing history in which they have
+not been, but would have liked to have been, involved. A parallel
+unjustified assumption of historical responsibility is found in the
+Maket n’Ikelan story.]
+
+[Footnote 430: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 467.]
+
+[Footnote 431: Jean, _op. cit._, p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 432: I cannot agree with Jean that the first occupation of
+Damergu, Elakkos and Damagarim by the earlier Tuareg is at all recent
+(_op. cit._, pp. 121-2). Some of the events he records are recent,
+but not the earlier movements of the tribes.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+                              VALEDICTORY
+
+
+Here my account of the Air Tuareg must close. No one can be better
+aware than myself of the shortcomings and discrepancies of my
+story. The task would have been easier had a general survey of an
+unprejudiced character of the history and ethnology of North Africa
+existed. Where my account has wandered from the field of the Tuareg
+of Air, it has had to build both a general and a particular foundation
+for itself, and I am conscious that the result is not as satisfactory
+as it should be. The subjects of script and of language have scarcely
+been touched upon at all; they are too large and specialised matters
+for this volume. If ever there should come a period of leisure for me,
+they might be made the subject of a separate study.
+
+I cannot conceal the pleasure that writing this account has afforded
+me in the course of my researches, by making the scenes which I
+enjoyed in Air live again before my eyes. Had the time available both
+in Africa and since my return been commensurate with my interest in
+the subject, the result would have been better. Intended originally
+as a book of travel, it has in places become complicated, obscure
+and overladen with some of the fruits of inquiry in a vast field,
+namely, the origin and nature of all the peoples of North Africa. I
+shall feel amply rewarded if another student will allow his curiosity
+to be sufficiently stimulated to continue the work.
+
+As the writer of a book of travel I must complete the tale of the
+journey. I came to an end of my wanderings where I had begun them,
+in Northern Nigeria. My two friends and I had started from there
+on 27th April, 1922; I returned there alone on the 29th December of
+the same year. After my tour in Northern Air it became apparent that
+the time at my disposal must prove too short to achieve the object
+of crossing the Sahara to the Mediterranean with my companions. At
+Iferuan I regretfully decided to return home by way of Nigeria. At the
+commencement of December I turned south and marched to Agellal, a large
+village of stone houses under a singularly beautiful mountain. From
+there I went to Tefis to see the mosque, and camped at Anu Wisheran,
+which means “The Old Well.” There were small deserted settlements
+at both places. After another camp at Garet I descended into the basin
+of Central Air, over a barren slope intersected by numerous north and
+south rivulets between bare stony ridges. I halted in the Anu Maqaran
+valley near the boulder on which I discovered the chariot drawing. The
+site of my camp had been purely adventitious, but that obscure rock may
+well prove to be the most important observation of my whole journey. On
+the following day, Bila was reached at the spur of the Azamkoran
+mountains, and then we passed by the sugar-loaf hill of Sampfotchi
+into the Arwa Mellen and familiar Assada valleys. After a long march
+from the Tamenzaret wells I came again to Auderas, where I rejoined
+my companions, but only for a day or two, to sort our belongings and
+part company, I to return south, they to go on north and after many
+tedious delays to reach Algiers. The pleasant people of Auderas came
+to say good-bye. My companions walked a mile or so along my road,
+over the valley and hill, till we reached the plain sloping down to
+Taruaji. There they turned back. With me were only Sidi my guide,
+Amadu my servant, and one camel boy. Sidi had not been to Nigeria for
+many years and I was anxious for him to see modern Kano. We travelled
+fast, stopping only one day on the way in order to try to save a
+camel which had caught pneumonia during the bitterly cold nights
+in Azawagh. We went by Inwatza, the pool of Tizraet near Turayet,
+Akaraq, Eghalgawen, Milen, Hannekar and Tanut, and then straight into
+Nigeria without going to Zinder. On 29th December, the thirty-third
+day after leaving Iferuan, I reached Kano again after a journey of
+some 550 miles in twenty-nine marches. Even the Tuareg admitted that
+it was fast travelling. The camels arrived very fit indeed and were
+sold. A fortnight later I was embarking at Lagos for England.
+
+                                                              PLATE 50
+
+[Illustration: MT. BILA AT SUNSET]
+
+My guide, Sidi, was astonished at the prosperity and development of
+Kano. I gave him some small presents and a few things to take back
+to Ahodu of Auderas. He left Kano before I did, as he had found a
+caravan returning north and did not want to miss the opportunity of
+travelling with friends. He came to see me in the morning of the day
+he was due to leave, and we walked round the European quarter of Kano
+together. I happened to be with a French officer at the time. We met
+Sidi waiting where I had told him to be, under a certain tree in front
+of a well-known merchant’s store in the European town of Kano. Sidi
+got up and greeted me. His hand and mine brushed over one another’s,
+the fingers being withdrawn with a closing snap. I gave him the usual
+greeting: “Ma’-tt-uli,” and he replied very solemnly, “El
+Kheir ’Ras”; which mean, “How do you fare?” and “Naught but
+good.” When Tuareg meet these hand-clasps and greetings continue to
+punctuate their conversation for a long time. They are varied with the
+question, “Iselan?” meaning, “What news?” to which the right
+answer is, “Kalá, kalá,” “No, no!” since for them any news
+must be bad news. Then, as I have said, Sidi and I and the Frenchman
+walked together; the latter looked wonderingly at the demeanour
+of my friend, whom he did not know. At last it was time for Sidi
+to join the camels of his caravan. Their number had been increased
+by one camel which I had given to him. He turned to say good-bye,
+but did not speak at all. He took my hand and held it with both of
+his, and then bowed his forehead till his veil touched my fingers. I
+gave him the thanks of the Lord in Arabic, and he murmured something
+incomprehensible. My French friend looked on curiously. And then Sidi
+without glancing at him turned quickly and walked away like a Prince
+of the Earth striding over the land. He walked erect and swiftly till
+I lost him to sight. He never turned his head again.
+
+He was in many ways rather a ruffian, but, like his folk, patient,
+long-suffering and unforgiving. He was a true specimen of the Tuareg
+race.
+
+These people never become angry or speak loud: I have rarely seen them
+excited, but they have an indomitable spirit and for that reason will
+perhaps survive. They say, “Kiss the hand you cannot cut off,” and
+again, “The path, though it be winding, and the King, though he be
+old.” So they may have patience after all to wait for the fulfilment
+of their fate and not throw themselves fruitlessly again on rifles or
+machine-guns. I remember sitting at Gamram one evening on the ruins of
+the walls of the town where once their rulers lived as wardens of the
+marches of the desert on that great Saharan road. In my diary I wrote:
+
+“Last night I sat on the old walls looking west towards the yellow
+sunset under a blue-black cloud of rain hanging low in the sky. A man
+had lit a fire which smoked very much, and the west wind was carrying
+the smoke away over the wall in a horizontal streak between me and
+the sunset. They have gone, the Tuareg, from history like that streak
+of smoke. Even the Almoravids are only a name. I wonder why. They
+have fought with a losing hand so long. They were driven down from
+the north by the Arabs and by Europe, and harried by everyone. They
+have also harried others well. Finally, the French have come and have
+occupied their country. For long it was thought that the Tuareg would
+be untamable. They fought well and hard. The fire of old remained. In
+Air it broke again into flame in 1917 with Kaossen’s revolt, but in
+the end the force of European arms prevailed. The French killed many
+and punished the people of Air very hardly, too hardly as some of
+their own officers think, in dealing with a people which is already
+so small and tending to die out. But though calm and peaceful to-day
+like the smoke carried away from the fire by the walls of Gamram,
+the point of flame remains. I could see the heart of the fire from
+which the smoke was coming. I wonder if the flame will burst forth
+again. You have fought well, you people. You would not bow your necks,
+so they have been broken, but perhaps your day may come again. It
+grew dark on the walls of Gamram and the sunset of rain faded away;
+the fire continued to burn, but my thoughts turned elsewhere, to
+my journey, to my riding camel (wondering whether it would survive:
+I gave it some millet that night as extra fodder), to England, and to
+what I should have to eat there. I had an omelette which I made myself,
+and some fresh milk for supper that evening. Thence my thoughts turned
+to other things as well. . . .”
+
+And here it is better that I close. It is on the knees of the gods how
+they achieve their destiny. I hope that the gods will be good to them.
+
+They were my very good friends, and I was very pleased to live with
+them, for they were very agreeable. Perhaps we shall meet again and
+travel together once more. And so their proverb, which has seemed to
+me very true, will be fulfilled for them and for me. They say that:
+
+                      “LIVING PEOPLE OFTEN MEET.”
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+         A LIST OF THE ASTRONOMICALLY DETERMINED POINTS IN AIR
+
+
+The positions given in the following table have been collected from
+the record of the proceedings of the Foureau-Lamy Mission, from the
+list given on the second sheet of the “Carte de l’Air” prepared
+by the Mission Cortier and others on a scale of 1/500,000, and from
+the observations by the author. Two positions given in Lieut. Jean’s
+_Les Touareg du Sud-Est_ are also included. The French longitudes have
+been converted into longitudes east of Greenwich by the addition 2°
+20′ 14″.
+
+The author’s observations were carried out with a three-inch
+transit theodolite by Cary and Porter, and were in all cases stellar
+sights. The latitudes were in all cases determined from pairs of
+north and south circum-meridian stars, or from altitudes of Polaris
+and one south star. The longitudes were determined by calculations
+based on local mean time derived from pairs of east and west stars,
+and chronometric differences from points which had previously been
+determined by French travellers. Where the author’s longitudes for
+points previously determined by French observers are also given,
+they are the result of chronometric differences from other points
+previously or successively visited. The author, however, has not used
+his own longitudes for determining intermediate points when French
+observations were available, and his co-ordinates in these instances
+are only reproduced for purposes of comparison.
+
+The data for the Foureau-Lamy observations are described in the
+record of the proceedings of the expedition. The source of the
+positions given on the Cortier map is not stated. The data for
+Colonel Tilho’s positions are in the record of the delimitation of
+the northern boundary of Nigeria. The author’s computations are in
+the records of the Royal Geographical Society in London, where are
+also the original route reports and prismatic compass traverses made
+throughout the journey.
+
+Where possible the author’s chronometric differences were checked by
+opening and closing a series of observations on points previously fixed
+by French observers. In one unfortunate case, however, the author’s
+watches stopped as a result of his camels going astray and the series
+was consequently broken. His watches again stopped at Auderas, where,
+however, he stayed a sufficient length of time to re-rate them. At
+this place a number of local mean time observations were taken over
+a long period.
+
+The author’s longitude observations were carried out as follows:
+
+  Series A opened at Fanisau camp near Kano from a position supplied by
+           the Survey school—closed at Tessawa— Dan Kaba (unreliable),
+           intermediate position.
+
+  Series B opened at Tessawa—_not_ closed: Urufan-Gangara-Tanut,
+           intermediate positions.
+
+  Series C _not_ opened—closed at T’in Wana: Termit—Teskar-Guliski,
+           intermediate positions.
+
+  Series D opened at T’in Wana—closed at Auderas.
+
+  Series E opened at Auderas—watches rated—closed at Auderas.
+
+  Series F opened at Auderas—closed at Auderas: Abarakan-Teginjir-Telia-
+           Teloas, intermediate positions.
+
+  Series G opened at Auderas—closed at Auderas: Aggata-Assode-Afis-
+           Iferuan, intermediate positions.
+
+The author’s meteorological record, which was kept for nine months,
+has not been reproduced. It consists of daily maximum and minimum,
+actual (twice daily), and wet and dry bulb temperatures; aneroid
+readings; wind and rainfall, and sunset and sunrise notes. It is at
+any student’s disposal to consult.
+
+The following abbreviations are used in the ensuing table:
+
+F—Foureau; Ch—Chambrun (see Record of Foureau-Lamy expedition);
+R—Rodd; T—Tilho; C—Cortier’s Map of Air; J—Jean’s _Touareg
+du Sud-Est_.
+
+  ------------------+--------------+----------+-----------+----------
+                    |              |Latitude, | Longitude |
+        Place.      |    Area.     |  north.  | (east of  |Authority.
+                    |              |          |Greenwich).|
+  ------------------+--------------+----------+-----------+----------
+                    |              |  °  ′  ″ |  °  ′  ″  |
+                    |              |          |           |
+  DAN KABA[433]     |Nigeria       | 13-12-40 |  7-44-30  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TESSAWA           |Tessawa       |13-45-20·5|  7-59-12·6|    T
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 13-45-50 |  7-59-15  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  URUFAN            |Tessawa       | 14-04-50 |  8-06-25  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  GANGARA           |Damergu       | 14-36-30 |  8-27-32  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 14-36-42 |     —     |    Ch
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 14-36-50 |  8-25-40  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TANUT[434]        |Damergu       | 14-58-20 |  8-47-50  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  GULISKI           |Damergu       | 15-00-50 |  9-06-20  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TESHKAR           |Elakkos       | 15-07-40 | 10-35-10  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TERMIT            |Eastern Desert| 16-04-10 | 11-04-50  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ABELLAMA          |Tegama-Azawagh| 16-16-32 |  7-47-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  MARANDET          |Tegama-Azawagh| 16-22-20 |  7-24-14  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AIN IRHAYEN       |Tegama-Azawagh| 16-26-40 |  7-55-22  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TABZAGUR          |Tegama-Azawagh| 16-36-57 |  7-08-17  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TIN WANA          |S. Air        | 16-42-32 |  8-25-19  |    C
+  (T’in-Nouana)     |              |          |           |
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 16-42-55 |  8-25-15  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IN GALL           |S.W. Air      | 16-47-08 |  6-54-15  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TEBEHIC           |  S. Air      | 16-47-32 |  8-21-14  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  EGHALGAWEN        |  S. Air      | 16-48-21 |  8-31-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AGADES (Post)     |  S. Air      | 16-59-19 |  7-57-15  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  „ (T’in           |  S. Air      | 16-59-02 | (8-24-18) |    J
+  Shaman[435])      |              |          |           |
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TIN DAWIN         |  S. Air      | 17-00-07 |  8-26-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TIN TABORAQ       |  S. Air      | 17-01-50 |  8-08-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TAGIDDA N’ADRAR   |  W. Air      | 17-04-13 |  7-22-21  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ANU ARERAN        |  W. Air      | 17-15-27 |  7-43-20  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  FAGOSHIA          |  W. Air      | 17-16-01 |  6-57-17  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TAFADEK           |  S. Air      | 17-23-32 |  7-55-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TAGIDDA N’T’ISEMT |  W. Air      | 17-25-38 |  6-34-33  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TINIEN            |  S. Air      | 17-26-54 |  8-09-02  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 17-26-24 |     —     |    Ch
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IDIKEL            |  W. Air      | 17-29-42 |  7-37-23  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TELOAS-TABELLO    |  E. Air      | 17-34-40 |  8-49-30  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  EGERUEN           |S.W. Air      | 17-35-15 |  7-54-22  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AUDERAS[436]      |  C. Air      | 17-37-50 |  8-19-00  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 17-38-00 |  8-18-14  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 17-37-48 |  8-19-30  |   (C)
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TELIA             |  E. Air      | 17-47-30 |  8-49-20  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IN KAKKAN         |  W. Air      | 17-49-22 |  7-48-23  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IN ABBAGARIT      |Western Desert| 17-53-47 |  5-59-15  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TAMET TEDDERET    |Western Desert| 17-54-04 |  6-36-18  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ANU N’AGERUF      |  W. Air      | 17-54-46 |  7-24-22  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AURERAN           |  C. Air      | 17-56-54 |  8-23-17  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 17-56-42 |     —     |    Ch
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TEGINJIR          |  C. Air      | 17-59-20 |     —     |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ABARAKAN          |  C. Air      | 18-03-30 |  8-39-20  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AGGATA            |  C. Air      | 18-09-00 |  8-26-40  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  UFA ATIKIN        |  W. Air      | 18-09-26 |  7-12-21  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IN ALLARAM        |Western Desert| 18-16-12 |  6-15-19  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  TAMADALT TAN      |  W. Air      | 18-16-23 |  7-49-18  |    C
+  ATARAM            |              |          |           |
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AFASTO            |  W. Air      | 18-17-08 |  7-17-22  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ZILALET           |  W. Air      | 18-23-19 |  7-51-21  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ASSODE            |  C. Air      | 18-27-00 |  8-26-50  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  SIDAWET           |  C. Air      | 18-30-54 |  8-02-20  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AFIS              |  N. Air      | 18-37-30 |  8-35-40  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  AGELLAL           |  N. Air      | 18-43-02 |  8-07-17  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 18-43-00 |  8-10-02  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 18-43-00 |  8-07-14  |    Ch
+                    |              |          |           |
+  FAODET            |  N. Air      | 18-47-20 |  8-34-50  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IFERUAN[437]      |  N. Air      | 19-04-10 |  8-22-45  |    R
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 19-04-28 |  8-22-22  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 19-04-18 |  8-24-32  |    F
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 19-04-12 |  8-21-20  |    Ch
+                    |              |          |           |
+                    |              | 19-04-03 |  8-24-24  |    J
+                    |              |          |           |
+  ZURIKA            |  N. Air      | 19-14-35 |  7-50-15  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  URAREN            |Western Desert| 19-31-44 |  7-08-17  |    C
+                    |              |          |           |
+  IN GEZZAM         |Western Desert| 19-33-10 |  5-44-20  |    C
+  ------------------+--------------+----------+-----------+----------
+
+
+                     HEIGHTS ABOVE SEA LEVEL.[438]
+
+  IFERUAN                     681 metres (F)
+
+                              673   „    (C)
+
+  URAREN                      485   „    (C)
+
+  SIDAWET                     554   „    (C)
+
+  AGELLAL                     613   „    (C)
+
+                              604   „    (F)
+
+  AUDERAS                     798   „    (F)
+
+  AGADES (T’in Shaman)        500   „    (F)
+
+  IN GEZZAM                   374   „    (C)
+
+  ZILALET                     557   „    (C)
+
+NOTE.—The exact positions of the observations in the same localities
+are not identical in the case of all observers, which accounts for
+some of the apparent discrepancies.
+
+
+[Footnote 433: The Dankaba observation is of somewhat doubtful
+accuracy.]
+
+[Footnote 434: The Tanut longitude depends on only one stellar
+observation for L.M.T.]
+
+[Footnote 435: Jean’s longitude for T’in Shaman, which is the
+site of the French post and therefore also of the rest-house where the
+Cortier observation was taken, differs so materially from the latter
+that it cannot be accepted. It is described (like the position he
+gives for Iferuan) as “d’après F. Foureau,” but I can find no
+record in the account of the proceedings of the Foureau-Lamy Mission
+to justify this statement.]
+
+[Footnote 436: My camp at Auderas was situated about 400 yards east
+of the camp site which the Foureau-Lamy Mission occupied and where,
+therefore, Foureau’s observation was probably made. This difference
+accounts for the discrepancy in our longitudes. The Cortier map shows
+an astronomically fixed point at Auderas which, when measured on
+the copy in my possession, gives these co-ordinates, but they are
+not recorded in the table on the second sheet of the map, as are
+the other positions in Air. Foureau’s latitude is based upon five
+observations, one of which is appreciably smaller than the other four;
+if this result is omitted from the average, the latitude becomes even
+higher than it is given in the table.]
+
+[Footnote 437: Foureau’s latitude for Iferuan is based upon five
+observations, one of which is appreciably higher than the other four;
+if this result is omitted the average practically coincides with my
+observation, which was taken on the identical spot.]
+
+[Footnote 438: The altitudes obtained by me from boiling-point
+observations and aneroid readings are not given; they are numerous
+but have not been fully worked out.]
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX II
+
+              THE TRIBAL ORGANISATION OF THE TUAREG OF AIR
+
+
+DIVISION I. The People of the King.
+
+DIVISION II. The Itesan and Kel Geres.
+
+DIVISION III. The Kel Owi.
+
+DIVISION IV. The Tuareg of Damergu.
+
+DIVISION V. Unidentified tribes, generic names, etc.
+
+
+The work of Barth and Jean has been incorporated in these tables;
+further reference to these authors is therefore omitted. Alternative
+name forms from these and other sources are given in brackets below
+the spelling which has been adopted to conform as far as possible with
+the rules of the Royal Geographical Society’s Committee on names.
+
+(N) and (S) respectively signify “noble” and “servile” tribes.
+
+In many cases no territorial identification is given, as tribes have
+changed their areas very greatly since 1917-18, nor have they settled
+down permanently to occupy other ranges since then. When Northern
+Air was cleared by the French patrols, the tribes were moved south,
+and for the most part they are therefore now in the neighbourhood
+of Agades, or in the Azawagh or even further south. But they are
+arranged in a disorderly fashion and are always moving from place to
+place; any attempt to give their present areas would be fruitless,
+since they will probably prove to be only temporary. The process
+of returning north had already commenced in 1922 and has presumably
+continued since then. Such locations as are given in the tables refer
+to periods prior to 1917 unless the contrary is stated.
+
+The left-hand column gives the name of the original tribal stock so far
+as it has been possible to trace one. The next column gives the names
+of the tribes and sub-tribes formed by the original group. It is often
+impossible to state for certain whether large tribes are still to be
+described as such, or whether they have become independent tribes with
+subsidiary clans. Thus the whole classification must be considered
+approximate. It is designed to carry one stage further the system
+commenced by Barth, and continued by Jean. Where these two authorities
+are stated to have made mistakes or to have been inaccurate, the
+brevity of such phrases, occasioned as it has been by the use of a
+tabular form of arrangement, does not denote more than an expression
+of different opinion. It is intended to convey no disparagement,
+but merely to obviate circumlocution. The remarks in the right-hand
+column are intended to be read in conjunction with the relevant parts
+of the text of this book to which they are supplementary.
+
+
+                  DIVISION I. THE PEOPLE OF THE KING.
+
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+     Group.   |Tribes and sub-|               Notes.
+              |    tribes.    |
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+       1.     |               |
+              |               |
+  Kel FERWAN. |Kel FERWAN     |From its present name the group was
+              |(N.).          |originally in Iferuan (Ighazar) valley,
+              |               |whence probably expelled to W. and S. by
+              |               |Kel Owi. Original name unknown. Possibly
+              |               |not originally of same stock as others
+              |               |in division, and perhaps immigrant from
+              |               |W. Tribes ranged over S.W. Air, N.W.
+              |               |Damergu, and W. Tegama, but since 1917
+              |               |nearly all the nobles have settled in
+              |               |Katsina, leaving Imghad in old areas.
+              |               |Great raiders westward. About 4320 souls
+              |               |according to Jean.
+              |               |
+              |IRAWATTAN (N.).|At T’intabisgi (S. Talak plain). The
+              |               |only “I name” tribe recorded in the
+              |               |group.
+              |               |
+              |Kel AZEL (N.). |At T’intabisgi.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TADELE.    |Large tribe now partially independent of
+              |               |Kel Ferwan group. Described by Jean as
+              |               |servile and by others as noble;
+              |               |explanation being probably that both
+              |               |castes occur as sub-tribes. Apparently
+              |               |originally an Ahaggar tribe which with
+              |               |its Imghad came to Air; if this was due
+              |               |to conquest by an Air tribe, the
+              |               |confusion of status is comprehensible.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TADELE  {|
+              |  (N.).       {|Talak-Zurika area. They own Zelim and
+              |              {|Tuaghet pools in Fadé, a part of which
+              |  TEHAMMAM    {|is also theirs. Their chief is Rabidin.
+              |  (S.).       {|
+              |               |
+              |IMUZURAK (S.). |W. Tegama and S.W. Air. Some nobles of
+              |               |this name in Damergu are wrongly
+              |               |described by Jean as Imghad of the
+              |               |Ikazkazan. The Imghad Imuzurak were
+              |               |probably captured from the noble sept.
+              |               |
+              |IMUZURAN (S.). |At T’intabisgi. The name is abusive,
+              |               |meaning “Donkey droppings.” Reputed very
+              |               |fair skinned.
+              |               |
+              |IBERDIANEN (S.)|At Araten.
+              |               |
+              | (Berdianen)   |
+              |               |
+              |JEKARKAREN     |At Araten.
+              |(S.).          |
+              |               |
+              |IGEDEYENAN     |At Azel.
+              |(S.).          |
+              |               |
+              | (Gedeyenan)   |
+              |               |
+              | (Iguendianna) |
+              |               |
+              |ISAKARKARAN    |At T’intabisgi. Both names are wrongly
+              |(S.).          |given by Jean as separate units.
+              |               |
+              | (Zakarkaran)  |
+              |               |
+              |IDELEYEN (S.). |At T’intabisgi.
+              |               |
+              |IKAWKAN (S.).  |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |EGHBAREN (S.). |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |               |The last eight servile tribes represent
+              |               |nuclei captured in the W. They are of
+              |               |Tuareg, Arab and Moroccan origin, but
+              |               |have been assimilated to the People
+              |               |of the Veil.
+              |               |
+              |IFOGHAS (S.).  |Tafadek area. Said by Jean to be Imghad
+              |               |of the Kel Ferwan and to have come from
+              |               |the Kel Antassar stock (unidentified) S.
+              |               |of Timbuctoo. They came to Air about
+              |               |1860 and settled under the Amenokal;
+              |               |they were allowed to retain noble
+              |               |privileges. Their inclusion in the Kel
+              |               |Ferwan group indicates that the latter
+              |               |may be of W. origin.
+              |               |
+              |(IFADEYEN) (?).|Believed to be noble. Included by Jean
+              |               |among the Kel Ferwan Imghad, but for a
+              |               |more probable attribution see Div. I.
+              |               |Group 6.
+              |               |
+       2.     |               |
+              |               |
+  (Kel TADEK).|               |No original name is traceable, but that
+              |               |of “Tamgak” is suggested. They were
+              |               |named from the Tidik (or Tadek) valley
+              |               |N. of Tamgak and the Ighazar. One of the
+              |               |oldest tribes in Air. They possessed the
+              |               |country from Agalenge to Tezirzak in
+              |               |Fadé and N. Air. They had the Kel Fares
+              |               |to E. and Kel Tamat to W., and covered
+              |               |area from Temed to just N. of Ighazar.
+              |               |Now scattered all over Air. Their chief
+              |               |is Ahodu of Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TADEK (N.).|Tadek valley and Gissat. Now scattered
+              |               |and in small numbers. Their original
+              |               |name is unknown.
+              |               |
+              |Kel UMUZUT     |Agades area, and Damergu. Practically
+              |(N.).          |separate from the other tribes in the
+              |               |division.
+              | (Kalenuzuk)   |
+              |               |
+              |Kel TEFGUN     |At Tefgun mosque, Ighazar. A small
+              |(N.).          |personal tribe of Ahodu’s own family;
+              |               |keepers of the mosque for at least five
+              |               |generations.
+              |               |
+              |Kel AGHIMMAT   |Probably a sub-tribe of the Kel Tadek.
+              |(?).           |
+              |               |
+              | (Kelghimmat)  |
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAKERMUS   |
+              |(N.).          |
+              |               |
+              |Kel GARET.     |Garet plain, C. Air. Not to be confused
+              |               |with the Kel Garet of the Kel Geres.
+              |  Kel GARET    |From a place S. of Agellal pronounced
+              |  (N.).        |“Anigara.”
+              |               |
+              |  Kel ANIOGARA |
+              |  (?).         |
+              |               |
+              |Kel ANU        |
+              |WISHERAN.      |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |At Anu Wisheran, C. Air. Very nomadic
+              |  ANUWISHERAN  |and ancient; now in Tegama.
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |Kel EZELU (N.).|Ezelu valley, S. of above.
+              |               |
+              |Kel GARET (S.).|A fortuitous collection of Imghad in the
+              |               |Garet valley. The existence of two Kel
+              |               |Garet may be compared with the two Kel
+              |               |Garet in Div. II. Group 5, with whom
+              |               |there may be some connection.
+              |               |
+              |Kel IZIRZA     |
+              |(N.).          |
+              |               |
+              |IZUMZUMATEN    |
+              |(N.).          |
+              |               |
+              |Kel GIGA (S.). |At Agejir, S. Bagezan. Probably
+              |               |assimilated to the Ittegen.
+              |               |
+              |ITTEGEN (S.).  |Large Imghad section of the Kel Tadek.
+              |               |Their “I name” is the only one in the
+              | (Etteguen)    |Kel Tadek group, and they are probably
+              |               |dependent on some parent tribe, possibly
+              |               |the Kel Giga. They have broken away to
+              |               |form a new tribal group, the modern Kel
+              |               |Bagezan (_q.v._ sub Kel Owi).
+              |               |
+              |Kel AGGATA     |Have recently joined the Kel Tadek
+              |(?N.).         |(Groups 3 and 4).
+              |               |
+    3 and 4.  |               |
+              |               |
+  IMMIKITAN   |               |The alternative attribution of many
+  and         |               |tribes to these two groups makes it
+  IMEZEGZIL.  |               |difficult to distinguish them apart. The
+              |               |reason for the confusion is that both
+              |               |groups occur in areas predominantly Kel
+              |               |Owi, where they form isolated islands of
+              |               |extraneous people dependent upon the
+              |               |Añastafidet. Both groups were probably
+              |               |in occupation of N.E. Air when Kel Owi
+              |               |arrived; latter proved unable to
+              |               |eliminate them completely, and the
+              |               |remnants consequently fell under their
+              |               |influence and were thus variously
+              |               |described as belonging to one or other
+              |               |division. The two groups perhaps
+              |               |represent a single stock with the
+              |               |IMMIKITAN predominant, but in later
+              |               |times certainly acquired, as here shown,
+              |               |co-equal status. Immikitan are known to
+              |               |have been among first Tuareg in Air.
+              |               |
+              |IMMIKITAN.     |
+              |               |
+              | (Amakeetan)   |
+              |               |
+              |  IMMIKITAN    |Also called ELMIKI. Originally, after
+              |  (N.).        |immigration, in N. Central Air. Now
+              |               |isolated nuclei of this division live
+              |               |among people of Div. II. There are also
+              |               |Immikitan in Div. IV. Jean has rightly
+              |               |not accepted popular account that they
+              |               |are Kel Owi owing to recent association.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TEGIR    |At Tegir near Assatartar.
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |   (Kel Teguer)|
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |A geographical synonym for the above.
+              |  ASSATARTAR   |
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |Kel AGGATA.    |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel AGGATA   |Aggata area. This tribe did not move
+              |  (N.).        |south after the 1917 episode, and thus
+              |               |became affiliated to Kel Tadek. Their
+              |               |chief is El Haj Saleh at Agades.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TADENAK  |Placed by Barth at Tadenak, E. of
+              |  (N.).        |Agellal, and later by Jean at Intayet on
+              |               |Anu Maqaran valley.
+              |               |
+              |  (IKARADAN)   |Placed by Jean at Aggata, but the word
+              |  (S.).        |means Tebu in Air Temajegh; the nucleus
+              |               |almost certainly consists of Tebu living
+              |               |near their masters and not a separate
+              |               |tribe.
+              |               |
+              |Kel MAWEN (?). |Placed by Jean at N’Ouajour, which is
+              |               |probably In Wadjud near Taruaji. No
+              | (Kel Maouen)  |information.
+              |               |
+              | (Kel Assarara)|Wrongly placed by Jean in this group
+              |               |either on account of confusion with Kel
+              |               |Assatartar or perhaps because Kel
+              |               |Assarara inhabited Assarara area as
+              |               |Immikitan before the arrival of the Kel
+              |               |Owi (see above). The only Kel Assarara
+              |               |to-day in existence are Kel Owi (_q.v._).
+              |               |
+              |               |
+  IMEZEGZIL.  |               |Originally N. of the Immikitan in the
+              |               |Agwau-Afis-Faodet area before arrival of
+              |               |Kel Owi. Jean thinks only two tribes can
+              |               |be assigned to this group, the Kel
+              |               |Faodet and Kel Tagunar, but others seem
+              |               |to belong. The group is surrounded by
+              |               |Kel Owi, who are especially strong in
+              |               |the originally most important area of
+              |               |the tribe, namely Agwau. They are now
+              |               |all in the Agades area.
+              |               |
+              |(IMEZEGZIL)    |No independent Imezegzil survive, but
+              |(N.).          |its existence is remembered in the Agwau
+              |               |area. Remnants are probably represented
+              |               |by the Kel Afis.
+              |               |
+              |Kel AFIS.      |
+              |               |
+              | (Kel Afess)   |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel AFIS     |At Afis, N. Air. They are called the
+              |  (N.).        |“big men,” the Imezegzil. In the wider
+              |               |geographical term, Kel Afis includes
+              |               |some Kel Owi living in the village. Jean
+              |               |rightly calls Kel Afis a separate tribe
+              |               |which probably represents the oldest
+              |               |part surviving to the Imezegzil.
+              |               |
+              |  AZANIERKEN   |Imghad of the above, but living further
+              |  (S.).        |W. at Tanutmolet in Ighazar. Their “I
+              |               |name” indicates antiquity, and the fact
+              |               |that the Kel Afis possessed such an old
+              |               |tribe indicates that the latter were the
+              |               |parent stock of group.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |
+              |  TANUTMOLET   |
+              |  (S.).        |
+              |               |
+              |  IZARZA.      |A group of serfs living among Kel Owi at
+              |               |this village, whose population has come
+              |               |to be called Kel Tanutmolet, which is
+              |               |also used as a variant for the
+              |               |Azanierken. I have a note that these Kel
+              |               |Tanutmolet serfs are also called Izarza,
+              |               |which may be a corrupt form for
+              |               |Azanierken. They are now only two or
+              |               |three families.
+              |               |
+              |Kel FAODET     |At Faodet in the upper Ighazar.
+              |(N.).          |
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAGUNAR    |At Tagunet in the upper Ighazar.
+              |(?).           |
+              |               |
+       5.     |               |
+              |               |
+  IMAQOARAN.  |               |Originally in W. Central Air. Although
+              |               |belonging to a category of the People of
+              |               |the King, they were never much under his
+              |               |authority.
+              |               |
+              |IMAQOARAN (N.).|In the Agellal area. Very small, only
+              |               |five families are said to survive. See
+              | (Immakkorhan) |Kel Wadigi.
+              |               |
+              |(Kel AGELLAL)  |Are probably in great part Imaqoaran,
+              |               |especially when Kel Agellal is used in a
+              |               |general or geographical sense (cf. Kel
+              |               |Agellal, Div. III. Group 4).
+              |               |
+              |Kel WADIGI.    |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel WADIGI   |In Wadigi valley, E. of Agellal. Small
+              |  (N,).        |unimportant group of recent origin,
+              |               |consisting of Kel Agellal Imaqoaran, Kel
+              |               |Agellal Ikazkazan, and people from
+              |               |Ighazar.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TEFIS    |At Tefis.
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel AREITUN  |Imghad of above in Areitun village, W.
+              |  (S.).        |of Anu Wisheran (not the Areitun N. of
+              |               |Agellal).
+              |               |
+              |Kel SIDAWET (N.|At Sidawet village. A sedentary group of
+              |and S.).       |mixed parentage and doubtful origin.
+              |               |Also ascribed to Izeyyakan, but on
+              | (Kel Sadaouet)|account of the established origin of the
+              |               |Kel Agellal Imaqoaran and Kel Zilalet,
+              |               |whose villages are in same area as
+              |               |Sidawet, they are all probably of the
+              |               |same parentage.
+              |               |
+              |Kel ZILALET (N.|Zilalet village. Wrongly described as an
+              |and S.).       |independent tribe by Jean.
+              |               |
+       6.     |               |Both the last are mixed village groups
+              |               |of people of all castes.
+              |               |
+  IFADEYEN and|               |No more information is available than
+  Kel FADÉ.   |               |that given in the preceding chapters
+              |               |(see pp. 399 and 400).
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+
+
+                 DIVISION II. THE ITESAN AND KEL GERES.
+
+Note: All these tribes are in the Southland, and their present areas
+are not, therefore, specified.
+
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+     Group.   |Tribes and sub-|               Notes.
+              |    tribes.    |
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+       1.     |               |
+              |               |
+  ITESAN.     |               |Probably one of the original tribes of
+              |               |the Kel Innek who invaded Air from the
+              |               |Chad direction. Being the preponderant
+              |               |tribe in Air, the Itesan were driven
+              |               |from the country by the Kel Owi when the
+              |               |latter arrived. Though now in the
+              |               |Southland, the Itesan still play a
+              |               |prominent rôle in electing the Amenokal
+              |               |of Air.
+              |               |
+              |(Kel)          |Named from a group of hills N. of
+              |T’SIDDERAK.    |Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAGEI.     |“The People of the Dûm Palm,” possibly a
+              |               |totemic name or else derived from name
+              | (Kel Tagay)   |of a valley so-called. There are many
+              |               |such in Air, in particular one N. of
+              | (? also       |Auderas is probably responsible for the
+              |  Tagayes)     |name. Not to be confused with the people
+              |               |in Div. III. Group I.
+              |               |
+              |Kel BAGEZAN.   |Originally inhabiting the mountains so
+              |               |called. Not to be confused with other
+              | (Kel Maghzen- |later Kel Bagezan.
+              | Kel Bagezan)  |
+              |               |
+              |Kel ALLAGHAN.  |“The People of the Spears.”
+              |               |
+              | (Alaren)      |
+              |               |
+              |(EMALLARHSEN). |Probably a misreading for “Im” or “In
+              |               |Allaghan” (where the prefix takes the
+              |               |place of “Kel”), and therefore identical
+              |               |with above.
+              |               |
+              |(ITZIARRAME).  |Probably a corrupt name, perhaps a
+              |               |mistake for the above.
+              |               |
+              |(Kel) TELAMSE. |The second is probably the right form,
+              |               |and is derived from the name of a
+              | (Kel          |village and hills near Auderas.
+              |  T’ilimsawin) |
+              |               |
+              |Kel MAFINET.   |Named after a valley tributary to the
+              |               |Auderas valley.
+              |               |
+              |Kel DUGA.      |The second is probably the right form,
+              |               |and is derived from Mount Dogam, N. of
+              | (Kel Dogam).  |Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |Kel UYE.       |Kel Wadigi, from a valley E. of Agellal,
+              |               |has been suggested as a more correct
+              |               |version. In this case the tribe would
+              |               |more probably belong to the Kel Agellal
+              |               |of the Kel Unnar in Group 3, but the
+              |               |derivation is doubtful.
+              |               |
+              |Kel MANEN.     |Given by Barth as a tribe of the Itesan.
+              |               |
+              |IMANEN.        |With the two following tribes they seem
+              |               |to represent the oldest stock of people
+              |               |who invaded Air from the E. These Imanen
+              |               |are obviously of the same stock as the
+              |               |Imanen of the Azger Lemta division of
+              |               |Tuareg in the N.
+              |               |
+              |Kel INNEK.     |Are given by Barth as a part of the
+              |               |Itesan. While the name may have survived
+              |               |as a tribal name, it is more properly
+              |               |applicable to all the people who came
+              |               |from the E. when Air was invaded. The
+              |               |existence of such a tribe name among the
+              |               |Itesan, whose original name it may have
+              |               |been, is, however, proof of the accuracy
+              |               |of Bello’s statement.
+              |               |
+              |IJANARNEN.     |This tribe is given by Bello as one of
+              |               |those who originally invaded Air from
+              | (Ijaranen)    |the E. The occurrence of such a tribe in
+              |               |the Itesan group, according to Barth,
+              |               |substantiates the supposition made above
+              |               |and in the body of the book.
+              |               |
+       2.     |               |
+              |               |
+  TETMOKARAK. |               |
+              |               |
+              |TETMOKARAK.    |
+              |               |
+              | (Tedmukkeren) |
+              |               |
+              |Kel TEGHZEREN. |Kel Teghzeren may be a corruption of
+              |               |“Kel Intirzawen” derived from the name
+              |               |of the Asclepias Gigantica. The Kel
+              |               |Teghzeren appear to be the principal
+              |               |tribe of the Tetmokarak, and are
+              |               |possibly the parent group.
+              |               |
+              |Kel AZAR.      |Perhaps derived from a place of that
+              |               |name in the upper Anu Maqaran valley, C.
+              |               |Air.
+              |               |
+              |(Kel) UNGWA.   |The origin of the name is doubtful, for
+              |               |“ungwa” seems in Kanuri to mean
+              | (Oung Oua)    |“village.” The name may be a form of Kel
+              |               |Unnar (see below), another Kel Geres
+              | (Kel Ungwar)  |group.
+              |               |
+              |TASHEL.        |
+              |               |
+              | (Taschell)    |
+              |               |
+              | (Tashil)      |
+              |               |
+              |ISHERIFAN.     |Of which the Isherifan in Damergu were
+              |               |probably a part.
+              |               |
+              |Kel ATAN.      |
+              |               |
+              |TEGAMA.        |See also the People of Tegama in the
+              |               |Damergu group. The two septs are
+              |               |probably of the same stock; they are
+              |               |more fully discussed in the body of the
+              |               |book.
+              |               |
+              |KERFEITEI.     |The second version is perhaps more
+              |               |correct.
+              | (? Kel Feitei)|
+              |               |
+              |(Kel) IGHELAF. |From a group of wells in E. Damergu.
+              |               |
+              | (Ighlab)      |
+              |               |
+              |ESCHERHA.      |
+              |               |
+              |INARDAF        |
+              |               |
+              |ZERUMINI.      |
+              |               |
+       3.     |               |
+              |               |
+  Kel UNNAR.  |               |The Kel Ungwa may be the same people,
+              |               |but there is no information.
+              |               |
+              |Kel UNNAR.     |
+              |               |
+              |TARENKAT.      |
+              |               |
+              |ALWALITAN.     |A patronymic, from the common personal
+              |               |name among the Tuareg, Al Wali.
+              |               |
+              |GURFAUTAN.     |Probably also a patronymic.
+              |               |
+              |Kel AGELLAL.   |From Agellal in C. Air, and not to be
+              |               |confused with the present Kel Agellal
+              | (Kel Aghellal)|(Div. I. Group 5).
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAIAGAIA.  |?, unless a corruption in the
+              |               |manuscripts of European authors of Kel
+              |               |Agellal.
+              |               |
+       4.     |               |
+              |               |
+  Kel ANIGARA.|               |
+              |               |
+              |(Kel) ANIGARA. |There are two places called Anigara
+              |               |(Aniogara) near Agellal, and this group
+              |               |might be named from either of them. The
+              |               |present Kel Aniogara are a sub-tribe of
+              |               |the Kel Garet (in Div. I. Group 2).
+              |               |
+              |TAFARZAS.      |No information.
+              |               |
+              |ZURBATAN.      |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |IZENAN.        |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |TANZAR.        |  Do.
+              |               |
+       5.     |               |
+              |               |
+  Kel GARET.  |               |Doubtless originally from the Garet Mts.
+              |               |and plain in C. Air, and not to be
+              |               |confused with the Kel Garet of Div. I.,
+              |               |of whom, however, these people may have
+              |               |been a part which moved S. when the
+              |               |Itesan also went.
+              |               |
+              |Kel GARET.     |The people originally inhabiting the
+              |               |plain of that name.
+              |               |
+              |Kel GARET      |_I.e._ the “Kel Garet of the Mountain,”
+              |N’DUTSI.       |who lived in the mountains in the same
+              |               |area.
+              |               |
+              |AIAWAN.        |No information.
+              |               |
+              |TIAKKAR.       |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |IRKAIRAWAN.    |  Do.
+              |               |
+  TADADAWA,   |               |These are grouped together, largely
+  Kel TAMEI.  |               |perhaps because not enough is known to
+              |               |separate their various tribes. Their
+              |               |tribes are given without comment, as
+              |               |there is little available on record.
+              |               |
+              |TADADAWA.      |? the Tadara of Barth.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAMEL.     |
+              |               |
+              |Kel AMARKOS.   |
+              |               |
+              |Kel INTADEINI. |Probably from a place Intadeini on the
+              |               |Anu Maqaran, C. Air.
+              |               |
+              |Kel UFUGUM.    |
+              |               |
+              |TEGIBBUT.      |
+              |               |
+              | (Tgibbu)      |
+              |               |
+              |IBURUBAN.      |
+              |               |
+              | (Iabrubat)    |
+              |               |
+              |TOIYAMAMA.     |
+              |               |
+              |IRMAKARAZA.    |Perhaps connected with the name Anu
+              |               |Maqaran.
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+
+NOTE.—Barth also gives the following unidentified names of Kel Geres
+tribes: _Kel n’Sattafan_ (the Black People), which is also the
+name of the family of the Amenokal according to Bello: this tribe,
+if it is a tribe at all, may be attributed to the Itesan group;
+_Tilkatine_; _Taginna_; _Riaina_, and _Alhassan_.
+
+The caste of these tribes is not specified, but all the principal
+units, at any rate, may be assumed noble. The tribes have simply been
+enumerated here for purposes of record and comparison. They are not
+adduced as ethnological material comparable with that provided by
+the lists of tribes in Divisions I. and III.
+
+
+         DIVISION III. THE PEOPLE OF THE AÑASTAFIDET OR KEL OWI
+
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+     Group.   |Tribes and sub-|               Notes.
+              |    tribes.    |
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+      1.      |               |
+              |               |
+  IMASLAGHA.  |               |The Kel Azañieres, and therefore the
+              |               |Imaslagha, with the Izeyyakan and
+              |               |Igururan, are said to be the oldest of
+              |               |the Kel Owi division.
+              |               |
+              |IMASLAGHA.     |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |
+              |  AZAÑIERES.   |
+              |               |
+              |   Kel         |In the Azañieres mountains.
+              |   Azañieres   |
+              |   (N.).       |
+              |               |
+              |   Kel         |West of the southern Kel Nugguru in the
+              |   Intirzawen  |Intirzawen and T’ilisdak valley, S. of
+              |   (S.).       |Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAGHMEURT|In the Taghmeurt Mts. It has certain
+              |  (N.).        |unspecified servile tribes.
+              |               |
+              |   (Tagmart)   |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel ASSARARA.|In the Assarara and Agwau area, N.E.
+              |               |Air, at the places mentioned. Their
+              |               |chief in Barth’s day was Annur,
+              |               |paramount chief of Air.
+              |               |
+              |   Kel Assarara|}
+              |   (N.).       |}
+              |               |}
+              |   Kel Agwau   |}
+              |   (N.).       |}
+              |               |}
+              |   Kel Igululof|}
+              |   (N.).       |}
+              |               |}
+              |   Kel         |} Along the great valley of N.E. Air.
+              |   Oborassan   |}
+              |   (S.).       |}
+              |               |}
+              |   Kel Anu     |}
+              |   Samed (S.). |}
+              |               |}
+              |   Kel         |}
+              |   T’intellust |}
+              |   (S.).       |}
+              |               |
+              |               |The last is wrongly placed by Jean in
+              |               |Group 2 with the Kel Tafidet.
+              |               |
+              |IGURURAN       |Apparently now extinct in name.
+              |(Igururan)     |
+              |(N.).          |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel FARES    |At Fares N. of Agwau; now near Agades.
+              |  (N.).        |Their position is confirmed by Barth,
+              |               |but the place is called Tinteyyat. Their
+              |               |original name was probably Igururan, but
+              |               |since the extinction of the parent stock
+              |               |they rank as connected with the
+              |               |Imaslagha group. The “I name” Igururan
+              |               |may have been a group name in the first
+              |               |place.
+              |               |
+              |Kel ZEGEDAN.   |Name recorded by Barth but not now
+              |               |traceable. May be connected with Kel
+              |               |Bagezan, whose position might be
+              |               |described as 1½ days from T’intellust.
+              |               |
+              |IZEYYAKAN (N.).|By some described as People of the King,
+              |               |but placed by Jean, probably rightly, in
+              |               |this group. Formerly a noble portion of
+              |               |the inhabitants of Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |IMARSUTAN (N.).|The same considerations as above apply.
+              |               |Wrongly placed at Auderas. Said to have
+              |               |come from unidentified place called
+              |               |Arsu.
+              |               |
+              |  IMARSUTAN    |A comparatively modern tribe said to
+              |  (N.).        |have been formed from remnants of the
+              |               |old tribe.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAGEI    |Perhaps a totemic name, but readily
+              |  (S.).        |derived from any place abounding in “dûm
+              |               |palms.” Perhaps but not necessarily a
+              |   (Kel Teget) |conquered part of Itesan Kel Tagei (cf.
+              |               |Div. II Group 1).
+              |   (? Kel      |
+              |   Tintagete)  |
+              |               |
+              |Kel ERARAR.    |Name means “People of the Plain,” and
+              |               |probably refers to plain N. of
+              |               |T’intellust, near which Barth also
+              |               |places them. Name may therefore be
+              |               |generic and applicable to various
+              |               |sections in group.
+              |               |
+      2.      |               |
+              |               |
+  IGERMADEN.  |               |The name is radically connected with
+              |               |Jerma or Garama in the Fezzan.
+              |               |
+              |IGERMADEN.     |
+              |               |
+              |  IGERMADEN    |At Ajiru, E. of Bagezan. The people of
+              |  (N.).        |Belkho, paramount chief of Air after
+              |               |Annur.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel AJIRU    |Perhaps an alternative name for above,
+              |  (N.).        |for the sedentary element among them.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |The name of the inhabitants of
+              |  ASSATARTAR   |Assatartar other than the Immikitan
+              |  (N.).        |element there (see Div. I Groups 3 and
+              |               |4).
+              |               |
+              |  (IMMIKITAN   |Of Assatartar; have become to be
+              |  (N.)).       |considered connected with Igermaden
+              |               |owing to propinquity and gradual
+              |               |absorption.
+              |               |
+              |  (Kel TAGERMAT|Perhaps a confusion for Kel Taghmeurt in
+              |  (N.)).       |Group 1; placed by Barth at unidentified
+              |               |place, Azuraiden, E.N.E. of T’intellust,
+              |               |corresponding roughly with Taghmeurt
+              |               |mountains.
+              |               |
+              |IGADEMAWEN.    |Wrongly placed by Jean in Imaslagha
+              |               |group.
+              | (Ikademawen)  |
+              |               |
+              |  IGADEMAWEN   |Afasas and Beughqot areas E. of Bagezan.
+              |  (N.).        |The name suggests analogies to Kel Mawen
+              |               |of Immikitan in Div. I. Groups 3 and 4.
+              |   (Kel Mawen?)|Perhaps a part of group was here
+              |               |absorbed as in case of Kel Assartartar.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel NABARO   |Nabaro villages near Tabello, E. of
+              |  (?).         |Bagezan.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAFIDET  |Also given, but wrongly I think, as an
+              |  (N.).        |independent tribe in this group. Lived
+              |               |in the Tafidet Mts. with unspecified
+              |   Kel Tafidet.|servile tribes.
+              |               |
+              |   Kel         |Anfissac well E. of T’imia massif.
+              |  Anfissac.    |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |A part of the same tribe which is also
+              |  INTIRZAWEN   |servile to Kel Azañieres in Group 1.
+              |  (S.).        |
+              |               |
+              |Kel AGALAK (?).|Placed by Jean in this group. The name
+              |               |is well known but tribe was not
+              |               |identified by me.
+              |               |
+              |               |Jean also places some Ifadeyen, some
+              |               |Ikazkazan of Garazu in Damergu, and some
+              |               |people with generic name of Kel Ighazar
+              |               |in this group; but he is, I think,
+              |               |mistaken in doing so.
+              |               |
+      3.      |               |
+              |               |
+  IMASRODANG. |               |In the Ighazar, whence they have
+              |               |acquired the generic name of Kel
+   Kel        |               |Ighazar. The latter are placed by Jean
+   IGHAZAR.   |               |in Group 2, but they are certainly a
+              |               |separate stock, namely, the Imasrodang,
+              |               |who are co-equal with Igermaden.
+              |               |
+              |               |The headman of the group is Abdulkerim,
+              |               |now living at Azzal near Agades, but
+              |               |formerly settled at T’intaghoda.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel          |At T’intaghoda. Reputed to be Holy Men.
+              |  T’INTAGHODA  |
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAMGAK or|Some serfs and some free wild men living
+              |  IMEDIDERAN.  |in Tamgak, historically belonging to,
+              |               |but never subjected by, Kel T’intaghoda.
+              |               |Their status is undefined, for their
+              |               |inherent nobility is recognised.
+              |               |
+              |Kel ELAR (N.). |}
+              |               |}
+              |Kel IBERKOM    |}
+              |(N.).          |}
+              |               |} All at various points in the Ighazar
+              | (Kel Abirkom) |} between Iferuan and Iberkom.
+              |               |}
+              | (Kel Aberkan) |}
+              |               |}
+              |Kel SELIUFET   |}
+              |(N.).          |}
+              |               |
+              |Kel IFERUAN    |Not to be confused with Kel Ferwan in
+              |(N.).          |Div. I.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TEDEKEL    |Now believed to be extinct. Originally
+              |(?).           |also in Ighazar, but said to have become
+              |               |merged with other clans.
+              | (Kel Fedekel) |
+              |               |
+              | (Fedala)      |
+              |               |
+      4.      |               |
+              |               |
+  IKAZKAZAN.  |               |The tribe as such of this name has
+              |               |disappeared in the various large groups
+              |               |into which it has become divided. It is
+              |               |considered the junior group of the Kel
+              |               |Owi Confederation, the others being
+              |               |called from their chief constituent
+              |               |parts the Kel Tafidet and Kel Azañieres.
+              |               |The use of these territorial names
+              |               |corresponds in the Ikazkazan to the use
+              |               |of the names of the big subgroups, the
+              |               |Kel Tamat, Kel Ulli, etc.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAMAT.     |A sub-group named from the Tamat acacia
+              |               |tree. It is the great northern sub-group
+              |               |of the Ikazkazan, corresponding with the
+              |               |Kel Ulli in the south. It would include
+              |               |all the northern Ikazkazan had some
+              |               |tribes not broken off to virtual
+              |               |independent status.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAMAT    |In part near Agellal, where it has
+              |  (N.).        |contributed to form Kel Agellal. Also at
+              |               |Ben Guten in W. Air. There is also a
+              |               |section in Damergu under the Kel Ulli
+              |               |grouping.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TUBUZZAT |W. Air. In some respects almost
+              |  (N.).        |independent.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel AGELLAL  |Agellal village. The local tribe of this
+              |  (N.).        |name is composed of Kel Tamat, or Kel
+              |               |Tubuzzat and of certain People of the
+              |               |King (see Div. I. Group 5).
+              |               |
+              |  (Kel Wadigi) |Formed of certain composite Kel Agellal
+              |               |and other People of the King (see Div.
+              |               |I. Group 5).
+              |               |
+              |  IBANDERAN (? |Sakafat in W. Air, and also in S.W. Air.
+              |  S.)          |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel LAZARET. |As above.
+              |               |
+              |   (Kel Azaret)|
+              |               |
+              |  IGERZAWEN.   |  Do.
+              |               |
+              |  ALBURDATAN   |At Auderas.
+              |  (S.).        |
+              |               |
+              |  IFAGARWAL (? |At Issakanan in S.W. Air.
+              |  S.).         |
+              |               |
+              |   (Afaguruel) |
+              |               |
+              |  ADAMBER.     |At T’in Wafara, which is unidentified.
+              |               |
+              |  AZENATA.     |No information.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAKRIZAT   |At Takrizat in N. Air. Having
+              |(N.).          |unspecified servile tribes, including
+              |               |perhaps some of the above.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAGEI (N.).|Distinct from Kel Tagei (S.) in Group 1.
+              |               |Possibly, but not necessarily, connected
+              |               |with Itesan Kel Tagei (cf. Div. II.
+              |               |Group 1), W. Air.
+              |               |
+              |Kel GHARUS.    |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel GHARUS   |Gharus valley, Lower Ighazar. Very
+              |  (N.).        |nomadic and perhaps the largest tribe in
+              |               |Air.
+              |               |
+              |  AHAGGAREN    |Talak plain. Serfs of Kel Gharus but,
+              |  (S.).        |having had a noble origin in the north
+              |               |in Ahaggar, are considered quasi-noble
+              |               |in status.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TATTUS.    |Unidentified.
+              |               |
+              |Kel ULLI.      |Meaning the “People of the Goats.”
+              |               |Collective name for all the Ikazkazan in
+              |               |S. Air and Damergu.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel ULLI.    |Tegama and Damergu.
+              |               |
+              |  IMUZURAK     |Probably a part of older Imuzurak (N.)
+              |  (S.).        |in Div. IV.
+              |               |
+              |  (ISHERIFAN   |Holy Men. Gamram area (cf. Div. II.
+              |  (N.)).       |Group 2 and Division IV.).
+              |               |
+              |  IFADALEN     |Damergu.
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TAMAT    |  Do. (Cf. above.)
+              |  (N.).        |
+              |               |
+              |               |The Kel Ulli group, though nominally
+              |               |Ikazkazan and probably including other
+              |               |tribes than those given above, seem to
+              |               |have absorbed a number of early Tuareg
+              |               |in Damergu. Their presence in this group
+              |               |has led to the suspicion that the
+              |               |latter, instead of being absorbed by an
+              |               |extraneous group of Tuareg, namely, the
+              |               |Kel Owi, really represent the true
+              |               |Ikazkazan stock, which was not in truth
+              |               |a Kel Owi family or clan at all, but a
+              |               |mass of people who joined forces with
+              |               |the latter at an early period of their
+              |               |sojourn in Air.
+              |               |
+      5.      |               |
+              |               |
+  Independent |               |Among the Kel Owi there are a number of
+  tribes.     |               |independent tribes of servile status.
+              |               |Their existence is not paralleled in the
+              |               |other divisions. They owe allegiance,
+              |               |not to any particular noble tribe, but
+              |               |directly to the Añastafidet. They are
+              |               |consequently more emancipated than most
+              |               |Imghad, a phenomenon which confirms the
+              |               |greater cultural development of the Kel
+              |               |Owi.
+              |               |
+              |Kel NUGGURU    |Divided into two parts. That of the
+              |(S.).          |north called the Toshit (part) N’Yussuf
+              |               |in the Assada valley is actually under
+              |               |Ahodu of Auderas. The southern part
+              |               |between Bagezan and Taruaji Mts. is
+              |               |under Khodi, who claims to be headman of
+              |               |Auderas.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel Idakka.  |A part of, or synonymous with, one of
+              |               |above.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel Taferaut.|  Do.
+              |               |
+              |Kel BAGEZAN    |In Bagezan under Mineru or El Minir. A
+              |(S.).          |recent composite tribe, not to be
+              |               |confused with Kel Bagezan in Div. I.
+              |  Kel Bazezan. |Group 1. Made up of Ittegen of Kel Tadek
+              |               |(Div. I. Group 2) and several other
+              |  Ittegen.     |elements.
+              |               |
+              |  Kel TOWAR.   |A sedentary group, principally of serfs,
+              |               |at Towar, S. Bagezan.
+              |               |
+              |Kel T’IMIA     |Nobles of various, but all Kel Owi,
+              |(N.).          |tribal origins living at T’imia village
+              |               |under Fugda.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TARANET.   |Unidentified.
+              |               |
+              |Kel TAFASAS.   |Unidentified, unless the inhabitants of
+              |               |the villages along the Afasas valley, E.
+              |               |of Bagezan.
+  ------------+---------------+----------------------------------------
+
+
+                   DIVISION IV. THE TUAREG OF DAMERGU
+
+                         A. People of the King.
+
+                     B. People of the Añastafidet.
+
+  ---------------+-----------------------------------------
+  Tribe and sub- |                Notes.
+     tribe.      |
+  ---------------+-----------------------------------------
+    A. People of |The oldest tribes in Damergu, as might
+     the King.   |be expected, are all of the People of
+                 |the King. They do not belong to any of
+                 |the Air tribes of this category; like
+                 |most of the latter, they probably
+                 |represent the oldest stock of Tuareg in
+                 |these regions.
+                 |
+                 |It has not been possible to identify the
+                 |names of the stock or stocks to which
+                 |the tribes belonged, so no larger
+                 |grouping has been attempted.
+                 |
+  IFOGHAS (N.).  |The Ifoghas certainly represent a stock
+                 |as well as a tribe, but it has not been
+                 |ascertained whether among the Damergu
+                 |Ifoghas several tribal divisions are
+                 |recognised, nor whether the under-
+                 |mentioned tribes were originally of the
+                 |Ifoghas group. Though very poor and
+                 |fallen on evil days, they are considered
+                 |Holy Men, and would be more readily
+                 |recognised as noble were their state of
+                 |destitution less severe. They are the
+                 |Ifuraces of the classics and have
+                 |related groups in other parts of the
+                 |Sahara.
+                 |
+  Kel TAMIZGIDDA |Meaning the People of the Mosque, Holy
+  (N.).          |Men. Farak area. (See further note
+                 |below.)
+   (Misgiddan)   |
+                 |
+   (? Mosgu)     |
+                 |
+  ISHERIFAN (N.).|In Damergu since the earliest time. The
+                 |name is equivalent to “Ashraf,” or
+                 |Descendants of the Prophet. Gamram area.
+                 |(See further note below.)
+                 |
+  “MALLAMEI.”    |A name given by Jean. It appears to be a
+                 |Hausa equivalent of one of the above
+                 |names, indicating that the tribe is
+                 |holy.
+                 |
+                 |The last three names (probably only two
+                 |names are really involved) are not
+                 |really proper names. They are
+                 |descriptive names connected with the
+                 |attribution of sanctity to the men of
+                 |these clans. In view of the well-known
+                 |application of such a description to the
+                 |Ifoghas wherever this tribe appears, it
+                 |is quite justifiable to suppose that
+                 |these clans, which incidentally are
+                 |known to have inhabited Damergu from
+                 |remote times, are really tribes of the
+                 |Ifoghas stock.
+                 |
+  IZAGARAN.      |
+                 |
+   (Izagharan) (?|In Damergu from earliest times.
+   N).           |
+                 |
+  IZARZARAN (?   |Name recorded by Jean.
+  N.).           |
+                 |
+  IGDALEN (N.).  |A stock known to have entered these
+                 |parts with the very first Tuareg to
+                 |arrive. Subdivisions of this stock are
+                 |not known unless some of the other
+                 |Damergu tribes and Air clans previously
+                 |mentioned must so be classed.
+                 |
+                 |S. of Agades, W. Tegama and N. Damergu.
+                 |Holy Men. Very fair. Said not to carry
+                 |arms.
+                 |
+  (Kel Tadek).   |A semi-independent tribe of the Kel
+  Kel UMUZUT     |Tadek stock (see Div. I. No. 2). N.
+  (N.).          |Damergu.
+                 |
+  IFADEYEN (N.). |Now live in Azawagh and Damergu (see
+                 |Div. I. No. 6).
+                 |
+   B. People of  |
+       the       |
+   Añastafidet.  |
+                 |
+  IKAZKAZAN. Kel |Including various unspecified sub-tribes
+  ULLI.          |(N.) and (S.).
+                 |
+  IFADALEN (S.). |Wrongly placed by Jean as an independent
+                 |tribe in Damergu. They are Holy Men and
+                 |probably were of the same stock as
+                 |tribes in category A (above), but at one
+                 |time were subjected by the Ikazkazan.
+                 |
+                 |The Isherifan are wrongly given by Jean
+                 |as a People of the Añastafidet, probably
+                 |on the grounds that they were at one
+                 |time conquered by Belkho, chief of the
+                 |Igermaden (see Div. III. No. 2).
+                 |
+                 |The Ikazkazan and Immikitan of Elakkos
+                 |are specifically referred to at length
+                 |in the text of the book.
+  ---------------+-----------------------------------------
+
+
+                               DIVISION V
+
+Various unlocated and unidentified tribes; generic tribal names;
+more important village groups of mixed origins owing to breakdown of
+tribal organisation under sedentary conditions.
+
+  Kel AGELLAL.    See Div. I. Group 5 and Div. III. Group
+                  4. Originally an Imaqoaran area, but
+                  these, with Ikazkazan of various tribes
+                  and people from Ighazar, formed the
+                  present Kel Agellal. Principally noble,
+                  but also some Imghad. Agellal village.
+
+  Kel ZILALET.    See Div. I. Group 5. Zilalet village.
+
+  Kel SIDAWET.    Do. Sidawet village.
+
+  Kel AUDERAS.    Principally Kel Aggata (_q.v._ Div. I.
+                  Groups 2 and 4) and Kel NUGGURU (_q.v._
+                  Div. III. Group 5). All Imghad except
+                  three or four families of Kel Aggata and
+                  Ahodu’s own dependents from Kel Tadek
+                  who came when he was given the
+                  chieftainship of the village by the
+                  French at the time of the Foureau-Lamy
+                  expedition. Auderas village.
+
+  Kel T’IMIA.     All noble Kel Owi, but derived from many
+                  different tribes. Present inhabitants
+                  occupied village after the Kel T’imia of
+                  the Kel Geres went out. T’imia valley.
+                  See Div. III. Group 5.
+
+  Kel TOWAR.      Mixed Imghad of Kel Owi with one or two
+                  nobles from Kel Bagezan and Imasrodang.
+                  Towar village.
+
+  Kel AGADES.     Not a strict term: only used in a
+                  geographical sense. The real inhabitants
+                  of Agades are called Emagadezi (_vide_
+                  Chap. III). Songhai colony left in the
+                  sixteenth century, and people from all
+                  other tribes make up population, which
+                  is principally Imghad. Since 1917, when
+                  they lost their camels, many of the
+                  Tuareg from N. Air settled in Agades, or
+                  in the neighbourhood.
+
+  Kel IN GALL.    Population composed of Songhai, Igdalen
+                  and some Aulimmiden in addition to Kel
+                  Ferwan and Ikazkazan. There are probably
+                  some Ifoghas both here and also at the
+                  three Tagiddas. In Gall area.
+
+  IKARADAN.       The Temajegh name for the Tebu, of which
+                  there are probably several groups in Air
+                  captured on raids; notably one group, a
+                  part of the Kel Aggata.
+
+  IZERAN.         Given by Barth as a tribal name, but as
+                  the word (in the correct form, Izghan)
+                  means “Kanuri” in Temajegh, the same
+                  considerations apply as in the case of
+                  the Ikaradan. Many Kanuri groups are
+                  known to have been captured on raids.
+
+  Kel IGHAZAR.    A generic term for all the tribes living
+                  in the Ighazar. They are principally
+                  Imasrodang Kel Owi.
+
+  Kel AGHIL.      Given by Barth as Kel Aril. A generic
+                  term meaning the “People of the South,”
+                  and applied especially to the Kel Geres.
+
+  Kel ATARAM.     Meaning the “People of the West,”
+                  applied especially to the Tuareg and
+                  Moors of Timbuctoo, and the Aulimmiden
+                  and Tuareg of the Mountain, in the
+                  Western Desert.
+
+  Kel INNEK.      Given by Barth as a tribal name. But it
+                  means the “People of the East,” and is
+                  similar to the above names.
+
+  Kel T’ISEMT.    (Kel Tecoum) Meaning the “People of the
+                  Salt.” According to Jean it is applied
+                  to a tribe in the Telwa valley, but
+                  appears to be in the nature of a
+                  nickname given to people who made the
+                  collecting of Agha a trade. It is given
+                  to the southern Kel Nugguru generally
+                  (_q.v._ Div. III. Group 5) and to the
+                  people of the Tagiddas and the Ifoghas
+                  of Damergu. The People of the Tagiddas
+                  in any case are probably of the Ifoghas,
+                  so that Kel T’isemt may have been the
+                  name of a large division of the latter
+                  on the analogy of the “Kel Ulli”
+                  division of the Ikazkazan.
+
+  IDEMKIUN.       Seems to be the tribal name of which
+                  Tademekka is the feminine form.
+                  According to Cortier (Appendix to _D’une
+                  Rive à l’Autre du Sahara_) this tribe
+                  survives in Air, but I have been unable
+                  to trace the name. They are probably a
+                  part of the Tuareg who settled in Air
+                  and further west during the very first
+                  migrations which took place.
+
+  Kel TALAK.      A generic name for all the tribes which
+                  roam about the Talak plain.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX III
+
+                        ELAKKOS AND TERMIT[439]
+
+
+North of Gure the hills terminate suddenly in a cliff, and the area
+called Elakkos begins to the north of them. It has an individuality
+of its very own. A maze of small, closed depressions, that become
+ponds and lakes after the rainy season, break up the plain into sharp
+unsystematic undulations, which appear originally to have been sand
+dunes. They have now become fixed with grass and scanty scrub, but in
+most cases retain their characteristic shape. Here and there, rising
+several hundred feet above the plain, are a number of flat-topped
+hills of red sandstone. They stand alone like islands off a rock-bound
+coast. The edges of the hills are sheer cliffs, but the lower parts
+are covered with fallen detritus, which has formed steep slopes above
+the plain, and the wind has washed the sand up against their sides.
+
+The plain of Elakkos is like a sea floor from which the water has
+only recently run off. An irregular sand-strewn bottom has been
+left, churned up by immense waves that, in a succession of cyclonic
+storms, washed the sand up against the sides of the islands before
+retreating. When the blinding glare of midday has passed, deep blue
+shadows in the hills appear, and the country looks very beautiful. The
+great table-topped hills are blood-red and blue, in an expanse of
+yellow sea. Little villages are dotted about in the plain with a few
+trees and some deep green vegetation in the hollows.
+
+                                                    [ADDITIONAL PLATE]
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL TEBU]
+
+[Illustration: TERMIT PEAK AND WELL]
+
+Lying between the desert and the Sudan, Elakkos has suffered
+greatly. It has been a field of battle where the Tuareg of Air, the
+Tebu from the north-east and the people of Bornu have met one another
+in order to do battle. Until the advent of the French it was considered
+the legitimate playground for the only international sport known
+in the desert, the gentle occupation of raid and counter-raid. The
+flat-topped hills, with scarcely a path worthy of the name to ascend
+the cliffs, were the citadels of the villages which nestle under their
+slopes. The huts in the villages are built of straw with conical roofs:
+neither mud buildings nor walled settlements exist. The inhabitants
+are Kanuri, sedentary Tuareg, and both nomadic and settled Tebu.
+
+While the Tuareg and Tebu live side by side with the Kanuri, the
+first two are such uncompromising enemies that they never adventure
+themselves into each other’s territory. The dividing line between
+them in Elakkos is sharp and clearly defined; it runs just west of
+the village group of Bultum, which is the last permanent settlement
+on the caravan road from Damagarim to Kawar by the wells of Termit,
+where twice a year pass caravans to fetch salt in the east. They leave
+at the same seasons when the people of Air, whom they join at Fashi,
+also cross the desert.
+
+The Tuareg of Elakkos to-day are sedentary, but their tribal names,
+Ikazkazan and Immikitan, belong to noble Air clans of confirmed
+nomadic habits. As in Damergu, they are the ruling class. Barth,[440]
+basing himself on hearsay information sixty years earlier than Jean,
+stated that they were akin to the Tegama people.[441] The Ikazkazan of
+Garazu in Elakkos, however, according to tradition, are late arrivals,
+certainly later than the Immikitan, who live rather further east. The
+latter seem to have come when the first Tuareg arrived from the
+east and installed themselves in Air. It is not clear which of the
+two tribal groups Barth proposed to classify as akin to the Tegama,
+but presumably he meant the Immikitan.
+
+The Ikazkazan of Garazu are grouped by Jean[442] as a sub-tribe of the
+Kel Tafidet, probably the, if not actually the, principal tribe of the
+Kel Owi Confederation. While I had no opportunity during my only too
+short sojourn in Elakkos, in the course of a rapid march to Termit,
+to collect information on the ethnology of the Tuareg in this area,
+my experience in Air leads me to doubt the accuracy of Jean’s
+attribution. It is very improbable that a section of so important
+a tribe as the Ikazkazan could in any circumstances have come under
+the control of another tribe within the same Kel Owi Confederation,
+like the Kel Tafidet, least of all when it had moved so far afield
+as Elakkos.
+
+Both from Barth’s description of the “Principality of Elakkos,”
+that “sequestered haunt of robbers and freebooters,” as well
+as from other indications, there seem to have been more People of
+the Veil in this area in former days than now. The decrease may
+be accounted for by a general movement westwards, as a consequence
+of the encroachments of the Kanuri from Bornu, who were themselves
+constantly being driven onwards by pressure from the east, by the
+advent in the Chad area of the Arab tribes from the north, and by
+raids of the Tebu from Tibesti.[443]
+
+Barth records that Elakkos was celebrated among the hungry people of
+the desert on account of its grain. The same reputation and source
+of wealth continue to the present time. More millet is grown in a
+limited area on the sandy plains of this country than in almost any
+other part of the belt which marks the transition between the Desert
+and the Sown. But Elakkos is especially celebrated among the Tuareg
+all over North Africa for the shields which are used by the People
+of the Veil and are made in this country. The hide of the white oryx,
+which with much other game lives in the bush along the border of the
+desert, is used for their manufacture. Their reputation in Temajegh
+speech and poetry points to the country of Elakkos having long been
+essentially Tuareg, for the traditional shape and technique are not
+found among the neighbouring peoples.
+
+The strong circumstantial evidence regarding the essentially Tuareg
+character of the country, is further borne out by a reference in Leo
+to the Lemta Tuareg. This people, we are told, extended over all that
+part of North Africa which lay immediately east of the Targa people,
+from the Fezzan as far as Kawkaw. The latter, for reasons which have
+been discussed, was not Gao or Gago on the Niger, but Kuka on Lake
+Chad.[444] But there is more than this, Elakkos is alternatively spelt
+Alakkos, Alakwas, and Ilagwas, which cannot be denied to bear a marked
+resemblance to the name of the Ilasgwas people of Corippus, who in
+Byzantine times were fighting in the Fezzan, or in other words in an
+area, according to Leo, occupied by the Lemta Tuareg. One would in any
+case have been inclined to accept the tradition that the early Tuareg
+in Elakkos were formerly more numerous than now, but in the light of
+this additional evidence I am satisfied that they are identical with
+the very Ilasgwas who came from the north, and therefore of the same
+stock as the Tuareg in the Fezzan. It follows that they were of the old
+Aulimmiden-Lemta stock and that they were a part of the latter group
+which entered the Chad area from the north and then moved westwards. I
+further believe that the Ilasgwas gave their name to Elakkos, where
+some of them stayed while the rest of the Lemta tribes went on, some
+of them into Air and some of them further west. The origin both of
+the Immikitan in Elakkos and in Air is due to this movement.
+
+Elakkos is well supplied with water at all times of the year. Tropical
+summer rains fall in abundance, leaving pools in the depressions,
+to which most of the inhabitants of the villages migrate for the few
+weeks which elapse between sowing and reaping the millet, during and
+directly after the annual break of the weather. As the pools dry up,
+leaving a luxuriant Sudanese vegetation around the edges, recourse
+again becomes necessary to the numerous village wells. They are all
+of considerable depth, and surrounded by large spoil heaps, but the
+output is not very copious, or rather not sufficiently large to supply
+numerous thirsty camels in hot weather, when each animal may drink
+ten gallons or more. I travelled through Elakkos in June 1922 with a
+section of French Camel Corps, and we found watering a very tedious
+operation. The wells we used were 150 to 220 feet deep, and in order
+that the fastidious animals should drink copiously, the water had to be
+drawn at noon in a “shade temperature” ranging from 105° to 110°
+Fahr. in places where invariably there was no real shade to be seen.
+
+After leaving the Bultum group of three Kanuri and Tebu hamlets, the
+road from Damagarim to Kawar crosses a low scarp and plunges into the
+belt of thick green bush which merges imperceptibly into small thorn
+scrub and divides the Southland from the desert. The vegetation in
+this zone ranges from small thorns to largish trees. It is part of
+the same belt of bush which surrounds Damergu, with this difference,
+that the latter immediately south of Air extends considerably further
+north and forms a salient of vegetation into the desert. The Elakkos
+bush is luxuriant even in the dry season, and abounds in game. If a few
+more wells were made available it would soon be thickly inhabited by
+pastoral tribes, now that immunity from the northern raiding parties
+has more or less been assured. It is a sanctuary for large herds of
+various species of gazelle, for the white oryx and addax antelope, as
+well as for numerous ostriches and some giraffes. There are excellent
+pastures for cattle, goats and camels, but although some of the Damergu
+Tuareg use the western part for their flocks and a few Tebu use the
+eastern side, there are few inhabitants in the country at any time
+of year. The surface of old fixed dunes is undulating, and in the
+occasional deep hollows are a few wells like those of Tasr[445] and
+Teshkar[446] on the Termit road, and Bullum Babá and others to the
+west. The wells belong to the Tebu, who visit them with their cattle
+in the summer. Immediately around them the vegetation has been eaten
+bare and the whitish downs under which they lie show up some distance
+away. The three wells at Tasr are twenty-seven feet deep; they are the
+last water before the Termit wells are reached, forty hours’ fast
+marching further on into the desert. The road, it is true, passes by
+Teshkar, but the output of the single well there, forty-five feet deep,
+is insufficient for more than a few animals at a time.
+
+For more than ten hours’ marching N.N.E. of Teshkar, which is in
+Lat. 15° 07′ 40″ N., Long. 10° 35′ 10″E.,[447] the country
+gradually gets more barren, but the character of the bush is maintained
+by small trees and shrubs on a reddish ground. Then suddenly the track
+descends into a hollow between bare snow-white dunes. A succession of
+depressions between them is followed, the path crossing the intervening
+sand-hills diagonally to their general direction. The sand dunes
+themselves are loose and shifting, but the hollows curiously enough
+are permanent and contain small groups of vivid green acacias. When
+we first entered the dunes there was a thick white mist on all the
+land and the green trees and white sand looked very mysterious and
+beautiful in the early dawn. This belt of dunes marks the edge of
+the desert itself. The long, buff-coloured, whale-back dunes of the
+latter are covered with very scanty salt grass and scrub; they are
+typical of the Saharan steppe desert. The surface is fairly good;
+the form of the dunes is fixed, for the sand is heavy. The occasional
+small tree is a landmark for miles around. At one point we passed
+a depression with some larger acacias, but otherwise there were no
+recognisable marks to guide a caravan to Termit and the north-east.
+
+The heat of the June weather obliged us to travel largely by night,
+and in the course of one march which commenced at 3 a.m. it soon became
+apparent that the guide had lost his way. He had mistaken a star to
+the west of the Southern Cross for the one to the east of Polaris,
+and was marching S.W. instead of N.N.E. We decided to halt until dawn,
+but not before many precious hours had been wasted and the prospect of
+reaching Termit on the third day after leaving Teshkar had completely
+vanished, the normal distance from there to the wells of Termit being
+twenty-eight hours’ fast marching, or about thirty-five by caravan.
+
+Under ordinary conditions the mountains of Termit are visible for
+some time before they are reached; in point of fact on our way
+south we saw the Centre Peak at a distance of no less than fourteen
+hours’ marching. Approaching it, however, the intense heat and wind
+had obscured everything in a dense mist which limited the maximum
+visibility to under two miles. On this day in camp the thermometer
+registered 113·9° F. in the shade at 2 p.m. The heat usually appeared
+to last without appreciable change from 11 a.m. till 3 p.m. Owing to
+the misadventure of the previous night we were not very sure of our
+position, and dependent on seeing the mountains to find our next water,
+which we sorely needed as the supply was rather short. Then suddenly as
+evening came on the atmosphere cleared and an imposing chain of dark,
+jagged peaks, with no appreciable foot-hills, appeared suddenly in
+the east. The range faded out of sight to the north and south beneath
+the sand of the desert. An isolated group of blue mountains in a sea
+of yellow sand at evening is one of those unforgettable sights which
+reward the traveller in the desert. Their beauty is never equalled
+by any snowy peaks or waterfalls in a more favoured land.
+
+After crossing a narrow belt of shifting sand we camped the next
+morning in a valley at the foot of the Centre Peak of Termit, near the
+famous well which is reputed to have been made by Divine agency. The
+water lies in Lat. 16° 04′ 10″ N., Long. 11° 04′ 50″ E.,[448]
+forty feet below ground. The bottom of the well has become vaulted
+owing to the continual collapse of the sides. In the course of a
+week’s stay another well was dug a few yards from the old one,
+in spite of the pessimism of the well-diggers, who considered it
+useless as well as very tiring to emulate the Almighty. But about
+forty feet down through the packed sand of the valley-bottom water
+filtering through a bed of loose gravel was duly reached. Some 1½
+miles west in a continuation of the valley where it turns towards the
+north, is another group of several wells. They are almost surrounded
+by sand dunes, and have latterly in part become silted up. Some of
+them are likely to be covered entirely in a few years’ time by
+an encroaching dune. We cleared two of these wells, but they proved
+very saline in contrast with the excellent water of the main wells;
+nevertheless they were sufficiently good for camels.
+
+Termit is within the area of the summer rains, which form a pool
+lasting for about two months to the north of the western group of
+wells. I marched seven miles north with some Tebu who were based on
+Termit for their hunting season without reaching anywhere near the end
+of the range. The vegetation got scantier and the loose sand of the
+outer desert had been washed higher and higher up the eastern sides of
+the hills, which here extended in a single chain of no great depth in
+a north-easterly direction. But I never reached the end of the chain.
+
+The foot-hills around the main peak, where the laterite rock in places
+is in process of disintegration, carry a certain amount of vegetation,
+principally of the shrub known as “Abisgi” (_Capparis sodata_),
+together with several grasses and small acacias. We found many gazelle
+and antelope were pasturing there. Behind the rugged _contreforts_
+rises the steep wall of the main range to a height of over 2000 feet at
+the main peak, which appears to be about 2300 feet above the sea. To
+the east, behind the principal chain and some 300 feet higher than
+the valley where the wells are and surrounding desert, is a small
+plateau which extends for a distance of some four to five miles as
+far as a secondary and lower Eastern Chain which divides it from the
+desert beyond. This narrow plateau tapers away to the north, where the
+two chains join one another. It is well covered with small trees and
+scrub and contains several small groups of hillocks. The passes on to
+this plateau from the west run steeply up to its level; they are, in
+fact, the ravines formed by the water draining off the plain, which,
+when we looked down on it from the centre peak, appeared to be the
+playground of several enormous flocks of antelope and gazelle. The
+mountain sheep of Air was also found and shot here—the furthest
+south where this animal has yet been reported.
+
+The rocky slopes of the range are incredibly rough. They are entirely
+covered with loose pebbles, stones and boulders of all sizes. In some
+places the black laterite rock has assumed the strangest shapes. At
+one point on the centre peak the entire slope was apparently covered
+with stone drain-pipes, whole and broken, including perfectly shaped
+specimens with ½ in. walls, 15 in. long and 5 in. to 2 in. in
+internal diameter. In addition to these, plates, bowls, cylinders,
+small balls and tiles of all shapes were to be seen.
+
+Although capable of supporting the flocks of a limited number of
+people, there are no traces of inhabitants. Termit never seems to have
+been anything but a _point de passage_. It was for long a favourite
+haunt of Tebu raiders from the N.E. and E., for the road from the
+south branches here both to Fashi and to Bilma. There is also a track
+to the Chad country by Ido well, and one to Agadem on the Kawar-Chad
+road. There were traditions of a direct caravan road from Air to Lake
+Chad, which I was anxious to investigate, but the condition of my
+camels made it impossible. I am glad to say that connection between
+the Elakkos Camel Patrol and Air was successfully established in the
+course of the summer of 1922 by the unit I had accompanied to Termit,
+and thanks to the courtesy of my friend, its Commanding Officer,
+than whom I have never met a more perfect travelling companion, I
+was supplied with full details which I reproduce in his own words,
+translated into English:
+
+“From Talras (an old well near T’igefen) we marched together (two
+sections of Camel Corps) to the north for about 80 km. There we were
+lucky enough in the middle of a truly desert area to chance on a patch
+of trees, perhaps some 700 to 800 in number, where we parted company. I
+marched east for thirty-seven hours and made the peak overhanging
+the walls of Termit with great accuracy. Lieut. X. (with the other
+section of Camel Corps), after marching thirty-six hours approximately
+north-west and following a valley bed, arrived at Eghalgawen (in
+South Air). I made him come back by Tanut. . . . When I return I
+shall have a well dug where we separated, and the Agades-Termit road
+will be possible for going direct to Chad, as I know there is a well
+between Termit and the lake.”
+
+In improving the water supply at Termit we had accomplished our
+work. I was obliged to give up my idea of going straight to Air,
+and consequently returned with the Camel Corps to Teshkar, marching
+twenty-seven hours in three comfortable stages of seven, nine and
+eleven hours. There we parted company. I proceeded due west with four
+camels to rejoin my own caravan, marching to the wells of Bullum
+Babá (two wells forty feet deep), and thence through impenetrable
+bush without landmarks or visibility until I crossed the Diom-Talras
+track, along which I passed in a north-west direction. I had intended
+to water at T’igefen just south of Talras, but found the wells
+there as well as those at Fonfoni had been filled in. Like those of
+Adermellen and Tamatut, they were destroyed in 1917 during the revolt
+in Air to prevent raiding towards the south. Water was eventually
+obtained in shallow wells at Ighelaf, though a violent and drenching
+thunderstorm at T’igefen, the first one of the season, would have
+provided drinking water had I been really short; as it was, it merely
+made my men and myself very wet and cold and miserable during the
+ensuing night. I reached the first village of Damergu at Guliski on
+the fifth day from Teshkar.
+
+
+[Footnote 439: See also Plates 3 and 4.]
+
+[Footnote 440: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 549-50.]
+
+[Footnote 441: Cf. Chap. II. _supra_.]
+
+[Footnote 442: Jean, _op. cit._, pp. 102 and 109.]
+
+[Footnote 443: Cf. Chaps. XII. and XIII.]
+
+[Footnote 444: See map, page 331, and Chaps. XI. and XII.]
+
+[Footnote 445: Also pronounced Tars. See map, facing page 36.]
+
+[Footnote 446: Spelt Tashkeur on the French maps.]
+
+[Footnote 447: See Appendix I.]
+
+[Footnote 448: See Appendix I.]
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX IV
+
+                         IBN BATUTAH’S JOURNEY
+
+
+Ibn Abdallah Muhammad, better known as Ibn Batutah, seems to have
+returned to the north by way of Air from a visit to the Sudan which
+he made after his better known travels in the East. He left Fez in
+A.D. 1351 for the countries of the Upper Niger by way of Sijilmasa[449]
+and Tegaza,[450] and returned to Morocco in 1354. His account[451] of
+Air and the neighbouring parts is brief but very well worth examining,
+as it raises several interesting historical points.
+
+After visiting all the Western Sudan as far as Kawkaw (Gao or Gago
+or Gaogao) on the Niger he went to Bardama, where the inhabitants
+protect caravans and the women are chaste and beautiful, and “next
+arrived at Nakda, which is handsome and built of red stone.”[452] The
+variants of this name are spelt نَكْدَا, Nakda; ثُكْذَا,
+Thukdha; تَكْدَا, Tukda, and by the learned Kosegarten in his
+version تَكَدَّا, Takadda. The latter, with a somewhat corrupt
+text, reads: “_Takadda scorpiis abundat. Segetes ibi raræ. Scorpii
+morsu repentinum infantibus adferunt mortem, cui remedio occurritur
+nullo: viros tamen raro perimunt. Urbis incolæ sola mercatura
+versantur. Ægyptum adeunt, indique vestes pretiosas afferunt;
+de servorum et mancipiorum multudine inter se gloriunt._” Lee’s
+translation, after describing the arrival at Tekadda, proceeds: “Its
+water runs over copper mines, which changes its colour and taste. The
+inhabitants are neither artisans nor merchants. The copper mine is
+without Nakda (Tekadda), and in this slaves are employed, who melt the
+ore and make it into bars. The merchants then take it to the infidel
+and other parts of the Sudan. The Sultan of Nakda is a Berber. I met
+him and was treated as his guest, and was also provided by him with
+the necessaries for my journey. I was often visited by the Commander
+of the Faithful in Nakda, who ordered me to wait on him, which I did,
+and then prepared for my journey. I then left this place in the month
+of Sha’aban in the year 54 (A.D. 1353), and travelled till I came
+to the territories of Hakar (هكاَر), the inhabitants of which
+are a tribe of the Berbers, but a worthless people. I next came to
+Sijilmasa and thence to Fez.” Kosegarten’s version, however,
+differs somewhat, reading, “. . . and left Tekadda with a band
+of travellers making for Tuat. It is seventy stages from there, for
+which travellers take their provisions with them, as nothing is to
+be found on the road. We reached Kahor, which is the country of the
+Sultan of Kerker, with much pasture. Leaving there we journeyed for
+three days through a desert without inhabitants and lacking water;
+thence for fifteen days we journeyed through desert not lacking water
+but without inhabitants. Then we came to a place of two roads where
+the road that goes to Egypt leaves the road which leads to Tuat. Here
+is a well whose water flows over iron: if anyone washes clothes with
+these waters they become black. Thence after completing ten days we
+came to Dehkar[453] (دَهْكاَر). Through these lands, where
+grasses are scarce, we made our way, reaching Buda, which is the
+largest of the towns of Tuat.”
+
+Such are the accounts given by the first intelligent traveller in Air,
+and they are all too brief. The two versions are not contradictory,
+but in a sense supplementary to one another, and are probably excerpts
+made by different persons from a longer original work. The discrepancy
+between “Tekadda” and “Nakda,” and between “Hakar” and
+“Dehkar” are not difficult to account for in Arabic script. The
+first in each case seems to be correct. Ibn Batutah says the people of
+Hakar wore the veil; and “Hakar” is of course Haggar or Ahaggar,
+the mountains by which it is necessary to pass on the way from Air to
+Tuat; the Tuareg in Arab eyes are all worthless, as their name implies.
+
+“Kahor” is a variant for “Kahir,” used indiscriminately by
+Arab writers with “Ahir” for Air. Barth’s[454] explanation of
+the insertion of an “h” in “Ahir” (اهير), is interesting
+but unnecessary if, as is clear, it is derived from “Kahir”
+(كاهير). These variants seem all to be merely Arabic attempts to
+spell “Air,” which the Tuaregs write in their own script ⵔⵉⴰ (R Y A).
+
+Tekadda has been assumed by Barth[455] and others to be one,
+or a group, of three localities, Tagidda n’Adrar, Tagidda
+n’Tagei, Tagidda n’T’isemt,[456] lying some 40, 50 and 100
+miles respectively W. or W.N.W. of Agades.[457] But there are good
+reasons for not accepting this identification. In the first place,
+though salt deposits are worked at Tagidda n’T’isemt, there are
+no signs of copper mines at this point, or indeed anywhere in Air. In
+the second place, it is very unlikely that the ruler of a locality
+so close as any of the Tagiddas to the important communities in Air,
+in any one of which the Sultan of that country might have had his
+throne,[458] should have equalled the latter in importance; but Ibn
+Batutah’s Sultan of Tekadda seems to have been at least as important
+a personage as the Sultan of Air, whom he calls the Sultan of Kerker,
+Ruler of Kahor.
+
+The problem presented by “Kerker” is not easy, but the existence
+of a district still called Gerigeri, some fifty miles east of the
+Air mountains, and about forty miles north of Tagidda n’T’isemt,
+inclines one to regard this Sultan, who was also ruler of Kahor, as
+one of the Aulimmiden chiefs who are known at various times to have
+dominated the mountains. If this view is correct the Sultan of Tekadda
+must certainly have had his being some way further south than the
+Tagiddas, since two rulers of such an importance as Ibn Batutah makes
+them out to be would certainly not have lived only forty miles apart.
+
+Lastly, the traveller speaks of seventy stages between Tekadda and
+Tuat, which is in fact only forty-five stages from Agades,[459]
+and therefore the same or perhaps rather less from the Tagiddas,
+which are in the latitude or even somewhat north of the city. Now
+forty-five marching stages are equivalent to some sixty caravan days,
+including halts, while seventy stages correspond to about one hundred
+days’ journeying. As it is clear that he did not delay on the road,
+the disproportion between the normal time taken to travel from the
+Tagiddas to Tuat and the time he did take from Tekadda to Tuat makes
+it impossible not to look for Ibn Batutah’s point of departure at
+some considerable distance south of Agades.
+
+An examination of the times assigned to the various stages of the
+journey makes it apparent that in the first part he actually marched
+rather faster than an ordinary commercial caravan. Considering the
+actual times he employed, we find that he took one month crossing
+Ahaggar to Tuat; the usual time for this section on the Agades In
+Salah road is twenty marching days, and Ibn Batutah probably took
+about that time, making thirty days with halts. We next find that
+it took ten days from Hakar (Ahaggar) to the place where the roads
+to Egypt and Tuat divided. This point is at the wells of In Azawa or
+Asiu, which are close together on the northern boundary of Air; the
+distance between them and Ahaggar is in fact ten days’ marching. It
+is reasonable to assume that Ibn Batutah’s point where the roads
+divide is, in fact, In Azawa or Asiu, and has therefore remained
+unchanged for over four centuries. South of these wells he had
+spent fifteen days in a country which was barren but had numerous
+watering-points—a good description of Air by a traveller who was
+used to the fertile and populous Sudan; the period of fifteen days
+corresponds accurately with the number of stages between In Azawa and
+Agades by any of the routes through Air.[460] As Agades was probably
+not founded at this date, Ibn Batutah in coming from the Niger would
+have no reason to travel as far as the site of the city and probably
+therefore kept west of the Central massifs and counted this stage from
+some point west of Agades like In Gall, though the exact locality is
+immaterial. South of this stage he crossed a desert where there is
+no water for three days: this is clearly the sterile tract separating
+Air from the Southland. The total of these times is fifty-eight days,
+even counting thirty days in Ahaggar instead of twenty; this, at a
+generous estimate, may be called sixty, from the northern edge of the
+Southland across Air and Ahaggar to Tuat, and this reckoning coincides
+with the usual forty-five caravan marching stages to which previous
+reference has been made. There are, therefore, still at least ten
+days to be accounted for, and they are referred to in the passage
+in which he simply states that he left Tekadda and marched for an
+indefinite time, making no mention of the number of days employed till
+he reached the domains of the Sultan of Kerker. I would be inclined to
+look for Tekadda not at any of the Tagiddas, which are rather north
+of the River of Agades and consequently north of the three days’
+desert travelling, but at some point in the direction of Gao, thirteen
+days’ journey from the southernmost part of Air, or ten days from
+the northern fringe of the Southland below the desert belt. I have
+unfortunately no knowledge of the country west of Damergu to suggest
+an identification, but am convinced that no place in or just west of
+Air is intended by the description of Tekadda.
+
+
+[Footnote 449: Sijilmasa (Sigilmasiyah) was the capital of the Tafilelt
+area in Morocco south of the Atlas. Its ruins in the Wadi Ifli are
+now called Medinet el ’Amira.]
+
+[Footnote 450: The salt mines of Tegaza were referred to in
+Chap. XII. They were abandoned in A.D. 1586, and those of Taodenit,
+where caravans still go from Timbuctoo to fetch salt for the Upper
+Niger, were opened instead. Vide Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. V. p. 612,
+and Map No. 14 (Western Sheet) in Vol. V.]
+
+[Footnote 451: _Ibn Batutah_: by Lee in the Oriental Translations Fund,
+1829, pp. 241-2, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 452: _Scilicet_, red mud.]
+
+[Footnote 453: Probably another version of Hakar (هَكاَر).]
+
+[Footnote 454: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 336.]
+
+[Footnote 455: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. p. 335.]
+
+[Footnote 456: Tagidda (Cortier, Map of Air—Teguidda) means a
+small hollow or basin where water collects (De Foucauld, I. 276). The
+names of the three places therefore mean “Basin of the Mountain,”
+“Basin of the Dûm palm,” and “Basin of Salt.” Tagidda = basin,
+is not to be confused with Tiggedi = cliff (as the Cliff S. of Agades),
+from the root _egged_, “to jump.” De Foucauld, _op. cit._, I. 273,
+and Motylinski, _Dictionnaire_, etc., 1908.]
+
+[Footnote 457: Not three days south-west, as Barth says.]
+
+[Footnote 458: Agades was probably not founded in Ibn Batutah’s
+day, or he would certainly have referred to it; there were, however,
+other large settlements in Air already in existence at this time,
+such as Assode (see Chap. XVII).]
+
+[Footnote 459: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I., App., and others; also
+my information.]
+
+[Footnote 460: Cf. Chap. III.]
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX V
+
+               ON THE ROOT “MZGh” IN VARIOUS LIBYAN NAMES
+
+
+Many authors have assumed that the word “Imajegh” was a generic or
+even a national name applicable to the whole of the Tuareg race, and
+perhaps even to most of the Libyans in North Africa. The “MZGh”
+root of this word, which properly denotes the noble caste of the
+Tuareg, does indeed appear in the classical names of many tribes
+or groups of people in North Africa. Among these may be cited the
+Meshwesh of early Egyptian records and the Macae of Greek historians,
+the latter being apparently a racial and not a tribal name. The root
+reappears in several such forms as Mazices, Maxitani, Mazaces, etc.,
+all belonging to a people found principally in the Great Syrtis, in
+Southern Cyrenaica, and in Tripolitania, both on the coast and in the
+interior:[461] a more isolated group with radically the same name,
+the Maxyes, is placed by Herodotus as far west as Tunisia.[462]
+
+In the Air dialect of the Temajegh language the name for the nobles
+of the Tuareg takes the form of “Imajeghan” with the singular
+“Imajegh.” In other dialects the word displays some variations
+including the forms Amazigh, Imazir, Imohagh, Imohaq, Imoshag, etc.,
+according to the local pronunciation. The word is derived according
+to an informant of Duveyrier[463] from the verb “ahegh,” meaning
+“to raid” or, by extension of the meaning, “to be free,” or
+“independent.” De Foucauld, however, gives the form of the word
+as “Amahar,” a proper name having as its root ⵗⵂ (Gh H), like “Ahegh,”
+but not necessarily derived from the latter.[464]
+
+As has already been noted, the name does not cover the totality of the
+race, for it does not include the servile clans, which, whatever their
+origin, are considered even by the nobles to belong, like themselves,
+to the Tuareg people. The word “Imajegh” is a caste and not a
+racial appellation.
+
+I am doubtful if Sergi is justified in using a statement made by Père
+de Foucauld in 1888,[465] to the effect that the “Berbers” of North
+Africa generally, and those of the north-west in particular, who are
+known to the Arabs under various names, used the MZGh root as a name
+for themselves in such a manner as to indicate that it was a national
+appellation or the name of a racial stock of wide extension. It would
+be interesting to know how far de Foucauld, after a long period of
+residence as a hermit among the Tuareg of Ahaggar, modified the views
+he expressed in 1888. Subject to correction by any authority having had
+access to his notes, I take it he would rather have meant that the MZGh
+root was used in a quasi-national sense in a number of Berber dialects
+or by a number of Berber-speaking people when talking of themselves,
+but not in referring generally to the population of North Africa.
+
+Stuhlmann[466] went so far as to talk of “Die Mazigh Völker,”
+and stated that all the “Berbers” from Tripoli to Western Morocco
+call themselves Mazigh: this, however, is not the case. As Lenz,
+supporting the theory of a dual origin for the Libyans, points out,
+the “Berbers”[467] even of Morocco are divided into two families,
+to which he gives the names of Amazigh and Shellakh.[468]
+
+Hanoteau, on the other hand, seeking at least a unity of language,
+says[469] that “plusieurs de ces peuples . . . ont oublié leur nom
+national. Mais partout où les populations berbères ont été à
+l’abri du contact et de l’influence arabe, elles ont conservé
+des noms appartenant à leur idiome,” and he goes on to mention
+the various dialectical forms of the MZGh root which he has found
+in different localities. He concludes, “toutes ces dénominations
+ne sont en realité que des variantes de prononciation d’un même
+nom.” This certainly is so, but that he is justified in assuming it
+to be a national name is more doubtful. He next tries to establish
+that the signification which “some people” have given to the
+word Imajegh and its derivatives is not substantiated, and that
+when a Tuareg wishes to refer to a noble or to a free man he calls
+them “ilelli” or “amunan” and not “imajeghan.” This,
+however, is not correct. The first two words may indeed signify an
+abstract quality, but when the nobles are mentioned, “Imajegh” is
+invariably used. Hanoteau’s statement is misleading. In addition
+to the use of the term “imajeghan” to denote the Tuareg nobles,
+with no reference to their characters or qualities, the Tuareg say
+“imajegh” to qualify any individual, as “imajegh” to denote
+someone of a certain class either in their own or in another race. They
+speak of the “Imajeghan n’Arab,” meaning the upper class Arabs
+as opposed to the slaves and under-dogs of the Arab countries. They
+describe the British, I am glad to say, as Imajeghan, or the White
+Nobles, even in every-day conversation among themselves. It is always
+a class distinction, and not a compliment, an epithet of virtue or
+a national name. The dictionaries and grammars of Motylinski, de
+Foucauld,[470] Masquerey and even of Hanoteau himself on the Tuareg
+language bear out this point.
+
+One of the principal reasons for using the foreign word “Tuareg”
+to describe this people is that they do not possess a national
+name. Barth,[471] who is a meticulous observer, makes this very clear:
+“as Amóshagh (in the plural form I’móshagh)[472] designates
+rather in the present state of Tawárek society the free and noble man
+in opposition to A’mghi (plural, Imghad), the whole of these free
+and degraded tribes together are better designated by the general term
+‘the Red People,’ ‘I’dinet n’sheggarnén,’ for which there
+is still another form, viz. ‘Tishorén.’” I myself did not hear
+these two terms used in Air, so prefer to adopt the circumlocution
+Kel Tagilmus, or People of the Veil, which is used and understood by
+all Tuareg.
+
+Many of the Imghad, or servile people, are themselves of noble origin,
+but have become the serfs of other noble clans by conquest. It is clear
+that the former could not use as a national name what is primarily
+a caste name to which they had lost their right.
+
+The confusion which has arisen around the word “imajegh” and
+hasty generalisations such as those of Stuhlmann are nevertheless
+easy to understand, for a superficial observer talking to nobles of
+the Tuareg race would so readily be impressed by the recurrence and
+common use of the term as to assume that it really had some national
+sense. But Sergi[473] in this connection is misleading in citing the
+authority of Barth when he writes, with a footnote referring to the
+great explorer and implying that he is quoting him almost textually,
+“il nome di questi Berberi è quello di Tuareg, plurale di Tarki
+o Targi. Ma, osserva lo stesso Barth, questo non è il loro nome
+nazionale. . . . Il vero nome che essi si danno è quel medesimo
+che già si dava ad alcune tribù del settentrionale d’Africa,
+conosciuto dai Greci e dai Romani, cioè di Mazi o Macii, Maxitani
+è dato loro anche dagli scrittori Arabi. Oggi si adopera la forma di
+Amosciarg al singolare. . . . Questo sembra essere applicato a tutte
+le frazioni della tribù mentre quel di Tuareg probabilmente deriva
+dagli Arabi.” Barth, we have seen, does not do so, and Sergi is
+making the same error as Stuhlmann. It is true that at one point,
+in discussing the use of the name “Tuareg,” Barth[474] goes so
+far as to say, “This (the MZGh root) is the native name by which
+the so-called Tawarek designate their whole nation, which is divided
+into several families,” but from the context and from the passage
+generally, as well as from the other passages already quoted, it is
+manifest that he was referring only to the noble part of the race and
+not to the Imghad as well, who, he had not then realised, as he later
+understood, are a part of the nation.[475] The context of the passage
+just quoted from Barth is one in which he is showing that the Tuareg
+are not a tribe, but a nation, as has already been pointed out: He
+corrects his predecessors, saying:[476] “This name (Terga, Targa,
+Tarki, etc.), which has been given to the Berber inhabitants of the
+desert, and which Hodgson _erroneously supposed to mean ‘Tribe,’_
+is quite foreign to them. . . .” Richardson,[477] in a previous
+trip to the Central Sahara before travelling to Air and the Sudan
+with Barth, had already made the same point clear. It is therefore
+with no shadow of justification that Sergi[478] states: “Barth
+non fa distinzione alcuna delle popolazioni dando il nome etnico di
+Tuareg o Imosciarg, e le considera tutte come una grande tribù.”
+He does nothing of the sort.
+
+Bates[479] goes into the question of the MZGh names very
+fully. He thinks that it is evidence “of an ethnic substratum of
+‘autochthones’ of a single race.” He notes the obviously close
+connection between the MZGh root used by the Tuareg nobles and the
+names in the Atlas mountains on the one hand, and the root of the
+Mazices, Mazaces, Macae, etc., names whose affinity with the Meshwesh
+of the invasions of Egypt is also obvious on the other hand. He draws
+the inference that a racial rather than a tribal name is involved.[480]
+
+Nevertheless, some explanation must be sought for the appearance
+of the root both in a Tuareg caste name in the names of certain
+Atlas tribes and in classical geographical lists of North African
+people. Much as one might be tempted, however, to believe with Barth
+in the existence of a substratum of a single race, there is no real
+justification for assuming that all the people using the root in
+one form or another were even closely related. Its adoption may
+well have become widespread among various peoples by the use of a
+common language. If in its primary sense it had implied nobility or
+freedom or some such attribute, it is more than likely that the innate
+snobbishness of one race in contact with, or at one time subjected to,
+another race using the root in this sense, would rapidly lead them to
+adopt it and misuse it as their own national appellation. I am not
+inclined to consider the use of this root as evidence for anything
+but community of language. With the mixed origins which we know the
+Libyans possessed, any other conclusion would be dangerous. It must
+be remembered that there is plenty of evidence to show that in spite
+of the diversity of races involved, they had by the time of the Arab
+conquest all come to speak a common language or a series of dialects
+linguistically of the same origin. It is only at an early period,
+when the use of a single language in North Africa was probably not
+widespread, that the common root in the “Meshwesh” and “Macae”
+names can be assumed as an indication of the affinity or identification
+of these peoples with the later Tuareg. And at that time the names are
+found in the centre of North Africa only and not in the west or even
+in Algeria. The same considerations apply to the “Temahu”[481]
+of Egyptian records. The feminine form of Imajegh or Amoshagh, etc.,
+is, of course, Temajegh or Tamahek, etc., which is the name given
+to the language which the Tuareg speak, though were it not for the
+physical likeness of the Temahu in Egyptian paintings to the Tuareg
+the similarity of the names alone would probably be insufficient to
+draw a conclusion to which, however, nearly all evidence also points.
+
+
+[Footnote 461: Bates, _op. cit._, Maps III to X.]
+
+[Footnote 462: Herodotus, IV. 191.]
+
+[Footnote 463: Duveyrier, _op. cit._, p. 318.]
+
+[Footnote 464: De Foucauld: _Dict. Touareg-Fraçais_, Alger,
+Vol. I. p. 451.]
+
+[Footnote 465: De Foucauld: _Reconnaissance du Maroc_, Paris, 1888,
+p. 10 _seq._]
+
+[Footnote 466: F. Stuhlmann: _Die Mazighvölker_, Kolonial Institut,
+Band 27.]
+
+[Footnote 467: _I.e._ Libyans.]
+
+[Footnote 468: Lenz: _Timbuktu: Reise durch Marokko_, etc., Leipzig,
+1884.]
+
+[Footnote 469: Hanoteau: _Grammaire Kabyle_, p. ix.]
+
+[Footnote 470: De Foucauld: _Dict._, Vol. I. p. 452, _sub_
+“Amajer.”]
+
+[Footnote 471: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. V. App. III.]
+
+[Footnote 472: Or in Air “Imajeghan.”]
+
+[Footnote 473: Sergi: _Africa_, etc., pp. 342-3.]
+
+[Footnote 474: Barth, _op. cit._, Vol. I. pp. 222-6.]
+
+[Footnote 475: Where Barth is in apparent contradiction in Volume I
+with other statements, and especially in Volume V, on this question
+of the MZGh root as a national name, the explanation, I think, is
+that he did not apparently consider the Northern Imghad, of whom
+he was speaking in the first volume, as pertaining to the Tuareg
+nation. Later on, when this became clear, he corrected himself.]
+
+[Footnote 476: _Loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 477: Richardson: _Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara_,
+Vol. II. p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 478: _Loc. cit._]
+
+[Footnote 479: Bates, _op. cit._, p. 42 _seq._]
+
+[Footnote 480: _Ibid._, p. 71.]
+
+[Footnote 481: And therefore of the Tehenu.]
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX VI
+
+                     THE KINGS OF THE TUAREG OF AIR
+
+
+The following list of the kings of Agades was collected by
+Mr. H. R. Palmer, now Lieutenant-Governor of Northern Nigeria,
+in a record which has been referred to in the body of this work
+as the Agades Chronicle. The information was supplied by a learned
+Hausa scribe and is derived from Tuareg sources, probably in part
+MSS. The record ranks as “good oral testimony.” It was published
+in an English translation prepared by Mr. Palmer and printed in the
+_Journal of the African Society_, Vol. IX. No. XXXVI., July 1910. I
+am indebted to Mr. H. R. Palmer and to Messrs. Macmillan and Co.,
+Ltd., the publishers of the _Journal_, for permission to reproduce
+the information _in extenso_.
+
+In the following pages little more is given than the bare list of kings
+with the dates, but much of the other information contained in the
+Chronicle has been incorporated in the text of the third, eleventh,
+twelfth and thirteenth chapters of this book. The spelling of some
+of the proper names in the list and in the text has been slightly
+modified to accord with the system of transliteration adopted.
+
+The genealogical table following the list of kings has been compiled
+from the information contained in the Chronicle.
+
+  -------+-----+----+---------------+--------+--------------------------
+         |  Date.   |               | Period |
+         +-----+----+     Name.     |   of   |        Remarks.
+         |A.D. |A.H.|               | reign. |
+  -------+-----+----+---------------+--------+--------------------------
+         |     |    |               |        |
+        I|1406 |809 |Yunis, son of  |20 yrs. |
+         |     |    |Tahanazeta     |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       II|1425 |829 |Akasani        |6 „     |Son of the sister of
+         |     |    |               |        |Yunis.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      III|1429 |833 |El Haj Aliso   |20 „    |He was killed by his
+         |     |    |               |        |people.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       IV|1449 |853 |Amati          |?4 „    |Brother of the above: he
+         |     |    |               |        |also was killed and the
+         |     |    |               |        |dynasty ended.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+        V|  ?  | ?  |Ibn Takoha     |4 yrs.  |A new dynasty.
+         |     |    |               |2 mths. |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       VI|1453 |857 |Ibrahim ben    |9 yrs.  |
+         |     |    |Hailas         |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      VII|     |    |Yusif ben      |16 „    |Brother of the above.
+         |     |    |Gashta         |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     VIII|1477 |882 |Muhammad the   |10 „    |
+         |     |    |Great          |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       IX|1486 |892 |Muhammad       |        |Date confirmed
+         |     |    |Sottofe        |        |approximately from
+         |     |    |               |        |Nigerian records. He was
+         |     |    |               |        |a contemporary of M.
+         |     |    |               |        |Rimfa of Kano, 1463-99,
+         |     |    |               |        |and Ibrahim of Katsina,
+         |     |    |               |        |1493-6.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+        X|1493 |899 |Muhammad ben   |9 „     |Son of sister of above:
+         |     |    |Abdurahman el  |        |he was killed.
+         |     |    |Mekkaniyi      |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       XI|1502 |908 |The twins Adil |        |Known as the children of
+         |     |    |and Muhammad   |        |Fatimallat. They reigned
+         |     |    |Hammat         |        |together. Their date is
+         |     |    |               |        |confirmed by the advent
+         |     |    |               |        |of Askia to Air in their
+         |     |    |               |        |reign in 1515.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XII|1516 |922 |Muhammad bin   |2 yrs.  |
+         |     |    |Talazar        |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XIII|1518 |924 |Ibrahim        |24-5    |Son of M. Sottofe.
+         |     |    |               |yrs.    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XIV|1553 |961 |Muhammad el    |39-40 „ |Brother of above (name
+         |     |    |Guddala        |        |also given as Ghodala
+         |     |    |               |        |and Alghoddala).
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       XV|1591 |1000|Akampaiya      |2½ „    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XVI|1594?| —  |Yusif          |8 & 28  |Son of sister of above.
+         |     |    |               |yrs.    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XVII|1601?| —  |Muhammad bin   |        |Son of younger brother
+         |     |    |Mubaraki ibn   |        |of Yusif’s father, and
+         |     |    |el Guddala     |        |presumably grandson of
+         |     |    |               |        |No. XIV; deposed Yusif
+         |     |    |               |        |and was shortly after
+         |     |    |               |        |himself deposed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XVIII|1629?| —  |Muhammad       |2 yrs.  |Son of Yusif: his mother
+         |     |    |Attafrija      |        |was daughter of No. XIV.
+         |     |    |               |        |Deposed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XIX|1631?| —  |Aukar ibn      |1 mth.  |Deposed.
+         |     |    |Talyat         |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       XX|1631 | —  |Muhammad       |? 31    |For the second time.
+         |     |    |Attafriya      |yrs.    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XXI|1653 |1064|Muhammad       |34 „    |? Son of father of above.
+         |     |    |Mubaraki       |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXII|1687 |1098|Muhammad Agabba|33-4    |
+         |     |    |               |yrs.    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXIII|1720 |1132|Muhammad el    |9 mths. |
+         |     |    |Amin           |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXIV|1720 |1133|El Wali        |1 yr. 2 |Brother of above.
+         |     |    |               |mths.   |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XXV|1721 |1134|El Mumuni      |9 mths. |
+         |     |    |Muhammad       |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXVI|1722?| —  |Muhammad       |        |Son of No. XXII.
+         |     |    |Agagesha       |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXVII|1735 |1147|Muhammad Hammad|5 yrs.  |Son of No. XXI. Deposed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+   XXVIII|1739 |1152|Muhammad Guwa  |4 yrs.  |? Son or grandson of No.
+         |     |    |               |7 mths. |XVII.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXIX|1744 |1742|Muhammad Hammad|        |For the second time.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XXX|1759 | —  |Muhammad Guwa  |4 yrs.  |  Do.
+         |     |    |               |6 mths. |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXXI|1763 |1176|Muhammad Hammad|5 yrs.  |For the third time.
+         |     |    |               |6 mths. |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXXII|1768 |1181|Muhammad       |25 yrs. |Son of above.
+         |     |    |Guddala        |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+   XXXIII|1797 | —  |Muhammad Dani  |5 yrs.  |Deposed in A.H. 1212.
+         |     |    |               |7 mths. |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+          Interregnum               |7 yrs.  |Government of chief
+                                    |        |learned men.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXXIV|1797 |1212|El Bekri [El   |19-20   |Succeeded in 1797, but
+         |     |    |Bakeri]        |yrs.    |was not installed till
+         |     |    |               |        |later.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XXXV|1815 |1231|Muhammad Gumma |5 yrs.  |
+         |     |    |               |1 mth.  |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXXVI|1826 | —  |Ibrahim Waffa  |7 yrs.  |Deposed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+   XXXVII|1835 | —  |Guma           |7 „     |Killed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+  XXXVIII|18-- | —  |Abdul Qader    |22-3    |Deposed in 1857.
+         |     |    |               |yrs.    |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XXXIX|1857 |1274|Ahmed Rufaiyi  |12 „    |Twice deposed, finally
+         |     |    |               |        |in 1869.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+       XL|about|1286|Sofo el Bekri  |? 32 „  |Four times deposed.
+         |1869 |    |               |        |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+      XLI|about|1318|Osman Mikitan  |4 yrs.  |
+         |1900 |    |               |5 mths. |
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XLII|1904 |1322|Ibrahim Da Sugi|4 yrs.  |Three times deposed.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+    XLIII|1908 |1336|Tegama         |11 „    |Died in prison.
+         |     |    |               |        |
+     XLIV|1919 |    |Omar           |Reigning|
+  -------+-----+----+---------------+--------+--------------------------
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX VII
+
+            SOME BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL USED IN THIS BOOK
+
+
+A great student was showing a friend over his library, and it happened
+to the friend to ask the obvious question that has occurred to nearly
+everyone in the same circumstances. The learned man in reply remarked
+wearily, that neither had he read all the books which adorned his
+shelves, nor yet were those all the books which he had read. I would
+say much the same of the lists which are given below. Many as are
+the works mentioned, those dealing with Air in any detail are very few.
+
+A fuller bibliography of the people and places in the Central Sahara
+generally will be found in Gsell’s first volume of his _Histoire
+de l’Afrique du Nord_ and in Oric Bates’ _Eastern Libyans_.
+
+
+                                  MAPS
+
+  Carte de l’Air: Mission Cortier, Service Géographique des
+  Colonies. Two sheets. 1912. 1/500,000. With a table of astronomical
+  positions.
+
+  Territoires Militaires du Chad: Édition Meunier. 1921. 1/4,000,000.
+
+  Afrique Occidentale Française: Service Géographique des
+  Colonies. Sheet 3. 1/2,000,000.
+
+  Carte du Sahara: Delingette and others, Société d’Éditions
+  Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales. 1/4,000,000.
+
+  Afrique: Service Géographique de l’Armée. Sheet 19. 1896.
+  1/2,000,000 with neighbouring parts on other sheets.
+
+  Africa settentrionale (Edizione provvisoria). 1917. Ministero
+  delle Colonie. 1/4,000,000.
+
+  A geological map and diagrammatic section of Air, in Chudeau’s
+  thesis (see Bibliography).
+
+  Map of Air and neighbouring parts, compiled from data collected by
+  the author. _R.G.S. Journal_, Vol. LXII., August 2, 1923. 1/2,000,000.
+
+  Original sketch maps and topographical data in the works of Barth,
+  Foureau-Lamy, Jean, Chudeau and Buchanan enumerated in the
+  Bibliography.
+
+  The Anglo-French frontier was delimited by the Mission Tilho. There
+  are various sheets covering the frontier from Lake Chad to the Niger,
+  on a scale of 1/500,000, but they do not extend far into Damergu.
+
+  General maps of the Sahara are not enumerated. They are many.
+
+
+                 GENERAL BOOKS ABOUT THE CENTRAL SAHARA
+
+  Duveyrier, H.: _Exploration du Sahara. (Les Touareg du Nord.)_
+  Two volumes. Paris. 1864.
+
+  _Duveyrier_, H.: Biographical sketch by Manoir and Schirmer, 1905.
+
+  Carette: “Recherches sur l’Origine et les Migrations des
+  principales tribus de l’Afrique septentrionale.” In _Exploration
+  scientifique de l’Algérie_. Paris, 1853. Vol. III.
+
+  Schirmer, H.: _Le Sahara_. 1893.
+
+  Gautier, E. F.: _La Conquête du Sahara_. Paris, 1922.
+
+  Boissier, G.: _L’Afrique Romaine_. Paris, 1901.
+
+  Marmol-Caravajal: _History of Africa_. Three volumes. 1667.
+
+  Tissot, C. J.: _Géographie comparée de la province romaine de
+  l’Afrique_. Two volumes and atlas. 1884-8.
+
+  Bates, O.: _The Eastern Libyans_. London: Macmillan, 1914.
+
+  Gsell, S.: _Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord_. In course of
+  publication. Four volumes have appeared. Paris, 1921, etc.
+
+  Richardson, J.: _Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara_. London,
+  1847. Two volumes.
+
+  Minutilli, F.: _La Tripolitania_. Rome, 1912.
+
+  de Agostini, E.: _Le Popolazioni della Tripolitania_. Tripoli, 1917.
+
+  Denham and Clapperton: _Travels and Discoveries in Central
+  Africa_. London: Murray, 1826. Two volumes.
+
+  Lyon, G. F.: _Travels in Northern Africa_. London: Murray, 1921.
+
+  Bazin, R.: _Life of Charles de Foucauld_. London, 1923.
+
+  Hornemann: _Travels in the Interior of Africa_. Commentary by
+  Major Rennell. French edition. Dentu: Paris, 1803.
+
+  Rennell’s miscellaneous works and addresses to the African
+  Society, and his Commentary on Herodotus.
+
+  Largeau, V.: _Le Sahara_. Paris, 1877.
+
+  Desplagnes, L.: _Le Plateau Central Nigérien_. Paris, 1907.
+
+
+                       LINGUISTIC AND GRAMMATICAL
+
+  The contributions of Halévy, Letourneux, Hanoteau, etc. in
+  various periodicals.
+
+  Hanoteau, A.: _Grammaire de la Langue Tamachek_. Algiers, 1896.
+
+  Masquerey, E.: _Dictionnaire Français-Touareg_. Paris, 1898.
+
+  —— _Essai de Grammaire Touareg_. Paris, 1896.
+
+  de Foucauld, C.: _Dictionnaire abrégé Touareg-Français_. Two
+  volumes. Algiers, 1918, etc.
+
+  —— _Notes pour servir à un Essai de Grammaire Touaregue_. Algiers,
+  1920.
+
+  Freeman, H. Stanhope: _A Grammatical Sketch of the Temahuq Language_.
+  London: Harrison, 1862.
+
+
+      BOOKS DEALING WITH THE TUAREG AND THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE
+                          SAHARA GENERALLY
+
+  Ripley, W.: _The Races of Europe_. 1900.
+
+  Sergi, G.: _The Mediterranean Race_. London, 1901.
+
+  —— _Arii ed Italici_. 1898.
+
+  —— _Africa, La stirpe camitica_. Turin, 1897.
+
+  Keane, A. H.: _Man, Past and Present_. Cambridge, 1920.
+
+  Boule, M.: _Fossil Man_. Edinburgh, 1923.
+
+  Duveyrier, H.: _Les Touareg du Nord_ (Volume I of the work
+  already cited).
+
+  Cortier, M.: _D’une Rive à l’autre du Sahara_. Paris, 1908.
+
+  Bissuel: _Les Touareg de l’Ouest_.
+
+  Aymard, Capt.: _Les Touareg_. Paris, 1911.
+
+  Foureau, F.: _Mission chez les Touareg_. 1895.
+
+  —— _Une Mission au Tadamayt_. 1890.
+
+  King, H.: _A Search for the Masked Tawareks_. London, 1908.
+
+  Rinn, L.: _Origines Berbères_. 1889.
+
+  Schirmer, H.: _De nomine et genere populorum qui Berberi . . .
+  dicuntur_. 1892.
+
+  Buchanan, A.: _Sahara_. Murray, 1926.
+
+  Stuhlmann, F.: _Die Mazighvölker_. Kolonial Institut. Band 27.
+
+  —— _Ein Ausflug im Aures_. Kolonial Institut. Band 10.
+
+  —— _Handwerk und Industrie in Ost-Afrika_. Kolonial Institut. Band 1.
+
+  Newberry, Percy: _Beni Hassan_. 1893.
+
+  Rosellini, I.: _I Monumenti dell’ Egitto e della Nubia_. 1832-44.
+
+  Elliot Smith, G.: _The Ancient Egyptians_. 1923.
+
+  Maspero, G.: _L’Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’orient_. 1909.
+
+  Meyer, E.: _Geschichte des Altertums_.
+
+  Rodd, F.: A paper on the Origins of the Tuareg, _R.G.S. Journal_,
+  Vol. LXVII. No. 1. Jan. 1926.
+
+
+                      CLASSICAL AND ARABIC AUTHORS
+
+  Pliny’s _Natural History_. Various editions.
+
+  Strabo’s _Geography_. Various editions.
+
+  Herodotus’ _Geography_. Various editions.
+
+  Hanno’s _Periplus_ (London, 1797), and _Geographi Græci Minores_
+  (Editio Mueller).
+
+  Sallustius: _De bello Jugurthino_. Various editions.
+
+  Ptolemy’s _Geography_ and _Marinus of Tyre_.
+
+  The Works of Diodorus Siculus.
+
+  Corippus: _Libri qui supersunt_. Berlin, 1879.
+
+  The Works of Aulus Gellius.
+
+  Silius Italicus: _Œuvres complètes_. 1850.
+
+  Leo Africanus: _History and Description of Africa_. Hakluyt
+  Society. London, 1896. Three volumes.
+
+  Ibn Batutah’s _Travels_. Translation of Defrémery and Sanguinetti.
+  Paris: Société Asiatique. 1893. Four volumes.
+
+  —— Lee’s edition in the Oriental Translations Fund, with references
+  to Kosegarten’s edition, 1929.
+
+  Ibn Khaldun’s _History of the Berbers_. Translation by Slane.
+  Algiers, 1852-4. Four books.
+
+  Abderrahman Ibn Abd el Hakim’s _History of the Conquest of Egypt_.
+  In the above edition of Ibn Khaldun.
+
+  El Noweiri: Extracts in the above edition of Ibn Khaldun.
+
+  Abdallah abu Obeid Ibn Abd el Aziz el Bekri: _A Description of
+  North Africa_. Edition Slane. Algiers, 1913.
+
+  —— Wüstenfels _Das Geographische Wörterbuch des Abu Obeid el Bekri_.
+  1876.
+
+  Abu el Hassan Ali Mas’udi: _The Meadows of Gold_. Oriental
+  Translations Fund, 1841.
+
+  Sultan Bello’s History. See Denham and Clapperton’s journey.
+
+
+                WORKS DEALING MORE PARTICULARLY WITH AIR
+
+  Barth, H.: _Travels in Central Africa_. Five volumes. London,
+  1857. (For Air, see principally Vol. I. Historical and ethnological
+  references to the Tuareg are contained in all the volumes.)
+
+  Jean, C.: _Les Touareg du Sud-Est; L’Air_. Paris, 1909.
+
+  _Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Foureau-Lamy_. Paris.
+
+  Buchanan, A.: _Out of the World North of Nigeria_. London: Murray,
+  1921.
+
+  _Novitates Zoologicæ_, the Journal of the Tring Museum, Vol. XXVIII.
+  pp. 1-13, 75-77. 1921.
+
+  Rodd, F.: A paper (with map) on Air, _R.G.S. Journal_, Vol. LXIII.
+  2, August, 1923.
+
+  von Bary, E.: his Diary edited by Schirmer. Paris (Fischbacher),
+  1898.
+
+  Chudeau, R., and Gautier, E. F.: _Missions au Sahara et au Soudan_.
+  Two volumes (especially Vol. II.). Paris, 1908.
+
+  Palmer, H. R.: “Some Asben Records.” (The Agades Chronicle),
+  _Journal of the African Society_, No. XXXVI. Vol. IX., 1910.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+
+  “A” names, tribal, 128
+
+  “A type” of Tuareg houses, 244-6, 247, 248, 249, 253, 255, 258,
+  260, 302, 316; ornamentation of, 246, 247, 248
+
+  “A’ada” (right of passage), 237
+
+  Abadarjan, Ridge of, 70, 71, 78
+
+  Abalkoran, the, 379
+
+  “Abandoned of God,” the, 274
+
+  Abarakan, 216, 217, 238, 241, 243, 299; position of, 425
+
+  Abattul, 213, 214, 388; Itesan defeated at, 391; mosque of, 213,
+  214, 291
+
+  Abattul, Mount, 156, 213
+
+  Abd el Jelil (Selma I), 372, 373
+
+  Abd el Qader, Sultan, 93, 99, 100, 108-9, 117, 379, 467
+
+  Abd el Rahman, 290
+
+  Abdallah, King of Bornu, 374
+
+  Abdallah, Abu, 405
+
+  Abdallah ibn Yasin, 405
+
+  Abderrahman Ibn Abd el Hakim, 468
+
+  Abdominal strain of camel riding, 180, 194
+
+  Abdulkerim, 122, 436
+
+  Abellama, 60, 69, 70, 75; position of, 424
+
+  Aberkan, Kel, 437
+
+  “Abesagh” acacia, 226
+
+  Abeshan, Sultan, 103
+
+  Abirkom, Kel, 437
+
+  “Abisgi” bush, 82, 449; leaf as condiment, 160
+
+  Ablutions, Tuareg remiss in, 273, 274
+
+  “Aborak” tree, 226; articles made from wood of, 229
+
+  Abscess, native treatment of, 82
+
+  Absen (Air), 17, 28
+
+  Absenawa (people of Air), 17
+
+  Abu Abdallah, 405
+
+  Abu Bakr Dau, 409
+
+  Abu Muhammad, 176
+
+  Abyssinia, Semitic influence in, 342
+
+  Acacia, People of the, 307, 437
+
+  Acacia trees, 58, 67, 86, 211, 226, 447, 449; eaten by camels, 199;
+  a defence from insects, 121; thorns of, 165, 166, 199
+
+  Adalet, Al, Sultan of Agades, 409-10
+
+  Adamber, the, 437
+
+  Adar, Kel Geres move to, 390, 391
+
+  Adaudu, 242, 243
+
+  Addal, Muhammad el, Sultan, 363
+
+  Addax antelopes, 446
+
+  Aderbissinat, 69-70; fort, 70; well, 75
+
+  Adermellen well, 451
+
+  Adesnu, spirits of, 279
+
+  “Adghar,” 18 _n._[18], 254
+
+  Adghar n’Ifoghas, 18 _n._[18], 209, 260, 399
+
+  Adil, Sultan, 409-10, 464
+
+  Adjeur, _see_ Azger.
+
+  Adoral valley, 242
+
+  Adrar Ahnet, tribes of, 351
+
+  Adultery not common among Tuareg, 177
+
+  Adze, Tuareg, 229
+
+  Aerwan wan Tidrak, 156 _n._[150]
+
+  Æthiopia; matriarchate in, 152 _n._[144]; Romans in, 323
+
+  Afaguruel (Ifagarwal), the, 437
+
+  Afasas, 241, 250, 436; valley, 210 _n._[200], 243, 439
+
+  Afasas-Tebernit groups, houses in, 248, 250, 251
+
+  Afasto, position of, 425
+
+  Afaza grass, 158, 160, 212
+
+  Afis, 315, 430; inscription on grave at, 260; position of, 425
+
+  Afis mountains, 308, 314, 315
+
+  Afis, Kel, 430
+
+  Africa, partition of, 20, 22, 25; problem of introduction of camel
+  into, 206-8
+
+  Africa, North, _see_ North Africa.
+
+  “Africa Minor,” 1
+
+  “Ag Ali” (son of Ali), 350 _n._[338]
+
+  Ag Malwal, 408
+
+  Ag Mastan, 169, 353
+
+  Aga (salt), 125, 441
+
+  Agadem, 333-4, 450; road to, 32; well, 58
+
+  Agades, 19, 84, 298, 303, 405, 413, 426, 440; Air administered from,
+  115-16, 383; decline of, 411, 414; foundation of, 102, 364, 365,
+  409; population of, 113, 402; position of, 424, 425; prosperity of,
+  former, 411; quarters of, 91; races and languages of, 117, 118;
+  revolt of 1917 and, 84, 85, 86, 98, 189-90; sanitary system of, 91;
+  site of, peculiar, 110, 112-16, 364; Songhai colonisation of, 410,
+  440; Songhai element in people of, 117; Sudanese in aspect, 87, 90
+
+    Amenokal of, _see_ Amenokal; Añastafidet’s residence
+    at, 92, 100, 145; Barth’s journey to, 23; battle at, 392;
+    blacksmith-jewellers of, 229-30; earth from, daubed on women’s
+    faces, 173; exchange rates at, 221, 414; French occupation of, 27,
+    52; French post at, 86, 91, 118, 218; gaol of, 107; Hole of Bayazid
+    at, 281; Holy Men of, 290; House of Kaossen at, 92-3; houses of,
+    87, 90, 91, 92, 246; King of, _see_ Amenokal; Kings of, list of,
+    463-5; leather-working at, 164, 165, 174, 227, 228; markets at,
+    91; merchants of, 410; minaret of, 87, 93-4, 302; measures of, 221;
+    mithkal of, 221-2; Mosque, Great, of, 86, 87, 93-4, 257, 258; pots
+    made near, 160, 161; prostitution in, 177; sandals made in, 164,
+    165; Sultan of, _see_ Amenokal; tribal history kept at, 362;
+    weights of, 221-2; wells at, 90; wireless station at, 188; women
+    of, 118
+
+  Agades Chronicle, the, 53, 93 _n._[81], 100 _n._[86], 102, 103, 303,
+  362, 363, 369, 379, 387, 388, 396 _n._[411], 414, 415; list of kings
+  of Air compiled from, 463-5; on selection of first Amenokal, 397-8
+
+  Agades Cross, the, 44, 277, 283, 284
+
+  Agades, Kel, 117, 130, 440
+
+  Agades, River of, 33, 34, 69, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83,
+  115, 119, 121, 123, 127, 183, 189, 258, 456; plain of, 79, 82-3, 85-6
+
+  Agades-Tabello road, 85-6
+
+  Agades-Taberghit road, 62
+
+  Agades-Tanut road, 69-70
+
+  Agades-Termit road made practicable, 451
+
+  Agajida, 290
+
+  Agalak mountains, 216, 299, 301
+
+  Agalak well, 300
+
+  Agalak, Kel, 436
+
+  Agalenge, 428
+
+  Agamgam, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321; pool, 219
+
+  Agaragar, 239, 264, 315
+
+  Agate, ornaments made of, 282, 283
+
+  Agdalar, the, 368
+
+  Agejir, 239, 240, 241, 429; houses in, 248, 252; mosque of, 255
+
+  Agellal, 26, 290, 299, 302, 418, 431, 437, 440; houses in, 248,
+  254; position of, 425
+
+  Agellal, Kel: of the Kel Unnar, 380, 381, 432, 433; Ikazkazan, 437;
+  Imaqoaran, 431; present, mixed, 440
+
+  Agerzan valley, 243
+
+  Agewas, 320
+
+  Aggata mountain, 33, 216, 299, 300; spirit drums of, 279, 300
+
+  Aggata well, 299, 300, 430; position of, 425
+
+  Aggata, Kel, 290, 429, 430, 440, 441
+
+  “Agha” (salt), 125, 441
+
+  Aghalwen, 412
+
+  “Aghelam,” 219
+
+  Aghelashem wells, 9
+
+  “Aghil” (measure of length), 222
+
+  Aghil, Kel, 441
+
+  Aghimmat, Kel, 429
+
+  Aghmat well, 66, 74
+
+  “Agilman” (pool) of Taghazit, 23
+
+  Agisymba Regio, attempt to identify with Air, 318, 322, 324, 326;
+  derivation and application of name, 364
+
+  “Agoalla,” 147
+
+  Agoalla Kel Tagei, 397
+
+  Agoalla Mafinet, 397
+
+  Agoalla T’Sidderak, 397
+
+  Agoras, the, of Assode, 301, 304, 308, 309
+
+  Agram (Fashi), 413
+
+  Agriculture: in Air, 131-4, 135; despised by noble Tuareg, 127,
+  134, 174, 360
+
+  Agumbulum, the, 369, 397
+
+  “Agwalla,” 147
+
+  Agwau, 262, 314, 315, 319, 430, 435; valley, 314
+
+  Agwau, Kel, 304, 314, 435
+
+  Ahaggar, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 18, 334, forms of the name, 128
+
+  Amenokal of, 169, 352-3; camels of, 196; De Foucauld in, 11-12, 13;
+  Hawara occupy, 359; Ibn Batutah in, 453, 454, 455, 456; language of,
+  12, 387; mountains, 2, 3, 4, 6, 18, 332
+
+  Ahaggar, Kel, 17, 139; _see_ Ahaggaren.
+
+  Ahaggaren (Imghad of Kel Gharus), 308, 438
+
+  Ahaggaren (Tuareg of Ahaggar), 109, 148, 209, 345, 350, 384
+  _n._[402], 402; works on, 8-9, 20
+
+    Originally Auriga, 270, 348, 349, 352; Azger and, their origin
+    and connection, 349-53; caravan roads controlled by, 353; dialect
+    of, 270; French occupation resisted by, 10, 13, 328, 350, 352-3;
+    polytheistic traces among, 275; as raiders, 182, 350, 354; tribal
+    divisions of, 350-51
+
+  Ahamellen, Kel, 351, 352, 353, 355, 359, 370
+
+  Ahawagh, 347
+
+  “Ahel” and “Kel,” 129
+
+  Ahir (Air), 454
+
+  Ahitagel, 352
+
+  Ahmadu, of the Kel Tagei, 197, 210, 211
+
+  Ahmadu ag Musa, 210
+
+  Ahmed Rufaiyi, Sultan, 99
+
+  Ahnet mountains, 17, 260, 351, 352, 354
+
+  Ahnet, Kel, 351, 354
+
+  Ahodu, chief of the Kel Tadek, 26-7, 127, 149, 154, 155, 161, 172,
+  180, 181, 182, 215, 266, 269, 270, 278, 298, 305, 419, 428, 438,
+  440; disputed headship of Auderas, 142-3; female descent exemplified
+  in family of, 149, 150, 151; French assisted by, 26-7, 142, 290;
+  on the Kel Owi, 149, 387, 389; on Queen Kahena, 170, 265; raiding
+  reminiscences of, 191-3; his son, 150, 151, 165; his sword, 233;
+  tribal history in possession of family of, 361-2; on the Veil, 289;
+  his wife, 150, 161, 172, 284
+
+  Aiawan, the, 434
+
+  Ain Irhayen, position of, 424
+
+  Air, 5, 6, 18-19, 112, 115, 334; as a geographical term, 28;
+  attempted identification with Agisymba Regio, 318, 322, 324, 325;
+  origin of name of, 28; original inhabitants of, 138, 363-4, 365-6;
+  not penetrated by Romans, Arabs or Turks, 327
+
+  Air, accounts of, 18-19, 452-3, 456; agriculture in, 5, 131-4;
+  Askia’s conquest of, 409-10, 411; astronomically determined points
+  in, 422-5; Azger and, women sent to ensure friendship between, 384;
+  Bornu and, war between, 406-7, 412; boundaries of, 28-33; camels of,
+  195, 196-7; caste system of, 136, 137-8, _see_ Nobles and serfs;
+  civilisation of, pre-Tuareg, 365; climate of, 28, 123; cotton of,
+  132; Damergu economically part of, 47; disease in, 178, 179-80;
+  dialect of, 270, 347, 349; distribution of, 394; drainage system of,
+  23, 28-31, 71, 76, 122-3, 183, 214-15, 242; economics of, 133-4,
+  218-20; European penetration of, 8-14, 19-27; evacuation of, 1918,
+  113, 121-2, 302, 309, 360-61, 426; exploration of, 23-4, 24-5, 27;
+  fair tribes of, 162; fauna and flora of, 27-8, 119, 120; French
+  occupation and annexation of, 26, 27, 50, 52, 99, 114 _n._[104],
+  361, 420; revolt against, _see below_ revolt in, 1917; geology
+  of, 27, 31, 33-5, 76, 78, 79, 183, 215, 216, 241-2; Goberawa in,
+  364, 365-6, 379, 403; graves and tombs of, 259-63; history of,
+  17, 360-416; Holy Men of, 290, 293; holy tribes of, 290-91, 306;
+  houses and huts of, 89, 90, 244-55; infant mortality high in, 178;
+  Lemta invasion of, 356, 358, 359; Libyan influence in, 403; lions
+  in, 119, 120; live-stock of, 202, 204-5, 361; mosques of, 255-8;
+  mountains of, 2, 4, 5, 16, 23, 27, 83-4, 156-7, 332, 334; negroid
+  original inhabitants of, 363-4, 365-6; oases of, 32; population of,
+  402; raids from, 190-91; raids on, 113-14, 188, 189, 350; rains in,
+  79, 120-21, 123-4; revolt in, 1917, 39, 59, 60, 69, 70, 84-5, 86,
+  93, 98, 121-2, 127-8, 185, 205, 302, 309, 420; roads of, 32, 37, 38,
+  353-4; rock drawings and inscriptions in, 207, 213, 216, 260, 263-5,
+  269, 271, 276, 315, 318, 319, 321-2, 360; rocks of, 72, 76, 78, 126;
+  Roman campaigns near, 322, 323, 324, 325-6; Sanhaja in, 364, 365,
+  368, 375, 405; scale of life in, former, 411; Senussiya in, 290;
+  spirits of, 278-81; tribal names in, 128, 129; tribal warfare in,
+  101; Sultan of, _see_ Amenokal.
+
+    Tuareg of, _see_ Tuareg of Air; invasion of Air by, 359, 366-93,
+    394, 395, 396, 397, 403, 404, 405-6; its date, 364, 371, 373, 375,
+    381, 403, 404; their vicissitudes in, 401-16; Tuareg symbol for
+    name of, 454
+
+  Air, Central, 299, 418; belonged to People of the King, 394; rains
+  in, 123; tribal names derived from, 378, 380, 398; view over, 126
+
+  Air, Eastern, Kel Owi in, 394
+
+  Air, North-eastern: houses of, 252, 254; unnamed valley of, 304
+
+  Air, Northern, 298-329; ancient monuments in, 263; evacuation of,
+  1918, 309; houses of, 252, 309-11, 316; Kel Owi tribes of, 303-8,
+  394; palm groves of, 317; roads traversing, 318-22; salt caravan
+  route from, 315
+
+  Air, Southern: Goberawa in, 379; graves in, 263; servile tribes in,
+  394; _see_ Tegama.
+
+  ’Aisha-Kel Eghrarmar, 412
+
+  Ajaraneen, the, 368
+
+  Ajiru, 24, 129 _n._[117], 146, 243, 305, 436
+
+  Ajiru, Kel, 436
+
+  Akaraq, 71, 77, 79, 82, 183, 189, 418; valley, 77-8, 258, 263
+
+  Akasani, Sultan, 102
+
+  “Akel,” meaning of, 134 _n._[123], 136, 367 _n._[370]
+
+  Akil, 408, 409
+
+  Akir (Air), 28
+
+  Akri, 47
+
+  Akritan hills, 47
+
+  Alagwas, Alakkos, Alakwas (Elakkos), 357, 445
+
+  Alali, Bir, 51, 52, 92
+
+  Alamt (Lemta) Tuareg, 376
+
+  Alaren (Allaghan), Kel, 432
+
+  Alarsas, 121
+
+  Albes, well of, 243
+
+  Alburdatan, the, 437
+
+  Alfalehle plant, 10
+
+  Alfalehle river, 30-31
+
+  Algeria, 41; Christianity in, 294; the Circumcelliones, 328; French
+  expedition from, 25, 26-7; French occupation of, 22; funerary
+  monuments in, 261; rock drawings in, 318
+
+  Algeria, Southern, 332, 334; French operations in, 11; native Camel
+  Corps in, 189
+
+  Algeria-Ahaggar caravan road, 353
+
+  Algiers, 418
+
+  “Alguechet,” 6 _n._[5]
+
+  Alhassan, the, 434 _n._
+
+  Ali, King of Bornu, 410
+
+  Ali ben el Haj Omar ben Idris, King of Bornu, 413, 414
+
+  Ali ibn Tama el Ghati, 96, 154-5, 191, 192, 193, 280, 282
+
+  Ali Killun, 408
+
+  Aliso, El Haj, Sultan, 102, 463
+
+  “Alkarhat,” game of, 281
+
+  “Allagh” (spear), 234
+
+  Allaghan, Kel, 432
+
+  “Allelthrap” (ghosts), 281
+
+  Alliances, tribal, 147-8
+
+  Alluvial soil, Air, 31; plain of River of Agades, 79, 121
+
+  Almoravids, the, 405, 420
+
+  Almoubari, Sultan, 102 _n._[91], 391
+
+  Alms-houses, 255
+
+  Almubari (El Mubaraki), 102 _n._[91], 391
+
+  Alphabet, Tuareg, 266, 267-8
+
+  Alwali, 96, 209-10, 211
+
+  Alwalitan, the, 433
+
+  “Alwat” plant, 77, 210, 211
+
+  Amadu, 154, 180, 315, 418
+
+  Amahar (form of Imajegh), 457-8
+
+  Amakeetan (Immikitan), the, 368, 370, 429
+
+  “Amán” (peace), 237
+
+  Amarkos, Kel, 434
+
+  Amati, Sultan, 102, 463
+
+  Amazigh (form of Imajegh), 457
+
+  Amazigh, the, 458
+
+  Amazons, suggested explanation of story of, 152, 170, 288
+
+  Ameluli, 91
+
+  Amenokal, the (Sultan of Agades), 54, 96, 97-100, 134, 144, 304,
+  387, 409; deputation sent to Constantinople for the first, 101,
+  102, 104-5, 396-7; list of his successors, 463-5
+
+    election of, 99, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 391, 393, 432; family
+    of, foreign appearance of, 117; family name of, 434 _n._; female
+    descent of, 151; first, possibly a Byzantine prince, 102, 104;
+    legend of Imanen women sent to, 384; installation of, 99-100,
+    101-2, 383, 384, 391, 393, 396-7, 432; Itesan and election of,
+    100, 103, 109, 379, 391, 393, 397, 432; judicial functions of, 107,
+    110, 141, 390; Kel Geres and election of, 100, 146, 384, 391, 392,
+    393, 397; Kel Owi and election of, 100, 108, 383, 396-7; officials
+    and courtiers of, 106-7; palace of, 97, 100; People of, 374, 384,
+    _see_ People of the King; position of, 101, 104-5, 107-8, 109-10,
+    116, 141, 144, 145, 146; precarious tenure of office, 99, 368, 392;
+    revenue of, 110; second, Agades mosque presented to, 257, 258
+
+  Amenokal of Ahaggar, the, 169
+
+  Amenokal, Kel, _see_ People of the King.
+
+  Amezegzil, the, 430
+
+  “Amghid” (singular of “Imghad”), 140 Amidera valley, 84
+
+  Amin, Muhammad el, Sultan, 413, 464
+
+  “Amitral” (measure of length), 222
+
+  Amjid, wells of, 10
+
+  Ammianus, 356
+
+  Amon, Egyptian deity, 295
+
+  Amosciarg (form of Imajegh), 460
+
+  Amóshagh (form of Imajegh), 459-60, 462
+
+  Amulet cases, leather, 228
+
+  Amulets, Tuareg, 282, 284
+
+  “Amunan,” 459
+
+  “Amzad” (mandoline), 272
+
+  Anai (S.W. of Murzuk), 318, 319, 320, 321, 324
+
+  Anai (Kawar), 318
+
+  Añastafidet, the, 96, 107, 144, 239, 290, 301, 302, 303, 374;
+  origin of authority of, 384, 386; election of, 145; freed slaves of,
+  139; house of, 92, 100, 145, 301; position and duties of, 107, 145-6
+
+  Añastafidet, people of the, 374, 384, 386, 394, 429; numbers of,
+  402; tribes and subtribes of, 435-9, 440
+
+  Anfissak valley, 242; well, 242, 436
+
+  Anfissak, Kel, 243, 436
+
+  Angels, Tuareg belief in, 278
+
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1 _n._[1]
+
+  Anglo-French boundary, Northern Nigeria, 41
+
+  Anglo-German Convention, 1890, 25
+
+  Anigara, 433
+
+  Anigara, Kel, 380, 381, 433
+
+  Animals, domestic, Air, 202-6; rock drawings of, 264-5
+
+  Animistic view of nature, Tuareg, 295
+
+  Aniogara, Kel, 429, 433
+
+  Ankh, the Agades Cross and the, 285
+
+  Annur, chief of the Kel Owi, 23, 24, 108, 134, 135, 146, 304-5,
+  308, 312, 313, 435
+
+  Ansaman (T’in Shaman), 364-5
+
+  Ansatfen, family of, 368, 369
+
+  Ant-bear secured by Buchanan, 121
+
+  Antassar, Kel, 428
+
+  Antelopes, 446, 449, 450
+
+  Antimony, women’s eyes darkened with, 173
+
+  Anu Areran, position of, 424
+
+  Anu Maqaran, 215, 216, 238, 243, 299, 418, 434; rock drawing, 321-2
+
+  Anu n’Ageruf, position of, 425
+
+  Anu n’Banka, 62, 66, 74
+
+  Anu Samed valley, 311; houses in, 248
+
+  Anu Samed, Kel, 435
+
+  Anu Wisheran, 248, 418, 429
+
+  Anu Wisheran, Kel, 429
+
+  Aouror well, 74, 75
+
+  Aowjal, _see_ Aujila, 368, 369
+
+  “Ara” (salt), 125, 127 _n._[115]
+
+  Ara valley, 183, 184, 216, 240
+
+  Arab authors: the Veil first mentioned by, 328-9; works by, 468
+
+  Arab country, meaning of term in Air, 385 _n._[405]
+
+  Arab element among Imghad, 138, 139
+
+  Arab geographers and historians, 61, 468; _see_ Bekri, Ibn Khaldun,
+  etc.
+
+  Arab merchants, Agades, 96, 106; caravan raided by Ahodu, 192-3
+
+  Arab raiders, 12, 13, 14, 188
+
+  Arabia, 266; question of introduction of camels from, 207; invasions
+  from, 371
+
+  Arabian origin of Tuareg, Bello on, 368, 369, 371
+
+  Arabic: Temajegh and, 271; used by Tuareg, 268, 269
+
+  Arabs: Air not invaded by, 324; head-cloths worn by, 286; Kaossen
+  believed killed by, 98; North Africa conquered by, 293-4, 346, 356,
+  371, 375-6, 404; patriarchal system of, 339; raids by, 12, 13, 14,
+  188; robes of, 285 _n._[253]; Southland invaded by, 325, 326, 376,
+  403, 444; Spain conquered by, 376
+
+    Tuareg (Muleththemin, _q.v._) and, 14-15, 273, 274, 287, 294,
+    364; Arab influence on, 324-5; Arab opinion of, 454; connection
+    with Arabs claimed in order to establish descent from the Prophet,
+    339, 342; Arab tribes assimilated by, 347 _n._[329], 354; Arabs
+    considered newcomers by, 170; Arabs called “white” by, 162;
+    upper-class Arabs considered nobles by, 459
+
+  Arakieta, 238, 243
+
+  “Araruf,” 200
+
+  Araten valley, 78, 428
+
+  Archean rocks, Air, 33, 34, 35, 78
+
+  Architecture, Tuareg, 184, 241, 244-59; ascribed to the Itesan,
+  253, 377, 378
+
+  “Areg,” 274 _n._[243]
+
+  Areitun, 431
+
+  Areitun, Kel, 431
+
+  “Argem” (funerary monuments), 260-62, 263
+
+  Arguin, 332 _n._[301]
+
+  Arharkhar valley, 156 _n._[152]
+
+  Aril, Kel, 441
+
+  Arki, King of Kanem, 372
+
+  Arm daggers, Tuareg, 234
+
+  Arm rings, Tuareg, 91, 285-6, 289
+
+  Armes blanches, Tuareg allegiance to, 55, 235-6, 328
+
+  Ar’rerf Ahnet, the, 351
+
+  Arrow-heads, conventionalised, as ornaments, 283
+
+  Arrows, poisoned, used by bush folk, 45
+
+  Arsu, 304
+
+  Art, Tuareg, 246, 263-5
+
+  Arwa, Mount, 216, 300, 321
+
+  Arwa Mellen, 215, 299, 418
+
+  “Aryan,” the word, 339
+
+  Arzuges, the, 356, 358
+
+  Asaki, the, 291
+
+  Asawa, 347
+
+  Asben (Air), 17, 28, 313 _n._[274], 363-4, 369, 403; derivation
+  of, 363-4
+
+  Asben horses, 202
+
+  Asbenawa (people of Air), 17, 202, 313
+
+  Asbytæ, 364 _n._[362]
+
+  Asclepias, use of juice of, 180
+
+  Asclepias, People of the, 307, 433
+
+  Ashanti, matriarchal survivals in, 152, 171; religious feasts, 274
+
+  Ashegur well, 32, 219, 315, 318, 320, 321, 414
+
+  Ashraf (descendants of the Prophet), 339-40, 439
+
+  Asiu, 23, 30, 31, 354, 367, 455, 456
+
+  Askar, _see_ Azger.
+
+  Askia, Ishak, 411
+
+  Askia Ismael, 291
+
+  Askia, Muhammad el Haj, 291, 409-10; conquests of, 116, 117, 409-10;
+  pilgrimage of, 409, 411
+
+  Asnagho, peak, 300
+
+  Assa, 125
+
+  Assada valley, 34, 214-15, 218, 298, 418
+
+  Assadoragan, 309
+
+  Assarara, 247, 314, 315, 435
+
+  Assarara mountains, 314
+
+  Assarara, Kel, 134, 303, 304, 314, 430, 435
+
+  Assatartar, 308, 314, 436
+
+  Assatartar, Kel (Igermaden), 436
+
+  Assatartar, Kel (Immikitan), 430
+
+  Assawas swamp, 31, 78
+
+  Assingerma, 241 _n._[217]
+
+  Assode, 145, 233, 299, 300-303, 314, 413, 454 _n._[458]; first real
+  capital of Air, 303; houses of, 248, 254, 302; mosque of, 255, 257,
+  301-2; position of, 425
+
+  Astacures, the, 356, 358
+
+  Astronomically determined points in Air, list of, 422-5
+
+  Atagoom, 185, 239; amulets worn by, 282; cases of possession in
+  family of, 279-80
+
+  Atan, Kel, 433
+
+  Atara, the, 155
+
+  “Ataram” (west), varying sense of, 244, 247
+
+  Ataram, Kel, 129, 441
+
+  Atkaki, 239
+
+  Atlas languages, 270
+
+  Atlas mountains, 2; MZGh names in, 461, 462
+
+  Atrebisa, 412
+
+  Attafriya, Muhammad, Sultan, 391, 464
+
+  Audaghost, Libyan kings of, 404, 405
+
+  Auderas, 26, 33, 155-7, 161, 214, 241, 253, 404 _n._[418]; author’s
+  stay at, 123, 127, 154-5, 157, 158-62, 171-2, 178, 275, 279-80, 418,
+  423, 424 _n._[436]; basin of, 34, 131, 156, 213; cemetery at, 181;
+  headship of, disputed, 142-3; houses of, 213, 248; Itesan “Kel
+  names” derived from, 380, 381; Kel Ataram of, 129 _n._[117];
+  lion killed near, 119-20; measures of, 221; plough seen at, 133;
+  position of, 424, 425; possession, case of, at, 279-80; rainy season
+  at, 123-4; village organisation in, 131, 142-3
+
+  Auderas, Kel, 440
+
+  Augela (Aujila), 336
+
+  Augila, people of, 282
+
+  Aujila, 318, 334, 336; story of compulsory migration from, 366,
+  368, 369; trade with Kawar, 369, 370
+
+  Aulimmiden, the, 18, 101, 109, 408, 441; the Abalkoran and, 379;
+  Amenokal and, 144; El Baghdadi attacked by, 292; horses of, 202;
+  Ibn Batutah’s possible reference to, 455; Ilemtin a form of the
+  name, 355; Kel Geres defeated by, 391, 415; identical with the Lemta,
+  341, 345, 355, 356, 357-8, 379, 445; matriarchal inheritance system
+  disliked by, 152 _n._[149]; origin of, 341, 377, 379; position of,
+  explained, 357-8; raids on, 139, 190; Tademekka occupied by, 345,
+  348, 357, 387, 414
+
+  Aulus Gellius, 468
+
+  Auraghen, the, 347, 348, 352, 354, 355; noble in Azger, servile in
+  Southland, 348; noble Kel Owi once belonged to, 387
+
+  Auraghiye dialect, 270, 347, 349, 387 Aureran well, 215, 299;
+  position of, 425
+
+  Aures, people of, 294
+
+  Aures, Queen of the (Kahena), 170, 265, 294
+
+  Auriga, the, 270, 340, 341, 343, 346, 347, 348, 349, 352;
+  Auriga-Hawara represented by Ahaggaren, 353, 355, 387
+
+  Ausa, 415
+
+  Austria, “talhakim” made in, 282
+
+  Austuriani (or Ausuriani), the, 356, 357, 358
+
+  Autochthonous significance of MZGh root, 461
+
+  Awa, tomb of, 281
+
+  Awelimmid (Aulimmiden), the, 357
+
+  Axe, Tuareg, 229
+
+  “Azalai,” the, 219
+
+  Azamkoram mountains, 418
+
+  Azañieres mountains, 157, 308, 314 _n._[276]
+
+  Azañieres, Kel, 145, 147, 148, 243, 303, 304, 435, 436, 437;
+  legend of the mother of, 384
+
+  Azañierken, the, 430, 431
+
+  Azanzara valley, 84
+
+  Azar valley, 243
+
+  Azar, Kel, 433
+
+  Azaret, Kel, 437
+
+  Azawad, 61
+
+  Azawagh (Asawa), 347
+
+  Azawagh, the, 32, 49, 54, 61, 62-3, 80, 114, 115, 242, 309, 347
+  _n._[333], 426; cold encountered in, 63, 167, 418; deserted sites
+  in, 64; millet cultivation in, 74; Ifadeyen move into, 209, 399;
+  population decreasing in, 64; Sanhaja in, 364; Tegama of, 54; valleys
+  of, 61-2, 63, 66-7, 71, 76; wells of, 74-5; wind prevalent in, 63
+
+  Azawagh, Kel, 64, 65, 80; name disappears, 65
+
+  Azawak, 31
+
+  Azbin (Air), 17
+
+  Azel, 428
+
+  Azel, Kel, 427
+
+  Azelik valley, 71
+
+  Azenata, the, 437
+
+  Azger country, the, 9, 18, 335, 353, 355, 356; Aulimmiden return to,
+  387; Auraghen noble in, 348; Ifoghas of, 54
+
+  Azger Tassili, the, 260, 261
+
+  Azger Tuareg, 17, 148, 331, 335, 347, 402; Ahaggaren and, origin and
+  connection of, 348, 349-53, 359, 402; Ausuriani identified with,
+  356, 358; camel brands of, 201-2; caravan roads controlled by,
+  353; courage of, 354; divination by women of, 281; European contact
+  with, 8, 9; fort built to watch, 12; French penetration and, 12, 18,
+  350, 354; Imanen of, 348 _n._[385], 432; Imanen kings of, 352, 353;
+  inheritance, system of, 153; Kaossen sheltered by, 92; Kel Ahamellen
+  break from, 352, 359; old Lemta stock represented by, 341, 348,
+  350, 355-9, 432; migrations of, 18, 350; purity of stock of, 18,
+  354; raids by, 350, 354; tribes of, noble and mixed caste, 354-5;
+  warlikeness of, 353, 354; women sent by, to first Sultan of Air, 384
+
+  Azger-Auraghen, the, 348, 387
+
+  Azjer Tuareg, _see_ Azger, 17
+
+  Azuraiden, 436
+
+  Azzal, 121, 122, 436
+
+
+  “B type” of Tuareg houses, 246-8, 249 _n._[221], 250, 252, 254,
+  309, 310-11, 314, 315, 316
+
+  “Bab Ras el Hammada,” 323
+
+  Babies, Tuareg method of carrying, 179
+
+  Bacos valley, 216
+
+  Badge of office, Añastafidet’s, 145
+
+  Bagai, 328
+
+  Bagezan horses, 202
+
+  Bagezan mountains, 23, 33, 34, 84, 85, 123, 126, 127, 156, 183,
+  216, 238-40, 299, 319, 384, 385, 389; an unknown area, 238; houses
+  of, 239, 240-41; limes found in, 160, 239; lions in, 120; name of,
+  connected with Agisymba, 324; Tuareg stronghold against Bornuwi, 414
+
+  Bagezan, Kel; Itesan sub-tribe, 381, 385, 432; Kel Owi group, 184,
+  385, 429, 435; present, composite, 239, 240, 438-9
+
+  Baghdadi, El, 213, 214, 215, 291, 292, 293
+
+  Baghzen, Kel, 129
+
+  Bagirmi, 26
+
+  Bahr Bela Ma, 3
+
+  Bairam, feast of, 274
+
+  Bakeir, Muhammad el, Sultan, 363, 465
+
+  Bakiri, Sultan, 99; _see_ Bekri.
+
+  Bandages, abdominal, worn by Tuareg riders, 180, 194
+
+  Bangles, women’s, 283-4
+
+  “Barbars,” the term, 371, 372
+
+  Barca, 334; food taboos in, 295; the Hawara in, 345
+
+  Bardai, 327, 335, 336
+
+  Bardamah, the, 406; women of, 452
+
+  Bardetus mountain, 327
+
+  Barkasho, 169-70
+
+  Barth, Dr. Heinrich, 8, 9, 21, 22-3, 28, 31 _n._[36], 36, 49, 118,
+  127 _n._[115], 128, 132, 180 _n._[172], 214, 243, 299, 362, 392;
+  _Travels and Discoveries in Central Africa_ by, 14, 23, 106 _n._[96],
+  277 _n._[247], 410 _n._[423], 412 _n._[425], 452 _n._[450], 455
+  _n._[459], 460, 461, 468; expeditions of, 8, 9, 18, 20, 21, 23-4,
+  36, 59, 60, 61, 215; attempts on his life, 290, 304, 312
+
+    account of Air by, 18, 28; origin of name of, 28, 454; Tuareg
+    invasion of, 359, 368, 370-71, 382-3, 386, 387, 391
+
+    on Abd el Qader, 108, 117; on site of Afasas, 241; his journey to
+    Agades, 23, 70, 71, 78, 80 _n._[75], 122; at Agades, 86, 87, 90,
+    91, 92, 93, 99, 117, 118; on date of foundation of Agades, 116;
+    on the Amenokal and Añastafidet, 100, 105, 108, 145 _n._[135],
+    146; Annur and, 304-5, 312, 313; on Assode, 301; at Auderas, 133,
+    156 _n._[150]; in the Azawagh, 49, 63, 67, 70, 71, 78, 80 _n._[75];
+    on Bardamah women, 406; on El Maghili, 291-2; on Elakkos, 444;
+    on exchange rates, 222; on Gamram, 49, 334 _n._[309]; on Ibn
+    Batutah’s journey, 406, 454, 455; Kanem and Bornu chronicle
+    collected by, 372-3; lion’s prints seen by, 120; on population
+    of Murzuk, 113; on the MZGh root in North African names, 460-61,
+    462; as an ox-rider, 203; rock drawings discovered by, 265, 319;
+    Roman remains discovered by, 322; on site of T’in Shaman, 364;
+    at T’intellust, 308, 312-13; his quarters there still known as
+    the House of the Christians, 312-13
+
+    on the Tuareg: etymology of word, 273-4; absence of national name,
+    459-60; Air invaded by, 359, 368, 370-71, 382-3, 386-7; date of
+    invasion, 382-3, 386, 391, 404; the Aulimmiden, origin of, 341,
+    357-8, 377; the Auraghen (Oraghen), 347-8, 387; Azger tribes, 355;
+    Damergu tribes, 53, 54; Elakkos tribes, 444; female descent system,
+    152-3; Imghad and slaves, mistakes regarding, 134-5, 142 _n._[133];
+    the Kel Fadé, 399; the Kel Owi, their arrival in Air, 382-3,
+    386, 387, 391; their earlier habitat, 387; their language, 270;
+    the Kel Wati, 412; Lemta migrations, mistakes regarding, 344-5,
+    359; tribal names, 129, 130; tribal organisation, 380 _n._[396],
+    393, 426, 427; women, fatness of, 118, 172
+
+  Bary, Erwin von, 24-5, 146, 241, 321, 355 _n._[344], 468; Air
+  explored by, 24-5; boundary fixed by, 31; detained at Ajiru, 24,
+  243-4; on disease among Tuareg, 179, 180; on the Imajeghan, 139
+  _n._[128]; on laws of succession among Kel Owi, 151; on lions in
+  Air, 120; on rains in Air, 123 _n._[114]; on social distinctions
+  lost among Kel Owi, 144 _n._[134]; prevented from entering Sudan,
+  24, 244; on tribal names, 129 _n._[117]
+
+  Basalt boulders, 210, 215, 216, 217
+
+  Basalt flows, Air, 33, 34, 119, 126, 183, 216
+
+  Basin formations, 3, 32, 43
+
+  Basket, grain measures in, 221
+
+  Basset, 206
+
+  Bates, Oric: _Eastern Libyans_ by, 6 _n._[3], 145 _n._[136],
+  166 _n._[160], 176, 267 _n._[236], 294 _n._[259], 336 _n._[314],
+  364 _n._[362], 466, 467; references to, on: the Ausuriani, 356;
+  cross symbol among Tuareg, 276, 278; cross-belts, Libyan, 194;
+  eating of dogs, 295; female descent, 151; funerary monuments, 260,
+  262; Imghad and Imajeghan, 137; Lebu and word Libyan, 337; MZGh
+  root of Libyan names, 457 _n._[461], 461; the “penistasche,”
+  164 _n._[158]; religious beliefs, 275; sun worship, 276, 278, 295
+
+  Battles, Saharan, small numbers involved, 11
+
+  Bayazid, the Hole of, 281
+
+  Bazin, R.: _Life of Charles de Foucauld_, 12 _n._[9], 271 _n._[240],
+  467
+
+  Beds, nomads’, 212
+
+  Beduaram, 21
+
+  Bekri, El, Sultan, 99, 293, 325, 336 _n._[316], 345, 372, 404
+  _n._[417], 465, 468
+
+  “Bela,” 134
+
+  Belkho, paramount chief of Air, 24, 146, 191, 243, 244, 305-6, 436;
+  defeat of the Isherifan by, 50, 75, 440
+
+  Bello, Emir of Sokoto, 362, 372; on “Barbar” invasion of Air,
+  371; on Goberawa Copts, 294, 363; on rise of Kanuri in Kanem,
+  369-70, 374; on Sultan of Agades, 99, 108
+
+    on Tuareg invasion of Air, 364, 368, 369-70; the original
+    five tribes, 368, 369, 394, 397, 400, 432, 433; their modern
+    representatives, 394-5, 397, 400
+
+  Bells, camel, the Prophet’s ban on, 293
+
+  Belly of the Desert, the, 30, 347 _n._[333]
+
+  Belts, Libyan, 194, 265; Tuareg, 180, 194
+
+  Ben Guten, the, 131 _n._[120], 437
+
+  Ben Hazera, 282 _n._[252]
+
+  Ben Mubarak, Muhammad, 413
+
+  Benghazi, 110
+
+  Beni Abbes, 333, 344
+
+  Beni Dugu dynasty, 372, 375
+
+  Beni Ghalgha, 372-3
+
+  Beni Hume dynasty, 372, 373, 374, 378
+
+  Beni Itisan, 377
+
+  Beni Khattab, 347; conquest of Zuila by, 112
+
+  Benue, the, 30
+
+  Beranes Libyans, 339, 340, 341, 342, 346
+
+  Berber, linguistic sense of word, 339
+
+  Berber languages, 270, 271; camel names in, 206; MZGh root in, 458
+
+  “Berbers”: confused use of term, 371-2; applied to Libyans and
+  Tuareg, 338, 371, 372, 458, 461; Jewish tribes of, 294
+
+  Berbers of North Africa, 16; arrival in N. Africa, 262; Arab invasion
+  resisted by, 170; former Christianity of, suggested, 273; funerary
+  monuments of, 261; Ibn Batutah on, 453; Ibn Khaldun’s _History_
+  of, 295, 330, 338; matriarchal inheritance system of, 152-3;
+  MZGh root, significance of, among, 458; origins of, 7; robes of,
+  285 _n._[253]; sun worship by, 295; Tuareg and, 7, 16, 371, 372,
+  458, 461; element of, in Tuareg Imghad, 138
+
+  Berdeoa, country of the, 334, 335-6
+
+  Berdianen, the, 428
+
+  “Beriberi,” applied to Kanuri, 371, 373 _n._[386]
+
+  Bettina plant, the, 10 _n._[7]
+
+  Beughqot, 242, 390; valley, 71, 209, 210 _n._[200], 218, 238, 243,
+  244, 390, 436
+
+  Beurmann, 9
+
+  Bianu, feast of, 274-5
+
+  Bibliographical material, list of, 466-8
+
+  Bight of Benin, 22, 30
+
+  Bila, Mount, 157, 214, 215, 216, 299, 418
+
+  Bilalen, 143
+
+  Bilasicat valley, 243
+
+  Bilet, 157
+
+  Bilma, 21, 305, 413; French fort at, 320; wireless station at, 188
+
+    salt caravan, 69, 85, 114, 115, 195, 210, 217, 218-20, 443;
+    Amenokal’s revenue from, 110; number of camels in, 218; French
+    escort for, 84, 218, 219; Minister accompanying, 106; raids on,
+    218, 219, 450; route of, 32, 114, 145, 219, 264, 315, 320, 450
+
+    salt trade, 133, 218, 219-20; struggles between Air and Bornu for,
+    407, 415
+
+    war of, 407, 415
+
+  Bir Alali, 51, 52, 92
+
+  Bir Gharama, disaster to French at, 9-10, 236
+
+  Birds, taboo on, 294
+
+  Birjintoro, 46
+
+  Births, among Tuareg, 179, 181
+
+  Bishoprics, North African, 293
+
+  Bissuel: _Les Touareg de l’Ouest_, 10 _n._[7], 351, 467
+
+  “Black” and “White” Tuareg, 139-40
+
+  Blacksmith, Tuareg, 155, 228-9, 230, 283-4
+
+  Blanket carried by some Tuareg, 166
+
+  Bleeding, remedy for donkey disease, 203
+
+  Blemmyes, the, 376
+
+  “Blood in the head,” camel and donkey disease, 200-201, 203
+
+  “Blue,” negroes spoken of as, 162
+
+  Blue-eyed Tuareg, 161
+
+  Boghel valley, 122
+
+  Bomba, Gulf of, 260
+
+  Books, Tuareg, 269; lost during revolt, 360, 361-2; fragments of,
+  discovered, 385
+
+  Booz, 320, 321
+
+  Borgu, 336
+
+  Borku, 336
+
+  Bornu, 26, 191, 192, 336, 369; on early maps, 336, 410
+
+    Beni Hume dynasty in, 372, 373, 374, 378; Bulala conquest of, 374;
+    Christian influence in, 294; history of, chronicle of, 372-3, 374
+
+    Empire of, 37, 47, 374, 406, 410, 412; decline of, 407; war with
+    Air, 407, 415, 443
+
+    Kanuri in, 335, 371, 403, 407
+
+    Tuareg arrival in, problem of, 375-6; their ascendancy in, 372-4,
+    375, 376, 403-4, 406; expulsion of, from, 335, 358, 372, 374, 375,
+    403-4; migration into Air from, 370, 371, 372, 375, 376-7, 403-4;
+    Tuareg besiege, 413
+
+  Bornu Chronicle, 372-3, 374, 413
+
+  Bornuwi, 44
+
+  Bororoji Fulani, 57-8
+
+  Borrow pits, Sudanese, 90
+
+  Boucle du Niger, La, 30
+
+  Boulders, basalt, 34, 183, 210
+
+  Boule, M.: _Fossil Man_, 339 _n._[322], 467
+
+  Boundaries of Air, 28-33
+
+  Bourgou, 336
+
+  Bouthel, Sergeant, 50-51
+
+  Bows and arrows used by Kanuri, 55; not used by Tuareg, 235, 236
+
+  Boys, Tuareg, circumcision of, 179; dress of, 177; upbringing
+  of, 177-8
+
+  Bracelets, women’s, 283-4
+
+  Brahim, Sultan, 52, 99, 108
+
+  Brands, tribal, on camels, 201-2
+
+  Branes, Libyan family of, 338, 339, 340, 341
+
+  Brass, decorative work in, 310
+
+  Braun, 320
+
+  Bridle, camel, 193, 231
+
+  Bridle stand, 309
+
+  Brigands, 122
+
+  British described as White Nobles, 459
+
+  British part in exploration of Central Sahara, 20, 313; in
+  penetration of West Africa and Sudan, 36-7
+
+  British tendency to belaud obscure races, 401
+
+  Broking centres for desert traffic, 110, 111
+
+  Buchanan, Captain Angus, 20, 68, 110, 120, 121, 155, 164, 238, 299;
+  fauna of Air collected by, 27; _Out of the World North of Nigeria_,
+  27 _n._[31], 70 _n._[67], 468
+
+  Buda, 453
+
+  Buddei valley, 127 _n._[115]
+
+  Buddei-Telwa drainage system, 183
+
+  “Bugadie,” 134
+
+  Building methods: Sudan and Northern Nigeria, 88-9; Tuareg, 89,
+  90, 248-50, 251-2
+
+  Bulala, the, conquest of Bornu by, 374
+
+  Bulls, 203
+
+  Bullum Babá well, 446, 451
+
+  Bullum village group, 443, 446
+
+  Bundai hills, 308 _n._[272]
+
+  Burials, Tuareg, 181-2
+
+  Burin, 9
+
+  Burr grass, 45, 58-9, 62, 164, 165, 226, 227; seeds ground and eaten,
+  158, 160, 211
+
+  Bush, Central African, discomforts of travel in, 45-6; Damergu,
+  58-9, 446; Elakkos, 446, 447, 451; the Southland, 42, 43
+
+  Bush folk, poisoned arrows used by, 45
+
+  Bushman drawings, 264
+
+  Bustard, 43, 265
+
+  Butter, Tuareg, 158
+
+  “Buzu,” 134, 135-6, 159
+
+  Byzantine origin of first Sultan of Air discussed, 102, 104
+
+  Byzantines: emigration from North Africa, 376 _n._[390]; encounters
+  with Tuareg, 327
+
+
+  “C type” Tuareg houses, 250, 251-2
+
+  Ca’da Mosto, 404 _n._[417]
+
+  Cæsar, camels captured by, 206
+
+  Caillé, 19
+
+  Cairns, memorial, 292-3
+
+  Cairo, 20; Arab rottl in, 222
+
+  Cairo-Timbuctoo road, 318
+
+  Calabashes, rare in Air, 161; as grain measures, 221; as drums, 272
+
+  Camel bells, the Prophet’s ban on, 293
+
+  Camel Corps, French, 10, 11, 68, 84, 188, 189, 193, 198; camels
+  stolen from, 188; rate of travel of, 193
+
+  Camel skeletons, palæolithic, 207
+
+  Camel-borne trade, decline of, 38
+
+  Camel-riding, abdominal strain of, 180, 194; position for, 232
+
+  Camels, 38, 95, 194-5, 354; their arrival in Africa, problem of,
+  206-8; breeds of, 195-7; delicacy of, 198; diseases of, 72, 199-201;
+  equipment of, Tuareg, 193-4, 223-4, 227, 230-31, 276-7; fodder of,
+  62, 64, 199; herding of, 135-6, 141-2; a popular investment, 134;
+  loading and unloading, 198, 223, 224-5; numbers of, 204-5, 361;
+  prices of, 204; raids for, 188, 190, 191; rock drawings of, 265;
+  saddles of, 223-4, 227, 230-31, 276-7; salt needed by, 125; with
+  salt caravans, 218, 219, 220; sores of, 72, 199, 201; technique of
+  travel with, 193, 198-9; Temajegh names for, 197; thirst of, 72,
+  198-9, 445-6; tribal marks on, 201-2; rarely trotted, 193
+
+  Canaan, 339
+
+  Caravan roads, 5, 6-7, 30, 32, 43-4, 48, 62, 114, 145, 219, 242,
+  264, 308-9, 315, 320, 325, 443, 450; abandoned owing to destruction
+  of wells, 60-61; closed during war, 361; controlled by Azger and
+  Ahaggaren, 353-4; controlled by Kel Owi, 390, _see_ Kel Owi road;
+  evacuation policy and, 361; the “Garamantian way,” 318-20;
+  junction at Iferuan, 318; Roman garrisons on, 208; and sites of
+  cities, 110, 111, 112, 114
+
+  Caravan trade: Añastafidet’s position and, 145; breakdown of,
+  during war, 142, 146
+
+  Caravan wells, 74-5, 80; rights over, 75
+
+  Caravans: large, formed for safety’s sake, 11; camels for,
+  supplied by Arabs, 354; raids on, 50, 51, 52, 59, 80, 191-3, 218,
+  219, 450; salt, _see_ under Bilma.
+
+  Cardinal points, Temajegh names for, 244
+
+  Carpentry, 228
+
+  Carthaginians, camels not used by, 206
+
+  Casamicciola, 242
+
+  Caste, mixed, of some Azger tribes, 355
+
+  Caste system, Air, 103-4, 108, 136, 137-8; _see_ Noble and servile
+  tribes.
+
+  Cattle, Air, 133-4, 202, 203, 204, 205; horns of, anointed by
+  Bororoji, 58
+
+  Cats, Air, 203
+
+  Cave paintings, European, 264
+
+  Cemeteries, Nubian, 260; Tuareg, 181, 216, 259-63; urn cemetery,
+  Marandet, 121, 161, 263
+
+  Central Africa: Arab influence in, 325; Arab invasion of, 376;
+  bush of, discomforts of travel in, 45-6; Empires of, 47 (_see_
+  Bornu, Melle, Sokoto, Songhai); French scheme for occupation of,
+  25-7; history of, in relation to that of Air, 358, 401, 403-16;
+  huts of, 87, 89; Mediterranean civilisation brought to, 401; trend
+  of migration towards, 39, 342
+
+  Central Air, 299, 418; belonged to People of the King, 394; rains
+  in, 123; tribal names derived from, 378, 380, 398; view over, 126
+
+  Central Empires, unrest in North Africa fomented by, 12-13, 93
+
+  Central Sahara, 2; bibliography of, 467; British part in exploration
+  of, 20-24; caravan road, 318; drainage system of, 4, 28-34; allocated
+  to French, 20, 22; guides of, 185, 186; mountain groups of, 2;
+  rains in, 28; Roman penetration of, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326-7
+
+  Central Sudan, caravan route to, 7
+
+  Centre Peak, Termit, 448, 450
+
+  “Cercles,” 41
+
+  Chad, Lake, 3, 21, 23, 266; caravan road, 7, 8, 320, 325, 326, 333,
+  334, 335, 369; diversion of water from, 30; French expeditions to,
+  25-6, 50-51; Lemta extend to, 345; track from Termit to, 450
+
+  Chad area: Arab invasion of, 444; early home of the Lemta, 376;
+  Tuareg migration into Air from, 376-7, 378, 379, 396, 403, 432, 445
+
+  Chad road, 7, 8, 320, 325, 326, 333, 334, 335, 369
+
+  Chanoine, Lieut., 26
+
+  Chariots, discussion of ancient use of, in Air, 318-19, 320,
+  321-2, 324
+
+  Cheese, Tuareg, 157, 158
+
+  Chemical incrustation, line of valley marked by, 68
+
+  Chickens, 206
+
+  “Chief of the Market Place,” 106
+
+  “Chief of the White People,” 106
+
+  Childbirth among Tuareg, 179
+
+  Children, Tuareg, 174, 177-9; belong to the mother, 148-9; education
+  of, 268, 400; naming of, 181; suckled late, 178-9
+
+  Chosroes, invasion of North Africa by, 375
+
+  Christianity: question of its existence in Air, 256-7, 363; former
+  Berber religion, 273, 274; among the Tegama, 53, 54; possibly
+  former religion of Tuareg, 275-8, 293-4; traces of its influence
+  among Tuareg, 275-6, 277, 278, 284-5, 289, 293-4
+
+  Christians, House of the, 312-13
+
+  Chudeau, R., 27, 32, 257, 468; on Assode, 301 _n._[266]; _Le Sahara
+  Soudanais_, 27 _n._[30], 31 _n._[34], 34-5, 41 _n._[45], 94 _n._[82],
+  102 _n._[89],[91], 205, 402 _n._[416]
+
+  “Cidamus, the people of,” 336 _n._[314]
+
+  Cillaba (Cilliba), 323
+
+  Cillala (Zuila), 112
+
+  Cinerite, Auderas basin, 34, 183
+
+  Circumcelliones, the, 12, 328
+
+  Circumcision, practised by Tuareg, 179
+
+  Cities, North African, caravan roads and sites of, 110, 111, 112, 114
+
+  Cities of the Desert, 110-13, 114
+
+  Citroën Motor Expedition, 271 _n._[239]
+
+  Clapperton, Captain H., 8, 20, 21; death of, 21; _Travels and
+  Discoveries in Central Africa_ (Denham and Clapperton), 99 _n._[85],
+  362, 363 _n._[359], 368 _n._[372], 371 _n._[380], 374 _n._[387],
+  413, 467
+
+  Classical authors, references in, possibly indicate early Tuareg,
+  376; bibliography of, 468
+
+  Clay amphoræ, grain stored in, 317
+
+  Climate, of Air, 28, 123; of the Sahara, 4-5
+
+  Cloth, native, 164, 166, 167, 194
+
+  Cochia, 404 _n._[417]
+
+  Coins, Air, 221-2
+
+  Cold weather, encountered in Azawagh, 63, 167, 418; scantiness of
+  Tuareg dress for, 166-7
+
+  Colocynth, use of juice of, 180
+
+  Colour, used on houses of Agades, 92; not used in Tuareg dress,
+  95, 96
+
+  Colouring of Tuareg, 161-2, 173, 367, 460
+
+  Concubinage in Air, 170, 171; the caste system and, 136; impossible
+  for noble women, 160, 171
+
+  Congo, French expedition from, 25, 26
+
+  Congress of Berlin, 25
+
+  Constantinople, delegation from Air seeks a Sultan from, 101, 102,
+  104, 396-7; list of tribes sending the delegation, 397
+
+  Cooley, _Negroland of the Arabs_, 116 _n._[106]
+
+  Copper mines, Tekadda, 452-3, 454
+
+  Coptic Christianity, influence of, in Air, 294, 363
+
+  Corippus, 207, 295, 327 _n._[294], 357, 445, 468
+
+  Cornelius Balbus, 322, 323
+
+  Cornish, V., 66 _n._[63]
+
+  Cortier: _D’une Rive à l’autre du Sahara_, 209 _n._[198],
+  277 _n._[247], 441, 467; history of Ifoghas n’Adghar, 398-9;
+  Geographical Mission, maps of Air, 27, 71, 131 _n._[120], 156
+  _n._[152], 183, 210 _n._[200], 214 _n._[206], 215 _n._[207],
+  218 _n._[208], 238, 241, 311 _n._[273], 314, 422, 424-5, 454
+  _n._[456], 466
+
+  Cosmetics used by Tuareg women, 173
+
+  Cotton cultivation, Air, 132, 227
+
+  Cottonest, Lieut., 10
+
+  Counting, Tuareg method of, 191
+
+  Courage of Tuareg, 11, 169-70, 236, 237, 354; of Tuareg women, 169-70
+
+  Cow-camels, 197, 201
+
+  Cowrie-shell currency discarded, 221
+
+  Cows, scarce in Air, 203
+
+  Crescentic type of sand dunes, 66-7, 68
+
+  Criminals, gaol for, Agades, 107
+
+  Cross, Tuareg use of, as ornament, 235, 276-7, 278, 289, 293; the
+  Agades Cross, 44, 277, 283, 284; cross-hilted swords, 233, 234,
+  276, 289; on pommel of saddle, 230, 276-7, 289; on shields, 235
+
+  Crows, camels attacked by, 199
+
+  Cruciform design, Tuareg use of, _see_ Cross.
+
+  Crusaders, the, 233, 276
+
+  Cubes on women’s bracelets, 284
+
+  Currency, Air, 221-2
+
+  Currie, Sir J., 132 _n._[121]
+
+  “Cursed,” the (Muhammad Askia), 410
+
+  Curzon, Lord, 279
+
+  Cydamus, 323
+
+  Cyrenaica: camels introduced into, 207; the Lebu in, 337; raids into,
+  in classical times, 356; steppes and desert of, 335
+
+
+  “D type” Tuareg houses, 250, 251
+
+  Dabaga, 122, 125
+
+  Daggers, Tuareg, 234
+
+  Dala, King of Bornu, 374
+
+  Damagarim, 42, 43, 44, 48, 150, 218, 320, 361, 443, 446; date of
+  Tuareg occupation of, 415 _n._[432]
+
+  Dambansa, 46
+
+  Dambida, 46
+
+  Damergu, 23, 32, 41, 43, 44-62, 209, 309; an appanage of Air,
+  47; Agades Cross in, 284; Barth in, 23; bush of, 45-6, 58-9, 446;
+  cattle supplied from, 203; cultivation in, 47, 48, 132, 133, 217;
+  drainage system of, 46; French entry into, and events leading to
+  occupation of Air, 50-52; Fulani of, 16, 54, 55, 56-8, 203; geology
+  of, 46; granary of Air, 47; hills of, 46-7; measures of, 221; negroid
+  inhabitants of, 415; oryx hide shields from, 235; oxen used in, 203;
+  population of, 48, 64; raiders in, 50, 51, 188, 189; rains in, 124;
+  revolt, 1917, in, 85; Sanhaja in, 364, 405; villages of, 48
+
+    Tuareg of, 47-8, 52-3, 303, 400, 446; evacuated from Air to,
+    360-61; their predominance in, 54-5; their migration into, 377,
+    396, 404, 415; Sendal possibly ancestors of, 396; Sultans of, 47-8;
+    tribes and sub-tribes of, 18 _n._[18], 400, 426, 427, 428, 433,
+    436, 437, 438, 439-40
+
+  Dan Gudde, King of Gober, 392
+
+  Dan Kaba, 55; position of, 424
+
+  Dancing, Tuareg, 44, 272
+
+  Danda, ruler of the Imuzuraq, 50, 51
+
+  Dani, Muhammad, Sultan, 392
+
+  D’Anville, 336
+
+  Darfur, Tuareg in, 51
+
+  Date-palms: cultivation of, 131, 155, 216, 217, 239, 317; disputed
+  ownership of, 298; scarcity of, 224
+
+  Dates, 160; date of ripening, 157; preserved, 160; trade in, 218, 220
+
+  Daud, King of Kanem, 407
+
+  Daura, 41; people of, 363
+
+  Daza, the, 336
+
+  De la Roncière, Charles, 19 _n._[19],[20]
+
+  Deformation of body not practised among Tuareg, 179
+
+  Dehkar, mentioned by Ibn Batutah, 453
+
+  Demmili, 47, 48
+
+  Denham, D., Oudney, and Clapperton expedition, 8, 20, 21; _Travels
+  and Discoveries in Central Africa_ (Denham and Clapperton), 99
+  _n._[85], 362, 363 _n._[359], 368 _n._[372], 371 _n._[380], 374
+  _n._[387], 413, 467
+
+  Depopulation of Air, results of, 361
+
+  Descent, Tuareg system of, 103-4, 148-53, 373, 398
+
+  Desert between Air and Southland, 456
+
+  Desert, steppe and true, 2, 332, 333, 334
+
+  Desert vegetation, 64, 70, 226; hardiness of, 67; rain and, 124;
+  Elakkos and Termit, 445, 446, 449
+
+  Desert warfare: small numbers involved in, 11; tactics of, 236-7
+
+  Desiccation, of the Sahara, 4; of upper reaches of Niger, 30
+
+  Desplagnes: _Le Plateau Central Nigérien_, 261, 467
+
+  Devil, the, Tuareg belief in, 278
+
+  Dianous, Captain, 10
+
+  Dibbela well, 21
+
+  Dickson, 9
+
+  “Diffa” (reception), 272
+
+  Diodorus Siculus, 152, 468
+
+  Diom-Talras track, 451
+
+  Dirki, 413
+
+  Disease in Air, 178, 179-80
+
+  Diseases of camels, 199-201
+
+  Distance, no measure of, Air, 222
+
+  Distances covered by raiders, 188, 189-90
+
+  Divination, methods of, 281-2
+
+  Divorce among Tuareg, 176-7
+
+  Doctor, author as, 171-2, 178, 180, 186
+
+  Dogam village, 184
+
+  Dogam, Kel, 381, 432
+
+  Dogam, Mount, 33, 131, 156, 183, 213, 214, 215, 216, 432
+
+  Dogs: Air, 203, 205-6; eaten by Eastern Libyans, 295
+
+  Domestic animals, Air, 202-6
+
+  Donatist heresy, the, 328
+
+  Donkeys: Air, 202, 203-4; wild, 204
+
+  Doors of Tuareg houses, 245-6, 247, 277, 309
+
+  Drainage system of Air, 23, 28-31, 71, 76, 122-3, 183, 214-15, 242;
+  of Sahara, 3-4, 9, 28-33
+
+  Draughts, game of, 281
+
+  Drawings, rock, 263-5, 269, 315, 318, 319; of camel, 265; of ox-drawn
+  vehicles, 321-2; of shield with cruciform design, 276
+
+  Dress, Tuareg, 14, 15, 95-6, 163-7, 177, 265, 289; simplicity of,
+  164; of women, 172
+
+  Drought, former administrative measures against, 47, 48
+
+  Drugs, Tuareg, 180
+
+  Drum as badge of office, 145
+
+  Drums, spirit, legends of, 278, 279, 300
+
+  Drums, Tuareg, 272
+
+  Dryness of air in the Sahara, 4
+
+  Dual administration of empire of Melle, 407-8
+
+  Dubreuil, 271 _n._[239]
+
+  Duga, Kel, 432
+
+  Dûm Palm, People of the, 307, 398 _n._[413], 432, 435
+
+  Dûm palms, 87, 122, 125, 131, 156, 158, 226; rope made of fronds
+  of, 224; sandals made of fronds of, 165; wood used in building,
+  88, 93, 245, 249
+
+  Duguwa dynasty, the, 372, 373, 375
+
+  Dunama I, 373
+
+  Dunama II, 374, 406
+
+  Dunes, sand, 4, 58, 62, 63-4, 66-7, 70, 442, 446, 447
+
+  Duveyrier, H., 8-9, 266, 271, 322; explorations and work of,
+  8-9; _Les Touareg du Nord_ by, 9, 28-9, 54 _n._[54], 169, 180,
+  282 _n._[252], 467; on Ahaggaren and Azger, 350-52, 353, 354, 355
+  _n._[346], 356; on Bir Gharama disaster, 10; on dogs of Air, 206;
+  on food taboos, 206; on the “Garamantian way,” 203, 318-19,
+  320, 321, 324; on derivation of Imajegh, 457; on marriage system of
+  Tuareg, 171; on origin of Oraghen, 347, 348; on religion of Tuareg,
+  274, 275; on shields of Tuareg, 234 _n._[215]; on T’ifinagh
+  alphabet, 266
+
+  Dzianara, the, 397
+
+
+  “E type” of Tuareg houses, 250
+
+  “Early Period” rock drawings, 264
+
+  Earthenware, Tuareg, 160-61
+
+  Eastern Air, Kel Owi in, 394
+
+  Eastern Desert, roads across, 320
+
+  Eastern origin of camel, theory of, 207, 208
+
+  Eastern origin of the Libyans, probability of, 340
+
+  Eastern Sahara, 2-3; drainage system, 3
+
+  Ebesan, El Haj, 102-3
+
+  Economic issues between Kel Owi and Kel Geres, 390
+
+  Economics of Air, 133-4, 218-20
+
+  Education, Tuareg, 174, 177-8, 268, 400
+
+  Efaken, Mount, 156, 213
+
+  Efale, the guide, 125, 149, 187, 225, 320
+
+  Egeruen, position of, 424
+
+  Eghalgawen, 68, 69, 347, 412, 418, 451; position of, 424; valley,
+  76, 77 _n._[72]; watering points, 76, 80, 114
+
+  Eghalgawen-T’in Wana massif, 71, 77, 78; fossil trees in,
+  259 _n._[226]
+
+  Eghbaren, the, 428
+
+  Egypt: Arab conquest of, 404; invasions of, by Libyans and Sea
+  People, 337, 340; matriarchate in, 152 _n._[145]; raids into,
+  in classical times, 356; weights in, 222
+
+  Egyptian Coptic church, influence of, in Air, 294, 363
+
+  Egyptian oases, the, 334, 337
+
+  Egyptian paintings, of Libyans, 194, 265; figures like Tuareg on, 462
+
+  Egyptian records, possible references to Tuareg in, 376, 462
+
+  El Golea, 9
+
+  El Suk, 394
+
+  El Suk, Kel, 355, 377
+
+  Elakkos, 42, 49, 51, 81, 357, 358, 442-8; as battle-ground, 396,
+  442-3; bush of, 49, 58, 446, 447, 451; Camel Patrol of, 450; grain
+  of, 444, 445; name of, its origin, 357, 445; oryx hide shields of,
+  235, 444; plain of, 442; rains in, 445; wells of, 445-6, 447
+
+    Tuareg of, 51, 303, 307, 308, 370, 396, 400, 440; their migration
+    into, 376, 377, 404, 415 _n._[432]; their predominance in, 443,
+    444, 445
+
+  Elakwas (Elakkos), 357
+
+  Elar, Kel, 129, 437
+
+  Elattu, 96
+
+  Elazzas, hut foundations at, 262-3; valley, 216
+
+  Elijah, the cave of, 321 _n._[280]
+
+  Elijinen, the, Tuareg tales of, 278-81; amulets against, 282
+
+  Elmiki (Immikitan), the, 429
+
+  Elmina, Portuguese factory at, 409
+
+  Elnoulli, 241
+
+  “Em” names, tribal, 130
+
+  Emagadezi people, the, 107, 117, 130, 410, 440
+
+  Emallarhsen, the, 432
+
+  Emilía, 243
+
+  Emirates of Nigeria, 37, 38, 41; French administration of, 42;
+  _see_ Daura, Hadeija, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto.
+
+  Emululi, 239, 241
+
+  En Nitra, the, 350
+
+  “Enad” (smith), 155, 228-9, 230
+
+  Enclosures: funerary monuments, 260-62, 263; places of worship,
+  258-9, 292-3; round Tuareg houses, 250, 251, 262-3
+
+  “English Hill,” the, 313
+
+  English tendency to extol obscure races, 401
+
+  Ennedi, 92
+
+  Entrepôts of the desert, 110, 111
+
+  Envelopes, leather, 228
+
+  Equatorial Africa, 2, 21; Arab pressure in, 376; French, annexed,
+  26; operations against French in, 92; rainfall belt of, 4; Tuareg
+  migration to, 375
+
+  Erarar, Kel, 436
+
+  Erarar n’Dendemu, 156, 214, 292, 293
+
+  Erdi, 335
+
+  Erosion in valleys of Air, 34; of sandstone formations, 77, 79, 81
+
+  “Ers” (eresan), 213
+
+  “Ers, Rodd’s,” 243
+
+  Esbet, 364 _n._[362]
+
+  Escherha, the, 433
+
+  Etaras valley, 183, 243
+
+  Ethical standards, Tuareg, pre-Moslem source of, 296
+
+  Ethnology of Air, 28
+
+  Eti, Kel, 412
+
+  Etteguen, the, 429
+
+  Eunuchs, negro, 179
+
+  European affairs, knowledge of, in Sahara, 266
+
+  European penetration, of the Sudan, 36-7, 38, 41-2; of Tuareg
+  country, 8-14, 19-27
+
+  European salt competing with Bilma product, 219
+
+  Europeans, Tuareg hostility to, 23, 24, 154; Holy Men and, 290
+
+  Evacuation of Air during revolt, 113, 121-2, 302, 309, 360-61, 426
+
+  Exchange, rates of, 221, 222
+
+  Exorcism of spirits, 280
+
+  Exploration of Tuareg country, 8-14, 19-27
+
+  Eye troubles common in Air, 179
+
+  Eyes, Tuareg, colour of, 161
+
+  Ezelu valley, 429
+
+  Ezelu, Kel, 429
+
+
+  Faces of Tuareg: man’s, seen without veil, 187; women’s, daubed
+  with earth or ochre, 173
+
+  Factions in Libyan villages, 338-9
+
+  Fadé, 23, 317, 319, 320, 321, 399, 400, 427
+
+  Fadé, Kel, 169, 318, 399, 400, 431
+
+  Fadeangh, Barth’s name for Fadé, 23 _n._[25]
+
+  Fagoshia, position of, 424
+
+  Fairness of skin among Tuareg, 161-2; a social distinction, 162, 173
+
+  Faji, Tuareg village, 39
+
+  Faken, Mount, 213
+
+  Falezlez, Wadi, 30-31
+
+  Fall, 51
+
+  Family system, Tuareg: authority of heads of families, 147; female
+  descent, 103-4, 148-53, 373, 398
+
+  Famine, the War of, 414
+
+  Faodet, 253, 254, 315-16; position of, 425
+
+  Faodet, Kel, 430, 431
+
+  Farak, 50, 51, 52, 54, 59, 60, 62, 439; disasters at, 59; hill
+  north of, 60; water supply at, 59
+
+  Fardi, Wadi, 3
+
+  Fareg, Wadi, 3
+
+  Fares, 304, 314, 316, 319
+
+  Fares, Kel, 149, 304, 428, 435
+
+  Fasher, El, 51
+
+  Fashi, 32, 68, 160, 191, 218, 219, 220, 315, 413, 414, 443, 450
+
+  Fashi road, 320
+
+  Fatimite era, the, 346
+
+  Fatness of Tuareg women, 118, 172, 406; a sign of affluence, 172
+
+  Fauna of Air, 27-8
+
+  Feast of the Sheep, Sidi Hamada, 95-7
+
+  Feast of the Veil, 289
+
+  Feasts, religious, 274-5
+
+  Fedala, the, 437
+
+  Fedekel, Kel, 437
+
+  Feet, insensitive skin of Tuaregs’, 165
+
+  Feitei, Kel, 433
+
+  Female descent, rule of, among Tuareg, 103-4, 148-53, 373, 398;
+  of kings of Kanem, 373
+
+  _Femmes douairières_, Tuareg, 169
+
+  Ferwan, Kel, 102, 104, 119, 129, 150, 415, 441; described as heathen,
+  258, 386; Imghad of, 139, 398; numbers of, 427; origin of, 395,
+  396, 398-9, 427; among original invaders of Air, 395, 396, 398,
+  399, 400; tribes and sub-tribes of, 427-8; women of, status of, 174
+
+  Festivals, Tuareg, 181, 274-5
+
+  Fevers, value of quinine against, 178
+
+  Fez, 343, 452, 453
+
+  Fezzan, the, 8, 9, 20, 112, 145, 334, 335; Ahaggaren and Azger
+  migrate into, 350; Arab conquest of, 325, 376; Azger of, 350, 354;
+  British geographical work in, 8, 20; cattle trade between Air and,
+  203; date palms of, 317; exploration of, 8, 9, 20, 248; French and
+  British factions in, 22; anti-French and -British activities in,
+  during war, 84, 92; Hawara of, 347, 379; houses of, 248, 254, 255;
+  conquered by Kanem, 112, 374, 406; Kel Innek of, 400; Lemta Tuareg
+  of, 376, 403, 445; oases of, 6; Okba’s invasion of, 376; Oraghen
+  of, 347; racial mixture in, 16; raiders of, 12, 13, 187, 188, 350;
+  road from Air to, 318-21; Roman occupation of, 322, 323, 324, 326,
+  403, 445; wheat exported from Air to, 133
+
+  Fezzan, Eastern, the, 112, 335; story of compulsory migration from,
+  366, 375
+
+  Fezzan, Southern, mountains of, 2, 3, 4
+
+  Fezzan mountains, unknown area between Air and, 32
+
+  Fezzanian branch of Tuareg, 254
+
+  Fida, Abul, 374 _n._[389]
+
+  Fire-making, nomads’ method of, 212
+
+  Firing, camel diseases treated by, 201
+
+  Fish, taboo on, 294
+
+  Flagged road (the “Garamantian way”), its existence discussed,
+  318-20
+
+  Flammand: _Les Pierres Ecrites_, 264 _n._[232]
+
+  Flat arm-rings, 286
+
+  Flatters, Colonel, 26; French expedition under, 9-10, 236
+
+  Flies, a pest, during rains in Air, 120-21, 125, 126
+
+  Flora of Air, 27
+
+  Flour, millet, preparation of, 159-60
+
+  Flowers rare in Air, 226
+
+  Fonfoni, wells filled in at, 451
+
+  Food, Tuareg, 157-60, 174, 211, 212
+
+  Food taboos, totemic, 294-5
+
+  Footgear, Tuareg, 164-6
+
+  Foreign Affairs, Tuareg Minister for, 106, 145
+
+  Foreign origin and servile status, 354
+
+  Foreign races, administration of, by empire of Melle, 407-8
+
+  Fort Laperrine, 12
+
+  Fort Motylinski, 12, 13
+
+  Fort Pradie, 51, 92
+
+  Fortified settlements, buildings of type of, 389
+
+  Fossil trees, specimens of, 81-2, 259
+
+  Foucauld, Charles de, 11-12, 13-14; on derivation and use of the
+  word Imajegh, 457, 458, 459; Tuareg dictionary by, 12 _n._[9], 269,
+  271, 454 _n._[456], 467; on Tuareg religion, 275
+
+  Foureau, F., 36, 299, 467
+
+  Foureau-Lamy Expedition, 26-7, 36, 50, 51, 60, 86, 99, 114 _n._[104],
+  143, 290, 316, 414 _n._[429], 416; observations taken from, 422,
+  424-5
+
+  Franks, emigration from North Africa, 376 _n._[390]
+
+  Freeman, H. Stanhope, 267, 467
+
+  French, the: African exploration and expansion by, 9-14, 25-7, 37;
+  penetration of Tuareg country by, 9-14, 26-7, 350, 352; occupation
+  and annexation of Air by, 26, 27, 50-52, 99, 114 _n._[104]
+
+    books destroyed by action of, 361, 385; Camel Corps of, 10, 11,
+    68, 84, 188, 189, 193, 198, 218, 219, 446, 450-51; colonial policy
+    of, 42, 360-61, 416; evacuation policy of, 360-61, 385; forts of,
+    12, 13, 86, 91, 118, 218, 316, 317, 320; maps of Air by, 27, 65,
+    68, 71, 131 _n._[120], 156 _n._[152], 183, 210 _n._[200], 214
+    _n._[206], 215 _n._[207], 218 _n._[208], 238, 241, 311 _n._[273],
+    314, 422, 424-5, 454 _n._[456], 466; mosque desecrated by, 385;
+    Nigeria indirectly defended by, 85; sedentarism encouraged by, 131;
+    seeds supplied by, 132; slavery abolished by, 134 _n._[122]
+
+    Tuareg and, hostilities between, 9-11, 13, 26, 51, 52, 114
+    _n._[104], 236, 328; migration of some tribes from, 51, 350, 352;
+    pacific counsels of others, 26-7, 51, 52, 414 _n._[429]; the 1917
+    revolt against, 39, 59, 60, 69, 70, 84-5, 86, 93, 98, 121-2, 127-8,
+    169, 185, 205, 302, 309, 420
+
+  French works on Air and the Tuareg, 14, 466, 467, 468. _See under
+  names of authors mentioned on these pages_.
+
+  Frobenius, 264 _n._[232]
+
+  Fugda, 217, 250, 439
+
+  Fulani, the, of Damergu, 16, 54, 55, 56-8, 203; Agades Cross among,
+  284; Hausa and, feud between, 42-3; houses of, 89; language of,
+  118, 155; musical instruments of, 44; a noble race, 56-7; in Punch
+  and Judy show, 56; tradition of return to the East among, 58
+
+  Fulani, Bororoji, 57-8
+
+  Fulani, Rahazawa, 57
+
+  Fulani Empire of Sokoto, the, 37, 57, 363, 415
+
+  Funerals, Tuareg, 181-2
+
+  Funerary inscriptions, absence of, 260, 263
+
+  Funerary monuments, North African, 260-62
+
+  “Fura,” 157, 305
+
+  Furniture, 309; household, Tuareg, 229-30
+
+
+  Gabes, 337
+
+  Gadé, Mount, 77 _n._[73], 79, 85
+
+  _Gado_, the, 100
+
+  Gagho (Gao), 345
+
+  Gago (Gao), 332 _n._[303], 404 _n._[417], 445, 452
+
+  Gall, 52
+
+  Game: Auderas, 184, 213; Elakkos, 446; Damergu, 43; Termit, 449,
+  450; T’in Wana, 81
+
+  Gamram, 47, 49-50, 52, 60, 334 _n._[309], 412, 413, 438, 439;
+  its amenities, 49; Belkho’s attack on, 75; extract from diary
+  written at, 420-21
+
+  Gangara, 44, 46, 48, 57, 97; position of, 424
+
+  Ganziga, the, 331, 332, 334
+
+  Gao, 110, 318, 332, 369, 374 _n._[389], 404, 405, 445; Agades as
+  entrepôt for, 411; Aulimmiden capture, 414; centre of gold trade,
+  411; decline of, 411; history of, 407, 408, 409; Ibn Batutah in,
+  345, 452, 456; Moors occupy, 411
+
+  Gao, King of, tribute from Air to, 410
+
+  Gaogao, (Gao), 345, 452
+
+  Garama, 112, 306, 323, 326, 436; the “Garamantian way,” 318-20,
+  321, 324
+
+  Garamantes, the, 16, 318, 321, 322, 323, 326, 354, 356; ox-drawn
+  chariots of, 203, 208, 318, 320, 321-2, 324; suggested descendants
+  of, 335-6
+
+  Garari, 44
+
+  Garazu, Ikazkazan of, 436, 443-4
+
+  Gardens, cultivation of, Air, 131, 132; carried on by negro slaves,
+  135
+
+  Garet valley, 418, 429, 434
+
+  Garet, Kel, (of Kel Geres), 380, 381, 434
+
+  Garet, Kel, (of Kel Tadek), 429
+
+  Garet n’Dutsi, Kel, 434
+
+  Gautier, E. F., 261-2, 468; _La Conquête du Sahara_, 10 _n._[8],
+  467; _Le Sahara_, 5 _n._[2], 27 _n._[30], 31 _n._[33]
+
+  Gawgawa, 345
+
+  Gazelle, 43, 81, 184, 204, 213, 446, 449, 450
+
+  Gedala, the, 343
+
+  Gedeyenan, the, 428
+
+  Geographical tribal names, 128, 129, 130
+
+  Geography, Tuareg knowledge of, 265-6
+
+  Geography of the Sahara, 2-5
+
+  Geres, Kel, 17, 53; Air invaded by, 256, 378, 380-82, 405-6; leave
+  Air for Southland, 65, 143, 366, 390-91, 392, 415; and Amenokal’s
+  installation, 100, 146, 384, 391, 392, 393, 397; Aulimmiden defeat,
+  391, 415; camels, white, of, 196; a Hawara people, 65, 82, 348
+  _n._[335], 387; houses of, 251, 253, 254; Islam introduced by, 256,
+  258; Itesan and, connection between, 370, 373, 378, 380, 392, 393,
+  397, 398; Kel Owi defeat and displace, 373-4, 383, 388, 389, 390,
+  391, 392, 415; tribal record of, 362; tribes of, 65, 381, 422-3;
+  wars of, 388, 390, 391-2, 415; women as heads of villages of, 169
+
+  Gergesenes, Libyans related to, 339
+
+  Gerigeri, 455
+
+  “Germa,” root of many place names, 306
+
+  German intrigues in North Africa during the War, 12-13, 93
+
+  Gezula, the, 343, 349
+
+  Gh sound, difficulty of transliterating, 271, 350 _n._[338]
+
+  Ghadames, 7, 8, 9, 21, 110, 323, 335, 336 _n._[314]; population of,
+  113; divination by women of, 281
+
+  Ghadamsi dialect, 267, 270
+
+  Ghamarama, 412
+
+  Ghana, kingdom of, 404, 405, 409
+
+  Gharama, Bir, 9-10, 236
+
+  Gharnathi, El, 330; _see_ Leo Africanus.
+
+  Gharus, 438
+
+  Gharus, Kel, 139, 143, 150, 308, 438
+
+  Gharus n’Zurru, 69, 74
+
+  Ghat, 7, 9, 20, 23, 24, 114, 145, 185, 335, 390; difficulty of
+  transcribing the word, 271; caravan road to, 30, 318; caravan roads
+  from, controlled by Azger, 354; cattle trade with, 203; development
+  of, 111-12, 113; Holy Men of, 280; houses of, 248; Oraghen in, 347;
+  population of, 113; race of, original, 155; raiders from, 12, 13;
+  religion of, recent conversion to Islam, 257-8; Romans in, 322,
+  323, 326; spirits at, 280
+
+    Tuareg of, female succession among, 151-2; Lemta, 403
+
+  Ghati camels, 195-6; brands of, 201-2
+
+  Ghela, Kel, 351, 373
+
+  Gheshwa, Mount, 33; volcanic cone, 241, 242
+
+  Ghodala, El (Guddala), 413; ruling family of, 103
+
+  Ghosts, Tuareg belief in, 278-9, 281
+
+  Ghudet, 320, 321
+
+  “Ghussub” water, 19, 157, 305
+
+  Gibbon quoted, 328
+
+  Gidjigawa, 51
+
+  Giga, Kel, 80, 429
+
+  Ginea, Mount, 47, 51
+
+  Giraffes, 43, 264, 446
+
+  Girls, Tuareg, freedom of, 173, 174-5
+
+  Gissat hills, 214, 428
+
+  Glyphs, rock, _see_ Rock drawings.
+
+  Goats, Air, 203, 204, 205
+
+  Goats, People of the (Kel Ulli), 52, 129, 307-8, 438
+
+  Goatskins, 223, 224; decorated, 227, 228; for water, 232
+
+  Gober, Kingdom of, 363, 367, 368, 403, 405; Air receives tribute
+  from, 383; Air at war with, 392; chiefs of, Copts, 294; Kel Geres
+  migrate to, 390, 391, 392; Songhai occupy, 409
+
+  Goberawa, the, 363, 403; in Air, 363, 364, 365, 368; driven from Air,
+  379, 381, 405; the Itesan and, 379
+
+  God, Tuareg words for, 278
+
+  Goethe, 91
+
+  “Gogdem,” 333-4
+
+  Gogo (Gao), 345, 374 _n._[389]
+
+  Gold Coast, British penetration of, 36
+
+  Gold currency, disappearance of, 221
+
+  Gold trade in Sudan, 411, 414
+
+  Gorset, Mount, 211
+
+  Gourara, 332, 334
+
+  Gourds, 132; rare in Air, 161
+
+  Government of the Air Tuareg, 144-8; of the tribal units, 147-8
+
+  Grain: from Damergu exported, 47; dishes made from, 157-8; of
+  Elakkos, 444; grinding of, 159-160; measures of, 220-21; former
+  reserves of, 48
+
+  Grain pits, Assode, 302
+
+  Granary of Air, Damergu as, 47
+
+  Granite formations, Air, 78, 119, 125
+
+  “Grape design” on Tuareg pottery, 161
+
+  Grasses, seeds of, ground and eaten, 158
+
+  Graves, Tuareg, 181, 259-63; peculiar form for a smith, 229
+
+  Great Bear, Tuareg name for, 226 _n._[212]
+
+  Great Bend, the, 30
+
+  Great South Road, the, 80; _see_ Kel Owi road and Tarei tan Kel Owi.
+
+  Green leather and silver, saddles ornamented with, 230-31
+
+  Grimaldi race, survivors of, 364 _n._[362]
+
+  Gsell: _Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord_, 173 _n._[168], 207
+  _n._[194], 208, 466, 467
+
+  Guddala, El, 413, 464; ruling family of, 103
+
+  Guenziga, the, 349
+
+  Guides, 72, 81, 125, 149, 185-7, 225-6, 320, 447; _see_ Efale,
+  Ishnegga, Kelama, Sattaf, Sidi, T’ekhmedin.
+
+  Guinea coast, Portuguese factory on, 409
+
+  Guinea corn, 47, 131, 133; cakes of, 157
+
+  Guinea-fowl, 43, 125, 126
+
+  Guinea-worm, 180
+
+  Gulbi n’Kaba, the, 33, 43, 44, 46, 71
+
+  Gulbi n’Maradi, the, 33
+
+  Guliski, 50, 60, 451; position of, 424; rainstorm at, 83
+
+  Guma, Muhammad, Sultan, 392, 465
+
+  “Gumrek,” 334 _n._[309]
+
+  Gundai hills, 308, 309, 313
+
+  Gure, 42, 43, 44, 442
+
+  Gurfautan, the, 433
+
+  Gurzil (the sun-god), 295
+
+
+  Haardt, 271
+
+  “Hád” plant, 70
+
+  “Hadanarang” (Ihadanaren), the, 128
+
+  Hadeija, 21, 41
+
+  Haggar, French form of Ahaggar, 128, 454; Ibn Khaldun’s etymology
+  of, 345, 346, 347, 353
+
+  “Hair,” _see_ Air.
+
+  Hair of Tuareg, 161; of children, 177; untidiness in, an abomination,
+  117
+
+  Haj Road, the, 20, 318
+
+  Hakar (Ahaggar), Ibn Batutah in, 453, 454, 455, 456
+
+  Hakluyt Society reprint of Leo Africanus, editors of, 331
+
+  Halévy, J., on Libyan script, 267
+
+  Halo, solar, an evil omen, 296
+
+  Ham, 339
+
+  Hamed el Rufai, Sultan, 99
+
+  Hammad, Muhammad, Sultan, 103, 109, 392, 464, 465
+
+  Hammada el Homra, the, 322, 324
+
+  Hamid ibn Yesel, 337
+
+  Handful as unit of capacity, 220-21
+
+  Hannekar, 59, 60, 72, 74, 81, 418; track to Agades, 62
+
+  Hanoteau, A.: grammar of Temajegh by, 266, 269, 271, 467; on MZGh
+  root, 458-9
+
+  Harris Papyrus, the, 6
+
+  Hassan ibn Muhammad el Wezaz el Fazi, 330; _see_ Leo Africanus
+
+  Hassanein Bey, 3, 336
+
+  Hatita camel mark, 202
+
+  Hats, Kano conical, 166
+
+  Haunted places, Air, 278-9
+
+  Hausa, the term, 16 _n._[17]; called “black,” 162; commercial
+  genius of the people, 38; feud with Fulani, 42-3; houses of, 89;
+  not pure negroes, 363
+
+  Hausa language, 16, 17, 40-41, 118, 154
+
+  Hausaland, 218; conquered by Bornu, 412; Fulani ascendancy in, 56,
+  57, 415; Goberawa withdraw into, 379; Songhai occupation of, 409
+
+  “Hawar, people of,” 325
+
+  Hawara, the, 65, 270, 274, 325 _n._[290], 341, 359, 385 _n._[405];
+  ancestors of the Ahaggaren tribes, 270, 345, 349, 359, 387;
+  “Arabisation” of, 346-7; Auriga the same as, 341, 343, 346, 347,
+  349, 387; home of, 345; Ibn Khaldun on, 341, 343, 345, 346, 347,
+  353, 379; Kel Geres descended from, 65, 82, 348 _n._[334], 387;
+  division of Libyan family, 341, 343, 346, 347; Lemta people and,
+  345, 346, 348, 353; not all Tuareg, 346-7
+
+  Hawarid origin of the Lemta, 345-6, 353, 359
+
+  Hawk’s head as amulet, 282
+
+  Head-cloths, Arab use of, 286
+
+  Head-piece, camel’s, 276
+
+  Head-ropes, camel’s, 193, 224, 228
+
+  Head-stones on graves, 260
+
+  Headmen, village, 127-8, 131, 339
+
+  Heaven, Tuareg belief in, 278
+
+  Height of Tuareg, 163
+
+  Hell, Tuareg belief in, 278
+
+  Henna, use of, 173
+
+  Herding, live-stock, 135-6
+
+  Hereditary principle rare among Tuareg, 151
+
+  Hernia frequent among Tuareg, 180
+
+  Herodotus, 7, 176, 206, 208, 281, 282, 295, 324, 365, 369, 457, 468
+
+  Heskura, the, 343, 349
+
+  “Hill of the Christians,” the, 313
+
+  Hillali, Abu Zeid el, invasion of North and Central Africa by,
+  376, 404
+
+  Himyarite tribes, 341; invasion of, 342
+
+  Himyer, 341, 371
+
+  Historical works, native, 360, 361-2
+
+  History, Tuareg knowledge of, 265, 360, 361-2
+
+  Hobble ropes, 224
+
+  Hoggar, French form of Ahaggar, 128
+
+  Hole of Bayazid, the, legend of, 281
+
+  Holy Books, niches in houses for, 247
+
+  Holy Men, 289, 290, 293, 316, 355, 357, 405; amulets manufactured
+  by, 282; children named by, 181; divination by, 281; as exorcisers,
+  280; raids on Aulimmiden forbidden by, 190
+
+  Holy tribes, 290-91, 306, 355, 357, 437, 438, 439, 440
+
+  Hornemann, F. C., expedition of, 8, 19-20, 336; on date of arrival
+  of Kel Owi in Air, 383, 386; on the Tegama, 53; on Tuareg ascendancy
+  in Gober, 392; work by, 19 _n._[22], 336, 467
+
+  Horses, Air, 202
+
+  Hospitality, Tuareg laws of, 210, 237
+
+  House of the Christians, 312-13
+
+  House-flies, country infested by, during rains, 120, 121, 125
+
+  Household duties, Tuareg, 174
+
+  Household slaves, 134, 136
+
+  Houses: Central African, 87, 89; Northern Nigerian, 87-8, 89;
+  Sudanese, 87, 88, 90; Tuareg, various types of, 89, 90, 92, 181,
+  184, 239, 240-41, 244-55, 256, 302, 309, 310-11, 314, 315-16;
+  attributed to the Itesan, 239, 244-6, 251, 252, 253, 254, 377-8,
+  381, 389, 393; fortified type, 389
+
+  Huart, C.: _Arabic Literature_, 292 _n._[256]
+
+  Human figure, rock drawings of, 265
+
+  Hume, King of Kanem, 372; _see_ Beni Hume.
+
+  Huts, Tuareg, 184, 253, 254; stone circles round, 262-3; on raised
+  plinths, 262-3
+
+
+  “I names,” tribal, 128, 130, 139, 303-4, 306, 352, 400, 430;
+  lost, 395
+
+  Iabrubat (Iburuban), the, 434
+
+  Ialla (God), 278
+
+  Ibandeghan, the, 52
+
+  Ibanderan, the, 437
+
+  Iberdianen, the, 428
+
+  Iberkom, 316
+
+  Iberkom, Kel, 437
+
+  Iberkoran (Aulimmiden), the, 379
+
+  Ibn Abd el Hakim, 325 _n._[289]
+
+  Ibn Assafarani, 369
+
+  Ibn Batutah, 18, 19, 452, 468; account of Air by, 18, 19, 452-3,
+  456; Agades not mentioned by, 116; his journey, 114, 406, 452-6;
+  on female descent, 103, 151; on the Mesufa, 175-6, 364, 405
+
+  Ibn Ghania, 343, 407
+
+  Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zeid Abd el Rahman, 151 _n._[141], 293,
+  294 _n._[258], 295, 325 _n._[289], 330, 337-43, 371, 377, 468;
+  classification of the Libyans by, 338-43; on the divisions of the
+  Muleththemin, 349, 379; on the origin of the Tuareg, 343-4, 345,
+  346, 347, 348, 353, 379
+
+  Ibogelan, the, 351
+
+  Ibrahim, Sultan, 464
+
+  Ibrahim Dan Sugi, 99
+
+  Ibram, Chief of the Tegama, 53
+
+  Iburuban, the, 434
+
+  Ibuzahil, 102, 104
+
+  Ice in the Sahara, 4
+
+  Idakka, Kel, 438
+
+  Ideleyen, the, 428
+
+  Idemkiun, the, 441
+
+  Idenan, the, founders of Timbuctoo, 407
+
+  Idikel, position of, 424
+
+  I’dinet n’sheggarnén, Barth’s term for Tuareg, 460
+
+  Ido well, 450
+
+  Idris, King of Bornu, 410
+
+  Idris Alawoma (Ansami), King of Bornu, 412, 413, 414
+
+  Idrisi, El, 337, 369, 374 _n._[389]
+
+  “Iet,” Tuareg letter, 276
+
+  Ifadalen, the, 397, 400, 438; Damergu, 440
+
+  Ifadeyen, the, 60, 65, 74, 80, 82, 191, 209, 395, 428, 431, 436;
+  of Damergu, 440; literacy of, 268, 400; nomadism of, 400; origin of,
+  399-400; wells attributed to, 74
+
+  Ifagarwal, the, 437
+
+  “Ifarghan, village of,” 156 _n._[150]
+
+  Iferuan, 26, 114, 115, 122, 129, 189, 218, 246, 290, 302, 308, 311,
+  315, 317, 418; French fort at, 316; houses at, 248; Kel Ferwan
+  move from, 389; Kel Ferwan named after, 395, 427; position of,
+  424 _n._[435], 425; rains in, 123, 124; roads meeting at, 318, 319;
+  valley, 258
+
+  Iferuan, Kel (not Kel Ferwan), 437
+
+  Iferuan-Ghat track, 185
+
+  Ifli, Wadi, 452 _n._[449]
+
+  Ifoghas, the, 52-3, 54, 254, 327, 394, 428, 441; of the Azger,
+  18 _n._[18]; of Damergu, 18 _n._[18], 80, 439; a holy tribe, 355,
+  357, 439; probably Lemta, 355-6, 357, 358
+
+  Ifoghas n’Adghar, 18, 52, 398-9
+
+  Ifoghas of the Mountain (Ifoghas n’Adghar), 18, 52, 398-9
+
+  Ifrikiya, 325, 341; defended by Queen Kahena against Arabs, 170,
+  265; the Hawara in, 345
+
+  Ifrikos, 341, 371
+
+  Ifuraces, the, 327, 356, 357, 358, 439
+
+  “Ifurfurzan,” colour of camels, 196
+
+  Igademawen, the, 243, 306, 436
+
+  Igdalen, the, 162, 355, 380, 394, 395, 400, 441; of Damergu, 440;
+  a holy tribe, 290; Imghad among, 394; their migration into Air,
+  373, 378, 380, 394, 395
+
+  Igedeyenan, the, 428
+
+  Igermaden, the, 146, 243, 303, 306, 436; chief of, _see_ Belkho;
+  massacre of, 191; tribes and sub-tribes of, 436
+
+  Igerzawen, the, 437
+
+  Ighaghar basin, 9, 10, 28
+
+  Ighaghrar valley, 156 _n._[152], 214
+
+  Ighazar basin, the, 23, 26, 34, 241 _n._[217], 264, 308, 315, 316,
+  395, 437; evacuated during revolt, 122; Kel Owi occupy, 308, 389,
+  427; measures used in, 221; palm trees of, 316, 317; villages of,
+  316, 318; wheat cultivation in, 133
+
+  Ighazar, Kel, 122, 436-7, 441
+
+  Ighazar n’Agades, 78
+
+  Ighelablaban, 239
+
+  Ighelaf wells, 451
+
+  Ighelaf, Kel, 60, 433
+
+  “Ighillan” (measure of length), 222
+
+  Ighlab (Ighelaf), Kel, 433
+
+  Ighzan, 33
+
+  Igidi, desert of, 332, 333-4
+
+  Igidi, the, 358
+
+  Iguendianna, the, 428
+
+  Igululof, 309-11; houses in, 248
+
+  Igululof, Kel, 304, 435
+
+  Igururan, the, 304, 435
+
+  Ihadanaren, the, 128, 354
+
+  Ihagarnen, the, 162 _n._[156]
+
+  “Ihaggar” (Ahaggar), 128
+
+  Ihaggaren, the, 162 _n._[156]
+
+  Ihehawen, the, a holy tribe, 355
+
+  Ihrayen spring, 62, 70, 71
+
+  Ihrsan, the spirits of, 279
+
+  Ijanarnen, the, 395, 433
+
+  Ijaranen, the, 378, 394, 395, 400, 403, 433
+
+  Ikadeen, the, 351
+
+  Ikademawen (Igademawen), the, 436
+
+  Ikaradan, the, 117, 430, 441
+
+  Ikawkan, the, 428
+
+  Ikazkazan, the, 128, 145, 169, 290, 303, 307-8, 318, 437-8;
+  in Damergu, 52, 303, 436, 440; in Elakkos, 303, 307, 308, 443-4;
+  Imghad of, called heathen, 273; tribes and sub-tribes of, 52, 129,
+  307-8, 437-8, 441
+
+  Ikelan, the, 134, 135, 136, 155
+
+  Ikerremoïn, the, 351
+
+  Ilaguantan, the, 357, 358
+
+  Ilagwas (Elakkos), 445
+
+  Ilagwas, the, 370
+
+  Ilasgwas, the, Elakkos Tuareg identified with, 445
+
+  Ilemtin, the, 355-6, 358
+
+  Ilettan, 404
+
+  “Illeli,” 459
+
+  Imajegh: the MZGh root of the word, 457-62; a caste appellation,
+  458, 459, 460
+
+  Imajeghan (nobles, _q.v._), 15, 170, 171, 354-5; Ahaggaren,
+  350-51, 352; Azger, 348, 354-5; dark colouring of, 162; diminishing
+  numbers of, 150; marriage tribute payable to, 141; among Kel Owi,
+  144 _n._[134]; relations of Imghad and, 137, 138, 139, 140-43
+
+  Imajeghan n’Arab, the, 459
+
+  Imam, the, Agades, 96, 97
+
+  Imanen, the, 354, 355, 400, 432; affinity with the Itesan, 384-5
+
+  Imanen Kings of Azger, 348, 352, 353
+
+  Imanen women, legendary mothers of Kel Owi tribes, 384, 392
+
+  Imanghassaten, the, 354
+
+  Imaqoaran, the, 52, 395, 396, 397, 398, 400, 431
+
+  Imarsutan, the, 52, 304, 435; Kel Tagei of, 398, 435
+
+  Imaslagha, the, 134, 303, 304, 314; tribes and sub-tribes of, 134,
+  303-4, 435-6
+
+  Imasrodang, the, 129, 303, 306, 436; tribes and sub-tribes of, 129,
+  306, 436-7, 440, 441
+
+  “Imawal” (part of the Veil), 287, 288
+
+  Imazir (form of Imajegh), 457
+
+  Imettrilalen, the, 354
+
+  Imezegzil, the, 303, 384, 395, 400; tribes and sub-tribes of,
+  429, 430
+
+  Imghad (serfs), 15, 105, 128, 137-8, 142, 351; Barth’s error
+  regarding, 461 _n._[475]; categories of, 138-9; concubinage and,
+  138-9; dark colouring of, 162, 366; Imajeghan and, relations between,
+  137, 138, 139, 140-43; among Kel Owi, 144 _n._[134]; lists showing
+  tribes of, 427-31, 435-40; negroid inhabitants of Air as, 138,
+  365-6; nobles, conquered, as, 138, 394, 460; origins of, 137-8,
+  139, 365-6, 394, 460; prosperity of, 137, 142; racial types in,
+  137, 138; slaves rise to be, 135; status of, 105, 140-43, 150;
+  veils, distinguishing, worn by some, 139-40
+
+  Imi n’Aghil, 247
+
+  Imi n’Ataram, 247
+
+  Imi n’Innek, 247
+
+  Imi n’Tasalgi, 247
+
+  Immakkorhan (Imaqoaran), the, 431
+
+  Immedideran, the, 307, 437; founders of Timbuctoo, 407
+
+  Immidir, Wadi, 31
+
+  Immikitan, the, 243, 303, 304, 371, 429, 443; of Assatartar,
+  436; of Elakkos, 370, 440, 443; name used for Tuareg, 396; one of
+  original five tribes, 370, 378, 394, 395-6, 397, 400, 429, 443;
+  tribes and sub-tribes of, 429-30
+
+  Imohagh (form of Imajegh), 457
+
+  Imohaq (form of Imajegh), 457
+
+  Imóshag (form of Imajegh), 457, 459
+
+  Imuzurak, the (Ikazkazan), 438
+
+  Imuzurak, the (Kel Ferwan), 50, 52, 428; hostilities with French,
+  51, 52
+
+  Imuzuran, the, 428
+
+  In Abbagarit, position of, 425
+
+  In Allaram, position of, 425
+
+  In Asamed, 26, 30, 31, 33, 54, 59, 61, 62, 123; filled in, 60
+
+  In Azawa, 260, 317, 318, 354, 455, 456
+
+  In Bodinam, 240
+
+  In Gall, 114, 189, 317, 318, 402, 441, 456; position of, 424
+
+  In Gall, Kel, 441
+
+  In Gezzam, position of, 425
+
+  In Kakkan, position of, 425
+
+  In Salah, 30, 111
+
+  In Wadjud, 430
+
+  Inafagak valley, 61
+
+  Inardaf, the, 433
+
+  Independent tribes, Kel Owi, 438-9
+
+  Indigo cloth, Tuareg dress made of, 163, 164, 177; the Veil made of,
+  140, 287
+
+  Indigo plant, 132
+
+  Indigo-stained skin as protection from sun, 163
+
+  Industries, Tuareg, 131, 164-6, 174, 227-30, 231, 277, 310; in
+  women’s hands, 174, 227
+
+  Inemba Kel Emoghi, the, 350
+
+  Inemba Kel Tahat, the, 351
+
+  Infant mortality high among Tuareg, 178
+
+  Infanticide, 175
+
+  Inheritance and succession, matriarchal tradition in, 151-3; of
+  women’s property, 168
+
+  Inisilman (Holy Men), 54, 154, 290, 291; Azger tribes of, 355;
+  _see_ Holy Men and Holy tribes.
+
+  Innek, Kel, 129, 369; first Tuareg to enter Air, 254, 369, 370,
+  375, 397, 398, 400; sub-tribe of the Itesan, 370, 398, 432
+
+  Innek, Kel (unlocated), 441
+
+  Inscriptions: on arm rings, 286; on graves, 260; on rocks, 213,
+  260, 264, 268-9, 271, 315, 360
+
+  Insect pests during rains in Air, 120-21, 125-6
+
+  Installation of Amenokal, 99-100, 103, 108, 109, 379, 383, 391,
+  393, 397, 432
+
+  Intadeini, 434
+
+  Intadeini, Kel, 434
+
+  Intayet, 430
+
+  Inter-breeding in camels, result of, 196-7
+
+  Intirza, Kel, 307
+
+  Intirzawen, Kel (Tetmokarak), 433; (Kel Owi), 435, 436
+
+  Inwatza, 418
+
+  Inzerak, 214, 215
+
+  Ir n’Allem, 122, 365
+
+  Iralghawen (Eghalgawen), 347
+
+  Irawattan, the, 427
+
+  Irawellan (outdoor slaves), 134, 135, 155; numbers of, 402
+
+  Iraz, Sultan, 406 _n._[422]
+
+  Irejanaten, the, 151
+
+  Ireshshumen, the, 351
+
+  Irkairawan, the, 434
+
+  Irmakaraza, the, 434
+
+  “Irolangh,” 134
+
+  Iron in well, alleged effect of, 453
+
+  Iron-working, Tuareg, 229
+
+  _Irratemat_ (sandals), 165 _n._[159]
+
+  Irrigation, Air, 131, 132, 133, 239
+
+  Isabel (Izubahil), wife of first Sultan of Agades, 102, 104
+
+  Isagelmas valley, 80, 82
+
+  Isakarkaran, the, 428
+
+  Ischia, lava flows on, 242
+
+  Ishaban, Kel, 355
+
+  Isherifan, the (of Gamram), 50, 52, 60, 439; a holy tribe, 290,
+  438; Belkho’s defeat of, 50, 75, 440
+
+  Isherifan, the (Tetmokarak), 433
+
+  Ishnegga, the guide, 72, 81
+
+  Islam: introduction of, into Air, 256-8; Maliki sect of, 291-2;
+  matriarchate modified by, 152; new spirit in, 12, 13; Tuareg
+  conversion to, and lax practice of, 273, 274, 290, 291, 293, 324-5;
+  women’s position under, 152, 168, 170, 174
+
+  Issala, wells of, 9
+
+  Istambul (Constantinople), 101, 266
+
+  Italian occupation of Tripolitania, and Tuareg movements, 8
+
+  Itesan, the, 109, 214, 253, 394, 406; original invaders of Air,
+  244, 253, 254, 370, 373-4, 378, 379, 380, 381, 395, 400, 432; leave
+  Air for Southland, 366, 373-4, 377, 392, 393, 398, 432; and the
+  election of the Amenokal, 100, 103, 109, 379, 391, 393, 397, 432;
+  the Goberawa and, 379; houses attributed to, 239, 244-6, 251, 252,
+  253, 254, 377-8, 381, 389, 393; “Kel” names among, origin of,
+  378, 380, 381, 398; connection between the Kel Geres and, 370, 373,
+  378, 380, 392, 393, 397, 398; migration westward of, 251, 252, 377,
+  389, 398, 413; among the Sanhaja, 377; tribes and sub-tribes of,
+  380-81, 398, 432-3; wells attributed to, 300, 377, 378
+
+  Ittegen, the (Kel Tadek), 429; (independent), 438
+
+  Itziarrame, the, 432
+
+  Iuraghen, the, 347
+
+  Iwarwaren, the, 162
+
+  Izagaran (Izagharan), the, 52, 397, 400, 440
+
+  Izagarnen (“the red ones”), name for Tuareg, 162 _n._[156]
+
+  Izagheran, the, 52
+
+  Izar, Sultan, 406
+
+  Izarza, the, 430-31
+
+  Izarzaran, the, Damergu, 440
+
+  Izenan, the, 434
+
+  Izeyyakan, the, 303, 431, 435
+
+  “Izghan,” 117
+
+  Izirza, Kel, 429
+
+  Izubahil (Isabel), wife of first Sultan of Agades, 102, 104
+
+  Izumzumaten, the, 429
+
+
+  Jackals, 125
+
+  Jado oasis, 320, 321, 326, 334
+
+  Jaghbub, 3
+
+  Jajiduna, 47, 48; French fort at, 51
+
+  Jalo, 3
+
+  Janet, 12, 53, 185
+
+  Jauf, 347 _n._[333]
+
+  Jawan, 325
+
+  Jean, Lieut. C., 27, 238, 387; _Les Touareg du Sud-Est_ by, 14,
+  28, 50 _n._[50], 94 _n._[82], 101 _n._[88], 102 _n._[89],[91],
+  107 _n._[98], 120 _n._[110], 174 _n._[169], 274 _n._[245], 281
+  _n._[251], 390 _n._[407], 468; Agades occupied by, 52; on Assode,
+  301; astronomical observations made by, 422, 424, 425; on Bornu wars
+  with Air, 413; on Egyptian influence in Air, 363 _n._[360]; on French
+  colonial policy, 416; on the houses of Bagezan, 240-41; live-stock
+  census by, 204; on Kel Geres invasion and evacuation of Air, 380,
+  391; on date of arrival of Kel Owi in Air, 257 _n._[225], 382, 386;
+  on date of mosques of Air, 256, 257; on polygamy in Air, 170-71;
+  on population of Air, 402; on tribal origins and organisation,
+  383-4, 387, 393, 395, 426, 427, 428-31, 435-6, 439-41, 443-41;
+  tribes sending delegation to Constantinople, list given by, 397;
+  on Tuareg invasion of Air, and its date, 256, 362, 371, 382, 386,
+  404; on Tuareg of Damergu and Elakkos, 415 _n._[432], 443, 444
+
+  Jedala (Jadala), the, 331, 343, 348, 349
+
+  Jekarkaren, the, 428
+
+  Jenne, 409, 411
+
+  “Jenun” (Jinn), 278 _n._[249], 280
+
+  Jerboa considered unclean, 294
+
+  Jerma, 112, 306, 321, 323, 325, 436
+
+  Jewellers, Agades, 229
+
+  Jews, “Berber” tribes as, 294; massacre of, in Tuat, 291, 292
+
+  Jinns: amulets against, 282; Tuareg tales of, 278-81
+
+  Joalland, Lieut., 50
+
+  Jodar, Basha, 411
+
+  John, Byzantine general, 327
+
+  John (Yunis), first Sultan of Agades, 102, 103, 104, 463
+
+  Jokto, the, 412-13
+
+  Juba, 206
+
+  Judaism in North Africa, 294
+
+  Justice, system of, Agades, 107, 110
+
+
+  Kadhi, the, Agades, 96, 107; house of, 92
+
+  Kaffardá valley, 63
+
+  Kahena, Queen, 170, 265, 294
+
+  Kahir (Air), 406, 454
+
+  Kahor (Air), 453, 454, 455
+
+  Kaimakam, 25
+
+  Kalama, 226
+
+  Kalenuzuk, the, 428
+
+  Kallilua, 46, 48
+
+  Kanem, 369; chronicle of, 372-3, 374; Bornu dynasty expelled from,
+  374, 375; Fezzan overrun from, 112, 374, 406; Kanuri seize power
+  in, 369, 370, 371-2, 374, 407; Tuareg as rulers of, 371, 372-3,
+  374, 375; Tuareg expelled by Kanuri from, 371-2, 374, 375; Tuareg
+  invade Air from, 369-70, 372, 375
+
+  Kanem, Empire of, 374, 410
+
+  Kano, 38, 44, 106, 110, 291, 335, 413, 418, 419; Agades deserted for,
+  411; annexation of, 137; Bornu conquers, 412; cloth of, 164, 166;
+  country round, 41; Fulani in, 57; houses of, 87, 90; industries of,
+  164, 166; Kel Owi attack on, 415; modern prosperity of, 418, 419;
+  railway from Lagos to, 38; Senussi “zawia” at, 48; slave market
+  in, 38; Songhai attack on, 410; Tuareg migrate to, 38, 39, 361, 411
+
+  Kano, Emirate of, 37
+
+  Kanuri, the, 16, 49, 117, 218, 441; Agades Cross among, 284; as
+  “Barbars” or “Beriberi,” 371; Bornu Tuareg overthrown by,
+  335, 371-2, 374, 375, 403, 404; in Damergu, 42, 43, 47, 55, 56;
+  Daura conquered by, 363; in Elakkos, 443, 446; Goberawa conquer,
+  363; hair dress of, 44; settlement and rise to power in Kanem, 369,
+  370, 371-2, 374, 407; Kawar conquered by, 335; language of, 16,
+  118, 373 _n._[386]; Tuareg migrations caused by, 335, 358, 369-70,
+  372, 375, 404, 414, 415, 444; their name for Tuareg, 412 _n._[426]
+
+  Kaossen, 69, 84, 86, 92-3, 99, 185, 385, 420; the House of,
+  Agades, 92
+
+  Karawa, 46
+
+  “Karengia” grass, 58-9, 62; _see_ Burr grass.
+
+  Karnuka, 155
+
+  Karruwe (weight), 222
+
+  Kashwar n’Tawa, 68
+
+  Kaswa n’Rakumi, 91
+
+  Katanga, 91
+
+  Katchena, Kel, 40, 117
+
+  Katsina, 38, 110, 291, 413; Agades deserted for, 411; annexation
+  of, 37; El Baghdadi preaches in, 291, 292; Fulani in, 57; Itesan
+  attack, 391; slave market in, 38; Songhai occupation of, 409, 410;
+  Tuareg migrate to, 39, 361, 411, 427
+
+  Katsina, Emir of, 39
+
+  Kaukau, 345
+
+  Kawa, 414-15
+
+  Kawar, 31, 32, 98, 218, 334, 335, 369; caravan road by, 7, 8, 37,
+  318, 320, 325, 358, 369, 403, 443, 446, 450; Kanuri conquer, 335,
+  406; Okba’s campaign in, 325, 326 _n._[292]; pastureless, 219;
+  raids on, 182, 188, 191, 350
+
+  Kawar road, 318, 320, 325, 358, 369, 403, 443, 446, 450
+
+  Kawkaw (Gao), 452
+
+  Kawkaw (Kuka), 445
+
+  Keane: on the Berdeoa and the Garamantes, 335-6
+
+  Kebbi, 413
+
+  “Kel” names, tribal, 128-30, 139, 303-4, 370; among the Itesan,
+  derivation of, 378, 380, 381
+
+  Kel Aberkan, _etc._, _see under_ Aberkan, Kel, _etc._
+
+  Kel Owi road, 61, 74-5, 308, 319, 320, 383, 390. _See also_ “Tarei
+  tan Kel Owi.”
+
+  Kelama, 187
+
+  Kelghimmat, the, 429
+
+  Kerfeitei, the, 433
+
+  Kerker, Sultan of, Ibn Batutah’s, 406, 453, 454-5, 456
+
+  Keta valley, 61, 64
+
+  Ketama, the, 340, 341, 343, 349, 351
+
+  Khalif (Commander of the Faithful), deputation from Air to, 101,
+  102, 104, 105
+
+  “Khans,” 255
+
+  Kharejite schism, the, 346
+
+  Khodi, 142-3, 185, 438
+
+  Khoms, 21
+
+  Kidal, 52
+
+  Kidigi, 60
+
+  Kindin, Kanuri name for Tuareg, 412 _n._[426]
+
+  King, _see_ Amenokal.
+
+  Kings of Agades, list of, 463-5
+
+  “Kipti” (Copts) in Air, 294, 363
+
+  “Knights-Errant of the Desert Roads,” the, 168
+
+  Knives, Tuareg, 234, 236
+
+  “Kohl” (antimony), use of, 173
+
+  Kokoi Geregeri (chief minister), 106, 406
+
+  “Kolouvey” (Kel Owi), the, 20
+
+  Korunka, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Kosegarten, J. G. L., version of Ibn Batutah by, 452, 453, 468
+
+  Kufara (heathen), 273
+
+  Kufra, 3, 6, 98, 335, 336; a Senussi centre, 336
+
+  Kugha, 404 _n._[417]
+
+  Kuka, 21, 332 _n._[303], 345, 415, 445
+
+  Kukia, Libyan dynasty of, 404
+
+  Kunta, the, 355
+
+  “Kus-kus,” 133, 157-8
+
+  Kuttus, 42
+
+
+  Laghuat, 111
+
+  Lagos, 38, 419; railway to Kano from, 38
+
+  Laguatan, the, 357
+
+  Lake, Gamram, 49; rumoured, in Bagezan, 238
+
+  Lake Chad, _see_ Chad, Lake, _and_ Chad area.
+
+  Lamini, Sultan, 413
+
+  Lamy, Commandant, 26, 36; _see_ Foureau-Lamy Expedition.
+
+  Land settled on chief women, 169
+
+  Language, Tuareg (_see_ Temajegh), 15, 339; words associated with
+  Christianity in, 277
+
+  Laperrine, 11, 12
+
+  Laperrine, Fort, 12
+
+  Laterite rock, disintegrating, 449, 450
+
+  Latif, Sheikh el, 192
+
+  Latitudes and longitudes of points in Air, 422-5
+
+  Lava flows, Air, 216, 241-2
+
+  Lazaret, Kel, 437
+
+  Leather and metal decoration, 277, 310
+
+  Leather pouches, amulets in, 282, 284
+
+  Leather-working industry, 174, 277-8; in women’s hands, 174;
+  decorated luggage rests, 277; riding saddles, 230-31, 377
+
+  Lebetae, 337
+
+  Lebu, the, 337
+
+  Lee, S., translation of Ibn Batutah, 452-3, 468
+
+  Legends, Tuareg, 279, 280, 281
+
+  Lemta, the, 254, 331; Ahaggaren and, 345; Aulimmiden as part of,
+  341, 345, 355, 356, 357-8, 379, 445; Azger Tuareg as, 331, 335, 341,
+  348, 350, 351, 352, 355, 357, 358, 432; area occupied by, 331, 334,
+  335, 341, 344, 345, 355, 356, 357, 358, 370, 445; Barth’s error
+  regarding, 344-5, 358; Bornu Tuareg as, 376; Hawarid origin of, 345,
+  346, 353; Ibn Khaldun on, 340, 343, 345, 346, 353; Ifoghas as, 355,
+  356, 357, 358; Ilemtin represent, 355, 358; Lemtuna and, confusion
+  between, 344-5, 358; Leo Africanus on, 331, 334, 335, 344, 345,
+  349, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 370, 445; as a Libyan people, 331,
+  334, 335, 340, 341, 343; migration of, south and west, 341, 345,
+  356, 357, 358-9, 376-7, 378, 379, 445; original stock of first and
+  last migrants into Air, 254, 345, 349, 356, 359, 370, 403; Tuareg
+  invasion of Air involved by migration of, 358-9, 377, 379, 403, 445
+
+  Lemtuna, the, 331, 343, 344, 349, 358, 404; confused with Lemta,
+  344-5, 358
+
+  Length, measure of Air, 222
+
+  Lenz, O.: on the two families of the “Berbers,” 458
+
+  Leo Africanus, 6 _n._[5], 110 _n._[101], 330, 347 _n._[333], 363
+  _n._[361], 468; account of Agades by, 19, 410; account of Air by,
+  18, 19, 359; on the Amenokal, 97 _n._[83], 99, 108, 110 _n._[101];
+  Kel Owi not mentioned by, 383, 386; on the Lemta, 331, 334, 335,
+  344, 345, 349, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 370, 445; on the divisions
+  of the Muleththemin, 330-31, 332, 334-5, 337-8, 343, 344, 345, 348,
+  349; on areas and tribes of the Sahara, 330-35, 336-7, 343, 344,
+  345, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 364
+
+  Leptis Magna, 207, 208
+
+  “Leuata,” the, 337
+
+  Leucæthiopians, the, 173 _n._[168], 307
+
+  Levata, the, 337, 340, 357
+
+  Library, Assode, remains of, 302
+
+  Libya, areas and peoples of, Leo Africanus on, 330-35, 336-7;
+  _see_ Libyans.
+
+  Libyan, origin of word, 337
+
+  Libyan desert, the, 3, 334, 335, 336, 337; story of compulsory
+  migration from, 366; Tuareg possibly originally inhabitants of,
+  366, 376
+
+  Libyan dynasty, Kukia, 404
+
+  Libyan influence in Air and the Southland, 403, 405, 406
+
+  Libyan names, the MZGh root in, and its significance, 339, 356,
+  457-62
+
+  Libyans, the, 16, 164 _n._[158], 262; areas and peoples of, 330-35,
+  336-7, 338-43, 356; belts worn by, 194, 265; term used for Berbers,
+  7, 371, 372 _n._[382]; classification of, by Ibn Khaldun, 338-43;
+  descent from Prophet claimed by, 339-40, 342; dogs ceremonially eaten
+  by, 295; Eastern origin of, legendary, 340; facial characteristics
+  of, 187; Leo Africanus on, 330-35, 336-7; marriage customs of, 176;
+  migration of, legendary, 366-7; nationalism among, 12-13; origin of,
+  mixed, 340, 458, 462; sun worship among, 12-13; Tuareg relationship
+  with, 7, 262, 341, 342, 356, 366, 462; women, status of, among,
+  151, 152
+
+  Libyans, Eastern, work on, _see_ Bates.
+
+  Libyans, Meshwesh, 151, 337, 356, 457, 461, 462
+
+  Lime trees, 160, 239
+
+  Lion claws as amulets, 282
+
+  Lions still seen in Air, 119-20
+
+  Literature, Tuareg, 173, 263; historical works, 360, 361-2
+
+  _Litham_ (the Veil), 329, 330
+
+  Live-stock industry, Air, 133-4, 190, 202-5; evacuation policy and,
+  361; herding carried on by slaves, 135-6
+
+  Lizards, taboo on, 294
+
+  Load ropes, 224
+
+  Loading and unloading camels, 198, 223, 224-5
+
+  Lollius, L., 207
+
+  Louata, the, 340, 357
+
+  Love affairs, Tuareg, 174-5, 176
+
+  Lugard, Sir F., 37, 42
+
+  Luggage rests, decorated, 230, 310
+
+  Lyon, G. F., work by, 21, 467
+
+  Lyon expedition, the, 8
+
+
+  Ma el Fares, 325-6
+
+  Macae, the, 457, 461, 462
+
+  MacGuire, Corporal, 21
+
+  Macii, the, 460
+
+  Madghis, Libyan family of, 338, 339, 340, 341
+
+  Mafaras, 326
+
+  Mafinet hills, 156; valley, 131 _n._[120]
+
+  Mafinet, Kel, 381, 432; Agoalla of, 397
+
+  “Magadeza,” the, 106-7
+
+  Magazawa Hausa women, 44
+
+  Maghili, El, 291, 292, 293
+
+  Maghrabi camels, 196
+
+  Maghreb, the, 339
+
+  Maghzen (Bagezan), Kel, 381, 432
+
+  Magic square, rock drawing of, 321
+
+  Magnesia, battle of, 206
+
+  Maisumo valley, 69; well, 74, 76
+
+  “Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” 292
+
+  Maket n’Ikelan, 138; tradition of, 367-8, 373, 381, 383, 392,
+  414 _n._[429]
+
+  Malabar Indians, laws of inheritance among, 151
+
+  Malam Chidam, 46
+
+  Malaria, 178, 179, 181, 186
+
+  Maliki sect, people of Air belong to, 291, 292
+
+  Mallamei, the, 439
+
+  Manding origin of leather industry, 227
+
+  Manen, Kel, 400, 432
+
+  Manga, 21
+
+  Mange in camels, 201
+
+  Manna, Leo Africanus on, 19
+
+  Mansa Magha, 408
+
+  Mansa (Kunkur) Musa, 407, 408
+
+  Mansur, El, 337
+
+  Manumission of slaves, 135, 137, 138, 140, 141
+
+  Manuscripts found at Assode, 302
+
+  Maouen (Mawen), Kel, 430
+
+  Maps, Tuareg comprehension of, 266
+
+  Maps of Air, 466-7; _see_ Cortier.
+
+  Maqrizi, El, 372 _n._[383], 374 _n._[389]
+
+  Maradi, 42, 411
+
+  Marandet, 77, 119, 121; position of, 424; urn cemetery at, 121,
+  161, 263
+
+  Marcellinus, Ammianus, 207 _n._[191]
+
+  Mari, Mount, 242, 308, 390
+
+  Mari well, 242
+
+  Mari Jatah I, 407
+
+  Mari Jatah, Vizier, 408
+
+  Maria Teresa dollars, 221, 222
+
+  Marinus of Tyre, 323 _n._[283]
+
+  Markets, development of, along caravan roads, 110
+
+  Marmol, 116
+
+  Marriage, Tuareg system, 170-71, 174, 175, 196-7; festivals,
+  181; late in life, 173, 289; not arranged, 174; by purchase, 181;
+  wife’s intimate male friends, 175-6
+
+  Marriage portions, 177; Imghad, part payable to Imajeghan, 141
+
+  Masalet, 69, 81, 114
+
+  Masa’udi, El, 337, 345, 371, 468
+
+  Maspero, G., 286, 468
+
+  Masquerey, E., dictionary and grammar of Temajegh by, 222 _n._[211],
+  266, 271, 459, 467
+
+  “Masri” blades, 233
+
+  Masson, Captain, 10
+
+  “Master of the Interior of the Palace,” 106
+
+  Matali, chief of the Ifadeyen, 399
+
+  Maternus, Julius, in the Fezzan, 323, 326
+
+  Matriarchate, the, 151-3
+
+  Matriarchy among Tuareg, 103, 148-53, 170, 171; and monogamy, 171
+
+  Mats, 158, 174, 212, 227
+
+  Mauretania, 332, 377, 379, 404 _n._[419]
+
+  Mawen, Kel, 430, 436
+
+  Maxitani, the, 457, 460
+
+  Maxyes, the, 356, 457
+
+  Mazaces, the, 457, 461
+
+  Mazi, the, 460
+
+  Mazia, 46, 48
+
+  Mazices, the, 356, 358, 457, 461
+
+  Mazigh, common ancestor of Libyans, 339, 341, 458
+
+  Mazigh, the, 458
+
+  Mazil, the, Arab tribe, 354
+
+  Measures and weights, Air, 220-22
+
+  Meat, little eaten by Tuareg, 158-9
+
+  “Mecca of the Slaves, The,” 367; _see_ Maket n’Ikelan
+
+  Medicine, native, 82, 180, 201
+
+  Medina date palms, 317
+
+  Medinet el ’Amira, 452 _n._[449]
+
+  Mediterranean, the: civilisation brought southwards from, 37, 393,
+  401; known to Tuareg, 266
+
+  Mela, 282
+
+  Melle, Empire of, 37, 47, 48, 407-8, 409; administration of foreign
+  races by, 407-8; revolts in, 411; Songhai overthrow, 409
+
+  Melle, Vizier of, 408
+
+  Melons, 132
+
+  “Men with Eyes in their Stomachs,” possibly Tuareg, 376
+
+  Menzaffer valley, 59
+
+  “Merabtin,” the, 405
+
+  “Meratha” (Imghad), 140
+
+  Mermeru, 91
+
+  Mesche mountain, 327
+
+  Meshagra, the, Arab tribe, 354-5
+
+  Meshwesh, the, 337, 457, 461; probable ancestors of Tuareg, 356,
+  462; succession in female line among, 151
+
+  Mesi (God), 278
+
+  Mesufa, the, 151, 153, 344, 364, 405, 408; status of women of, 175-6
+
+  Meteorological record kept by author, 423
+
+  Migration from Red Sea, reference to, 342
+
+  Migrations, tribal, _see under names of tribes_.
+
+  Migrations, Tuareg: into Air, 52, 53, 113, 254, 256, 359, 364, 365-6,
+  366-93, 403, 404; date of, 256, 364, 371, 373, 375, 381, 403, 404;
+  caused by Kanuri, 335, 358, 369-70, 372, 375, 404, 414, 415, 444;
+  Lemta movement and, 358-9, 377, 379, 403, 445; stages of, 52, 53,
+  254, 359, 366-93, 394, 403; into the Southland, 17, 38, 39, 51,
+  65, 143, 361, 366, 373-4, 377, 390-91, 392, 393, 398, 411, 415, 432
+
+  Mikitan, Osman, 52, 99, 108, 465
+
+  Milen, 60, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 418; well of, 72-4, 75, 76
+
+  Milk, camel’s, 211; offering of, Bororoji custom, 58
+
+  Millet cultivation, 47, 64, 131, 133, 444, 445; dishes made from,
+  157; flour, preparation of, 159-60; stores for, in villages, 42
+
+  Millet mortar used as drum, 272
+
+  Mimosa, 226
+
+  Minaret, Agades, 86, 87, 93-4, 302; Assode, 301, 302
+
+  Mineral springs, 127, 241
+
+  Minéru, 239, 438
+
+  Minir, El, 239, 438
+
+  Minister for Foreign Affairs, Agades, 106, 116
+
+  Mintaka, El, 154, 155, 181, 280, 302
+
+  Minutilli, 336 _n._[316]
+
+  Mirages, Northern Air, 300
+
+  Misgiddan (Tamisgidda), the, 439
+
+  Misurata, 21
+
+  “Mithkal,” 221-2
+
+  Mithridates, 206
+
+  Mixed caste, Azger tribes of, 355-6
+
+  Mizda-Murzuk road, 322, 323 _n._[285]
+
+  Mokhammed, 96
+
+  Monarchy, democratic Tuareg system of, 107-8
+
+  Mongolian traits in Southland women, 44
+
+  Monkeys, 213, 239
+
+  Monogamy, 293; more frequent in Air than polygamy, 170, 171
+
+  Moorish tribes, raids by, 188
+
+  Moors conquer Western Sudan, 411
+
+  Moroccan road, the, 7
+
+  Morocco, 358; “Berbers” of, 458; Ibn Batutah in, 411; Negroland
+  conquered by, 411; Okba’s expedition in, 326 _n._[292]; Sanhaja
+  trade with, 405; Tuareg invasion of, 411
+
+  Morocco, Southern, 332, 334
+
+  Mosgu (Kel Tamisgidda), the, 439
+
+  Mosi added to Songhai empire, 409
+
+  Mosi, King of, 408
+
+  Moslem attitude to women, 152, 168, 170, 174
+
+  Moslem faith: introduction of, into Air, 256-8; Maliki sect of,
+  291-2; new spirit in, 12, 13; polygamy permitted by, 170; a form
+  of snobbishness induced by, 339-40, 342; Tuareg adoption of, 256,
+  257-8, 273, 274, 290, 291, 293, 324-5. _See also_ Islam.
+
+  Moslem graves, 259
+
+  Mosque, People of the, 439
+
+  Mosques, Tuareg, 93, 94, 255-8, 301-2; Agades, 86, 87, 93-4; Assode,
+  301-2; records kept in, 360, 361; T’intaghoda, 257, 258, 316
+
+  Mosquitoes, Air, prevalent during rains, 120, 121
+
+  Motor road between Lake Chad and Niger, 42
+
+  Motylinski, Temajegh dictionary by, 12, 454 _n._[456], 459
+
+  Motylinski, Fort, 12, 13
+
+  Mounds of stones as memorials, 292-3
+
+  Mountain groups of the Sahara, 2, 5
+
+  Mountain sheep of Air, 450
+
+  Mountains in the desert, beauty of, 448
+
+  “Msid Sidi el Baghdadi,” 292
+
+  Mubaraki, Muhammad, 102 _n._[91], 391, 413, 464
+
+  Mud construction, 41, 43, 48, 249-50, 252; Sudan and Northern
+  Nigeria, 88, 89, 90
+
+  “Muda,” grain measure, 221
+
+  Muhammad (of Towar), 185
+
+  Muhammad, King of Bornu, 410
+
+  Muhammad, the Prophet, Moslem desire to claim descent from,
+  339-40, 342
+
+  Mulai Ahmed, Sultan of Morocco, 411
+
+  Mulai Hamed el Mansur, Sultan of Morocco, 411
+
+  Muleththemin, the (Arab name for Tuareg), 14-15, 274, 287, 294,
+  364; Ibn Khaldun on origin of, 340-49, 353, 379; Leo Africanus on
+  the divisions of, 330-31, 332, 334-5, 337-8, 343, 344, 345, 348, 349
+
+  Munio, 412
+
+  Murmur, 21
+
+  Murzuk, 7, 8, 9, 20, 21, 191, 325, 353; capital of Fezzan, 323;
+  the “Garamantian way” from, 318, 319 _n._[278], 324; population
+  of, 113; rains in, 124; road to Lake Chad by, 7, 8, 32, 320; Roman
+  remains on road to, 322; as trade centre, 112, 113
+
+  Musa, camel-man, 169, 170
+
+  Musa, chief of the Imuzuraq, 51
+
+  Musa, Haj, 290
+
+  Musa, Mansa Kunkur, 407, 408
+
+  Musa ag Mastan, Amenokal of Ahaggar, 169, 352-3
+
+  Muscles of Tuareg not conspicuous, 163, 187
+
+  Music, Tuareg, 272
+
+  Musical instruments, Tuareg, 272
+
+  Mzab, 332, 334
+
+  MZGh root of North African names, 339, 356; its significance, 457-62
+
+
+  Nabaro, 436
+
+  Nabaro, Kel, 436
+
+  Nabarro, 218 _n._[208]
+
+  Nachtigal: population of Murzuk, 113
+
+  Nakda, 452; copper mines of, 452-3; Sultan of, 453
+
+  Names, tribal: North African, MZGh root of, 339, 356, 457-62;
+  Tuareg, 128-31
+
+  Naresht, son of Tifaut, 405
+
+  Nasamones, the, 282, 365, 369
+
+  Nationalism in North Africa, 12-13
+
+  “Natron” encrustations seen by Barth, 127 _n._[115]
+
+  Natrun, Wadi, 3
+
+  Nature, animistic view of, among Tuareg, 295
+
+  Neck ornaments, 283
+
+  Necklaces, women’s, 283
+
+  Needlework, skill of Tuareg men in, 174
+
+  Negro music, influence of, 272
+
+  Negroes: eunuchs purchased, 179; matriarchate among, 152-3; as
+  slaves, 135; Tuareg contempt for, 173
+
+  Negroid inhabitants of Air, pre-Tuareg, 363-4, 365-6, 403, 405;
+  type of Air Imghad, 138
+
+  Negroland, 101, 371; historians of, 365; Ibn Batutah’s journey
+  through, 406, 452; Roman expedition to, 326
+
+  Negroland, Western, 404; occupied by Songhai, 409
+
+  “Neutral vowel” in Tuareg tribal names, 128
+
+  New Year, feast of the, 275
+
+  News, communication of, in Africa, 266
+
+  N’Gurutawa, 21
+
+  Niches in Tuareg houses, 246, 247-8, 252, 254, 255, 256, 309
+
+  Niger, the, 3-4, 30, 332; diversion of Upper into Lower, theory
+  of, 30; drainage basin of, 3-4; Romans said to have reached, 322;
+  Tuareg communities on, 377, 384 _n._[402]
+
+  “Niger,” Pliny’s, 28-9
+
+  Niger Empires, the, 37, 47, 407-12; _see_ Melle _and_ Songhai.
+
+  Niger, Territoires du, 41-2, 43, 416; raids in, 189
+
+  Niger-Tchad, Colonie du, 41 _n._[46]
+
+  Nigeria, 17, 18, 24, 219, 335; author returns through, 418-19;
+  Anglo-French boundary, 41; British penetration of, 20, 21, 36-7;
+  French indirectly defend, 85; horses of, 202; Mediterranean
+  civilisation brought to, 393, 401; railway development in, 38;
+  rains in, 123; totemism in, 294
+
+    Tuareg in, 38-41, 361; civilisation brought to, by, 393, 401;
+    transport work in, by, 38, 298
+
+  Nigeria, Northern, 37; author’s journey begins and ends in,
+  417-18; British annexation of, 37; houses of, 87-8
+
+  Nigerian Emirates, the, 26, 37; British annexation of, 37; _see_
+  Kano, Katsina, _and_ Sokoto.
+
+  Nile, the, 266
+
+  Nile valley, Libyan invasions of, 340
+
+  Nilotic Sudan, the, 1 _n._[1]; Fulani settlement in, 58; Semitic
+  influence in, 342
+
+  No, Quarter of, Ghat, 258
+
+  Nobility of origin, Tuareg adherence to, 137; records kept to
+  establish, 360, 362
+
+  Noble and servile tribes (_see_ Imghad _and_ Imajeghan), 15; lists
+  showing, 427-31, 435-40
+
+  Noble women, high standing of, 150, 151, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174
+
+  Nobles: British described as, 459; conquered, as Imghad, 138,
+  394, 460
+
+  Tuareg (Imajeghan), 137, 217; appearance of, 217; female descent of,
+  150-51; Holy Men treated as, 355; Imghad and, relationship between,
+  136, 137, 138, 140-43; northern, black veil worn by, 139; original
+  pure race represented by, 137
+
+  Nomadic Tuareg, described by Ibn Batutah, 406
+
+  Nomadism and sedentarism, difficulties of co-ordinating, 131
+
+  Nomads, 16, 209, 212, 406; ability to dispense with water, 208,
+  209-10; Ifadeyen famous as, 400
+
+  North and west, confusion of terms, 244, 247
+
+  North Africa: the term, 1
+
+    Arab conquest of, 346, 375-6, 404, 462; Arab countries, traditional
+    connection with, 340; Bishoprics of, 293; British part in
+    exploration of, 20-21; camels, problem of introduction into, 206-8,
+    267; caravan roads (_q.v._) of, 5, 6-7; caravan roads and sites of
+    cities of, 110, 111, 112, 114; Central Empires, intrigues of, in,
+    12-13, 93; fossil camel skeletons found in, 267; French expansion
+    in, 20, 22; funerary monuments in, 260-62; history of, its sources,
+    330; Islam, spread of, in, 256, 257-8, 325; migration from,
+    compulsory, legend of, 366, 375, 380; migrations into, 39, 340,
+    341; negroid peoples once farther north in, 342; partition of, 20,
+    22; Persian invasion of, 375; population of, its superficial unity,
+    338; rock drawing in, 264; tribal names of, and MZGh root, 339,
+    356, 457-62; Tuareg in, in early times, 403
+
+  North-eastern Air; houses of, 252, 254; unnamed valley of, 304
+
+  Northern Air, 298-329; ancient monuments in, 263; evacuation of,
+  1918, 309; houses of, 252, 309-11, 316; Kel Owi tribes of, 303-8,
+  394; palm groves of, 317; roads traversing, 318-22; salt caravan
+  route from, 315
+
+  Nose-piece, camel’s, 231
+
+  Nose-ring, camel’s, 231
+
+  N’Ouajour, 430
+
+  Noweiri, El, 326 _n._[292], 468
+
+  N’Sattafan, Kel, 434 _n._
+
+  Nubian cemeteries, 260
+
+  Nugguru, Kel, 127, 139, 142, 185, 215, 435, 438, 440, 441
+
+
+  Oases, 2, 3; accidental discoveries of, 336; of Air, 32; Egyptian,
+  334, 337; origin of the word, 6; Saharan, 3, 5-6
+
+  Oborassan, 313, 314
+
+  Oborassan, Kel, 435
+
+  Ochre, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with, 173
+
+  Oghum, Rocks of, 68
+
+  Ogive niches in Tuareg houses, 246, 247-8, 252, 254, 255, 256, 309
+
+  Okba ibn Nafé, campaigns of, 325, 326 _n._[292], 376
+
+  Okluf, 126, 127
+
+  “Old Well,” the, 418
+
+  Ollelua, 46
+
+  Omar, Sultan, 84, 96, 97-8, 100, 104, 109, 117, 195, 465; horses of,
+  202; refuses to attack French, 290
+
+  Optatus, 328
+
+  Oraghen, the, 347
+
+  Orfella, 110
+
+  Orientation: of Moslem graves, 259, 260; of Tuareg houses, 244,
+  246-7, 248, 251, 252, 253, 254
+
+  Ornament of the Nobles, the, 284
+
+  Ornamental work, Tuareg, 230-31, 277, 310
+
+  Ornaments, Tuareg, 282-6
+
+  Orosius, 356
+
+  Oryx, white, 444, 446
+
+  Oryx hide shields, 235, 444
+
+  Osman Mikitan, Sultan, 52, 99, 108, 465
+
+  Ostrich feathers, on camel’s nose-piece, 231
+
+  Ostriches, 43, 121, 264, 446
+
+  Othman dan Fodio, 363, 415
+
+  Oudney, Dr. W. (with Denham and Clapperton), 8, 20; death of, 21
+
+  Oung Oua (Ungwa), Kel, 433
+
+  Outdoor slaves, 134, 135-6, 155, 402
+
+  Outhouses, Tuareg, 250
+
+  Over-population of Mediterranean lands, and compulsory migration,
+  story of, 366, 375, 380
+
+  Overweg (with Barth and Richardson), 18, 20, 21, 23-4; death of, 21
+
+  Owari, 239
+
+  Owi, Kel, 20, 23, 53, 54, 107, 134-5, 143, 144, 184, 217, 239; their
+  arrival in Air, 382-93, 414, 415; cause of migration of, 386-7; date
+  of arrival of, 135, 149, 257, 258, 366, 367, 382-3, 386, 387, 388,
+  391; and the Amenokal, 100, 108, 383, 396-7; the Añastafidet of,
+  92, 96, 100, 107, 139, 144-6, 148; arrogance of, 383; Assode the
+  capital of, 301, 303; Auraghen and, 387; caravan road controlled
+  by, 61, 74-5, 308, 319, 320, 383, 390; claims and pretensions of,
+  unjustified, 384-5, 386, 392-3, 414 _n._[429]; commercial ability of,
+  390; country of, 243, 244, 299, 394; in Damergu, 415; dialect of,
+  270, 387; disease among, 180; disparaged by other tribes, 135, 149,
+  295; attitude towards French of, 51, 52, 414 _n._[429]; in Gober,
+  tradition of arrival of, 367-8; houses of, 252, 253, 254; Ifadeyen
+  and, 399; Immikitan and, 429; Itesan driven out by, 366, 373-4, 391,
+  392, 393, 398, 432; Kel Geres displaced by, 373-4, 383, 388, 389,
+  390, 391, 392, 415; measures of, 221; and mosque of T’intaghoda,
+  257; mothers of, legend of, 384-5, 386; origin of, 148, 380, 385-7;
+  sun as mother of, 295; tribal organisation of, 303-8, 430, 435-9;
+  women of, noble, 150
+
+  Ox, rock drawing of, 265
+
+  Ox and cart, drawing of, 265, 319, 321-2, 418
+
+  Ox-drawn chariots of the Garamantes, 318, 320, 321-2, 324; rock
+  drawing suggestive of, 265, 319, 321-2, 418
+
+  Oxen: as pack animals, 203, 208; harnessed to carts, 203, 208, 215;
+  _see_ Ox-drawn chariots.
+
+
+  Pack-saddles, camel, 223-4
+
+  Paint, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with, 173
+
+  Paleolithic camel skeletons discovered, 207
+
+  Palicanus, L. Lollius, 207
+
+  Palm frond mats, 227; rope, 224; sandals, 165
+
+  Palm groves, 316, 317
+
+  Palm trees not destroyed in warfare, 236
+
+  Palmer, H. R., 362, 373 _n._[386], 463, 468
+
+  Paper currency disliked by Tuareg, 221
+
+  Partition of Africa, 20, 22, 25
+
+  Pasture wells, Azawagh, 74, 75, 80; rights over, 75
+
+  Patience, Tuareg, philosophic, 296, 420
+
+  Patination of rocks of Air, 35; of rock drawings, 321
+
+  Patriarchal government: Arab, 339; of Tuareg tribal units, 147
+
+  “Penistasche,” the, 164 _n._[156]
+
+  People of the Acacia (Kel Tamat), 307, 437
+
+  People of the Añastafidet, 374, 394; in Damergu, 440; estimated
+  numbers of, 402; tribes and sub-tribes of, 435-9
+
+  People of the Asclepias (Kel Intirzawen), 307, 433
+
+  People of the Deep Well (Kel Gharus), 308
+
+  People of the Dûm Palm (Kel Tagei), 307, 398 _n._[413], 432, 435
+
+  People of the East (Kel Innek), 129, 369, 441
+
+  People of the Goats (Kel Ulli), 52, 129, 307-8, 438
+
+  People of the King, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 304, 306, 366, 392,
+  393; represent earliest arrivals in Air, 373, 374, 377, 378-9;
+  geographical area of, 394; Immikitan possibly original stock of,
+  396; interest attaching to, 393; Kel Owi and, 146, 148, 149, 303,
+  366, 380, 392; numbers of, estimated, 402; origin of, legendary,
+  384, 386; tribes, sub-tribes, and organisation of, 395, 398, 400,
+  427-31; in Damergu, 437-40
+
+  People of the Mosque (Kel Tamisgidda), 439
+
+  People of the Rock (Tebu), 335
+
+  People of the Salt (Kel T’Isemt), 441
+
+  People of the Sand (suggested meaning of Tuareg), 274
+
+  People of the South (Kel Aghil), 441
+
+  People of the Spears (Kel Allaghan), 432
+
+  People of the Veil, _see_ Tuareg.
+
+  People of the West (Kel Ataram), 129, 441
+
+  Peroz, Colonel, 50
+
+  Perry: _Children of the Sun_, 152 _n._[146]
+
+  Persian invasion of North Africa, 375
+
+  Petroglyphs, _see_ Rock drawings _and_ Rock inscriptions.
+
+  Philistines, Libyans related to, 339
+
+  Phœnician script and Libyan, 267
+
+  Photographs of unveiled Tuareg not permitted, 288
+
+  Physical characteristics of Tuareg, 161-3, 172, 177, 187, 217;
+  deformation not practised, 179
+
+  “Pi” dogs, 205
+
+  Piebald camels, 196
+
+  Pigeons, 125
+
+  Pigs, taboo on eating of, 294, 295
+
+  Pilgrim road, Timbuctoo-Cairo, 20, 114, 318
+
+  Pilgrimage, Muhammad Askia’s, 409, 411
+
+  Pitchers, 160-61
+
+  Plaque, men’s ornament, 285
+
+  Pleiades, Tuareg name for, 226 _n._[212]
+
+  Pleistocene period, discovery of camel-skeletons of, 207
+
+  Pliny, 207, 324, 468; quoted, 322-3
+
+  Plough seen by Barth, 133
+
+  Plutarch, 206
+
+  Poetry, Tuareg appreciation of, 263, 265, 271, 272; women authors
+  of, 169, 173, 271, 272
+
+  Poison, use of, by Tuareg, 10
+
+  Poisoned arrows used by bush folk, 45
+
+  Poisonous plants, deaths of camels due to, 200
+
+  Police, Agades, 106
+
+  Polygamy infrequent in Air, 170-71
+
+  Polytheism, traces of, among Ahaggaren, 275
+
+  Pomel, 264 _n._[232]
+
+  Pommel of Tuareg saddle, ornamental cross on, 230, 276-7, 289
+
+  Pompey, 207
+
+  Pools, 213, 215, 442, 445, 449
+
+  Population: of Air, 402; variation of, in desert cities, 113
+
+  Portfolios, leather, 228
+
+  “Ports,” trans-desert traffic, 110, 111
+
+  Portuguese and Songhai rulers, 409, 410
+
+  Possession, case of, Auderas, 279-80
+
+  Pottery, Tuareg, 160-61, 317
+
+  Pouches, leather, 228
+
+  Pradie, Fort, 51, 92
+
+  Prayer enclosures, 292-3
+
+  Pre-Moslem, funerary remains, 260-63; place of worship, 258-9, 263
+
+  Precipitation of rain, North Africa, 123, 124
+
+  Prime Minister, Tuareg, also Minister for Foreign Affairs, 106;
+  title of, 106, 406
+
+  Property, women’s ownership of, 168-9, 177, 293
+
+  Prophet, the, Moslem desire to claim descent from, 339-40, 342
+
+  Prophet’s Birthday, the, feast of, 275
+
+  Prosody, Tuareg, 271
+
+  Prostitution among Tuareg, 177
+
+  Proverbs, Tuareg, 176, 182, 237, 420, 421
+
+  Pseudo-Ashraf, the, 339-40
+
+  Ptolemy, 323 _n._[283],[287], 336 _n._[314], 356, 468; on the Kel
+  Tegama, 53, 65
+
+  Pumpkins, 132; spirits in form of, 280
+
+  Punch and Judy show, Tuareg ascendancy symbolised in, 55-6
+
+  “Pura” water, 19, 157
+
+
+  Qadria sect, 302
+
+  Qibla, the, 95, 97, 255, 258, 259, 292
+
+  Querns, Tuareg, 159-60, 309
+
+  Quinine, value of, in fever cases, 178, 186, 187
+
+  Quran, the, 265, 280, 281, 296; in Tuareg language, 269; verse of,
+  as amulet, 282
+
+
+  R and Gh sounds, confusion between, 271
+
+  Rabah, 26
+
+  Rabidin, 427
+
+  Racks in houses, 309
+
+  Rahazawa Fulani, 57
+
+  “Rahla” (riding saddle), 230-31
+
+  Raiding, 11, 12, 13-14, 113, 187-93, 350, 407, 444; Ahodu’s
+  reminiscences of, 191-3; the Amenokal and, 109-10; Camel Corps
+  organised to suppress, 11, 51, 188, 189, 218, 219; cessation of,
+  187, 193; in Damergu, 50, 51, 59; fear of, still prevalent, 311,
+  315; legend of raiders swallowed up, 281; regarded as a sport,
+  187, 193, 328, 443; technique of, 11, 187-93, 236, 237; weather
+  conditions supposed to foretell, 295-6; wells filled in to prevent,
+  59, 60, 451; by women, 169-70
+
+  Railway development, its effect on camel-borne trade, 38
+
+  Rainbow, superstition regarding, 296
+
+  Rainfall in the Sahara, 4, 28; ancient, 28; geological effects of,
+  79; during storms, 83
+
+  Rain-water pools, Azawagh, 62, 67-8
+
+  Rains, the: in Air, 121, 123-4, 220; in Elakkos, 445; discomforts
+  of travel during, 120-21, 123, 124, 125; raids begun after, 188
+
+  Ramadhan, Tuareg observance of, 274
+
+  Rapsa (Ghat), 322, 323, 326
+
+  Rats eaten by Tuareg, 294
+
+  Rattray: _Ashanti_, 152 _n._[146]
+
+  Rebu, the, 337
+
+  “Red,” Tuareg spoken of as, 162, 173, 367, 460
+
+  Red agate “talhakim,” 282
+
+  Red mud, cities and houses constructed of, 41, 43, 48, 88, 90,
+  452 _n._[452]
+
+  Red ochre, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with, 173
+
+  Red Rock Desert, pass over, 323
+
+  Red rocks, Air, 35
+
+  Red Sea, migrations of tribes from, into North Africa, 340, 341, 342
+
+  “Reg,” 274 _n._[243]
+
+  Reindeer Age, cave paintings of, 264
+
+  Rela, Kel, 351 _n._[339]
+
+  Religion of Tuareg, 273-8, 290, 291-4; earlier, possibly
+  Christianity, 275-8, 293-4; traces of Christian influence, 275-6,
+  277, 278, 284-5, 289, 293-4; their conversion to Islam, and their
+  lax practice, 273, 274, 290, 291, 293, 324-5
+
+  Rennell, Major, 383, 386; commentary on Hornemann by, 336, 383,
+  386, 467; map by, 336; works by, 336, 383, 386, 467
+
+  Revenue, the Amenokal’s, 110
+
+  Revolt against French in Air, 1917, 39, 69, 70, 84-5, 98, 309, 394,
+  420, 421; Agades besieged during, 70, 85, 86, 98; camel requisitions
+  a cause of, 205; evacuation of Air during, 113, 121-2, 302, 309,
+  360-61, 426; Kaossen’s leadership of, 69, 84, 86, 92-3, 185, 385,
+  420; Nigeria indirectly defended during, 85; opening tragedy of,
+  84; social effects of, 127-8, 338-9; Tegama’s part in, 98-9;
+  T’ekhmedin’s part in, 98-9; wells filled in during, 59, 60, 451
+
+  Rhymes, Tuareg, 271
+
+  Rhyndacus, 206
+
+  Riaina, the, 434 _n._
+
+  Richardson, J.: _Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara_ by, 151-2,
+  467; death of, 21; expeditions of, 8, 18, 20, 21, 23-4, 248, 461;
+  on houses of Ghat, 248
+
+  Ridge of Abadarjan, 70, 71, 78
+
+  “Rigm” (funerary monument), 260 _n._[227], 261-2, 263
+
+  Ring of stones marking graves, 259
+
+  Rings, agate, as neck ornaments, 283
+
+  Rings, arm, Tuareg, 91, 285-6, 289
+
+  Rio de Oro, raiding in, 187, 188
+
+  Ritchie, death of, 21
+
+  River of Agades, 33, 34, 69, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83,
+  115, 119, 121, 123, 127, 183, 189, 258, 456; plain of, 79, 82-3, 85-6
+
+  River beds of Central Sahara, 28-31
+
+  Rivoli, 91
+
+  Roads, caravan, _see_ Caravan roads; the “Garamantian way,”
+  318-20, 321, 324
+
+  Robe, T’ekhmedin’s, the fate of, 195
+
+  Robes, Tuareg, 163-4, 166-7, 195
+
+  Rock, People of the, 335
+
+  Rock drawings, 213, 216, 260, 263, 264, 318; of animals and birds,
+  264-5; of camels, 207, 265; of human figures, 265, 319; of men
+  with animal heads, 319; modern, 264, 265; of ox and cart, 265, 319,
+  321-2, 418; of shield with cruciform design, 276
+
+  Rock inscriptions, 213, 260, 264, 268-9, 271, 315, 360; funerary,
+  260, 263; profusion of, 263, 268
+
+  Rohlfs, F. G., expeditions of, 3, 19; _Kufra_ by, 6 _n._[4], 336
+
+  Roman remains discovered by Barth, 322
+
+  Romans, the: caravan roads garrisoned by, 208; penetration of the
+  Sahara by, 322-3, 324, 325, 326-7; Tuareg swords probably derived
+  from, 234
+
+  Romanus, 207
+
+  Roncière, Charles de la, 19 _n._[20],[21]
+
+  Roofs of Tuareg houses, 249, 250, 256
+
+  Rope-making, native, 224; in leather, 228
+
+  Rothschild, Lord, his museum at Tring, 27-8
+
+  Rottl (Arab weight), 222
+
+  Royal Geographical Society, author’s computations in charge of, 423
+
+  Rufai el Ghati, 192
+
+
+  Sabha Jail, 332 _n._[301]
+
+  Sacrifices of sheep, 95, 97, 274, 275
+
+  Sadaouet (Sidawet), Kel, 431
+
+  Saddle-sores on camels, 199, 201
+
+  Saddle-stone querns, 159-60, 309
+
+  Saddles, camel; Tebu, 277; Tuareg, 193, 223-4, 227, 230-31, 276-7,
+  289; with cross on pommel, 230, 276-7, 289
+
+  Sahara, the, 1-6; not once a sea-bed, 78 author’s companions cross,
+  418; British influence in, 21-2; climate of, 4; European affairs well
+  known in, 266; French occupation of, 25, 350; funerary monuments of,
+  260-62; Leo Africanus’ description of, 331-5; mountain groups of,
+  2; name of, 1; oases of, 2, 3, 5-6; population of, 113; races of, 2,
+  8; railway across, advocated, 38; rainfall in, 4, 124; rivers of,
+  3, 4; Roman penetration of, 322-3, 324, 325, 326-7; surface of,
+  2-6; “talhakim” prized in, 282; temperatures in, 4; transport
+  methods in, early, 207-8; warfare in, small numbers involved, 11
+
+  Sahara, Central, 2, 4, 8; British geographical work in, 20-21, 22-4
+
+  Sahara, Eastern, 2-3
+
+  Sahara, Western, 3-4
+
+  Saharan Alps, the, 35
+
+  Saharan and Equatorial zones, transitional area between, 41
+
+  Sahel Zone, the, 41
+
+  Sakafat, 437
+
+  Sale, 274 _n._[245]
+
+  Saleh, El Haj, 96, 290, 430
+
+  Salla Laja (Laya), the Feast of the Sheep, 95-7, 274
+
+  Salla Shawal, 274
+
+  Sallust, 206, 468
+
+  Salt: impregnation of soil with, 125; price of, 218
+
+  Salt caravans, 69, 84, 85, 114, 115, 133, 145, 195, 210, 217, 218-20,
+  335, 443, 452 _n._[450]; Amenokal’s revenue from, 110; French
+  escort for, 84, 218, 219; Minister accompanying, 106; raids on,
+  188, 218, 219, 450; route of, 32, 114, 145, 219, 264, 315, 320, 450
+
+  Salt mines: Bilma, _q.v._; captured by Moors, 411; Taodenit, 30,
+  411, 452 _n._[450]; Tegaza, 411, 452 _n._[450]
+
+  Salt, People of the, 441
+
+  Salt-pits, 125
+
+  Salt trade, 133, 218, 219-20, 414; struggles between Air and Bornu
+  for, 415
+
+  Saltpetre, uses of, 211
+
+  Sampfotchi hill, 418
+
+  Sand: effect on feet, 165; wind-borne, polishing of rocks by, 35,
+  79; wells silted up by, 66, 72, 74
+
+  Sand, People of the, 274
+
+  Sand-dune formations, 4, 58; characteristic form in Azawagh, 63-4,
+  70; crescentic type, 66-7; in Elakkos, 442, 446, 447; mobile, 66,
+  67; valleys formed between, 62
+
+  Sand-grouse, 81
+
+  Sandstone formations: Elakkos, 442; effects of erosion, 77, 79, 81
+
+  Sand viper, 227
+
+  Sandals, Tuareg, 164-6
+
+  Sanhaja, the, 274, 331, 332, 340, 343-4, 346, 348, 349, 401; in Air
+  at arrival of Tuareg, 364, 365, 368, 375, 405; Empire of, 343-4,
+  403, 404-5, 407; Itesan among, 377; Mesufa and Lemtuna
+
+    sections of, 151 _n._[141], 344, 349, 358, 364, 405; of North-west
+    Morocco, 364
+
+  Santambul (Constantinople), 101
+
+  Sariki n’Kaswa, 106
+
+  Sariki n’Turawa, the, 96, 106
+
+  Sattaf, 187
+
+  Say, 50
+
+  Schirmer, H.: _Le Sahara_ by, 5 _n._[2], 142 _n._[132], 327
+  _n._[293], 467; on the Ifoghas, 355 _n._[346]
+
+  Scorpion, 227
+
+  Script, Tuareg, _see_ T’ifinagh.
+
+  Seats, wooden, for women, 309
+
+  Sedentaries: factions among, 338; numbers of, 402
+
+  Sedentarism, encouraged by French, 131; nomadism and, difficulties
+  of co-ordinating, 131, 143
+
+  Seeds, very valuable in Air, 132, 133; used for food, 158, 160
+
+  Sef, King of Kanem, 372
+
+  Seliufet village, 23, 122, 248, 316
+
+  Seliufet, Kel, 129, 437
+
+  Selma I, King of Kanem, 372
+
+  Selma II, first black king of Bornu, 373, 374
+
+  Semitic influence in Africa, 342
+
+  Semitic languages, relationship of Temajegh to, 270
+
+  Sendal, the, 394, 396, 400; one of original five tribes in Air,
+  368, 378; their modern representatives, 395, 396, 400
+
+  Senegal, caravan route to, 7
+
+  Senegal River, 343
+
+  Senegalese troops, French, 84, 98, 118, 316; Camel Corps of, 189
+
+  Senhaji, Muhammad Nasr el, 408
+
+  Senussiya, the: their part in the revolt in Air, 12, 13, 51, 84,
+  93, 98; caravan route opened by, 7; in Equatorial Africa, operations
+  against French, 92; Kufra the centre of, 336; Tuareg relations with,
+  48-9, 290
+
+  Septimius Flaccus, 323, 326
+
+  Serfs, _see_ Imghad.
+
+  Sergi, G., 458, 460, 467
+
+  Sert, 325
+
+  Servile tribes, _see_ Imghad.
+
+  Sfax, 337
+
+  Sheath knives, Tuareg, 234
+
+  Sheep, Air, 202, 204, 205, 450; sacrifices of, 95, 97, 274, 275
+
+  “Sheikh el Arab,” 106
+
+  Shellagh, the, 458
+
+  “Sherrifa,” title of royal family of Air, 105
+
+  Shields, Tuareg, 234-5, 276, 444
+
+  Shillugh language, 270
+
+  Shingit, 408
+
+  Shott country, the, 9
+
+  Sidawet, 299, 431, 440; houses in, 254; position of, 425
+
+  Sidawet, Kel, 431, 440
+
+  Sidi, the guide, 68, 234 _n._[214], 266, 270, 298, 307, 309,
+  315, 418; description of Belkho by, 305, 306; on the House of the
+  Christians, 311-12; leaves the author in Kano, 419-20
+
+  Sidi Hamada, shrine of, 94-5; Feast of the Sheep at, 95-7
+
+  Sierra Leone, British penetration of, 36, 37
+
+  Siggedim, 334 _n._[308]
+
+  Sijilmasa, 110, 405, 452, 453
+
+  Silius Italicus, 152 _n._[144], 468
+
+  Silk not in great demand among Tuareg, 164
+
+  Silurian rocks, Air, 33, 34, 35
+
+  Silver, saddles ornamented with, 230-31
+
+  Silver bracelets, 283-4
+
+  Silver coins melted down, 229
+
+  Silver currency, 221
+
+  “Sinko” (five-franc piece), 221
+
+  Siwa, 3, 318, 337
+
+  Siwi dialect, 270
+
+  Skin, colour of, in Tuareg, 161-2, 173
+
+  Slave King of the Tuareg of Air, the, 96, 97, 100, 103, 104-5, 108,
+  367, 369
+
+  Slave markets, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, 38
+
+  Slave trade, African, 38; British attempts to abolish, 20, 21, 22;
+  former Tuareg, 135
+
+  Slavery legally abolished in Air, 134 _n._[122]
+
+  Slaves, 103-4, 178; position of, 15 _n._[13], 103-4, 105, 134,
+  178; raised to status of Imghad, 135; slave mothers and status of
+  children, 150; stolen in raids, 190; veil not worn by, 15 _n._[13],
+  140
+
+  “Slaves, the Mecca of the,” 367
+
+  Sliding doors in Tuareg houses, 245-6
+
+  Smiths, Tuareg, 155, 228-9, 230; jewellery made by, 283-4
+
+  Smoking, not a Tuareg practice, 211
+
+  Snobbishness, Moslem form of, 339-40, 342
+
+  Snuff, taken by Tuareg, 211; used as remedy for camel disease, 200
+
+  “Sô people,” the, 407
+
+  Soap-stone, ornaments of, 282, 283
+
+  Social distinctions, Tuareg, present breakdown in, 142
+
+  Social effects of revolt of, 1917, 127-8, 338-9
+
+  “Sofo” tower, Agades, 94
+
+  Sokakna, the, Arab tribe, 354
+
+  Sokna, 9, 347
+
+  Sokoto, 21, 33, 38, 47, 48, 101, 106, 110, 415; British annexation
+  of, 37; Fulani Empire of, 37, 57, 363, 415; Itesan settle near, 109
+  _n._[100], 366, 373-4, 392, 393, 398, 432; Kel Geres settle near,
+  17, 39, 65, 143, 366, 373, 390-91, 392, 415: route to, alternative,
+  114; slave market in, 38; stone buildings in, 89 _n._[78]; Tegama
+  expedition against, 53
+
+  Sokoto, Emir of, influence of, 109 _n._[100] _See also_ Bello.
+
+  Sokoto-Agades track, 85
+
+  Soleim Arabs invade Central Africa, 376
+
+  Solom Solom, 122, 365
+
+  Songhai Empire, the, 37, 47, 48, 117, 227, 291, 408, 409, 410,
+  411; Agades colonised by, 117, 410, 440; gold trade of, 411, 414;
+  Moors overthrow, 411, 412; Portuguese and, 409, 410
+
+  Songhai language, 117, 118
+
+  Sorbo Hausa, 50
+
+  Sores, camels’, 199, 201
+
+  Sottofé, Muhammad, Sultan, 369, 464
+
+  South, People of the, 441
+
+  Southern Air: Goberawa in, 379; graves in, 263; servile tribes
+  in, 394
+
+  Southern Algeria, native Camel Corps in, 189
+
+  Southland, the, 17, 36-79; Air and, political relations of, 105,
+  116; Barth’s expeditions in, 23-4, 36, 49, 59, 60-61; bush of,
+  42, 43, 44, 45, 58, 444, 446; houses and huts of, 184, 249, 250;
+  Itesan migration to, 109 _n._[100], 366, 373-4, 377, 392, 393, 398,
+  432; Kel Geres migration to, 17, 39, 65, 143, 366, 373, 390-91, 392,
+  415; music of, 17; Morocco and, trade between, 405; Tuareg of, 17-18;
+  Tuareg ascendancy in, 54-6; Tuareg migrations to, 17, 38-9, 51,
+  65, 143, 361, 366, 373-4, 377, 390-91, 392, 393, 398, 411, 415, 432
+
+  Southward trend of migration in N. Africa, 39
+
+  Soyuti, El, 291, 292
+
+  Spain, Arab conquest of, 346, 376, 405
+
+  Spear grass, 226
+
+  Spears, People of the, 432
+
+  Spears, Tuareg, 233-4, 236
+
+  Spirits, Tuareg belief in, and tales of, 278-81, 300, 306; amulets
+  against, 282
+
+  Spoons, Tuareg, 229, 276
+
+  Spouts on roofs of Sudanese houses, 89, 90
+
+  Stambul, delegation from Air to, 101, 102, 104, 396-7
+
+  Stambul, Sultan of, story of migration ordered by, 366-7, 380
+
+  Stars, Tuareg names for, 226 _n._[212]
+
+  Steppe, the Great, 334, 335
+
+  Steppe desert, 114, 115, 332, 333, 334, 447; and true desert, 2,
+  332, 333, 334
+
+  Sticks for holding bridles and ropes, 277
+
+  Stone, not used in building in Sudan and Northern Nigeria, 89;
+  used by Tuareg, 89
+
+  Stone arm rings, Tuareg, 91, 285-6
+
+  Stone flags, “Garamantian way” said to be paved with, 319
+
+  Stone houses, 155, 184, 213, 239, 250, 418
+
+  Stone ornaments, small, 283
+
+  Stone “talhakim,” mystery of origin of, 282-3
+
+  Stones: circles of, round huts, 262-3; coloured, to indicate tracks,
+  293; graves marked by, 259-60; hammered, not chiselled, 260, 264;
+  mounds of, as memorials, 292-3
+
+  Strabo, 207 _n._[193], 468
+
+  Stuhlmann, F., 468; on MZGh root in “Berber” names, 458, 460
+
+  Sub-tribes: “Kel names” of, 128-9; lists of, 427-41
+
+  Succession and inheritance, matriarchal tradition in, 151-3, 168
+
+  Suckling of children, protracted, 178-9
+
+  Sudan, the, 1 _n._[1], 37; Air and, political relations with, 105,
+  116; Barth’s expedition in, 23, 37; British share in opening up,
+  20; European penetration of, 20, 36-9; Fulani rise to power in,
+  415; funerary monuments in, 261; horse saddles of, 231; houses of,
+  87, 88, 90; Ibn Batutah in, 452, 456; Islam in, 291; Lemta area
+  extends to, 345, 357, 358, 370, 445; Mediterranean civilisation in,
+  37; salt trade with, 414; Sanhaja power in, 405; syphilis thought
+  to originate in, 179; taboos originating in, 294; “talhakim”
+  prized in, 282; Tuareg driven from, 358; Tuareg evacuated to,
+  360-61; wheeled vehicles in, 322
+
+  Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian, 1 _n._[1]
+
+  Sudan, Nilotic, 1 _n._[1]; Fulani settlement in, 58; Semitic
+  influence in, 342
+
+  Sudan, Western: French expedition from, 25; added to empire of Melle,
+  407; Moorish conquest of, 411
+
+  Sudan Empires, the, 37; history of, 405, 406, 407-15; _see_ Melle
+  _and_ Songhai.
+
+  Sudanese buildings, 249
+
+  Sudanese historian on migrations from Red Sea, 342
+
+  Sudanese pottery, 161, 317; clay amphoræ, 317
+
+  Suk, El, country, Tuareg migration to, 394
+
+  Suk, Kel el, 355, 377, 394
+
+  Suleiman, Mansa, 408
+
+  Suliman, El Haj, library of, 302
+
+  Sultan of Agades, _see_ Amenokal.
+
+  Sun, halo round, an evil omen, 296
+
+  Sun worship, Libyan, 276, 278, 295; trace of, among Tuareg, 295
+
+  Sunni Ali, 291, 409
+
+  Sunni Muhammad Dau, 409
+
+  Sunsets, magnificent, Air, 123, 181; superstition regarding, 296
+
+  Superstitions of Tuareg, 275, 293; concerning weather, 295-6
+
+  Susubaki, 412
+
+  “Switzerland of the Sahara,” the, 317
+
+  Sword dance, Tuareg, 272
+
+  Swords, Tuareg, cross-hilted, 96, 233, 234, 236, 276, 289
+
+  Symbolism in Tuareg rock drawings, 264, 265
+
+  Synesius, 356
+
+  Syphilis, 179-80
+
+  Syria, Ibn Khaldun on inhabitants of, 339
+
+  Syrtis, Great, 325, 337, 365; people of, 457
+
+  Syrtis, Little, 337
+
+
+  Tabello, 86, 209, 210, 243, 244, 298, 320; houses at, 241, 244-8,
+  249, 250, 251, 252; Itesan settlements at, abandoned, 244, 389;
+  salt caravan assembles at, 85, 218, 219, 243
+
+  Taberghit valley, 58, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74
+
+  Tablet ornaments, 283
+
+  Tabonie, 323
+
+  Taboos, food, totemic, 294-5
+
+  Tabudium, 323
+
+  Taburgula, 362
+
+  Tabzagur, position of, 424
+
+  Tadadawa, Kel, 381, 434
+
+  Tadek valley, 395, 396, 428
+
+  Tadek, Kel, 26, 80, 143, 149, 150, 170, 185, 239, 298, 318, 428-9;
+  antiquity of, 149, 366, 428; represent original invaders of Air,
+  395, 396, 400; expelled by Kel Owi, 389; mother of, legend of, 384;
+  tribes and sub-tribes of, 428-9, 430, 440
+
+  Tadele, Kel, 427
+
+  Tademari, 47, 48, 51
+
+  Tademekka, 169, 254, 441; Aulimmiden occupy, 345, 348, 358, 387, 414
+
+  Tademekka, city of, 405, 408; foundation of, 399
+
+  Tademekkat, the, 355, 356, 357, 377; driven out by Aulimmiden, 345,
+  348, 358, 387, 414
+
+  Tadenak, Kel, 430
+
+  Tadent, 101
+
+  Tadesa, 239
+
+  Tadsa, Tuareg defeat near, 412
+
+  Tafadek, 428; position of, 424
+
+  Tafarzas, the, 434
+
+  Tafasas, Kel, 439
+
+  Tafassasset, the, 30, 31
+
+  Tafassasset-T’immersoi basin, 71
+
+  Taferaut, Kel, 438
+
+  Tafidet, Child of, 144; _see_ Añastafidet.
+
+  Tafidet range, 157, 306, 308, 313, 436; valley, 32 _n._[37]
+
+  Tafidet, Kel, 134, 148, 307, 370, 436, 437, 443-4; “agoalla”
+  of, 147; and appointment of Añastafidet, 145, 306; place in Kel
+  Owi Confederation, 134, 306, 443-4; mother of, legend of, 384;
+  origin of, 148, 303, 306
+
+  Tafilelt area, Morocco, capital of, 452 _n._[449]
+
+  Tagay (Tagei), Kel, 432
+
+  Tagedufat, 80, 120; valley, 32-3, 63-4, 66, 67-8, 71, 74, 76;
+  well, 74
+
+  Tagei, Kel (Ikazkazan), 210, 307, 438; (Imaslagha), 435; (Itesan),
+  397, 398, 432
+
+  Tagermat, Kel, 436
+
+  “Taghalam,” the, 219, 220
+
+  Tagharit valley, 131 _n._[120]; lions in, 119, 120, 214 _n._[206]
+
+  Taghazit, 23, 33
+
+  Taghist plateau, 156, 292
+
+  Taghmeurt range, 157, 308, 435, 436
+
+  Taghmeurt, Kel, 435, 436
+
+  Taghmeurt n’Afara, 313, 315, 318, 319
+
+  Tagidda n’Adrar, 454, 455, 456; position of, 424
+
+  Tagidda n’Tagei, 454, 455, 456
+
+  Tagidda n’T’isemt, 454, 455, 456; position of, 424
+
+  Tagiddas, the: and Ibn Batutah’s “Tekadda,” 454-6; people
+  of, 441
+
+  “Tagilmus” (the Veil), 15 _n._[15], 140, 287-90
+
+  Tagilmus, Kel, 15, 460
+
+  Taginna, the, 434 _n._
+
+  Tagirit, 397
+
+  Tagmart (Taghmeurt), Kel, 435
+
+  Tagunar, Kel, 430, 431
+
+  Tagunet, 431
+
+  Tagurast, 91
+
+  Tahanazeta, 102
+
+  Tahua, 42, 188, 394
+
+  Taiagaia, Kel, 433
+
+  Taitoq, the, 17, 350, 351, 354; dialect of, 266-7
+
+  Takadda (Nakda), 452
+
+  Takarkari, the, 406
+
+  “Takatkat,” 164
+
+  Takazanzat (Takazuzat), rock of, 240
+
+  Takermus, Kel, 429
+
+  “Takirbai,” 164
+
+  Takrizat, 437
+
+  Takrizat, Kel, 209, 290, 437; a holy tribe, 290, 291
+
+  “Takuba” (sword), 233
+
+  Talak plain, 31, 114, 131, 209, 214, 308, 351, 394, 438, 441;
+  tomb of Awa in, 281
+
+  Talak, Kel, 441
+
+  Talat Mellen, 308
+
+  “Talha” acacia, 226
+
+  “Talhakim,” the (ornament), 282-3, 284
+
+  “Talimt,” 226 _n._[212]
+
+  Talras, 68, 450
+
+  Tamadalt Tan Ataram, position of, 425
+
+  Tamanet, 242, 243
+
+  Tamanghasset, 12
+
+  “Tamat” acacia, 226, 227
+
+  Tamat, Kel, 52, 60, 307, 428, 437, 438
+
+  Tamatut well, 60; destroyed, 60, 451
+
+  Tamel, Kel, 434
+
+  Tamenzaret, wells of, 215, 418
+
+  Tamet Tedderet, position of, 425
+
+  Tamgak, 311, 389, 428, 437; mother of Kel Owi settles in, 386;
+  “Wild Men” of, 306-7, 437
+
+  Tamgak mountains, 157, 311, 314 _n._[275], 315, 316, 317, 321, 396
+
+  Tamgak, Kel, 306, 394, 400, 437; one of the original five tribes,
+  368, 378, 379; modern representatives of, 395, 396, 400, 437
+
+  Tamizgidda, Kel, 53, 439
+
+  Tamkak, the, 368; _see_ Tamgak, Kel.
+
+  Tanamari, 51
+
+  “Tanghot” (spirit), 281
+
+  Tanut (in Damergu), 47, 48, 52, 69, 81, 119 _n._[107], 418, 451;
+  position of, 424
+
+  Tanut (near Marandet), 119, 121
+
+  Tanut Unghaidan, 122
+
+  Tanutmolet, 316, 430; houses in, 248
+
+  Tanutmolet, Kel, 430-31
+
+  Tanzar, the, 434
+
+  Taodenit, 219; salt deposits of, 30, 411, 452 _n._[450]
+
+  “Tara,” camel disease, 201
+
+  Tara Bere, 91
+
+  Taranet, Kel, 439
+
+  Tarantulas, 227
+
+  Tarat Mellet, the, 394
+
+  “Tarei tan Kel Owi,” 61, 308, 314
+
+  Tarenkat, 433
+
+  Targa, the, 19, 445; Ibn Khaldun on, 343; Leo Africanus describes
+  Air and Ahaggar as inhabited by, 19, 331, 332, 333, 334, 337-8,
+  359; and the name “Tuareg,” 273, 338, 348-9, 461
+
+  Tariq, 376
+
+  “Tariqa,” Senussi, 290
+
+  “Tarki” (Tarqi) and the word “Tuareg,” 257, 274, 460, 461
+
+  Tarrajerat, 80
+
+  Taruaji, 418
+
+  Taruaji mountains, 78, 84, 86, 126, 127, 156, 183
+
+  “Tasalgi” (north), 244, 247
+
+  Tasawa, 305, 411
+
+  Tasawat, 244; mosque of, 255-6
+
+  Tasessat, 239
+
+  Tashel (Taschell, Tashil), the, 433
+
+  Tashkeur (Teshkar) well, 446 _n._[446]
+
+  Tasr, wells of, 446-7
+
+  Tassili, Azger, 260, 261
+
+  Tatenei, Kel, 381
+
+  Tateus well, 66, 74
+
+  Tattus, Kel, 438
+
+  Tautek, 405
+
+  Tawarek, the, 118, 257, 273, 460; Arab etymology of, 257; _see_
+  Tuareg.
+
+  Tazizilet, 69, 71, 219
+
+  Tebehic, 80, 82; position of, 424; spirits of, 279
+
+  Tebernit valley, 243; water holes, 242
+
+  Tebu, the, 16, 109, 218, 318, 358, 403, 413, 443, 446; Berdeoa,
+  people of, identified with, 335-6; Bornu dynasty of, 372, 374;
+  boundary between Tuareg and, 358, 443; camel saddles of, 277; camels
+  of, 196; Dunama II’s war with, 374; Ikaradan, Temajegh name for,
+  117, 335, 430, 441; Itesan driven out by, 389, 413; language of,
+  118, 155; origin of, 335-6; raids by, 59, 69, 188, 190, 296, 320,
+  327, 350, 389, 444, 450; throwing irons used by, 235; treachery of,
+  98, 236; Tuareg driven from south by, 358; Tuareg feud with, 98,
+  190, 442, 443; women of, wives of kings of Kanem, 373, 374
+
+  Technique of raids, 11, 189-93, 236, 237
+
+  Tecoum, the, 441
+
+  Teda, the, 335, 373 _n._[387]
+
+  Teda Inisilman, 155
+
+  Tedamansii, the, 336
+
+  Tedekel, Kel, 437
+
+  “Tedi” or “teddi” (measure of length), 222
+
+  Tedmukkeren (Tetmokarak), the, 433
+
+  “Tefakint,” 221
+
+  Tefgun, mosque of, 27, 149, 317, 428
+
+  Tefgun, Kel, 428
+
+  T’efira, 127 _n._[115]
+
+  Tefis, 248, 431; mosque of, 256, 258, 418
+
+  Tefis, Kel, 431
+
+  Tegama (Southern Air), 23, 32, 53, 64, 65, 188, 209, 303; Barth in,
+  23, 53, 118; camels of, 196, 197, 210; servile tribes of, 127, 128,
+  394; villages of, 127-8
+
+  Tegama valley, 58
+
+  Tegama, Kel, 53-4, 64-5, 118, 127, 128, 394, 433, 443; defeated by
+  Kel Geres, 391; women of, 118
+
+  Tegama, Sultan, 98-9, 109, 465
+
+  Tegaza, 404 _n._[419], 452; Moors capture, 411; salt mines of, 332,
+  411, 452 _n._[450]
+
+  Tegbeshi, 184
+
+  “Tegehe” (descendants), 350 _n._[336]
+
+  Tegehe Mellen, the, 350
+
+  Tegehe n’Aggali, the, 350, 352
+
+  Tegehe n’Efis, 351
+
+  Tegehe n’es Sidi, the, 350, 351
+
+  Tegehe n’Essakal, 351, 352
+
+  Tegemi (Tégémui), 68
+
+  Teget (Tagei), Kel, 435
+
+  Teghazar valley, 84, 86, 241
+
+  Teghzeren, Kel, 433
+
+  Tegibbut, the, 434
+
+  Tegidda valley, 215, 299
+
+  Teginjir, 33; plain, 241, 242; position of, 425; spring, 241
+
+  Tegir, 430
+
+  Tegir, Kel, 430
+
+  Teguer, Kel, 430
+
+  Tehammam, the, 427
+
+  Tehenu, the, 337, 462 _n._[481]
+
+  Tehert, 337
+
+  Tekadda, 406, 408
+
+    Ibn Batutah’s, 452-3, 454, 455, 456; copper mines of, 452-3,
+    454; identification of, attempted, 454, 455; Sultan of, 151, 152,
+    406, 454, 455
+
+  “Tekerkeri, the,” 406
+
+  T’ekhmedin, the guide, 185-7, 195, 225, 239
+
+  Tekursat valley, the, 60, 61
+
+  Telamse, Kel, 432
+
+  Telezu valley, 239, 240, 243
+
+  Telia, position of, 425
+
+  Telizzarhen, 265; rock drawings of, 319
+
+  Tellia valley, 243
+
+  Teloas-Tabello, position of, 424
+
+  Telwa river, 122-3, 127; valley, 84, 115, 122-3, 125, 414, 441
+
+  Temagheri, the, 372, 373
+
+  Temahu, the, 376, 462
+
+  Temajegh, 12, 15, 118, 154, 266, 269, 270-71, 462; camel names in,
+  197; Christianity, words associated with, in, 277-8; dictionaries of,
+  12, 467; etymology of, 15 _n._[14], 373, 462; “Kel” names in,
+  129; Latin, traces of, in, 75 _n._[70], 278; origin of, 267-8, 270;
+  Quran translated into, 269; written, _see_ T’ifinagh.
+
+  Tembellaga, 58
+
+  Temed, 321, 428
+
+  “Temeder” (part of the Veil), 287
+
+  Temperatures in the Sahara, 4, 298
+
+  Tents, Tuareg, 89, 212
+
+  “Terga,” 273, 461; _see_ Targa.
+
+  Tergulawen, 50, 61, 62, 67, 69, 114, 242, 390; road, 70; well, 59,
+  60, 74, 80
+
+  Terjeman, quarter of Agades, 91, 118
+
+  Terminal points of trans-desert traffic, 110, 111
+
+  Termit, 32, 46, 58, 67, 68, 81, 218, 320, 448-50; author’s march
+  to, 46, 81, 444, 446-51; drainage of, 450; mountains of, 448,
+  449-50; position of, 424; rocks of, oddly shaped, 450; wells of,
+  443, 447, 448-9, 451
+
+  Territories du Niger, 41-2, 43, 189, 416
+
+  Tesabba valley, 210
+
+  Teshkar, 446, 447, 451; position of, 424
+
+  Teskokrit, 69, 72
+
+  Tessawa, 42, 43, 46, 47; position of, 424
+
+  Tessuma valley, 243
+
+  Tetmokarak, the, 65, 381, 433
+
+  Teworshekaken valleys, 61
+
+  Tezirzak, 428
+
+  Tezogiri valley, 78
+
+  Tgibbu (Tegibbut), the, 434
+
+  Thorns in vegetation of Air, 199, 226
+
+  Throwing-iron, used by Tebu, 235
+
+  Thuben, 323
+
+  Thugga inscription, 267
+
+  Thukdha (Nakda), 452
+
+  Thunderbolt, an evil omen, 296
+
+  Thunderstorms, violent, 82-3, 451
+
+  Tiakkar, the, 434
+
+  T’iaman, 143
+
+  Tibawi (Tebu), 335
+
+  Tibesti, 7, 92, 98, 218, 334, 335, 403, 444; identified with
+  Agisymba Regio, 325, 326, 327; camels of, 195; camels commandeered
+  for expeditions to, 205; drainage system of, 3; mountains of, 2, 4,
+  32; raiding in, 187, 193, 276, 444; rainfall of, 4; rock drawing in,
+  276; unknown area of, 32; Turkish penetration of, 327
+
+  Tidikelt, 111
+
+  Tidrak hills, 156, 181
+
+  Tifaut, 405
+
+  T’ifinagh (Tuareg script), 15-16, 263, 264, 266-9, 271, 276, 289;
+  name of Air in, 454; alphabet of, 266-7; Arabic letters in, 271;
+  Ifadeyen familiarity with, 268, 400; inscriptions in, 81, 264,
+  268, 269, 286; origin of, 267-8; Quran in, 269; taught by women,
+  173-4, 268
+
+  T’igefen, 450
+
+  Tiggedi cliff, 65, 70, 71, 76-7, 454 _n._[456]; defeat of Kel Tegama
+  at, 391
+
+  “Tiggeur” acacia, 226
+
+  T’ighummar valley, 215
+
+  Tikammar cheese, 157, 158
+
+  Tildhin, the, 412
+
+  Tilemsan, 291
+
+  Tilho, Colonel, 30; Anglo-French frontier delimitation by, 41;
+  maps of, 33 _n._[38], 41, 466; observations made by, 422, 424
+
+  T’ilimsawin hills, 156
+
+  T’ilimsawin, Kel, 432
+
+  T’ilisdak valley, 127, 435
+
+  Tilkatine, the, 434 _n._
+
+  Tilutan, 404
+
+  Timbuctoo, 7, 23, 30, 110, 344, 354, 405; earliest accounts of,
+  19; camels of, 196; foundation of, 407; Melle conquest and loss of,
+  407, 408; mithkal of, 222; Moorish garrison in, 411; “People of
+  the West” in, 441; salt caravan from, 188, 219, 452 _n._[451];
+  Songhai conquest of, 409; Tuareg of, 18; Tuareg conquest and loss
+  of, 408, 409
+
+  Timbuctoo-Cairo pilgrim road, 114, 318
+
+  Timbulaga, 70
+
+  T’imia, 33, 186, 204, 216-17, 241, 290, 299, 308, 311, 385, 439;
+  houses in, 248, 250; hut circles at, 262; Kel Owi invasion of,
+  389; massif of, 33, 216, 242; measures used in, 221; mosque of,
+  385; rock drawing at, 194 _n._[178]; women of, 173
+
+  T’imia, Kel, 298, 439; mixed, 440
+
+  T’imilen mountains, 299
+
+  T’imilen valley, 243, 299
+
+  T’immersoi, 31, 32, 33, 78
+
+  “Timmi” (oath of friendship), 237
+
+  T’imuru peak, 300
+
+  T’in Awak mountain, 300
+
+  T’in Dawin, 78; position of, 424
+
+  T’in Shaman, 116, 364-5, 367; French post at, 86, 99, 365;
+  position of, 424
+
+  T’in Taboraq, 82, 84, 85; position of, 424
+
+  T’in Tarabin valley, 9, 30
+
+  T’in Wafara, 437
+
+  T’in Wana, 71, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 213; fossil trees at, 81-2, 259
+  _n._[226]; pool of, 81; position of, 424; rock inscriptions at, 81
+
+  T’in Wansa, 309; houses in, 248
+
+  T’in Yerutan, 404
+
+  T’inalkum, Kel, 355, 383 _n._[400]
+
+  T’inien, 214; position of, 424
+
+  T’inien mountains, 125, 156
+
+  T’intabisgi, 427, 428
+
+  Tintagete, Kel, 435
+
+  T’intaghoda, 26, 122, 308, 316, 390, 436, 437; Barth’s expedition
+  attacked at, 23, 290, 312; capital of Northern Air, 316; houses of,
+  248, 316; mosque of, 257, 258, 316
+
+  T’intaghoda, Kel, 129, 312, 437; a holy tribe, 291, 306, 437
+
+  T’intellust, 308, 309, 311, 319, 320, 321, 436; Barth’s
+  headquarters at, 23, 122, 308, 312-13
+
+  T’intellust, Kel, 435
+
+  Tinteyyat, 435
+
+  Tinylcum, the, 383
+
+  Tinylkum, Barth’s, 355
+
+  Tirekka, 405
+
+  “Tirik” (riding saddle), 230-31
+
+  T’iriken peak, 299-300
+
+  Tirza, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Tisak n’Talle, 91
+
+  T’Isemt, Kel, 441
+
+  Tishorén (Tuareg), 460
+
+  Tiski, the Children of, 342-3, 349
+
+  Tissot, C. J.: _Géographie comparée_, 207 _n._[190]
+
+  Tit, Ahaggar Tuareg defeated at, 10, 11, 328
+
+  T’iugas and her six daughters, story of, 384
+
+  T’iwilmas, 314, 316
+
+  T’iyut valley, 23, 31 _n._[36], 367
+
+  Tizraet, the pool of, 418
+
+  Tobacco chewed by Tuareg, 211
+
+  Tobacco snuff as remedy for camel disease, 200
+
+  Todra, Mount, 84, 123, 127, 131, 156, 181, 183, 184, 213, 214, 215,
+  216, 239
+
+  Toga, North African robes said to be descended from, 285
+
+  Toiyamama, the, 434
+
+  Tokede valley, 239, 240, 243
+
+  Toledo swords owned by Tuareg, 233
+
+  Tomb of Awa, 281
+
+  Tombs (_see_ Graves), Air, 259-63; possibly made in floor of hut, 263
+
+  Tools, Tuareg, 229
+
+  Toreha, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Toshit N’Yussuf, 438
+
+  Totemism, survival of, among Tuareg, 294-5, 394 _n._[408]
+
+  _Tournées d’apprivoisement_, 11
+
+  Towar, 183, 184-5, 186, 195, 238, 239, 240, 243, 283, 440; houses
+  in, 248, 252
+
+  Towar river, 183
+
+  Towar, Kel, 184, 439; mixed, 184, 440
+
+  Tower of Agades, 94; _see_ Minaret.
+
+  Tracks, marked by coloured stones, 293
+
+  Trade roads, 5, 23, 37, 38; map of, 5; railway’s effect on, 38;
+  _see_ Caravan roads.
+
+  Traghen, 112
+
+  Transliteration, difficulties of, 271, 350 _n._[338]
+
+  Transport enterprises, Kel Owi monopoly of, 390
+
+  Trans-Saharan caravan roads, 308-9, 318
+
+  Trans-Saharan railway, suggestion of, 38
+
+  Travelling bags, leather, Tuareg, 228
+
+  Treachery, Tuareg averse to, 236, 237
+
+  Treaty between Tuareg and original inhabitants of Air, tradition
+  of, 367-8
+
+  Trees, fossil, 81-2, 259 _n._[226]
+
+  Triangular ornaments (“talhakim”), 282-3
+
+  Tribal allegiance derived through mother, 149-51
+
+  Tribal alliances, 147-8
+
+  Tribal chiefs: and the Amenokal, 108, 144; authority of, passing
+  to village headmen, 127-8, 131; functions of, 110, 147; measures
+  kept by, 220; selection of, 108
+
+  Tribal classification, importance attached by Tuareg to, 143-5
+
+  Tribal councils, women in, 168, 169
+
+  Tribal feuds set aside in trade centres, 111
+
+  Tribal groupings, 147-8
+
+  Tribal histories, 360, 361-2
+
+  Tribal marks on camels, 201-2
+
+  Tribal names, Tuareg, 128-31
+
+  Tribal organisation of Tuareg of Air, 393, 400, 426-41
+
+  Tribal warfare, 390, 391, 392, 402-3; before appointment of common
+  ruler, 101
+
+  Tribes, colour differences in, 161, 162; holy, 290-91, 306, 355,
+  357, 437, 438, 439, 440; of mixed caste, 355; noble and servile,
+  _see_ Imajeghan, Imghad, _and_ Noble and servile tribes.
+
+  Tripoli, 110; caravan road, 23, 48, 61, 242; Col. Hamer Warrington
+  Consul at, 21; embassy from Bornu to, 410
+
+  Tripolitania, 41, 187, 208, 358, 457; former British paramountcy in,
+  20, 21, 22; anti-French and -British activities in, 84; Hawara in,
+  345; Islam, spread of, in, 257; Italian occupation of, Tuareg and,
+  8; rock drawings in, 318; Southern, Roman occupation of, 323
+
+  Trotting on camels thought unwise, 193
+
+  Trousers, Tuareg, 164, 289
+
+  Tsabba valley, 210
+
+  T’Sidderak hills, 214
+
+  T’Sidderak, Agoalla of, 397
+
+  T’Sidderak, Kel, 381, 432
+
+  Tuaghet pool, 427
+
+  Tuareg of Ahaggar, _see_ Ahaggaren.
+
+  Tuareg of Air: not a tribe but a people, 14, 461; racial purity of,
+  16, 137, 161, 162, 163
+
+    their arrival in Air, 359, 366-93, 394, 395, 396, 397, 403,
+    404, 405-6; its date, 364, 371, 373, 375, 381, 403, 404; their
+    vicissitudes, 401-16; future of, 420, 421
+
+    accounts of, 8-9, 10, 14, 18-20, 24, 25, 28
+
+    adultery not common among, 177
+
+    agriculture despised by, 127, 134, 174, 360
+
+    amulets worn by, 282, 284
+
+    ancestry of, 7-8, 254, 345-6, 353, 359, 366, 367, 368, 369, 385-7,
+    403, 462; Bello on, 368, 369, 371; Ibn Khaldun on, 343-4, 345, 346,
+    347, 348, 353, 379; Leo Africanus on, 330-31, 332, 334-5, 337-8,
+    343, 344, 345, 348, 349
+
+    animism of, 295
+
+    architecture of, 184, 241, 244-59, 377, 378
+
+    art of, 246, 263-5
+
+    belts worn by, 180, 194, 236, 237
+
+    Berbers and, 7, 16, 338, 371, 372, 458, 461
+
+    “Black” and “White,” 139-40
+
+    blue-eyed, 16
+
+    calm manner of, 420
+
+    caravan trade of, 7, 38, 48, 50, 142, 145, 146; _see_ Salt
+    caravans.
+
+    caste system of, 103-4, 108, 136, 137-8; _see_ Imajeghan _and_
+    Imghad.
+
+    cattle trade of, 133-4, 190, 202-5
+
+    characteristics lost by, 40-41
+
+    children of, 148-9, 174, 177-9, 181, 268, 400
+
+    chivalry of, 168, 236-7
+
+    Christianity, former, of, 275-8, 284-5, 289, 293-4
+
+    circumcision practised by, 179
+
+    civilisation of, present, decline from earlier, 7, 255, 265,
+    268, 378
+
+    civilising rôle of, 37, 393, 401
+
+    cleanliness of, 163, 273, 274
+
+    colouring of, 161-2, 173, 367, 460
+
+    courage of, 11, 169-70, 236, 237, 354
+
+    dancing of, 44, 272
+
+    disease among, 178, 179-80
+
+    divorce among, 176-7
+
+    dress of, 14, 15, 95-6, 163-7, 177, 265, 289
+
+    education among, 174, 177-8, 268, 400
+
+    Europeans and, 8, 23, 24, 154, 290
+
+    evacuation of, by French, 113, 121-2, 302, 309, 360-61, 426
+
+    family system of, 103-4, 147, 148-53, 373, 398
+
+    female descent among, 103-4, 148-53, 373, 398
+
+    festivals of, 181, 274-5
+
+    food of, 157-60, 174, 211, 212
+
+    French and: hostilities between, 9-11, 13, 26, 51, 52, 114
+    _n._[104], 236, 328; migration of some tribes from, 51, 350, 352;
+    pacific attitude of others, 26-7, 51, 52, 414 _n._[429]; revolt
+    against, in 1917, 39, 59, 60, 69, 70, 84-5, 86, 93, 98, 121-2,
+    127-8, 169, 185, 205, 302, 309, 420
+
+    furniture of, 229-30
+
+    geographical knowledge of, 265-6
+
+    government of, 144-8
+
+    graves and tombs of, 181, 229, 259-63
+
+    greetings used between, 419
+
+    historical knowledge of, 265, 360, 361-2
+
+    honour, sense of, among, 296
+
+    hospitality of, 210, 237
+
+    houses of, various types, 89, 90, 92, 181, 184, 239, 240-41,
+    244-55, 256, 302, 309, 310-11, 314, 315-16, 377-8, 381, 389, 393
+
+    huts of, 184, 253, 254, 262-3
+
+    industries of, 131, 164-6, 174, 227-30, 231, 277, 310
+
+    judicial system of, 107, 110
+
+    Kings of, _see_ Amenokal; list of, 463-5
+
+    language of, 15; _see_ Temajegh.
+
+    Libyans and, 7, 262, 341, 342, 356, 366, 462
+
+    literature of, 173, 263, 269, 360, 361-2
+
+    live stock of, 133-4, 190, 202, 203, 204-5
+
+    love affairs among, 174-5, 176
+
+    marriage system of, 170-71, 173, 174, 175-7, 181, 289
+
+    matriarchal system among, 103-4, 148-53, 170, 171
+
+    medicine among, 82, 180-81, 201
+
+    migrations of, _see_ Migrations.
+
+    ministers and officials of, 106-7
+
+    monarchy, democratic, of, 107-8, 145
+
+    monogamy usual among, 170, 171
+
+    mosques of, 86, 87, 93, 94, 255-8, 301-2, 360, 361
+
+    music of, 272
+
+    name of, 14, 15, 118, 257, 273-4, 412 _n._[426], 454, 459-60,
+    461; derivation of, 348-9
+
+    noble and servile, 15, 103-4, 110, 128, 137, 140-43, 217; _see_
+    Imajeghan _and_ Imghad.
+
+    nomadism of, 16, 208, 209, 212, 400, 406
+
+    numbers of, 402
+
+    origin of, _see above under_ ancestry of.
+
+    ornaments of, 282-6
+
+    patience of, 296, 420
+
+    physical type of, 161-3, 172, 177, 187, 217
+
+    poetry of, 169, 173, 263, 265, 271, 272
+
+    population of, 402
+
+    pottery of, 160-61, 317
+
+    prostitution among, 177
+
+    proverbs of, 176, 182, 237, 420, 421
+
+    raiding by, 51, 59, 187, 188, 189, 190-94
+
+    “red” colouring of, 162, 173, 367, 460
+
+    religion of, 273-8, 290, 291-4; earlier, possibly Christianity,
+    275-8, 293-4; traces of Christian influence, 275-6, 277, 278,
+    284-5, 289, 293-4; their conversion to Islam, and their lax
+    practice, 273, 274, 290, 291, 293, 324-5
+
+    revolt of, 1917, _see above under_ French.
+
+    script of, 15-16; _see_ T’ifinagh.
+
+    shields of, 234-5, 276, 444
+
+    slave trading, former, by, 135
+
+    slaves of, 15 _n._[13], 103-4, 105, 134, 135, 140, 150, 178
+
+    snuff taken by, 211, 220
+
+    Sultan of, _see_ Amenokal.
+
+    superstitions of, 275, 278-81, 293, 295-6
+
+    taboos among, 294-5
+
+    tobacco chewed by, 211
+
+    tools of, 229
+
+    totemism among, 294-5, 394 _n._[408]
+
+    trade of, 38, 48, 50, 133, 414
+
+    tribal names of, 128-31
+
+    tribes and sub-tribes of, 143-5, 393, 400, 426-41
+
+    unselfishness of, 95, 177, 178
+
+    vanity of, 95
+
+    Veil worn by, 14-15, 139-40, 163, 284-90, 328-9
+
+    warfare, methods of, 236-7; tribal, 101, 390, 391, 392, 402-3
+
+    weapons of, 233-6, 276; allegiance to _armes blanches_, 55, 235-6,
+    328; arm daggers, 234; knives, 234, 236; spears, 233-4, 236;
+    swords, 96, 233, 234, 236, 276, 289
+
+    weights and measures of, 220-22
+
+    women of, _see_ Women, Tuareg.
+
+  Tuareg, Azger, Damergu, Elakkos, Fezzan, _etc._, _see under those
+  heads_.
+
+  Tuat, 9, 260, 291, 292, 332, 334; earliest account of, 19; Ibn
+  Batutah’s journey to, 453, 455, 456; Jews massacred in, 291
+
+  Tuat road, 318, 353, 453
+
+  Tuat-Tidikelt area, 111
+
+  Tuberculosis case at Auderas, 180
+
+  Tubuzzat, Kel, 437
+
+  “Tufakoret” (solar halo), 296
+
+  Tuggurt, 9, 111
+
+  Tukda (Nakda), 452
+
+  Tumayu, 372
+
+  Tummo, 320
+
+  Tumuli, funerary, 260-61
+
+  Tunfafia, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Tunisia, 325, 341, 457; Christianity in, 294; the Circumcelliones
+  in, 328; spread of Islam in, 257
+
+  Tunsi, El, 192
+
+  Turayet, 51, 418; graves in, 263; valley, 84, 183
+
+  Turdja, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Turha, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Turks: their part in the 1917 revolt, 93, 98; penetration of
+  Tibesti by, 327
+
+
+  Ufa Atikin, position of, 425
+
+  Ufugum, Kel, 434
+
+  Ula, 191
+
+  Ulcer, nasal, caused by sand, 180
+
+  Ulli, Kel, 52, 129, 307, 437, 438, 441; Damergu, 440
+
+  ’Umbellu, the ’alim, 217, 270, 290, 385, 389
+
+  Umuzut, Kel, 428; Damergu, 440
+
+  Unankara valley, 308, 390
+
+  Uncle, maternal, descent traced through, 151
+
+  Ungwa, Kel, 433
+
+  Unnar, Kel, 381, 432, 433
+
+  Uraren, position of, 425
+
+  Urn burial, 161, 263; pre-Tuareg example of, 121
+
+  Urufan, 44; position of, 424
+
+  Ushr, 180 _n._[172]
+
+  Utzila, the, 343
+
+  Uye, Kel, 432
+
+
+  Valleys, of Air, 34-5, 83-4; of Azawagh, 61-2, 63, 66-7, 71, 76
+
+  Vassalage and Imghadage compared, 38, 140, 141
+
+  Vegetables, cultivation of, 131-2, 133
+
+  Vegetation, desert, 64, 70, 226; hardiness of, 67; rain and, 124;
+  Elakkos and Termit, 445, 446, 449
+
+  Veil, People of the, _see_ Tuareg.
+
+  Veil, the, 14-15, 41, 284, 286-90, 328; appearance of Tuareg without,
+  187; colour of, 117, 139-40; how put on, 287-8; Southerners adopt
+  practice of wearing, 41; theories concerning, 288-90; not worn by
+  women and slaves, 15, 140, 288
+
+  Venereal disease, 179-80
+
+  Vespasian, 322
+
+  Vesuvius, 242
+
+  Vicissitudes of Tuareg in Air, 401-16
+
+  Village organisations, effect of 1917 revolt on, 127-8, 338-9
+
+  Villagers, nomads’ lot envied by, 212
+
+  Villages, Central and North African type, 42, 43, 48, 87-90, 91;
+  Damergu, 48; Elakkos, 442, 443, 446; Tuareg, no factions in, 338
+
+  Viper, Sand, 227
+
+  Vizir, the, Agades, 106, 116
+
+  Vogel, Dr., 21
+
+  Volcanic origin of Saharan mountains, 2; phenomena in geology of Air,
+  33, 79, 81, 183, 215, 216
+
+  Volcano, Gheshwa, 241-2
+
+  Von Bary, Erwin, _see_ Bary.
+
+  Voulet, Captain, French expedition under, 25-6, 51
+
+
+  Wad Righ, 9
+
+  Wadai, 7, 334
+
+  Wadan, 325, 332 _n._[301]
+
+  Wadi el Shati, 354
+
+  Wadigi valley, 431
+
+  Wadigi, Kel, 431, 432, 437
+
+  Wahat, El, 6
+
+  “Wakili,” the Sultan’s, 106
+
+  Walad Delim, the, 344, 345 _n._[328], 358
+
+  Walata, 153, 175, 332, 404 _n._[419], 405
+
+  War of Famine, the, 414
+
+  Warfare, desert: raids distinct from, 190; small numbers involved
+  in, 11; Tuareg methods of, 236-7
+
+  Wargla, 9, 110, 335
+
+  Warrington, Colonel Hamer, 21
+
+  Warrington, Henry, 21
+
+  Water, native powers of abstinence from, 189, 208, 209, 210
+
+  “Water of the Horse,” 325-6
+
+  Water-skins, 232
+
+  Watering points: for salt caravans, 219; technique of raids and,
+  11, 188, 189; _see_ Wells.
+
+  Wati, Kel, 412-13
+
+  Wau el Harir, 336
+
+  Wau el Kebir, 6
+
+  Wau el Namus, 6
+
+  Wau el Seghir, 6
+
+  Wawat People of the West, 6
+
+  Weather superstitions, Tuareg, 295-6
+
+  Weathering, uneven in action, 321
+
+  Webster, G. W., 362 _n._[356]
+
+  Weights and measures, Air, 220-22
+
+  Welimmid (Aulimmiden), the, 357
+
+  Well, iron in, Ibn Batutah on, 453
+
+  Well, People of the Deep, 308
+
+  Wells, 7, 74-6, 80, 300; filled in during revolt, 59, 60, 451;
+  not poisoned in warfare, 236; silted up, 66, 72, 74
+
+    of Azawagh, 74-6, 80; of Elakkos, 445-6, 447; irrigation, 132-3;
+    attributed to the Itesan, 377, 378, 393; of Northern Air, 300;
+    origin and guardianship of, 74-5, 377, 378, 393
+
+  West, People of the, 129, 441
+
+  West and north, confusion of terms for, 244, 247
+
+  Western Negroland: Sanhaja dominant in, 404-5; occupied by Songhai,
+  409
+
+  Western Sahara, 3-4; caravan route to, 7; Sanhaja rulers of, 404, 405
+
+  Western Sudan, French expedition from, 25
+
+  Wheat: cultivation of, 131, 133; “kus-kus” made of, 157-8;
+  considered a luxury, 160
+
+  Wheeled transport, ancient use of, in Air, discussed, 318-19, 320,
+  321-2, 324
+
+  “White” and “Black” Tuareg, 139-40
+
+  White camels, 196
+
+  “White Nobles,” Tuareg term for British, 459
+
+  “White People,” the (Arab traders), 106, 404
+
+  “White People,” the (Kel Ahamellan), 352
+
+  Wild donkeys, 204
+
+  “Wild Men of Air,” the, 306-7
+
+  Wireless stations: Agades, 86; raiders handicapped by, 188
+
+  “Witnesses, The,” 260
+
+  Wives of Tuareg: male friends allowed to, 175-6; monogamy usual in
+  Air, 170, 171; purchase of, 177
+
+  Wolof language, 118
+
+  Women: Bardamah, 406, 452; Bororoji, 57; Hausa and Kanuri, 44;
+  Kel Owi, 180; Tegama, 54
+
+    Tuareg: general status of, 167-71, 272, 293; claimed as tribal
+    ancestresses or leaders, 398; in childbirth, 179; courage of,
+    169-70; descent traced through, 103-4, 148-53, 373, 398; divination
+    by, 281-2; dress of, 167, 172; eat with men, 174; education given
+    by, 173-4, 268, 400; faces of, painted, 173; fatness of, 118, 172,
+    406; forwardness of, 54, 118; household duties of, 174; industries
+    in hands of, 174, 227; male friends of, 175-6; marriage system,
+    170-71, 174, 175-6, 181, 196-7; noble, high standing of, 150, 151,
+    168, 169, 171, 172, 174; old, handsomeness of, 173; ornaments of,
+    283; as poets, 169, 173, 271, 272; property owned by, 168-9, 177,
+    293; in public life, 168, 169; salons held by, 272; spirits
+    supposed to attack, 279-81; veil not worn by, 15, 288; young, 172,
+    173, 174-5
+
+  World, roundness of, known to Tuareg, 266
+
+  Wounds, Tuareg treatment of, 201
+
+
+  Yellow ochre used as cosmetic, 173
+
+  Yemen, the, 341; early invasion from, 371
+
+  Yes, Quarter of, Ghat, 258
+
+  Yiti, Kel, 412
+
+  Youngest member of party made cook, 159
+
+  Youths, Tuareg, dress of, 289
+
+  Yunis, Sultan, 102, 103, 104, 463
+
+  Yusif (ben el Haj Ahmed ibn el Haj Abeshan), Sultan, 102 _n._[91],
+  103, 413, 464
+
+
+  Za Alayamin (el Yemani), Libyan dynasty of, 404
+
+  Za Yasebi, 408
+
+  Zakarkaran, the, 428
+
+  Zamfarawa, the, 391
+
+  Zanhaga, desert of, 332
+
+  Zanziga, the, 332, 333, 334, 343, 348
+
+  Zaria, type of houses of, 87
+
+  Zawzawa, 46, 145
+
+  Zegawa, the 343
+
+  Zegedan, Kel, 435
+
+  Zelim massif. 33; pool of, 317, 427
+
+  Zella, 374 _n._[389]
+
+  Zenega, the, 331
+
+  Zerumini, the, 433
+
+  Zibduwa, 412
+
+  Zilalet, 299, 431, 440; position of, 425
+
+  Zilalet, Kel, 384, 431, 440
+
+  Zinder, 42, 43-4, 49, 50, 51, 85, 189, 418; French garrison at,
+  85; Senussi “zawia” at, 49
+
+  Zinder-Chad, territory of, 50
+
+  Zinder-Fashi-Kawar road, 32
+
+  Zipta mountain, 327
+
+  Zuila (Cillala), 112, 323, 347
+
+  Zu’lhajja, 274
+
+  Zungu, 46
+
+  Zurbatan, the, 434
+
+  Zurika, position of, 425
+
+
+[Illustration: Map showing MR. FRANCIS RODD’S ROUTES in AÏR AND
+ADJACENT PARTS of FRENCH WEST AFRICA
+
+_Published by permission of the Royal Geographical Society._]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+
+  pg 76 Changed: _Crucifera thebaica_ to: _Cucifera_
+
+  pg 184, footnote 176, Changed: Plate 21 to: Plate 20
+
+  pg 220 Changed: gives undulys hort weight to: unduly short
+
+  pg 221 Changed: especially in measurng the to: measuring
+
+  pg 224 Changed: at one end pased over to: passed
+
+  pg 323 Changed: justify a futher advance to: further
+
+  pg 350, footnote 338, Changed all instances of: ʿ to: ’
+
+  pg 423 Changed: author’s meterological record to: meteorological
+
+  pg 435 Changed: abounding in in “dûm palms.” to: abounding in
+  “dûm palms.”
+
+  pg 442 Changed: in an expense of yellow sea to: expanse
+
+  pg 451 Changed: Bultum Babá to: Bullum
+
+  pg 457 Changed: authors have asumed that to: assumed
+
+  pg 460 Changed: del settrentrionale d’Africa to: settentrionale
+
+  pg 468 Changed: Oriental Translations Fund, 1941 to: 1841
+
+  pg 470 Changed: Agheláshem wells to: Aghelashem
+
+  pg 473 Changed: Aulimmiden, the, [. . .] inheritance system disliked
+  by, 153 to: 152
+
+  pg 487 Changed: Songhai atack on to: attack
+
+  Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently.
+
+  Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74774 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74774 ***</div>
+<div class="margins">
+<div class="transnote x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p class="center">Large-size versions of illustrations are
+available by clicking on them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="page">
+<p class="center space-above">PEOPLE OF THE VEIL</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<div class="page">
+<div class="container figcenter iwlogo"><img src="images/logo.png"
+alt="[Decoration]"></div>
+<p class="center vsmall space-above1">MACMILLAN AND CO.,
+<span class="sc">Limited</span><br>
+<span class="sc2">LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA . MADRAS<br>
+MELBOURNE</span></p>
+<p class="center vsmall">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br>
+<span class="sc2">NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO<br>
+DALLAS . SAN FRANCISCO</span></p>
+<p class="center vsmall">THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class=
+"sc">Ltd.</span><br>
+<span class="sc2">TORONTO</span></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 1</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw4">
+<figure id="i01"><a href="images/i01.jpg"><img src='images/i01.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AGELLAL VILLAGE AND MOUNTAINS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p class="ipubr">[<em>Frontispiece.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="title-page">
+<h1>PEOPLE OF THE VEIL</h1>
+<p class="center"><em>Being an Account of the Habits,
+Organisation<br>
+and History of the Wandering Tuareg Tribes<br>
+which inhabit the Mountains of Air or Asben<br>
+in the Central Sahara</em></p>
+<p class="center space-above2 spaced15"><span class=
+"small">BY</span><br>
+<span class="large word-spaced02">FRANCIS RENNELL RODD</span></p>
+<p class="center space-above2"><span class=
+"xxlarge letter-spaced01">ⵍⵆⵔⵗⵙ</span><br>
+<span class="vsmall">“NAUGHT BUT GOOD”</span></p>
+<p class="center small space-above2">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+<p class="publisher">MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED<br>
+ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON<br>
+1926</p>
+</div>
+<div class="page">
+<p class="center vsmall space-above">COPYRIGHT</p>
+<p class="center space-above tiny">PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span>PREFACE</h2>
+<p><span class="sc">This</span> book was originally intended to be
+an account of the people and mountains of Air in the Central
+Sahara, where I made a journey during most of 1922 with Angus
+Buchanan and T. A. Glover. The former had visited the area on a
+previous occasion and had described the people and places he had
+seen in his book, <em>Out of the World—North of Nigeria</em>. It
+therefore seemed more profitable to inquire into some of the
+problems surrounding the inhabitants of the Sahara whom we
+encountered, and thus deal with Air and its Tuareg population
+rather less objectively than had my fellow-traveller. In the course
+of the succeeding years, as I became more and more immersed in
+considering various scientific aspects of the Sahara, I came to the
+conclusion that neither had the Tuareg people nor had this vast
+area of the earth’s surface been at all adequately examined. Most
+studies had been objective and, as is unhappily the case with this
+book, confined to one area. A comprehensive account of the history
+and ethnology of the Sahara still requires to be written.</p>
+<p>As a consequence of these investigations, the present work
+assumed a form for which one journey of nine months in the
+countries concerned scarcely seems enough justification. That the
+book was not completed sooner has been due to the impossibility of
+spending any time continuously either in research or on writing
+during the three years which have elapsed since I returned. The
+fact that this book has been the occupation only of such spare time
+as I have had available accounts for its many conscious
+deficiencies, which are unfortunately not the more
+excusable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span> in a volume
+of the type which it purports to be. If I can feel that it will
+have served to stimulate the curiosity of students or have assisted
+them to find their way about the literature on the subject, I shall
+consider that as a reward calculated to enhance the pleasure which
+I have derived from writing and reading about this—to
+me—fascinating topic.</p>
+<p>It will be one of my lasting regrets that I was unable to
+complete with Angus Buchanan his journey across the Sahara from
+Nigeria to Algiers. The delays which we encountered in Air obliged
+me to return to resume my duties in that branch of H.M.’s Service
+in which I was then serving. This is not the place to mention the
+many things which I owe to Angus Buchanan; perhaps the greatest
+advantage I derived was the promise we gave one another to travel
+again together if an occasion should come to him and leisure from
+another profession to me, whereby we might be enabled to renew our
+companionship of the road. I am grateful to him for permission to
+use several of his photographs in the present volume as well as
+certain information which he collected when we were separately
+engaged on our different work.</p>
+<p>To T. A. Glover, the Cinematographer, whose services Angus
+Buchanan secured to accompany him, I owe many pleasant memories of
+days spent together and his excellent advice in taking most of the
+photographs which are included in this book.</p>
+<p>The French officers whom I encountered in the course of my
+wanderings were as charming and as friendly as perhaps, of all
+foreign nations, only Frenchmen know how to be. Were the relations
+between our respective countries always even remotely similar to
+those which subsisted between us, there would be no room for the
+suspicion and pettiness which so often mar diplomatic and political
+intercourse. The mutual confidence in which we lived is illustrated
+by two events.</p>
+<p>On a certain occasion in Air when news was received<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span> of a raid being about to fall
+on the country, I was honoured by receiving a communication from
+the French officer commanding the Fort at Agades, indicating the
+locality in his general scheme of defence whither I might lead on a
+reconnaissance an armed band of local Tuareg from the village in
+which I was then living by myself. On another occasion, after
+travelling for some hundreds of miles with a French Camel Corps
+patrol, the men were paraded and in their presence I was nominated
+an honorary serjeant of the “Peloton Méhariste de Guré,” a type of
+compliment which those associated with the French Army will best
+realise. It is to the officer commanding this unit, Henri Gramain
+of the French Colonial Army, that I owe the most perfect
+companionship I have ever had the fortune to experience. I know
+that when we meet again we shall resume conversation where we left
+off at Teshkar in the bushland of Elakkos, one evening in the
+summer of 1922. He and my other friends, Tuareg, British, French,
+Arab and Fulani contributed to make that year the happiest I have
+ever spent.</p>
+<p>No reader of the works of that great traveller, Dr. Heinrich
+Barth, will need to be told how much of the data collected in the
+succeeding pages has been culled from the monumental account of his
+<em>Travels in Central Africa</em>. This German, who most loyally
+served the British Crown in those far countries, is perhaps the
+greatest traveller there has ever been in Africa. His exploits were
+never advertised, so his fame has not been suffered to compete with
+the more sensational and journalistic enterprises accomplished
+since his day down to modern times. But no student will require to
+have his praises sung by any disciple.</p>
+<p>I have to thank the Royal Geographical Society for permission to
+use the map which was prepared for a paper I had the honour to read
+in 1923 before a meeting of the Fellows. More especially do I wish
+to thank E. A. Reeves, their Keeper of Maps, both for the
+instruction in surveying<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_viii">[viii]</span> which he gave me before my journey and
+for the assistance afforded after my return in checking and working
+up my results. My cartographic material in the form of road
+traverses, sketch maps based on astronomical positions, and
+theodolite computations are all in the Society’s library and
+available to students. A small collection of ethnographic material
+which I brought back is at Oxford in the Pitt Rivers Museum, to
+whose Curator, Henry Balfour, I am indebted both for advice and for
+plates Nos. 24-26, 37 and 42.</p>
+<p>H. R. Palmer, now H.M. Lieutenant-Governor of Northern Nigeria,
+and Messrs. Macmillan & Co. have given me permission to use a table
+of the Kings of Agades incorporated as Appendix VI. The list
+originally appeared <em>in extenso</em>, with the names somewhat
+differently spelled, in an article which he published in the
+<em>Journal of the African Society</em> in July 1910. The great
+learning and sympathetic help which he was good enough to put at my
+disposal have made me, in common with many others in Nigeria, in
+whose friendship my journey so richly rewarded me, hope that he may
+be induced to render more accessible to the public the immense fund
+of historical and other material which he has accumulated during
+his long career as a distinguished Colonial servant.</p>
+<p>The then Governor of Nigeria, Sir H. Clifford, and the French
+Ministry of Colonies earned the gratitude of Angus Buchanan and
+myself by their assistance on the road and in facilitating our
+journey.</p>
+<p>My brother-in-law, T. A. Emmet, was good enough to execute
+several drawings from rough sketches I had made on the spot. Two of
+these drawings are reproduced as plates Nos. 38 and 39.</p>
+<p>To three persons it is difficult for me to express my gratitude
+at all suitably. D. G. Hogarth read my manuscript and offered his
+invaluable advice regarding the final form of the book as it now
+appears. Many years’ association with him has led others beside
+myself to regard him in his wisdom as our spiritual godfather in
+things<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span> appertaining
+to the world of Islam. My father devoted many days and nights to
+correcting the final draft and proofs of this book. My brother
+Peter, when his versatile mind perceived certain improvements,
+rewrote Chapter XII after I had become so tired of the sight of my
+manuscript that I was on the verge of destroying the offensive
+object. I owe more to both these two than I can explain.</p>
+<p class="right pad-right2">F. R. R.</p>
+<p class="hang2 less"><em>New York,<br>
+31st December, 1925.</em></p>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span>CONTENTS</h2>
+<table class="toc">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col9">
+<col class="col1">
+<col class="col9"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr med">CHAPTER</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr med">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">I.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Introductory</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c01">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">II.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Southlands</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c02">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">III.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The City of Agades</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c03">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">IV.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Organisation of the Air
+Tuareg</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c04">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">V.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Social Conditions</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c05">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VI.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Mode of Life of the Nomads</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c06">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VII.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Trade and Occupations</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c07">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VIII.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Architecture and Art</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c08">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">IX.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Religion and Beliefs</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c09">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">X.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Northern Air and the Kel Owi</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c10">298</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XI.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Ancestry of the Tuareg of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c11">330</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XII.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The History of Air. Part I. The
+Migrations of the Tuareg to Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c12">360</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XIII.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The History of Air. Part II. The
+Vicissitudes of the Tuareg in Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c13">401</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XIV.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Valedictory</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#c14">417</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="decor width12">
+<table class="toc">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col9">
+<col class="col1">
+<col class="col9"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr med">APPENDIX</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr med">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">I.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">A List of the Astronomically
+Determined Points in Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app1">422</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">II.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Tribal Organisation of the Tuareg
+of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app2">426</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">III.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Elakkos and Termit</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app3">442</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">IV.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Ibn Batutah’s Journey</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app4">452</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">V.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">On the Root “MZGh” in Various Libyan
+Names</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app5">457</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VI.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">The Kings of the Tuareg of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app6">463</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VII.</td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Some Bibliographical Material used in
+this Book</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#app7">466</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="sc tdl-top hang1">Index</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#ind">469</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span>PLATES</h2>
+<table class="toi">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr med width3">PLATE</td>
+<td class="width2"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdr med"><em>Facing page</em></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Agellal Village and
+Mountains</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdr-bot med"><a href=
+"#i01"><em>Frontispiece</em></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">2.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Elattu</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i02">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">3.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Desert and Hills from
+Termit Peak</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i03">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">4.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diom in Elakkos</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i04a">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Punch and Judy Show</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i04b">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">5.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Gamram</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i05">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">6.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">River of Agades: Cliffs at
+Akaraq</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i06a">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Shrine at Akaraq</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i06b">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">7.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">River of Agades looking
+South from Tebehic in the Eghalgawen Massif</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i07a">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Eghalgawen Massif from
+Azawagh</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i07b">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">8.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tin Wana Pool</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i08a">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Rock of the Two Slaves, at
+the Junction of the Tin Wana and Eghalgawen Valleys</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i08b">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">9.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Agades</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i09">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">10.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Gathering at Sidi
+Hamada</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i10a">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Prayers at Sidi
+Hamada</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i10b">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">11.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Prayers at Sidi
+Hamada</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i11">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">12.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Omar: Amenokal of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i12">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">13.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Auderas Valley looking
+West</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i13a">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Auderas Valley: Aerwan
+Tidrak</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i13b">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">14.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mt. Todra from
+Auderas</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i14">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">15.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Grain Pots, Iferuan</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i15a">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Garden Wells</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i15b">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">16.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Auderas: Huts</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i16a">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Auderas: Tent-hut and
+Shelter</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i16b">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">17.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">The Author dressing a
+Wound at Auderas</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i17">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">18.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tekhmedin and the
+Author</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i18">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">19.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Bagezan Mountains and
+Towar Village</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i19">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xiv">[xiv]</span>20.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Huts at Towar showing
+Method of Construction</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i20a">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Timia Huts</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i20b">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">21.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Camel Brands</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i21">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">22.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Shield Ornamentation and
+Utensils</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i22">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">23.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Timia Gorge</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i23a">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Timia Gorge: Basalt and
+Granite Formations</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i23b">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">24.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tuareg Personal
+Equipment</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i24">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">25.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tuareg Camel
+Equipment</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i25">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">26.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tuareg Weapons</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i26">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">27.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">House Types</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i27">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">28.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">House Types</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i28">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">29.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Timia: “A” and “B” Type
+Houses and Hut Circles</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i29a">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tabello: Interior of “A”
+Type House</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i29b">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">30.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">House Interiors</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i30">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">31.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mosques</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i31">256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">32.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mosques</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i32">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">33.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tifinagh Alphabet</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i33">267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">34.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Rock Inscriptions in
+Tifinagh</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i34">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">35.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mt. Abattul and
+Village</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i35">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">36.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">The Cross in Ornament</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i36">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">37.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tuareg Personal
+Ornaments</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i37">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">38.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mt. Arwa</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i38">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">39.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mt. Aggata</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i39">300</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">40.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Rock Drawings</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i40">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">41.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Rock Drawings</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i41">306</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">42.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Ornamented Baggage
+Rests</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i42">310</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">43.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">T’intellust</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i43">312</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">44.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Barth’s Camp at
+T’intellust</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i44a">313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Barth’s Camp at
+T’intellust (another view)</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i44b">313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">45.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Assarara</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i45">326</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">46.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Fugda, Chief of Timia, and
+His Wakil</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i46a">352</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Atagoom</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i46b">352</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">47.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Sidi</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i47">366</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">48.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Eghalgawen Pool</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i48a">400</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Tizraet Pool</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i48b">400</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xv">[xv]</span>49.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Eghalgawen Valley and the
+Last Hills of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i49">414</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">50.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Mt. Bila at Sunset</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i50">419</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="tdc med"><em>Additional<br>
+Plate</em></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="width1">⎰<br>
+⎱</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Typical Tebu</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i51a">442</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Termit Peak and Well</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#i51b">442</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="6" class="tdc sect1">MAPS AND DIAGRAMS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr med">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Map showing the Trade
+Roads of North Africa</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map01">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diagrammatic Map showing
+the Drainage of the Central Sahara</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map02">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Map of Damergu and
+Neighbouring Parts: 1/2,000,000</td>
+<td class="width4 med no-wrap"><em>facing p.</em></td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map03">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Sketch Map of Air and the
+Divisions of the Southland</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map04">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diagram showing Tribal
+Descent among the Tuareg</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map05">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diagram showing the
+Government of the Air Tuareg</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map06">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Map showing Leo’s Saharan
+Areas</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map07">331</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diagram showing Ibn
+Khaldun’s Berber Tribes</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map08">341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Diagram showing the
+Migrations of the Air Tuareg</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map09">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Genealogy of Certain Kings
+of Air</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot"><a href="#map10">465</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="tdl-top hang1 sc">Map of Air and Adjacent
+Parts: 1/2,000,000</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot no-wrap"><a href="#map11"><em>At
+end</em></a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="decor width12">
+<p class="center small">NOTE</p>
+<p class="less"><span class="sc">The</span> general map at the end
+of the volume was prepared by the Royal Geographical Society from
+data collected by the author supplementing existing maps published
+in France and described in the text of the book. The two drawings
+(Plates 38 and 39) were executed in England by T. A. Emmet from
+sketches made in Air. Plates Nos. 2, 15 (lower), 34 are from
+photographs taken by Angus Buchanan. All the other maps, diagrams,
+pictures, and photographs were prepared by the author from material
+collected in 1922.</p>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</span>NOTE</h2>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> name “Air” is a dissyllable word:
+the vowels are pronounced as in Italian according to the general
+system of transliteration, which follows, wherever possible, the
+rules laid down by the Committee of the Royal Geographical Society
+on the Spelling of Proper Names. In the Tuareg form of Berber,
+<em>t</em> before <em>i</em> or similar vowel, especially in the
+feminine possessive particle “tin,” very often assumes a sound
+varying between a hard explosive <em>tch</em> and a soft liquid
+dental, such as is found in the English word “tune.” This
+modification of the sound <em>t</em> is written <em>t’</em>,
+wherever it is by usage sufficiently pronounced to be noticeable.
+The pronunciation of Tuareg words follows the Air dialect, which
+often differs from the northern speech. Letters are only accented
+where it is important to avoid mispronunciation, as in Fadé and
+Emilía: a final <em>e</em>, as in Assode, which is a trisyllable,
+should always be pronounced even if not accented.</p>
+<p>The nasal <em>n</em> occurring in such words as Añastafidet is
+written <em>ñ</em>.</p>
+<p>The <em>gh</em> (or Arabic غ, <em>ghen</em>) sound is, as in
+other Berber languages, very common in the speech of the Tuareg.
+The letter is so strongly <em>grasseyé</em> as to be
+indistinguishable, in many cases, from <em>r</em>. The French with
+greater logic write this sound <em>r</em> or <em>r’</em>. Doubtless
+many names which have been spelled with <em>r</em> in the
+succeeding pages should more correctly have been spelled with
+<em>gh</em>: such mistakes are due to the difficulties both of
+distinguishing the sound in speech, and of transcribing French
+transliterations.</p>
+<p>No attempt has been made to indicate the occurrence of the third
+<em>g</em> which exists in the Tuareg alphabet, in addition to the
+hard <em>g</em> and the soft <em>g</em> (written <em>j</em>).</p>
+<p>The Arabic letter ع (<em>’ain</em>) does not exist in the speech
+of the Tuareg; where they use an Arabic word containing this
+letter, they substitute for it the sound <em>gh</em>.</p>
+<p>No signs have been used to distinguish between the hard and soft
+varieties of the letters <em>d</em>, <em>t</em> and <em>z</em>. The
+“kef” (Iek) and “qaf” (Iaq) sounds are written <em>k</em> and
+<em>q</em>.</p>
+<hr class="chap">
+<p class="center xlarge bold word-spaced03 pb"><span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span><b>PEOPLE OF THE VEIL</b></p>
+<h2 class="nopb"><a id="c01"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<p class="sch">INTRODUCTORY</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Sahara</span> is the name given in modern
+geography to the whole of the interior of North Africa between the
+Nile Valley and the Atlantic littoral, south of the Mediterranean
+coastlands and north of the Equatorial belt. The word “Sahara” is
+derived from the Arabic, and its meaning refers to a certain type
+of stony desert in one particular area. There is no native name for
+the whole of this vast land surface: it is far too large to fall
+wholly within the cognisance of any one group of its diverse
+inhabitants. The fact that it is a Moslem area and sharply
+distinguished from the rest of Africa has made it desirable to find
+a better name than “Sahara” to include both the interior and the
+littoral, for even “Sahara,” unsatisfactory as it is, can only be
+used of the former. “Africa Minor” has been proposed, but the
+reception accorded to this name has not been so cordial as to
+warrant its use. The clumsy term “North Africa” must therefore
+serve in the following pages to describe all the northern part of
+the continent; specifically it refers to the parts west of the Nile
+Valley and north of the Sudan.<a id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It is an area which is now
+no longer permanently inhabited<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_2">[2]</span> by negro races, and which is not covered by the
+dense vegetation of Equatoria.</p>
+<p>To the general public the name Sahara denotes “Desert,” and the
+latter connotes sand and thirst and camels and picturesque men and
+veiled women. The Sahara in reality is very different. Its surface
+and races are varied. Almost every type of physical feature, except
+permanent glaciation, can be found. The greater part is capable of
+supporting animal and vegetable life in some degree. Absolute
+desert where no living thing can exist does not on the whole form a
+very large proportion of the surface. It has become usual nowadays
+to differentiate between the cultivated or cultivable areas, the
+steppe desert and the true desert. The latter alone is devoid of
+organic life, and is the exception rather than the rule. The
+mountain groups of the Sahara fall, as an intermediate category,
+between the cultivated and the desert lands. Generally speaking,
+animal and vegetable life exist in the valleys, where some tillage
+is often possible. The density of population, however, is never
+comparable with that of the cultivated districts, which, except
+where they fringe the coast, are usually included in the term
+“oases.”</p>
+<p>The mountain groups of the Sahara are numerous and comparatively
+high. There are summits in the more important massifs exceeding
+10,000 feet above the sea. The three most important groups in the
+Central Sahara are the Tibesti, Air and Ahaggar mountains. In such
+a generalisation, reference to the Atlas and other mountain masses
+in Algeria and Morocco may be omitted, since they do not properly
+speaking belong to the Sahara. The three Saharan massifs are
+probably of volcanic origin. They have only become known in recent
+years, and even now have not been fully explored. This is
+especially the case in regard to Tibesti, an area believed to be
+orographically connected with Air by the almost unknown plateau of
+the Southern Fezzan.</p>
+<p>The Central Sahara with these three groups of mountains differs
+materially from the Eastern Sahara. Although our<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> data for the latter are more
+limited by lack of knowledge, the structure of the surface
+immediately west of the Nile Valley appears characteristically to
+be a series of closed basins. The area is covered with depressions
+into which insignificant channels flow, and from which there appear
+to be no outlets. Compared with the river systems of the west, the
+stream beds are small and ill-defined. One valley of some
+magnitude, the Bahr Bela Ma which Rohlfs tried to find on his
+famous journeys in the Libyan desert, has been identified either as
+a dry channel of the Nile running roughly parallel to it, or
+alternatively as a valley which starts from N.E. Tibesti and
+terminates near or in the Wadi Natrun depression just west of the
+Nile and level with the apex of the Delta. The upper part which
+drains Tibesti has been called the W. Fardi; elsewhere it is the W.
+Fareg; the shallow depression crossed by Hassanein Bey on his
+journey from Jalo to Kufra seems to be part of this system.
+Examples of closed basins separated from one another by steppe or
+desert are the oases of Kufra, the Jaghbub-Siwa, Jalo and Lake Chad
+depressions. In these areas cultivation is frequently intense; salt
+and fresh water are abundant; and the vegetation sometimes develops
+luxuriantly into veritable forests of date palms such as exist at
+Kufra. Between these hollows the intervening Libyan desert is
+probably the largest and most sterile area of its sort in the
+world.</p>
+<p>The Western Sahara, on the other hand, is essentially an area of
+well-defined river systems with watersheds and dry beds fashioned
+on a vast scale. The valleys which extend from the mountains of
+Ahaggar and the Fezzan to the present River Niger have
+corresponding channels on the other side of the water-parting
+running through Southern Algeria or Tunisia towards the
+Mediterranean. There are good reasons for believing that the
+original course of the Niger terminated in a swamp or marsh north
+of Timbuctoo, probably the same collecting basin as that west of
+Ahaggar into which certain rivers from the Atlas also used to flow.
+The lower Niger from the eastern side of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_4">[4]</span> the great bend where the river now turns
+south-east and south drained the Central Sahara by a great channel
+which had its head-waters in Ahaggar and the Fezzan, and ran west
+of Air.</p>
+<p>These Saharan rivers have not contained perennial surface water
+for long ages. In places they have been covered by more recent
+sand-dune formations of great extension, but they date from the
+present geological period. Associated with the desiccation of these
+valleys is the characteristic of extreme dryness which is one of
+the few features more or less in accord with popular conceptions of
+the Sahara. The barrenness of the Sahara is less due to the
+inherent sterility of the ground than to climatic conditions;
+desiccation has been intensified in the course of centuries by the
+purely mechanical processes attendant upon an extremely continental
+climate and excessively high day temperatures. The latter combined
+with the extraordinary dryness of the air have contributed to the
+decay of vegetable, and consequently of animal, life wherever man
+has not been sufficiently powerful, in numbers or energy, to stay
+the process. Sterility and desiccation are interacting causes and
+effects. There is no reason to believe that any sudden change of
+climate has taken place in the Sahara since the neolithic period,
+or that it is very much drier now than two thousand years ago.
+Maximum and minimum temperatures, both average and absolute, have a
+very wide range seasonally and within the period of twenty-four
+hours. Temperatures of over 100° F. in the shade are common at all
+seasons of the year during the day: the thermometer frequently
+falls to freezing point at night during the winter. Ice is not
+unknown in the mountains of Tibesti, Air and Ahaggar. The rainfall
+is irregular except within the belt of summer rains which are so
+characteristic of Equatorial Africa. In Tibesti the cycle of good
+rains seems to recur once in thirteen years: in many years both
+here and elsewhere in the Sahara no rain falls at all. But with
+these adverse climatic conditions the surprising fact remains, not
+that the Sahara is so barren, but that it is<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_5">[5]</span> so relatively well-favoured and capable of
+supporting different races of people in such comparatively large
+numbers.<a id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class=
+"fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>The Air mountains, like the Desert steppes, are only sparsely
+inhabited. The hill-sides are too wind-swept and rocky to support
+forests or pastures of any value. Many of the valleys are capable
+of being cultivated, but in practice are only gardened here and
+there. In certain districts there are groves of date palms which
+have been imported from the north. Air is in reality a great
+Saharan oasis divided from the Equatorial belt by a zone of desert
+and steppe. It differs from the south in its flora and general
+conditions, though by its position within the belt of tropical
+summer rains it belongs climatically to the Sudan.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map01">
+<p class="cpm">TRADE ROADS</p>
+<a href="images/map01.jpg"><img src='images/map01.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<table class="width-full">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl ipub">F. R. del.</td>
+<td class="tdr ipub">Emery Walker Ltd. sc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>The oases of the desert, like the Sahara generally, have been
+the subject of much popular misconception. The<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_6">[6]</span> origin of the word “oasis,” which has
+reached us in its present form through the classics, may perhaps be
+found in ancient Egyptian. It seems to be connected with the name
+of the Wawat People of the West referred to in the Harris
+Papyrus,<a id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class=
+"fnanchor">[3]</a> and occurs in the names of Wau el Kebir and Wau
+el Seghir or el Namus, which are oases in the Eastern Fezzan.<a id=
+"FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The
+term El Wahat,<a id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class=
+"fnanchor">[5]</a> given to one or several of the oases west of the
+Nile Valley, contains the same root. An oasis is not necessarily a
+patch of ground with two or three palm trees and a well in the
+desert. It is simply an indefinite area of fertility in a barren
+land; it may or may not happen to have a well. There are oases in
+Southern Algeria and the Fezzan with hundreds of thousands of palm
+trees, containing many villages and a permanent population. There
+are others where the pasture is good but where there is neither
+population nor water. “Oasis” is a term with no strict denotation,
+it connotes attributes which render animal life possible.</p>
+<p>In this sense Air, as a whole, is an oasis situated on a great
+caravan road from the Mediterranean to Central Africa. The
+mountains so lie in respect of the desert to the north and to the
+south that caravan journeys may be broken in their valleys, and
+camels can stay to recuperate. The mountains mark a stage on the
+road, the importance of which it is difficult to over-estimate. In
+the history of North Africa, the principal routes across the Sahara
+from the Mediterranean to the Sudan have seemingly not changed at
+all. Since the earliest times they have followed the shortest
+tracks from north to south whenever there was sufficient water. If
+the Nile Valley and the routes in the desert adjacent thereto are
+left out of account as being <em>suorum generum</em>, there are
+four main caravan roads across North Africa from north to south.
+The easternmost runs from Cyrenaica by Kufra<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_7">[7]</span> to Wadai and Tibesti; only within the last
+century has it been rendered practicable for caravans by the
+provision of wells along the southern part, which was opened to
+heavy traffic by the Senussiya sect. The two central routes run
+respectively from Tripolitania by the Fezzan, Murzuk and Kawar to
+Lake Chad, and by Ghadames, Ghat and Air to the Central Sudan. The
+western route runs from Algeria and Morocco across the desert to
+Timbuctoo. In addition there is the Moroccan road, which roughly
+follows the curve of the coast to the Western Sudan and Senegal. Of
+all these the best known in modern times,<a id=
+"FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and
+culturally perhaps the most important, has been the Air road. It is
+noteworthy that all three central routes have been or are within
+the control of the Tuareg race. As the Tuareg were the caravan
+drivers of the Central Sahara, so were they also responsible for
+bringing a certain degree of civilisation from the Mediterranean to
+Equatorial Africa. That has been their greatest rôle in
+history.</p>
+<p>The object of this book is to describe a part of the Tuareg
+race, namely, those tribes which live in Air and in the country
+immediately to the south. It will not be possible to examine in any
+detail the theories surrounding the origin of the race, but certain
+definitions are necessary if the succeeding chapters are to be
+understood. The Berbers of North Africa, among whom are usually
+included the Tuareg, have very disputed origins; for many reasons
+it is perhaps best to follow the example of Herodotus and use the
+geographical term Libyans for them. Less controversy surrounds this
+name than “Berber,” which implies a number of wholly imaginary
+anthropological connections. Moreover, it is even open to doubt
+whether the Tuareg are Berbers at all, like the other people so
+called in Algeria and Morocco. In all this confusion it will be
+enough to grasp that the Tuareg are a Libyan people with marked
+individual peculiarities and that they were in North Africa long
+before the Arabs came. They have been there ever since the earliest
+times of which we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> have
+any historical record, though in more northern areas than those
+which they now occupy. The population of the Sahara is very diverse
+and the affinities of the various elements afford many interesting
+problems for study; but in the present work we shall be concerned
+with the one race alone.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg country may roughly be described as extending from
+the eastern edge of the Central Sahara, which is bounded by the
+Fezzan-Murzuk-Kawar-Lake Chad caravan road, to the far edge of the
+western deserts of North Africa before the Atlantic zone begins,
+and from Southern Algeria in the north to the Niger and the
+Equatorial belt between the river and Lake Chad in the south. The
+Tuareg are so little known even to-day that their very existence is
+almost legendary. It is with something of a thrill that the tourist
+in Tunis or Algiers learns from a mendacious guide that a poor Arab
+half-caste sitting muffled in a cloak is one of the fabled People
+of the Veil. It is long, in fact, since any of them have visited
+the Mediterranean coast, for they do not care for Europeans very
+much. Before the Italo-Turkish War, occasional Tuareg used to reach
+the coast at Tripoli at the end of the long caravan road from
+Central Africa; even then they more usually stopped at Ghadames or
+Murzuk. With the Italian occupation of Tripolitania in 1913 they
+became apprehensive of intrusion on their last unconquered area;
+but despite the Italian failure to occupy and administer the
+interior they have only lately ventured a certain way north once
+more on raids or for commerce.</p>
+<p>Though the Hornemann, Lyons and the Denham, Oudney and
+Clapperton expeditions in the first half of the last century
+touched the fringe of the Tuareg country, the first Europeans in
+modern times to come into contact with the Azger group in the
+Fezzan were Richardson in 1847 and Barth with Richardson in 1849
+and subsequent years. Barth, more particularly mentioned in the
+story of the penetration of Air, is in some respects even now the
+most valuable authority for all the Tuareg except the Ahaggaren.
+The first detailed work of value dedicated to the latter was that
+of Duveyrier,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> <em>Les
+Touareg du Nord</em>, published in 1864 after a journey through the
+Ahaggar and Azger country and the Fezzan. His systematic study of
+the ethnology of the Tuareg, his geographical work and his
+researches into the fauna, flora and ancient history of the lands
+he visited, were presented to the world in a form which has since
+been taken in France as the model of what a scientific book should
+be. Ill health was the tragedy of his life, for it prevented his
+return, and rendered him, as he remarked in later years, “an
+arm-chair explorer of the Sahara.” After visiting the Wad Righ and
+Shott countries in Southern Tunisia, he went to El Golea on the
+road to Tuat and thence turned towards Ghadames and Tripolitania.
+He eventually reached Ghat, and returned to the Mediterranean coast
+by Murzuk and Sokna, taking a more easterly road than Barth’s in
+1850. Beurmann in 1862, and Dickson ten years previously, had
+reached the edge of the same Tuareg country, but what Barth had
+done for the Tuareg of Air and the south, Duveyrier did for the
+Ahaggaren and Azger.</p>
+<p>In 1881, twenty years after the expedition of Burin to Tuat, the
+French determined to penetrate the countries of this fabled race. A
+column under Colonel Flatters, who had already gained a certain
+reputation in France as a Saharan explorer, marched almost due
+south from Wargla and Tuggurt in the eastern part of Southern
+Algeria up the Ighaghar basin and so reached the north-eastern
+corner of the Ahaggar country. This valley is the drainage system
+of the north central Sahara towards the Mediterranean; it virtually
+divides the old Azger country from that of the Ahaggaren. Near the
+Aghelashem Wells at the intersection of the valley with the
+Ghat-Insalah road, Flatters turned S.E., intending apparently to
+follow the Ghat-Air caravan road to the Sudan. This track he
+proposed joining at or near the wells of Issala, and then to
+proceed by much the same route as that which Barth and his
+companions had selected in 1850. But at Bir Gharama in the Tin
+Tarabin valley, a few days before it was due to reach Issala,
+disaster overtook<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> the
+column. The European officers, who assumed that their penetration
+of the Tuareg country was welcome to the inhabitants, had taken
+none of the military precautions necessary in hostile country. The
+vital part of the expedition, the officer commanding and his staff,
+left camp to reconnoitre a well and became separated from their
+troops, consisting of about eighty Algerian tirailleurs. The
+officers were attacked by the Tuareg and killed. After the death of
+Colonel Flatters and Captain Masson, the remainder of the column
+under Captain Dianous made an attempt to escape north. After an
+unsuccessful effort by the Tuareg to destroy the party by selling
+the men dates poisoned with the Alfalehle plant (<i>Hyoscyamus
+Falezlez</i>),<a id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class=
+"fnanchor">[7]</a> the column reached the Ighaghar once more at the
+wells of Amjid. But they found the wells occupied by the enemy, and
+in the ensuing fight Captain Dianous and nearly all his men were
+killed.</p>
+<p>The circumstances of the disaster, so vividly recounted by
+Duveyrier to the Paris Geographical Society on 22nd April, 1881,
+had followed the publication of his account of a people whom he had
+described picturesquely, but with some exaggeration, as the
+“Knights of the Desert.” The massacre created a profound impression
+in France. The Tuareg came to be regarded as an insurmountable
+obstacle to the French penetration of North Africa, and expeditions
+into their country were discontinued. The disaster of Bir Gharama
+remained unavenged until 1902, when a detachment of Camel Corps
+under Lieut. Cottonest met the pick of the Ahaggar Tuareg in battle
+at Tit within their own mountains and killed 93 men out of 299
+present, the French patrol losing only 4 killed and 2 wounded out
+of 120 native soldiers and Arab scouts. Despite the small numbers
+involved, the fight at Tit broke the resistance of Ahaggar, for it
+proved the vanity of matching a few old flintlocks and spears and
+swords against magazine rifles.<a id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> But if it
+demonstrated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> the
+futility of overt resistance, it also established for all time the
+courage of the camel riders of the desert, who hurled themselves
+against a barrier of rifle fire, unprotected by primeval forest or
+sheltering jungle, in order to maintain their age-long defiance of
+the mastery of foreign people.</p>
+<p>Considering the magnitude of the results they achieve, Saharan,
+like Arabian, battles involve surprisingly small numbers. The size
+of armed bodies moving over the desert is limited by the capacity
+of the wells; the output of water not only regulates the mass of
+raiding bands, but also determines their strategy, as well as the
+routes of trading caravans, which are compelled to move in large
+bodies in order to ensure even a small measure of protection. Only
+the realisation of this rather self-evident fact enabled the French
+in the course of years to deal with raiders in Southern Algeria by
+organising Camel Corps patrols of relatively small size and great
+mobility. The privations which these raiders are willing to endure
+made it impossible to fight them with a European establishment.</p>
+<p>The necessity of imitating the nomad in his mode of life and
+warfare became obvious to Laperrine from his first sojourn in
+Southern Algeria, where he made his career as the greatest European
+desert leader in history with one solitary exception. The encounter
+of Tit was followed by a number of “Tournées d’Apprivoisement,”
+patrols to “tame” the desert folk, initiated by Laperrine, and
+culminating in 1904 in a protracted reconnaissance through Ahaggar,
+which brought about a final pacification. Charles de Foucauld,
+soldier, traveller and monk, had accompanied the patrol. He
+remained on after it was over as a hermit and student among the
+Ahaggaren until his death in 1916. He had been Laperrine’s brother
+officer at St. Cyr. Extravagant, reckless and endowed with all the
+good things of the world, a member of the old French aristocracy in
+a smart cavalry regiment, the Marquis de Foucauld is one of the
+most picturesque figures of modern times. After a memorable
+reconnaissance of Morocco in 1883-4, disguised as a
+Jew,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> he became a
+Trappist monk, and eventually entered a retreat at Beni Abbes, in
+the desert that he loved too well to leave in all his life. During
+his years in Ahaggar as a teacher of the Word of God he made no
+converts to Christianity, but sought by his example alone to lead
+the people along the way of Truth. It is to be hoped that, in spite
+of a modesty which precluded it during his lifetime, the knowledge
+and lore of the Tuareg which he collected in the form of notes will
+eventually be given to the world in order to supplement his
+dictionary of the Ahaggar dialect, to-day the standard work on
+their language, which is called Temajegh.<a id=
+"FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+<p>To implement the Laperrine policy of long reconnaissances, a
+post was built near Tamanghasset in Ahaggar called Fort Motylinski,
+after an officer interpreter who was one of the first practical
+students of Temajegh. Lately the post has been moved to
+Tamanghasset itself, where Father de Foucauld had built his
+hermitage, and it is now called Fort Laperrine, in memory of the
+great soldier who was killed flying across the desert to Timbuctoo
+in 1919.</p>
+<p>Another post was built at Janet not far from Ghat, to watch the
+Azger Tuareg. Its capture during the late war by the Arabs and
+Tuareg of Ghat, and the killing of Father de Foucauld by a raiding
+party from the Fezzan, are incidents in that same series of
+intrigues which were instigated in North Africa by the Central
+Empires and carried on with such success in the Western Desert of
+Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Southern Algeria and as far afield
+as Air. If the Senussi leaders have not been responsible for as
+many intrigues as it has been the fashion to ascribe to this
+puritanical and perhaps fanatical sect, the Germans at least
+discovered what others are still learning, that the latent force of
+nationalism in North Africa among the ancient Libyan and
+Arab-Libyan peoples is powerful still to-day. The spirit of the
+Circumcelliones and of the opponents of Islam in the
+eighth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> century was
+exploited by the Turks and Germans through the Senussiya, which
+provided the only organisation available during the Great War,
+though in fact only few Tuareg and Arabs at Ghat or in the Fezzan
+were members of, or even friendly to, the sect. These people used
+the opportunity afforded by the war to procure arms and material
+through the Senussiya for the consummation of their own ambitions.
+The new spirit which is abroad in Islam, in Africa as well as in
+Asia, is an interesting subject of study for the practical
+politician. There is no occasion to enlarge upon it here.</p>
+<p>In consequence of these agitations, a raid came out of the east
+and fell upon Father de Foucauld’s hermitage on the 1st December,
+1916. The hermit was killed, but the raiders were not of the
+Ahaggaren among whom he had lived, and to whom he had devoted his
+life; they came from Ghat and the Fezzan. They probably started
+without intent to murder, but because Charles de Foucauld was the
+greatest European influence in the desert at that time, they
+desired to remove him and perhaps to hold him as a hostage. In
+justice it must be admitted that no one had any illusions regarding
+the political views of the people of the Fezzan; they were in a
+state of open warfare with the French posts in Southern Algeria. De
+Foucauld had played a very great part against them in preventing
+the Ahaggaren rising <em>en masse</em> against the French; he was
+an important intelligence centre for the neighbouring Fort
+Motilynski; he was apparently, well provided with rifles in his
+hermitage. When surprised by the raid, he disdained to fight,
+preferring to fall a martyr to his religion and his country. My
+excuse, if any is needed, for touching on a subject tending to be
+controversial is the appearance of a number of mis-statements
+concerning the barbarity of his murder and the treachery of the
+people to whom Father de Foucauld had devoted the latter part of
+his life. It is well to remember, in the first place, that the
+circumstances of his life and his prestige made the attack a
+justifiable act of war, for he played a definitely political rôle;
+secondly, that there was<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_14">[14]</span> no treachery or betrayal; and lastly, that
+his aggressors were a mixed band of Arabs and of Tuareg from
+another part of the Sahara which had, for generations past, been on
+terms of raid and counter-raid with the people of Ahaggar.</p>
+<p>When all has been said of the European penetration of the Tuareg
+country, it is not very much. The world outside the society of
+those white men who, during the last fifty years, have spent their
+lives in the Sahara, can know but little of this race or of their
+country. The modern literature on the subject is small, even in
+French; in English it is almost non-existent. On the Tuareg of Air
+there are only two works of any value: the one by a French officer
+is recent in date and sadly superficial;<a id=
+"FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+the other is incorporated in H. Barth’s account of the British
+expedition of 1849 and subsequent years to Central Africa.<a id=
+"FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+There are a few other works in French about the Tuareg of the north
+and south-west, but I am not aware that anyone has attempted a
+general study of the whole people, who have been rather neglected
+by science. The principal object of this volume will have been
+achieved if it in any measure fills a want in English records or if
+it arouses sufficient controversy to induce others to undertake a
+thorough investigation of the race.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg are not a tribe but a people. The name “Tuareg” is
+not their own: it is a term of opprobrium applied to them by their
+enemies, and connotes certain peculiarities possessed by a number
+of tribal confederations which have no common name for themselves
+as a race. The men of this people, after reaching a certain age,
+wear a strip of thin cloth wound around their heads in such a
+manner as to form a hood over the eyes and a covering over the
+mouth and nostrils. Only a narrow slit is left open for the eyes,
+and no other part of the face is visible. From this practice they
+became known to the Arabs as the “Muleththemin”<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> or “Veiled People,”<a id=
+"FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+while they themselves, in default of a national name, are in the
+habit of using the same locution in their own tongue to describe
+the whole society of different castes which compose their
+community. Whatever the social position of the men, the Veil is
+invariably worn by day and by night,<a id=
+"FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+while the women go unveiled. Few races are more rigidly observant
+of social distinction between noble and servile tribes; none holds
+to a tradition of dress with more ritual conservatism.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 2</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw7">
+<figure id="i02"><a href="images/i02.jpg"><img src='images/i02.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ELATTU</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The larger divisions of Tuareg have names by which they are
+known to themselves and to their neighbours: these names designate
+the historical or geographical groupings of tribes. In each group
+of tribes the existence of nobles and serfs is recognised; there
+are appropriate terms to describe these social distinctions. The
+nobles are called Imajeghan;<a id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> the servile people,
+Imghad. But no name other than Kel Tagilmus,<a id=
+"FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+the “People of the Veil,” exists to describe the society of nobles
+and serfs alike, irrespective of group or caste. These details will
+require fuller examination in due course, but it is important to
+realise immediately that the name Tuareg<a id=
+"FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+is unknown in their own language and is only used of them by Arabs
+and other foreigners. It has, however, been so universally adopted
+by everyone who has had to do with them or who has written of them
+that, although not strictly accurate, it would be pedantic not to
+continue using it. The Tuareg all speak the same language, called
+Temajegh, which varies only dialectically from group to group. They
+have a peculiar form of script, known as T’ifinagh, which also is
+practically identical in all the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_16">[16]</span> divisions of the Tuareg, but is apparently
+not used by other peoples. Lastly, the Tuareg are nomads by
+instinct and, save where much intermarriage has taken place, of the
+same racial type. The conquest of foreign elements in war and their
+assimilation into servile tribes have, in the course of time, led
+to some modification of physique and a growth of sedentarism in
+certain areas. As a whole, however, the nation has survived in a
+fairly pure state which is readily distinguishable. There is, I
+think, no justification for considering the People of the Veil a
+large tribal group of Berbers in North Africa; they are a separate
+race with marked peculiarities, distinct from other sections of the
+latter, and, as I believe, of a different origin.</p>
+<p>They formerly extended further west almost to the sea-board of
+the Atlantic; their northern and eastern extension can also be
+deduced from what is known of their migrations. Their neighbours to
+the south are the negroid Kanuri, Hausa-speaking peoples,<a id=
+"FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+and the Fulani; to the east are the Tebu, and in the west the Arab
+and Moorish tribes; finally, in the north the nomadic and sedentary
+Arabs and sedentary Libyans of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania.
+The N.E. corner of Tuareg territory, the Fezzan, is ethnically of
+such mixed population as to admit of no summary classification;
+Arab, Libyan, Tebu and negroid peoples are all inextricably mingled
+together. The Tuareg wander as nomads over the country generally,
+the negroes and sedentary Libyans till the ground, and, in addition
+to a proportion of all those already enumerated, the towns are
+inhabited by yet another people of noble origin, whose connection
+with the ancient Garamantes of classical authors may be assumed if
+it cannot be proved. With the exception of the Fezzan the Tuareg
+are now predominant within their own country. It includes two great
+groups of mountains, Air and Ahaggar, together with certain smaller
+adjacent massifs.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>It is
+unfortunately not possible to deal with Air in history nor with the
+Tuareg of Air, by considering the mountains and their inhabitants
+alone. The migrations of the Tuareg of Air have been so intimately
+connected with that part of the Sudan which we now call Nigeria
+that the northern fringe of the area and the country intervening
+between it and Air must receive attention. This intervening steppe
+and desert, largely overrun by Tuareg, lie on the way which I
+followed to reach the mountains. The neglect to which these areas
+have been subjected justifies me in devoting a chapter to them
+before coming to Air itself. Again, the concluding chapters of this
+volume will deal as much with the Southland as they do with Air,
+for the history of the latter cannot be divorced from that of the
+former.</p>
+<p>Since mention will be continually made of the various Tuareg
+groups as they exist to-day, and of the tribes which they contain,
+it will be as well to explain that there are to-day four principal
+divisions of the people, all of whom possess characteristics common
+and peculiar to the whole race.</p>
+<p>The main groups are:—</p>
+<table class="tab-p" id="t017">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top tab-p">1.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The People of Ahaggar, called Ahaggaren,
+or Kel Ahaggar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top tab-p">2.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Azjer, or Azger Tuareg; this name is
+also spelt Askar, Adjeur, etc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top tab-p">3.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The People of Air called the Kel Air, or,
+in the Hausa language which is current in that country, Asbenawa or
+Absenawa, from Asben, Azbin or Absen, the Sudanese name for
+Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top tab-p">4.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Tuareg of the south-west.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The first group is held for convenience to include the Tuareg in
+the Ahnet mountains, the Taitoq, and those north-west of the
+Ahaggar mountains. The second group is comparatively compact. The
+third group is the one with which this volume deals in detail, and
+includes the Kel Geres and other Tuareg generally of the Southland,
+in and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> on the fringes
+of Nigeria. The fourth group should more properly be divided, as it
+comprises the distinct aggregations of the Aulimmiden, the Ifoghas
+of the Mountain (Ifoghas n’Adghar),<a id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and the Tuareg of
+Timbuctoo and the Niger.</p>
+<p>The country of the Ahaggaren proper is confined to the Ahaggar
+massif, but there are certain outlying districts to the north and
+north-west. The confused mass of hills east of Ahaggar towards the
+Fezzan was, at the beginning of the century, essentially the
+country of the Azger. In recent years they have tended to move
+eastwards towards their original homes and away from the influence
+of the French military posts. The majority of this group now ranges
+over the country between Ghat and Murzuk. They are the Tuareg who
+have come least into contact with Europeans. Although there is
+considerable affinity between them and the Ahaggaren, the Tuareg
+generally recognise that the Azger do not belong to, or are under
+the rule of, the Ahaggar chieftains despite the fact that they are
+all collectively known in Air as Ahaggaren. Those travellers who
+have known them are at one in considering them to-day an
+independent division. From the historical point of view the Azger
+are the most important of all the Tuareg, since from this group,
+reduced in numbers as it now is, most of the migrations of the race
+to the Southlands seem to have taken place. They are also probably
+to-day the purest of the Tuareg stock in existence.</p>
+<p>The first description of Air and its people in any detail was
+brought back to Europe by Barth after his memorable journey from
+the Mediterranean to the Sudan, on which he set out in 1849 with
+Richardson and Overweg, but from which he alone returned alive more
+than five years later. Prior to this journey there are certain
+references in Ibn Batutah and Leo Africanus, but they do not give
+us much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> information
+either of the country or of the people. From Ibn Batutah’s
+description, the country he traversed is recognisable, but the
+information is meagre. The account of Leo Africanus written in the
+sixteenth century is little better. His principal contribution, in
+the English and original Italian versions, is a bad pun: “Likewise
+Hair (Air), albeit a desert, yet so called for the goodness and
+temperature of the aire. . . .”<a id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It is an observation, in
+fact, of great truth, but hardly more useful than his other
+statement, which records that the “soyle aboundeth with all kinds
+of herbes,” in apparent contradiction with the previous remark. He
+adds that “a great store of manna” is found not far from Agades
+which the people “gather in certaine little vessels, carrying it,
+when it is new, into the market of the town to be mingled with
+water as a refreshing drink”—an allusion probably to the “pura” or
+“ghussub” water made of millet meal, water and milk or cheese. He
+states that the country is inhabited by the “Targa” people, and as
+he mentions Agades, it had evidently by then been founded, but
+beyond these facts his description is wholly inadequate. He
+unfortunately even forgets to mention that Air is mountainous.</p>
+<p>Although the European penetration of the Western Sahara may date
+from the Middle Ages, the same cannot be said of Air. Caillé in
+1828 was, in fact, not the first European to visit and describe
+Timbuctoo, nor was Rohlfs in 1864 the first European in Tuat. There
+are some very interesting earlier accounts which are gradually
+being unearthed<a id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20"
+class="fnanchor">[20]</a> dealing with these countries. It is
+regrettable that there are apparently no similar accounts of
+Air.<a id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class=
+"fnanchor">[21]</a> The first information of any value is found
+only in comparatively recent times. Hornemann<a id=
+"FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+in 1798 travelled from Egypt along<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_20">[20]</span> the Haj Road which runs from Timbuctoo to
+Cairo. He turned back at Murzuk, but had he continued he would have
+come to Ghat and eventually to Air. He nevertheless brought back
+the first modern account of the Tuareg of this country, or rather
+of a section of them, the Kel Owi, whom he calls the Kolouvey. His
+information about the Ahaggaren and about the divisions of the
+Tebu, who lived east and north-east beyond the limits of the
+country which they now occupy, is worth examining in connection
+with their ethnological history. After Hornemann’s journey Denham,
+Oudney and Clapperton<a id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23"
+class="fnanchor">[23]</a> collected some further details about Air
+and its people in the course of an expedition to Chad and Nigeria
+at the beginning of the last century, and in 1845 Richardson began
+a systematic study of the Azger and Air Tuareg during a preliminary
+journey to the Fezzan. But none of these travellers had the
+first-hand personal experience which, five years afterwards, Barth,
+Richardson and Overweg obtained on their expedition.</p>
+<p>The part played by Great Britain in the exploration of the
+Central Sahara, testified to by the graves of many Englishmen or
+foreigners in the service of the British Crown, is little known in
+this country. Our efforts to abolish the slave trade in Africa and
+our paramount position in Tripolitania early in the last century
+led to that initiative being taken, to which the world even to-day
+owes most of its knowledge of the Fezzan, and which opened the
+Sudan to commerce and colonisation. While Richardson was apparently
+the first and only Englishman to visit Air until my travelling
+companion, Angus Buchanan, went there from Nigeria in 1919, the
+graves of explorers in neighbouring lands show that we stand second
+to none in geographical work in the Central Sahara. It was only
+when, in the partition of North Africa, this vast area fell to the
+French, that there was any falling off in the numbers of Englishmen
+who in each successive decade travelled and died there. Their work
+deserves to be better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>
+known: Henry Warrington died of dysentery at the desert well of
+Dibbela, south of Bilma in Kawar, on his way to Lake Chad with a
+German, Dr. Vogel. Dr. Oudney died on 5th January, 1824, at Murmur
+near Hadeija (Northern Nigeria), after accompanying Clapperton and
+Denham from Tripoli by way of Bilma and Chad to explore Bornu.
+Tyrwhit, who went out to join them, died at Kuka on Lake Chad, on
+22nd October, 1824. Barth’s companion Richardson died in the early
+part of 1851 at N’Gurutawa in Manga, S. of Zinder, and their
+companion Overweg succumbed near Lake Chad. Both Barth and Overweg
+were Germans who had volunteered and were appointed to serve on an
+expedition sent by Her Majesty’s Government to explore Central
+Africa and to report on the abolition of the slave trade. Dr.
+Vogel, another German, who had been sent by Her Majesty’s
+Government to join Barth and complete his work, died near Lake Chad
+after his return, while an assistant, Corporal MacGuire, was killed
+on his way home at Beduaram, N. of Bilma, in the same year. Of
+those who had opened the way for the Clapperton expeditions,
+Ritchie had died of disease in 1819 at Murzuk and Lyon had been
+obliged to turn back before reaching Bornu. Clapperton himself on a
+second journey lost his life at Sokoto on 13th April, 1827. North
+Africa has claimed her British victims no less than the swamps and
+jungles of Equatoria, only they are not so well known, for they
+never sought to advertise their achievements.</p>
+<p>Few people in this country or abroad realise how great was the
+influence of Great Britain in the Sahara during the lifetime and
+after the death of that remarkable man, Colonel Hamer Warrington,
+H.M. Consul at Tripoli from 1814 to 1846. Apart from the fact that
+he virtually governed Tripoli, our influence and interests may be
+gauged by the existence of Vice-Consulates and Consulates, not only
+along the coast at Khoms and Misurata, but far in the interior at
+Ghadames and Murzuk. The peregrinations of numerous travellers and
+efforts to suppress the African slave trade had<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> obliged Her Majesty’s Government
+to play a part in local tribal politics, for it had early become
+clear that if this abominable traffic was to be abolished the
+sources of supply would have to be controlled, since it proved
+useless only to make representations on the coast where caravans
+discharged their human cargo. At one moment it even seemed as if
+Tripolitania would be added to the British Empire, and as lately as
+1870 travellers were still talking of the French and British
+factions among the Fezzanian tribes. But Free Trade and other
+political controversies in England half-way through the century
+brought about a pause, and the arrest was enough to withdraw public
+interest from North Africa and to give France her chance. The
+controversies were the object of much bitter criticism by the
+idealist Richardson, who saw political dialectics obscuring a
+crusade on behalf of humanity for which he was destined to give his
+life. He seems to have been profoundly affected and to have
+suffered himself to become warped, as Barth on more than one
+occasion discovered.<a id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24"
+class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The inevitable consequence of a British
+occupation of Tripolitania would have been the active penetration
+of the Air and Chad roads and a junction with the explorers and
+merchants who were working north from the Bight of Benin. But
+French interest in North Africa as a consequence of their
+occupation of Algeria grew progressively stronger as it declined in
+this country, while to the same waning appetite must be ascribed
+the fact that for seventy years no Englishman visited Air.
+Regrettable as this may appear to geographers, it is even more
+tragic to realise how few have heard of the German, Dr. Heinrich
+Barth, than whom it may be said there never has been a more
+courageous or meticulously accurate explorer. After several notable
+journeys further north he accompanied Richardson as a volunteer,
+and on the latter’s death continued the exploration of Africa for
+another four years on behalf of Her Majesty’s Government, which he
+most loyally served.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>
+If in this volume he is repeatedly mentioned, it is without
+misgiving or apology; it may help in some little measure to rescue
+his name from unmerited oblivion in these days of sensational and
+superficial books of travel. The account of his journey and of the
+lore and history of the countries of Central Africa which he
+visited from Timbuctoo to Lake Chad is still a standard work.</p>
+<p>Barth and his companions entered Air in August 1850, and left
+the country for the south in the closing days of the same year.
+Reaching Asiu from Ghat, they traversed the northern mountains of
+Air, which are known to the Tuareg as Fadé.<a id=
+"FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+After passing by the wells in the T’iyut valley and the “agilman”
+(pool) of Taghazit, they camped eight days later on the northern
+outskirts of Air proper. During this period their caravan was
+subjected to constant threats of brigandage from parties of
+northern Tuareg, and on the day before reaching the first permanent
+habitations of Air in the Ighazar near Seliufet village, they again
+narrowly escaped aggression from the local inhabitants. An attack
+was eventually made on them at T’intaghoda, a little further on,
+and they only just escaped with their lives after losing a good
+deal of property. The same experience was repeated near
+T’intellust, where the expedition had established its head-quarters
+in the great valley which drains the N.E. side of the Air
+mountains. When, however, they had once made friends with that
+remarkable personality, Annur, chief of the Kel Owi tribal
+confederation, and paramount chief of Air, they were free from
+further molestation, and thanks to him eventually they reached the
+Sudan in safety. From T’intellust Barth made a journey alone to
+Agades by a road running west of the central Bagezan mountains.
+After his return the whole party moved to the Southland along the
+great Tripoli-Sudan trade route which passes east of the Central
+massifs. Crossing the southern part of Air known as Tegama they
+entered Damergu, which geographically belongs to the Sudan, about
+New Year’s Day, 1851. In the course of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_24">[24]</span> his stay in Air Barth made the first sketch
+map of the country, catalogued the principal tribes and compiled a
+summary of their history which is still the most valuable
+contribution which we possess on the subject.</p>
+<p>Some twenty-seven years later, another German, Erwin von Bary,
+reached Air from the north by much the same road as that which
+Barth and his companions had followed. He left Ghat in January 1897
+and reached the villages of Northern Air a month later. Thence he
+journeyed to the village of Ajiru, a village on the eastern slopes
+of the central mountains, and awaited the return from a raid of
+Belkho, the chieftain who had succeeded Barth’s friend Annur as
+paramount lord of the country. The unfortunate von Bary was
+subjected to every form of extortion, and though Belkho, when he
+returned, compelled his people to restore what they had stolen, the
+chief himself made life unpleasant for the traveller by taking all
+his presents and doing nothing for him in return so long as he
+showed any desire to proceed on his journey southwards. Belkho
+pleaded such poverty that the explorer nearly died of starvation,
+but von Bary admittedly had laid himself open to every form of
+abuse. He had arrived almost penniless, did not understand the
+courtesies of desert travelling, and seems to have placed undue
+reliance on his skill as a doctor to achieve his objects. But when
+he eventually gave up the idea of going on to the Sudan, Belkho
+treated him well. Although von Bary’s opinion of the Tuareg of Air
+is not favourable, in reality he owed them a great debt of
+gratitude. No other people who dislike foreigners so much as they
+do would have protected him and helped him as they finally did. His
+quarrels with Belkho seem to have been in part due to his own
+tactlessness and discourtesy, and in part to his inability to
+realise that the chief, for political reasons, did not desire him
+to go to the Sudan. Von Bary returned to Ghat, meaning to try once
+more to reach Nigeria as soon as he had picked up his stores and
+some more money, but his diary ends abruptly with the remark that
+he would be ready to start south again<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_25">[25]</span> from there in fifteen to twenty days. He died
+within twenty-four hours of reaching Ghat, on 3rd October, 1877. He
+had spent a cheerful evening with Kaimakam,<a id=
+"FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+and had gone to bed; at 6 a.m. he was breathing peacefully asleep;
+by ten o’clock he was dead. His death does not seem to have been
+quite natural. It remains one of the mysteries of the Sahara. Von
+Bary’s account of Air<a id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27"
+class="fnanchor">[27]</a> is very incomplete and his observations
+are coloured by the hardships which he suffered. With the exception
+of certain botanical information and notes on one or two
+ethnological points, his descriptions contain little that had not
+already been made known by Barth.</p>
+<p>Then began that competition among European Powers for African
+colonies which was soon to reach a critical stage. The Anglo-German
+Convention of 1890 had proposed to divide Africa finally, but
+before that date the French had seen one desirable part after the
+other fall to our lot. They determined before it was too late to
+take as much as possible of what still remained unallocated.
+Central Africa, east of Lake Chad, certain tracts of indifferent
+country on the western coast and the greater part of the Sahara
+were still unclaimed by any European Power. And so it was that in
+France the magnificent scheme was conceived of sending three
+columns from north, west and south to converge on Lake Chad, and
+formally to take possession of the lands through which they passed
+in accordance with the stipulations of the Congress of Berlin,
+where it had been laid down that territorial claims were only valid
+if substantiated by effective occupation. It was not till 1899,
+however, that the French plans reached maturity. Three expeditions
+duly set out from the Congo, the Western Sudan and Algeria to cross
+Africa and meet on Lake Chad. Their adventures constitute one of
+the most romantic chapters in Colonial history. The western column,
+at first under Captain Voulet,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_26">[26]</span> who was accompanied by Lieut. Chanoine and
+others, marched from the Niger along the northern edge of the
+Nigerian Emirates. Mutiny and murder among the European personnel
+were experienced. French politics at home, where the Jewish
+question had become acute, were responsible for all manner of
+delays; the command changed hands repeatedly. But the northern
+column and the Congo party were equally delayed; not until a year
+after the date fixed for the rendezvous on the lake did the three
+expeditions meet. The military escorts were united under Commandant
+Lamy, and gave battle to the forces of Rabah, one of the Khalif’s
+generals, who had crossed half Africa to carve out for himself a
+kingdom in Bornu and Bagirmi after the <em>débâcle</em> of the
+Mahdia on the Upper Nile. Lamy defeated him and annexed French
+Equatorial Africa.</p>
+<p>Of these three expeditions, the northern column, known as the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission, had passed through Air on its way south. The
+Europeans who accompanied it were in 1899 the first Frenchmen to
+enter the country and to carry out the plan originally contemplated
+by Flatters in 1881. The annexation of Air by France may be counted
+from this date.</p>
+<p>The Foureau-Lamy Mission<a id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> entered the borders of Air
+from Algeria at the wells of In Azawa; their heavy losses in camels
+obliged them to abandon large quantities of material, but they
+eventually reached Iferuan in the Ighazar, not far from
+T’intaghoda. Here the camp of the expedition was attacked in force
+by the Tuareg, who were only driven off with great difficulty. The
+situation was critical. The whole country was hostile to the
+French; they were so short of camels that on the stage south of
+Iferuan to Agellal they had to move their baggage in small lots,
+marching their transport forwards and backwards. Their destiny hung
+in the balance when friendly overtures were made to them near
+Auderas by a Tuareg of considerable note, Ahodu of the Kel Tadek
+tribe, whose fathers and forefathers for five generations
+had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> been keepers of
+the mosque of Tefgun near Iferuan. Ahodu’s political sense has
+rarely been at fault, either then or since; he saw that the only
+end possible for his people from protracted hostilities with the
+Europeans was disaster. He promised the French peace while the
+column remained in Air. It reached Agades in safety, and the Sultan
+was obliged to hoist the French flag and provide transport animals
+and guides. No attack was made near the town, thanks to the
+efficacy of Ahodu’s presence, but his powers of persuasion were
+insufficient when the column marched out into the barren area
+further south. The guide purposely misled the expedition and it
+nearly perished of thirst, succeeding only with great difficulty in
+returning to Agades. It eventually started once more and reached
+the south, where its story ceases to concern the exploration of
+Air.</p>
+<p>Since 1899, then, the fate of Air has been settled in so far as
+Europe was concerned, for it was recognised as lying within the
+French sphere; but the country was not effectually occupied until
+1904, when a camel patrol under Lieut. C. Jean established a post
+at Agades. The post was evacuated for a short time and then
+reoccupied. The exploration of the mountains has proceeded slowly
+since that date. Sketch maps were gradually compiled in the course
+of camel corps patrols, and in 1910 the Cortier geographical
+mission published a very creditable map of the mountains,<a id=
+"FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+other than the northern Fadé group, based on thirty-three
+astronomically determined co-ordinates supplementing the five
+secured by the Foureau-Lamy Mission. Chudeau in 1905 made a brief
+geological survey and published some notes on the flora, which
+remain uncatalogued to this day;<a id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> very complete collections
+of the fauna have been made by Buchanan<a id=
+"FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+and examined in England by the British Museum (South Kensington)
+and by Lord Rothschild’s museum at<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_28">[28]</span> Tring. The ethnology of the country is very
+superficially discussed in a book published by Jean; Barth’s
+account remains the one of value. The complete exploration of the
+mountains and detailed mapping still remain to be done as well as
+other scientific work of every description.</p>
+<p>“Air” as a geographical term for the mountainous plateau does
+not signify exactly the same thing to the inhabitants of the
+country themselves as it does to us; properly speaking, it is
+applied by them only to one part of the plateau, for the whole of
+which the more usual name of Asben or Absen is used. The latter is
+probably the original name given to the area by the people of the
+Sudan before the advent of the Tuareg. It is now very generally
+used even by them: it is universal further south. Barth has
+speculated at some length upon the origin of the name Air or Ahir,
+to take its Arabic form, and concluded that the letter “h” had been
+deliberately added out of modesty to guard against the word
+acquiring a copronymous signification. But early Arabic geographers
+give the form as Akir and not as Ahir, so the laborious explanation
+of the learned traveller is probably unnecessary.</p>
+<p>The boundaries of Air may be defined either as running along the
+line where the rocks of the area dip below the sands of the desert,
+or as following certain well-marked basins and watercourses of
+material size, where disintegrated rock or alluvium has covered the
+lower slopes of the hills. The mountainous area is some 300 miles
+long by 200 miles broad. It lies wholly within the tropics and is
+surrounded by desert or by arid steppe. Owing to the general
+elevation of the country the climate is quite pleasant.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="map02">
+<p class="cpm">Drainage of the<br>
+CENTRAL SAHARA</p>
+<a href="images/map02.jpg"><img src='images/map02.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<table class="width-full">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl ipub">F. R. del.</td>
+<td class="tdr ipub">Emery Walker Ltd. sc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>In remote ages the rainfall of the Central Sahara was sufficient
+to create the deep and important river beds which compose the
+hydrographic system of this part of North Africa. Among these
+watercourses is one of great size, flowing from the Ahaggar massif
+towards Algeria, called the Ighaghar. Duveyrier has tried to prove
+that it was the Niger of Pliny, largely on the grounds that the
+root “Ig”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> or “Igh”
+occurs in both words and in Temajegh means “to run.” The effect of
+this identification, which is hard to accept, would be to make the
+classical ethnology of the Sahara less easy to follow, but it has
+little significance in considering Air, except in so far as it
+would tend to show that the geographical knowledge of the Romans
+did not extend as far south as the plateau. Complementary to the
+Ighaghar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> but flowing
+south from the Ahaggar massif is another equally great river,<a id=
+"FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+which early in its course is joined by a large tributary from the
+Western Fezzan. At a certain point this valley is crossed by the
+roads from Air to Ahaggar and Ghat, branching respectively at the
+wells of In Azawa or Asiu. The eastern branch is the caravan road
+to Ghat from the Sudan, the western one finds its way to In Salah
+in Tuat and to Algeria. This bed runs south and south-west towards
+the Niger, which it must have reached at some point between Gao and
+Timbuctoo in the neighbourhood of the N.E. corner of the Great Bend
+which the French call “La Boucle du Niger.” This river of remote
+times must have been one of the great watercourses of Africa,
+extending from the head-waters in 26° N. Lat. to its mouth in the
+Bight of Benin on the Equator. It is not possible to say whether
+the interesting terrestrial changes which diverted the Upper Niger
+at the lagoons above Timbuctoo into the present Lower Niger, and
+which brought about the desiccation of the upper reaches, took
+place suddenly or gradually, but the latter is more probable, for a
+similar diversion seems to be going on in the Chad area. The lake,
+in reality an immense marsh and lagoon, is much smaller than when
+it perhaps included the depression noted by Tilho as extending most
+of the way to Tibesti; some of the waters of the Chad feeders are
+already believed to be finding their way in flood-time into the
+Benue, and it is possible that in the course of time a similar
+process to that manifested in the Niger area will take place; then
+Lake Chad will dry up into salt-pans like those at Taodenit. The
+Saharan river, which flows southward to the west of Air, bears
+various names. Its course has never been accurately determined, but
+its general direction is known. From Ahaggar to a point level with
+the northernmost parts of Air it is called Tafassasset. The T’in
+Tarabin channel from Ahaggar more probably drained into the Belly
+of the Desert than into this system, but the Alfalehle
+(Wadi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> Falezlez) from
+the Western Fezzan most certainly seems to be a tributary; there
+are various reasons why it ought not to flow towards Kawar, as used
+at one time to be thought. West of Air the main bed spreads out
+into a vast plain-like basin under the name of T’immersoi; further
+south it is called Azawak. In general I prefer to use the name
+T’immersoi for the whole until a better one is suggested.<a id=
+"FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class=
+"fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+<p>The T’immersoi forms a collector in the west of Air for nearly
+all the water from this group of mountains. Nowadays only a
+comparatively small amount ever reaches the basin, as much is
+absorbed by the intervening plain land of Talak<a id=
+"FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+and the Assawas swamp west of Agades. The latter are local basins
+or sumps covered with dense vegetation where some of the most
+nomadic tribes in Air pasture their herds. Talak is visited by
+Tuareg from Ahaggar and from the west for the same purpose. It
+plays an important part in the economy of the country, for water is
+always to be found in the alluvial soil however dry the season in
+the mountains has been. Many of the wells have now fallen into
+disuse, but the output of those which remain is still plentiful.
+The last rocks of Air on the west disappear below the alluvium of
+T’immersoi and in the subsidiary basins of Talak and Assawas. The
+T’immersoi system therefore forms the western boundary of Air.</p>
+<p>The upper part of the T’immersoi, where it is called the
+Tafassasset, is also the northern boundary of Air. The wells of In
+Azawa<a id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class=
+"fnanchor">[35]</a> and Asiu in this valley may be regarded as the
+point where the main roads from the north enter the extreme limits
+of the country. Further east on another road between Air and Ghat,
+von Bary fixed the boundary at the Wadi Immidir, which is in the
+same latitude as In Azawa.<a id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>The eastern
+boundary of Air runs along the line where the last rocks of the
+group disappear below the sand of the steppe and desert, which
+extends from north to south between the mountains of the Fezzan and
+the fringe of Equatorial Africa, and from west to east between the
+mountains of Air and those of Tibesti with its adjacent massifs.
+This vast area is crossed by a few roads only, the most important
+ones being (<em>a</em>) the road from Murzuk along the Kawar
+depression to Agadem and Lake Chad, (<em>b</em>) and (<em>c</em>),
+the two principal tracks from Air eastwards to Bilma by Ashegur and
+Fashi respectively, and (<em>d</em>) the road from Zinder by Termit
+to Fashi and Kawar. Watering-points are very few, and the habitable
+oases can be numbered on the fingers of two hands; pasturage is
+everywhere scarce. This great waste is one of the most unknown
+parts of North Africa; its eastern portion along the Tibesti
+mountains as far north as the Fezzan may be said to be absolutely
+unknown except for two tracks to the mountains whither occasional
+camel patrols have passed.</p>
+<p>Kawar and the other oases along the Chad road appear to be
+closed basins of the Eastern Saharan type. They seem to have no
+outlet towards the south either into the Chad or into the Niger
+systems. The desert east of Air, therefore, contains the eastern
+watershed of the T’immersoi basin, for the valleys of Eastern Air
+do not run into the desert as Chudeau has suggested,<a id=
+"FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+but turn southwards on leaving the hills, in ill-defined
+depressions or folds which join the Tagedufat valley or one of the
+other channels flowing westwards in Tegama or Damergu. One valley
+to the south of Air, probably the Tagedufat itself, is stated to
+run all the way from Fashi across the desert.</p>
+<p>The southern limits of Air may be placed along the Tagedufat
+basin, where the rocks of Air disappear below the sand dunes and
+downs of Tegama and Azawagh steppe<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_33">[33]</span> desert. The valley is of some size and flows
+roughly N.E. and S.W. towards T’immersoi, but whether it actually
+joins this system or the Gulbi n’Kaba, which finds its way into
+Sokoto Emirate under the name of the Gulbi n’Maradi and thence into
+the Niger, is not certain. The former hypothesis seems more
+probable, but I was unable to follow the Tagedufat sufficiently far
+west to verify it, nor could I discover any data on the French
+maps;<a id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class=
+"fnanchor">[38]</a> local reports substantiate my supposition. Both
+systems in any case are in the Niger basin. Air is not on the
+watershed between Niger and Chad. The choice of the Tagedufat
+valley as the southern boundary of Air is made on geographical
+grounds. What may be termed the political boundary is rather
+further north along the line of the River of Agades.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 3</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i03"><a href="images/i03.jpg"><img src='images/i03.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">DESERT AND HILLS FROM TERMIT PEAK</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Commencing within 50 km. of the In Azawa wells, Air is a low
+plateau of Silurian formation with islands of Archean rock. Through
+the plateau-plain a number of separate formations have been
+extruded by, in many cases, apparently quite recent volcanic
+action. The northernmost massifs of Taghazit and Zelim lie in about
+latitude 20°. The volcanic period was of considerable duration, but
+all the recognisable volcanoes and derived phenomena are
+post-Eocene.<a id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class=
+"fnanchor">[39]</a> Some of the basalt flows, more especially those
+from Mount Dogam near Auderas in Central Air, are not old, while
+the Teginjir lava flow appeared to me so fresh as probably to have
+come into existence during the historical period. The volcanic
+phenomena take the form of cinder cones with steep sides as at
+Teginjir (Mount Gheshwa), cumulo-volcanoes, as in the T’imia and
+probably Bagezan massifs, domes as in the case of Mount Dogam, and
+basalt flows in various parts, notably in the T’imia valleys.<a id=
+"FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+Aggata<a id="FNanchor_40b"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class=
+"fnanchor">[40]</a> appears to be another volcanic peak, but the
+serrated crest of Ighzan is a phenomenon of the rapid cooling of an
+igneous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> extrusion
+rather than an example of erosion. There are numerous volcanic
+massifs distinct from each other all over Air, more especially in
+the centre and north; they are nearly all granitic and very rugged.
+The Auderas basin is of basalt and cinerite.<a id=
+"FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+The plateau, which is in the main horizontal, rises in the centre
+to a step some few hundred feet higher than the north and south and
+forms a pedestal for the Bagezan and other massifs some 1500 to
+3000 feet higher again. The peaks are as much as 4500 feet<a id=
+"FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+above the plateau, which varies from 1500 feet above sea level in
+the south along the River of Agades, to 2000 feet in the Ighazar in
+North Air. Round Auderas the plateau may be taken as about 2500
+feet above the sea, while to the east of the Bagezan massif the
+plateau is about 3000 feet, sloping gradually away to the south and
+east. Between Agades and Auderas there is an abrupt ascent on to
+the central step of the plateau of some 2000 feet; a corresponding
+descent of about 150 feet takes place near Assada.</p>
+<p>The effect of these massifs rising sharply out of the plateau is
+curious. The Archean or Silurian plain and the volcanic mountain
+groups are phenomena which have not yet had time to become
+correlated. The result is that the broad and very gentle valleys of
+the plateau-plain wander in and out among the disconnected massifs
+and are fed by deep torrents draining the slopes of impermeable
+rock. Water erosion has not yet had time to widen or deepen the
+ravines, while the broad valleys have wide sandy bottoms, where
+pebbles only rarely occur; their sides are well wooded with pasture
+on the plains between the beds, except where masses of round basalt
+boulders, the product of the volcanic disturbances, cover the
+surface. The massifs have hardly been affected by erosion. The
+broad valleys between them are the corridors of communication in
+the country. “Cette superimposition à une vieille pénéplaine usée,”
+says Chudeau,<a id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class=
+"fnanchor">[43]</a> “de massifs éruptifs jeunes, donne a l’Air un
+aspect surprenant,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>
+presque paradoxal.” And this is the charm of the country that has
+been called by travellers the Saharan Alps. There is contrast
+everywhere, but nothing is perhaps more striking than the black
+patina which the red rocks have assumed. The wind-borne sand has
+polished them till they shine with a dark metallic gleam, while the
+sheltered rifts and ravines retain their pink and red surfaces. It
+is a land of lurid colour, except at midday, when the African sun
+dominates everything in one blinding glare.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc01">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class=
+"label">[1]</span></a>The name “Sudan” is used throughout to
+indicate the country referred to by the Arab and early European
+geographers under this name, that is to say, the country inhabited
+by negroid people north of the purely negro zone and south of the
+Saharan deserts. The “Anglo-Egyptian Sudan” is more correctly
+described as the “Nilotic Sudan.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class=
+"label">[2]</span></a>The geography of the Sahara as a whole is
+briefly treated in <em>Le Sahara</em>, by E. F. Gautier, Collection
+Payot, Paris, 1923, and with greater detail in <em>Le Sahara</em>,
+by H. Schirmer, Paris, 1893, but much recent work is not included
+in the latter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class=
+"label">[3]</span></a>O. Bates: <em>The Eastern Libyans</em>
+(Macmillan), pp. 48-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class=
+"label">[4]</span></a>Cf. Rohlfs, <em>Kufra</em>, Chap. VIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class=
+"label">[5]</span></a>“Alguechet” in Leo Africanus, Vol. III. pp.
+802, 818, etc. (For particulars see beginning of <a href=
+"#c09">Chap. IX.</a>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class=
+"label">[6]</span></a>Until motor-cars began to cross the Sahara
+further west.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class=
+"label">[7]</span></a>Bissuel, <em>Les Touareg de l’Ouest</em>, p.
+63, says: “A plant called locally ‘Bettina’ and not the Alfalehle
+(Arabic: Falezlez) was used.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class=
+"label">[8]</span></a>Gautier: <em>La conquête du Sahara</em>,
+Paris, 1922.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class=
+"label">[9]</span></a>See <em>Life of Charles de Foucauld</em>, by
+R. Bazin, translated by P. Keelan, and De Foucauld,
+<em>Dictionnaire abrégé Touareg Français</em> (Dialecte Ahaggar),
+publié par R. Basset, Alger, 1918-20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class=
+"label">[10]</span></a>Jean: <em>Les Touareg du Sud-Est</em>,
+Paris, Larose, 1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class=
+"label">[11]</span></a>Barth: <em>Travels and Discoveries in
+Central Africa</em>, London, Longmans, 1857-8, 5 vols.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class=
+"label">[12]</span></a>From “Litham,” <span class="ar">لثام</span>
+(root <span class="ar">لثم</span>), a veil.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class=
+"label">[13]</span></a>The slaves which they possess do not wear
+the veil. The slave is not a man but a chattel. As soon as a slave
+is freed and becomes a serf he wears the veil like the noble
+Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class=
+"label">[14]</span></a>In the Air dialect this word is so
+pronounced. Variations in other dialects are referred to elsewhere.
+Imajeghan is the plural form of Imajegh. Temajegh is a feminine
+form of Imajegh.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class=
+"label">[15]</span></a>“Kel” means “People of,” “Tagilmus” is the
+name of the Veil in Temajegh, the language of the Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class=
+"label">[16]</span></a>For an explanation of this term see <a href=
+"#c09">Chap. IX.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class=
+"label">[17]</span></a>The term “Hausa” throughout this volume is
+not used in an ethnological sense. It is primarily a linguistic
+division which may or may not also have an ethnic significance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class=
+"label">[18]</span></a>“Adghar” or “adrar” = mountain in Temajegh.
+This mountain group between Air and the Niger and south of Ahaggar
+has no name. It is called the “Mountain of the Ifoghas” (Adghar
+n’Ifoghas), while the people who live in it are known as the
+“Ifoghas of the Mountain,” to distinguish them from the Ifoghas
+tribe in Damergu and the Ifoghas tribe of the Azger.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class=
+"label">[19]</span></a>Leo Africanus: Hakluyt Society edition, Vol.
+I. p. 127, and Vol. III. pp. 798-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class=
+"label">[20]</span></a>Notably by M. Ch. de la Roncière: <em>Revue
+des Deux Mondes</em>, 1st February, 1923: “Tombuctou au temps de
+Louis XI.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class=
+"label">[21]</span></a>M. de la Roncière in a private letter of
+July 1923 to the author.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class=
+"label">[22]</span></a>The edition I have used is a French one:
+Hornemann, <em>Voyage dans l’Afrique Septentrionale</em>, edited by
+my ancestor Rennell. Paris: Dentu, 1803.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class=
+"label">[23]</span></a>Denham and Clapperton: “Discoveries in North
+and Central Africa, 1822-4,” Murray, 1826.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class=
+"label">[24]</span></a>See Introduction to Richardson’s <em>Travels
+in the Great Desert of the Sahara</em>, London, 1847, and Barth,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. II. pp. 219-20.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class=
+"label">[25]</span></a>Barth calls this area Fadeangh, a name not
+known to-day.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class=
+"label">[26]</span></a>The Governor appointed by the Turks.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class=
+"label">[27]</span></a>Von Bary’s Diary, “La dernier rapport . . .
+sur . . . les Touaregs de l’Air.” Edited by Schirmer; Paris,
+Fischbacher, 1898.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class=
+"label">[28]</span></a><em>Documents Scientifiques de la Mission
+Foureau-Lamy</em>. Various fascicules.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class=
+"label">[29]</span></a>Carte de l’Air: Mission Cortier (2
+feuilles), 1/500,000. Service Géogr. du Min. des Colonies.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class=
+"label">[30]</span></a>Chudeau and Gautier: <em>Missions au
+Sahara</em>, Paris, Armand Colin, 1909 (Vol. II., <em>Le Sahara
+Soudanais</em>, by Chudeau).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class=
+"label">[31]</span></a>Buchanan: <em>Out of the World North of
+Nigeria</em>, Murray.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class=
+"label">[32]</span></a>Where the words “rivers” or “watercourse”
+are used they must be understood to mean drainage channels which
+are dry most of the year.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class=
+"label">[33]</span></a>Gautier on his sketch map in <em>Le
+Sahara</em> uses the name Tafassasset, which, however, is even more
+of a local name in the north than T’immersoi is in the south.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class=
+"label">[34]</span></a>In Temajegh “Talak” means “clay.” Cf.
+Chudeau: <em>Le Sahara Soudanais</em>, p. 63, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class=
+"label">[35]</span></a>Meaning in Temajegh “of the Tamarisk.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class=
+"label">[36]</span></a>Von Bary’s Diary, pp. 108-9. He joined the
+main road followed by Barth in the T’iyut valley.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class=
+"label">[37]</span></a>In the case of the Tafidet and other eastern
+valleys of Air, Chudeau, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 62. He supposed, as
+I think erroneously, that the Air group itself and not the desert
+was the eastern watershed of the T’immersoi basin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class=
+"label">[38]</span></a>The country south of Air and north of the
+limit included in the maps published by the Mission Tilho of the
+area each side of the Franco-British boundary between Nigeria and
+the Territoires Militaires du Niger is hardly mapped at all.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class=
+"label">[39]</span></a>Chudeau, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 263-4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class=
+"label">[40]</span></a><em>Vide</em> Plates <a href="#i23a">23</a>
+and <a href="#i39">39.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class=
+"label">[41]</span></a><em>Vide</em> Plates <a href="#i13a">13</a>
+and <a href="#i14">14.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class=
+"label">[42]</span></a>In the case of Tamgak.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class=
+"label">[43]</span></a>Chudeau, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span><a id=
+"c02"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE SOUTHLANDS</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Until</span> about twenty years ago it was
+easier to reach the Western Sudan and Central Africa around Lake
+Chad from the north than from the Gulf of Guinea, notwithstanding a
+journey of many months across the Sahara, involving all the
+considerable hardships and dangers of desert travelling. The
+objectives which Barth, Foureau, Lamy and their predecessors all
+had in view were not the exploration of the Sahara, but the
+penetration of the Sudan. By following the trade routes along which
+slave caravans used to reach the Mediterranean coast, the explorers
+of the nineteenth century reached the wealthy Niger lands more
+easily than they would have done had they attempted to pass through
+the tropical forests of the West Coast. On the sea-board European
+penetration at that time was confined to the neighbourhood of a few
+factories on the shore or the estuaries of certain rivers. Only at
+the end of the nineteenth century did this country, first among the
+nations of Europe, realise that the potential markets and supplies
+of raw material which the Sudan afforded were on a scale far
+surpassing those which had been dreamt of by the early pioneers on
+the coast. It was about thirty years ago that communication was
+eventually opened up between the coast and the Moslem interior, but
+there is no doubt that the accounts of the Sudan in 1850 brought
+back by Barth after his memorable journey were directly responsible
+for the British penetration from the coast of those countries which
+are now called Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and Nigeria. The
+movement reached its culmination in the opening years of the
+twentieth century, when the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_37">[37]</span> northern provinces of Nigeria were occupied
+under the guidance of Sir F. Lugard, while at about the same time
+the three French columns had met near Lake Chad. With these years
+the expansionist period closed and a phase of development, which
+still continues, commenced. British expansion into Northern
+Nigeria, coming as it did during the South African war, passed
+comparatively unnoticed in this country except in official circles,
+where the campaigns of Sir F. Lugard’s small columns aroused
+considerable anxiety. But because the policy was successful the
+public heard little of the operations which formally annexed the
+outlying Emirates of Kano, Katsina and Sokoto. The new countries
+which we then acquired were of colossal wealth, and contained a
+population of many millions of people living as thickly in certain
+parts as the Egyptians in the Nile Delta. The closing years of last
+and the first few years of this century involved the addition to
+the British Empire of some of the greatest of the Sudanese cities,
+which are the terminal points and therefore the <em>raisons
+d’être</em> of the two central Saharan trade roads which come from
+the Mediterranean by way of Kawar and Air.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map03"><a href="images/map03_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/map03.jpg' alt='[Illustration]'></a>
+<table class="width-full">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl ipub">F. R. del.</td>
+<td class="tdr ipub">Emery Walker Ltd. sc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="ipubr">[<em>To face p.</em> 36.</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The Sudan, though geographically in Central Africa, belongs to
+the Mediterranean civilisation. The great empires of the Niger,
+Melle and Songhai, the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, the Emirates of
+Kano and Katsina, and the Empire of Bornu, were all products of
+contact with the north. Commercially and culturally, the Sudan
+faced north with its back against an impenetrable belt of tropical
+forest inhabited by savage negro tribes, through whose dripping and
+steaming jungles there was little or no access to the sea. This
+orientation explains the high degree of civilisation which Barth
+found already past its “floruit” in 1850. It is obviously also the
+reason why the early explorers came from the north rather than from
+the nearer coast of the Atlantic between Sierra Leone and the
+mouths of the Niger.</p>
+<p>With the arrival of the Europeans, ways down to the coast were
+gradually opened up, until finally in Nigeria<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_38">[38]</span> seven hundred miles of railway were built
+from Lagos to Kano. As a consequence trade has left the
+trans-Saharan roads where the Tuareg were masters. It is now
+carried to Europe and even to the Mediterranean by steamers sailing
+from Lagos and Liverpool. In more ways than one the advent of the
+white man in Central Africa has been disastrous for the Tuareg.
+Camel-borne trade on a large scale is doomed; caravan broking and
+long-distance desert transport are gone, never to return; even a
+trans-Saharan railway, whose commercial value must be as unreal as
+the dream of its advocates among French Colonial authorities, can
+never hope to compete with sea-borne traffic. Aircraft alone may
+one day revive the old camel roads, for they provide lines of
+watering-points along the shortest north and south routes.</p>
+<p>If one may judge by the numbers and size of the market cities,
+which are the termini of the trans-Saharan routes in the Sudan, the
+Air road was by far the most important of the two in the centre. In
+Kano and in Katsina and in Sokoto the commercial genius of the
+Hausa people developed centres for the exchange of the European
+goods with the products, and more especially the raw materials, of
+Central Africa. To these cities also came the negro people of the
+south, to buy and sell or be sold as slaves. In a thickly populated
+and extremely fertile country the cities grew to immense size.
+Though in no sense properly a Tuareg country, Northern Nigeria and
+the neighbouring lands are visited and lived in by the People of
+the Veil. Every year it is the habit of many of this people to come
+from Air to Nigeria during the dry season. They earn a prosperous
+livelihood on transport work between the cities of Hausaland. They
+feed their camels on the richer pastures of the south when those in
+the north grow dry. But before the rains begin they move north
+again to the steppe and desert, for flooded rivers and excessive
+damp are conditions which the camels of the Veiled People do not
+relish. Quite large colonies of Tuareg have settled in some of
+these cities and have adopted a semi-sedentary life, maintaining
+their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> characteristics
+in inverse measure as intermarriage with the negroid peoples has
+become more frequent. The influx of Tuareg into Nigeria after the
+1917 revolution in Air added considerably to the numbers living
+permanently under British rule. This migration was not as strange a
+phenomenon or so entirely the product of the Great War as at first
+sight it appears to be. The various waves of Tuareg which in
+succession entered Air have each in turn had the effect of driving
+the earlier populations further south. The trend of migration in
+North Africa from the earliest days, when the zone of permanent
+habitation of the negroid races extended as far as the
+Mediterranean, has always been southward. It has continued in
+modern times. The temptation of richer lands in Central Africa has
+always proved irresistible when local political or economic
+conditions altered in consequence of growing ethnic pressure to the
+extent of providing just that impetus necessary to overcome the
+human disinclination to leave homes which have been occupied for
+generations. The Kel Geres Tuareg left Air to settle in the country
+north of Sokoto when the mountains became over-populated; masses of
+Air Tuareg generally took up their habitation in Katsina and Kano
+after the unsuccessful revolution against the French during the
+late war. The motives were not strictly similar, but the effects
+were identical, and have been observable throughout the ages.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="map04">
+<p class="cpm">AIR<br>
+and the<br>
+SOUTHLAND</p>
+<a href="images/map04.jpg"><img src='images/map04.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<table class="width-full">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl ipub">F. R. del.</td>
+<td class="tdr ipub">Emery Walker Ltd. sc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>To-day at Kano, a village of some size named Faji, almost
+entirely Tuareg in population, has sprung up a few hundred yards
+from the walls of the city. Here the People of the Veil live like
+the Hausa in mud houses. They are engaged in retail trade or act as
+agents and brokers for their relations in Air when the latter come
+down in the dry season. In Katsina a quarter of the town and the
+country immediately north are thickly populated with Tuareg, for
+whom the Emir has a marked partiality, largely on account of his
+commercial propensities, which are powerfully stimulated by the
+ownership of several fine herds of camels. The Tuareg of Katsina,
+drawn from almost every tribe in Air,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_40">[40]</span> have formed a new tribal unit known as the
+Kel Katchena,<a id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class=
+"fnanchor">[44]</a> and are rapidly forgetting their older tribal
+allegiances. The results of these movements have always been much
+the same. Progressive mixing with the negroid people of the Sudan,
+the gradual acquisition of sedentary habits, and the cultivation of
+fat lands where life is easy, are combining to make these People of
+the Veil lose their characteristics as a northern race; their
+language cannot compete with Hausa, which is<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_41">[41]</span> the <em>lingua franca</em> of the Sudan,
+as Arabic is that of North Africa. The retention of the Veil is the
+only exception: in fact many southerners associated with them have
+adopted it, although the rigorous proscription against revealing
+the mouth and face is being less strictly observed.</p>
+<p>North of the country surrounding the great walled cities of red
+earth, and more or less coterminous with the northern frontiers of
+the Emirates of Katsina, Daura, Kano and Hadeija, there is a deep
+belt of country which marks the beginning of the transition between
+the Saharan and the Equatorial zones.<a id=
+"FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
+North of the open country around Kano, with its large trees that
+for a height of some feet from the ground, like those in English
+parks, have been stripped of leaves by the grazing flocks and
+herds, the rock outcrops become less frequent and eventually
+disappear entirely. They give place to scrub, bush and clearings
+through which the Anglo-French boundary runs. The frontier from
+Lake Chad to the Niger was delimited in 1907 and 1908 by an
+international expedition whose work has been described by Colonel
+Tilho with a wealth of detail which makes one regret that his
+labours did not extend a little further north, as far as the edge
+of the desert where the Saharan zone proper commences. The area
+mapped by Colonel Tilho hardly extends beyond the northern limit of
+the Hausa-speaking people. Along the roads leading to Air, or in
+other words along the great trade route, no work was done beyond
+the southern fringe of the area called Damergu, and there is
+consequently to the south of Air a considerable depth of unsurveyed
+country for which no maps are available.</p>
+<p>The area between the international boundary and the somewhat
+arbitrary limits of Algeria and Tripolitania constitutes the French
+colony known as the “Territoires du Niger,”<a id=
+"FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+the southern part of which is divided into provinces or “cercles,”
+roughly corresponding to the old native<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_42">[42]</span> Emirates. French colonial policy in this part
+of Africa, in contrast with the system so successfully instituted
+by Sir F. Lugard in Nigeria, has been directed towards the removal
+of the more important native rulers. They have been replaced by a
+form of direct administration which is only now in process of being
+organised under French civilian officials. North of Katsina the
+Emirates of Maradi and Tessawa<a id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> have been combined into
+one province, and here almost the last Sultan of the “Territoires”
+survives, exercising authority only in the immediate vicinity of
+Tessawa itself. West of this is the province of Tahua; to the east
+is the old Emirate of Damagarim with its capital at Zinder, and
+east again is Gure, the northern part of which is known as Elakkos
+and Kuttus.</p>
+<p>Once the belt of thick bush near the frontier is crossed the
+country resembles Northern Nigeria again, with park bush and broad
+open spaces, both cultivated and grass-grown. The villages are of
+the usual Central African type; the groups of conical huts are
+surrounded by millet stores, raised on legs like gigantic
+bee-hives, to contain the grain cultivated in the clearings around
+the settlements. The inhabitants are Hausa and Kanuri, though of
+late years a number of lower-caste Tuareg from Air have settled
+there as well. There is a considerable amount of rock outcrop in
+the form, round Zinder, of low peaks with great boulders, or, near
+Gure, of hills which terminate abruptly in a cliff of red rock,
+north of which is the district called Elakkos.</p>
+<p>Through this belt of park bush runs east and west the road
+recently levelled and rendered passable for light cars in the dry
+season between Lake Chad and the Niger. The nomadic cattle-breeding
+Fulani come into this zone from the bush to the north and south;
+Maradi is a Fulani centre of some importance. A certain number of
+this people also come to Tessawa, but the Hausa population here
+have been at feud with them for many generations, and only the
+advent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> of European
+control has put an end to continual wars between the two
+Emirates.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 4</p>
+<div class="figfloat">
+<figure id="i04a" class="iw12 float-left"><a href=
+"images/i04a.jpg"><img src='images/i04a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">DIOM IN ELAKKOS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figfloat pb">
+<figure id="i04b" class="iw12 float-right"><a href=
+"images/i04b.jpg"><img src='images/i04b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">PUNCH AND JUDY SHOW</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="clear"></p>
+<p class="space-above15">Tessawa lies in a shallow depression
+which, like others further north on the way to Damergu, drain into
+the Gulbi n’Kaba, an affluent of the Niger containing running water
+only in its lower reaches in the neighbourhood of Sokoto. North of
+Tessawa and Damagarim the land becomes more sparsely populated and
+the bush thickens, except in the immediate vicinity of the
+villages, which now begin to be tenanted in increasing numbers by
+Kanuri. The bush contains herds of Fulani cattle and a certain
+amount of game; there are two or three varieties of gazelle, some
+bustard, guinea-fowl, ostriches and occasionally giraffes. The
+vegetation becomes more stunted as progress is made northward and
+large trees are rarer; the soil is sandy; rock outcrop is almost
+completely absent. The configuration of the ground is difficult to
+follow in the thick bush; the gentle slopes and valleys appear
+generally to drain westwards, but shallow closed basins are
+numerous. Plenty of water is obtainable in any of these depressions
+a few feet below the ground; the larger groups of wells, usually
+near the two or three hamlets of straw huts which form a village,
+are the resort of the Fulani with their cattle during the dry
+season. The vegetation and the general aspect of the country,
+however, are still those of the Sudan.</p>
+<p>Damagarim differs but little from the Tessawa landscape except
+that the bush is thicker and there are fewer open spaces. East of
+the boulder-strewn hills of Zinder the more ambitious elevations of
+Gure are visible. Zinder itself consists of two contiguous towns;
+like Tessawa and the Hausa cities further south, they are built of
+red mud. Zinder is smaller than the analogous Nigerian cities.
+Since 1921 it has had no Sultan. The French headquarters of the
+Niger Territories till recently were situated here. In the past
+Zinder was of some importance; although the main caravan track from
+the north appears in the early days to have run direct to Katsina,
+a branch from Damergu went by<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_44">[44]</span> way of Zinder as soon as Kano grew in
+importance. But in spite of the number and influence of the Tuareg
+who used to make Zinder their headquarters, neither Damagarim nor
+Gure has changed its essentially Sudanese character.</p>
+<p>Within a few days’ march of Tessawa on the road north to Gangara
+in Damergu, several interesting features were observable. At Urufan
+village the Magazawa Hausa and Kanuri women were wearing the
+ornament known as the “Agades Cross,” peculiar to the Air Tuareg,
+in a simple as well as in a conventionalised form. Many of the
+women exhibited almost Mongolian traits in their eyes and
+cheek-bones. Their hair was done in what I believe to be a Kanuri
+fashion, that is to say, in a low crest along the top of the head,
+tightly matted and well greased, with a parting, or very often a
+shaved strip on each side, running the length of the skull; over
+the ears the hair was again tightly plaited and greased. Their
+dancing was different from the practice in Nigeria: the women dance
+with bent knees and a crouching body, so that the back is nearly
+horizontal. They shuffle up to the drum band one behind the other,
+the woman at the head of the line turning away at the end of each
+movement to take her place behind. The absence of sedentary Fulani
+influence is obvious as soon as music starts; the rattles and
+cymbals made of segments of calabash on a stick, peculiar to the
+Fulani in Nigeria, are not used.</p>
+<p>Ethnically it is a very mixed area. In most cases each hamlet in
+a village group is inhabited by a different people. Magazawa Hausa,
+Kanuri from Damergu, and more recent Kanuri from Bornu predominate,
+but there are also nomadic Fulani and semi-nomadic Tuareg.</p>
+<p>This is the edge of the country called Damergu, which, on the
+direct road from Tessawa, may be said to begin at the village group
+of Garari in a small valley, tributary of the Gulbi n’Kaba. Just
+before reaching the southern edge of the valley the thorn bush
+suddenly ceases. In the hollow are two or three hamlets of Kanuri,
+Bornuwi, sedentary Tuareg and Hausa with common wells in the valley
+bottom.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> Instead of
+interminable thorn scrub just so high that nothing can be seen
+above it, an open wind-swept plain of rolling downland covered with
+yellow-gold grass appears in front. On the sharp African horizon to
+the N. and N.E. are the blue peaks of Damergu, quite small and
+humble, but clear cut against the sky-line with all the dignity of
+isolation in a sea of waving sun-washed prairie.</p>
+<p>Damergu begins and ends abruptly: as soon as the belt of bush
+which surrounds it on all sides is crossed, the ground lies open to
+the sky and visibility becomes good. There is no more suffocating
+feeling in the world than marching through Central African bush.
+The discomforts and disabilities of travelling are not compensated
+for by any advantage except a ready supply of firewood. The
+bushland around Damergu is particularly unpleasant. It is never so
+tall that one may not hope to see over the top of the ugly stunted
+trees at the next low rise, and never in reality low enough to
+allow one to satisfy one’s passionate longing. Visibility is
+limited to a few yards and one’s sense of direction is confounded.
+It is infernally hot, because the undergrowth effectively shelters
+one from any breeze. The country is uniformly rolling and
+unbeautiful. A high proportion of the trees are of the virulently
+thorny variety which arch over the rare paths and make life on
+camel or horseback intolerable. Walking is equally distasteful, as
+the ground is strewn with burr grass which enters every fold of
+clothing and mortifies the flesh like hot needles. Camels get lost
+pasturing, game appears in vast quantities and disappears before a
+shot can be fired. There are scorpions, snakes, centipedes and
+tarantulas, not to speak of bush folk who have an uncanny sense of
+their own whereabouts, and of yours as well. They are armed with
+poisoned arrows, and though I did not suffer from their unkind
+attentions, the bush through which I passed north of Daura has a
+bad reputation. There are vast areas with no accessible water in
+the dry season, but when it rains the trees drip their moisture
+down your neck. I know the particular and private hell which
+is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> in store for me
+one day for the many misdemeanours I have committed. It will be to
+wander eternally through Sudan bush in search of the desert, where
+one may see what will bring happiness or oblivion at a distance and
+where one may at least face Destiny in the open.</p>
+<p>On each separate occasion when I entered Damergu, in the east
+returning from Termit, in the west going north from Tessawa, and in
+the north returning home by way of Nigeria, I experienced such a
+sense of relief and pleasure at emerging from the bush as to dull
+my perception of the really somewhat monotonous nature of the
+country. The winding hollows flow more or less aimlessly east or
+west, except in the Gangara area, where the drainage is definitely
+westwards into the Gulbi n’Kaba basin. The general level of the
+country is about 1700 feet above the sea. Except in the hollows
+around the rain pools the country is devoid of trees or scrub.
+Every here and there small groups of hills rise 300-400 feet above
+the surrounding country. They are so far apart that the next system
+only appears on the horizon. The black ferruginous outcrop forms
+conical peaks or stretches of pebbly surface, which break the round
+contours of the prairie. These little hills, set on a rolling
+golden prairie of very wide prospect, are the great characteristics
+of Damergu. The land is vast and generous in its proportions.</p>
+<p>The hills of Gangara in the west mark the site of a group of
+four villages called Zungu and Gangara close under the principal
+peak, Malam Chidam to the east and Karawa to the south. The hills
+are a series of cones rising a few hundred feet from the plain and
+are connected at their bases; a series of gullies or ravines
+clothed with little bushes descends from them; there are no cliffs
+or great masses of bare rock; the slopes are covered with low
+scrub. The Gangara hills divide the Gulbi n’Kaba basin from a wide
+depression on the east which sweeps south towards the cone of
+Zawzawa near the large village of Kallilua, with Dambida and Mazia
+not far to the north. North and east of Gangara are the low hills
+of Dambansa, Birjintoro and Ollelua, while further<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> east again in a confused medley
+of aimless valleys are Mount Ginea and the triple peaks of Akri.
+The Akritan<a id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class=
+"fnanchor">[48]</a> hills are a landmark for the towns of Jajiduna,
+Tanut and Gamram. These various groups are the signposts of
+Damergu; even a raw traveller can learn them in a short time.
+Between the more important villages and towns the scattered hamlets
+are of such frequent occurrence that, once the general lie of the
+land has been observed, travelling is easy.</p>
+<p>It is a country of considerable potential wealth. It was known
+in the past as the granary of Air; even now great quantities of
+grain are exported to the north and to the more densely populated
+Hausa countries of the south. The long, broad downs, usually well
+fed by the summer rains, are admirably suited for growing millet
+and guinea corn. The surrounding margin of bush, especially on the
+northern side within reasonable distances of the plentiful water
+holes in open places, is full of the cattle of nomad Fulani and the
+camels of the Damergu Tuareg. The cultivable area to-day is limited
+only by the scarcity of population and some lack of enthusiasm for
+work. A periodic cycle of dry years with the inevitable sequels of
+drought and famine can only be guarded against by administrative
+measures, which have not been enforced since the fall of the
+Central African Empires. One after another they dominated this part
+of the world, but whether Melle, Songhai, Bornu or Sokoto was
+pre-eminent in the Central Sudan, Damergu remained an appanage of
+Air, whose destinies it followed and of which it is economically a
+part. After the first arrival of the Tuareg from the east, a
+progressive descent of other tribes from the north led to the
+establishment of a reigning class in the country, recruited among
+the People of Air. To them the sedentary Kanuri people, who then
+and since have constituted the majority of the population, were
+subjected. The Tuareg Sultans of Damergu in the early period of
+modern history ruled in Jajiduna, Gamram, Tademari and Demmili.
+Even when they fell under the political influence of Tessawa or
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> Damagarim or were
+conquered by Melle, Songhai or Sokoto in turn, they remained in
+close touch with their relations in the north. The economic
+necessity of keeping open the great caravan road to Tripoli, which
+was a source of wealth to the Tuareg and to the south alike, was
+realised by everyone.</p>
+<p>The more intense cultivation and thicker population of earlier
+days are proved by the profusion of deserted sites all over the
+country, where the passing of the villages has left no more
+tangible, if unmistakable, evidence than acres of cleared and
+levelled ground strewn with potsherds and heaps of stones. The
+greater population of those days and the administrative ability of
+the empires of the Sudan combined to counteract the effects of dry
+years by creating proportionately larger reserves of grain, which
+were so conspicuously absent just before the late war that a severe
+drought brought about wholesale emigration to the Southland.</p>
+<p>The present-day villages in Damergu are all of the grass hut
+variety of the usual African type. In the past a few towns appear
+to have been built of mud. The ruins of old Dambiri show a walled
+mud-built town, although Demmili, once the seat of a Sultan who
+probably moved to Gangara when his village fell into decay, must
+have been wholly built of grass, for it has entirely disappeared. A
+lonely tree on a barren patch of ground marks its passing. The
+Gangara villages are all straw built, as are, among the larger
+settlements which have survived, Mazia and Kallilua. There are mud
+buildings, I believe, at Tademari and Jajiduna, and certainly at
+Tanut. The latter is the French centre of the country. It has an
+important grain market and a fort containing a small garrison of
+Senegalese troops. The principal native place was Jajiduna, where
+the first French post was established; but the town has rather
+declined since the move of the official capital to Tanut, where the
+water supply for caravans is better. At Jajiduna there is a Senussi
+“zawia,” one of the few points where the influence of this sect has
+taken root in Tuareg countries. The principal Senussi<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> “zawia” in the Southland is at
+Kano, with another smaller one reported at Zinder.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 5</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i05"><a href="images/i05.jpg"><img src='images/i05.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">GAMRAM</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>North of Jajiduna and north-east of Tanut is Gamram,<a id=
+"FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+a town of some importance in the past for the Tuareg, and the seat
+of one of their rulers of Damergu. Now a small collection of straw
+huts is surrounded by the ruins of mud walls like any of the towns
+of Hausaland. Gamram was the Warden of the South on the marches of
+the desert. As the most northerly permanent settlement of the Sudan
+on the Tripoli road it became a point of vital strategic importance
+for the caravan traffic. The town has occupied many sites on the
+edge of a basin that becomes a lake in the rainy season. The
+present site is on the north side, but the most important
+settlement was probably to the south-west. The beauty of Gamram
+struck Barth very forcibly. It was the first definitely Sudanese
+settlement to which he had come after the inhospitable deserts and
+the mountains of the Sahara. He had suffered intense discomfort in
+the waste called Azawagh, intervening between Damergu and the
+Sudan, but when he came to Gamram, the rains had filled the lake
+which laps the feet of some immense acacias that are perpetually
+green. Their roots live in water, and when the pool dries up, wells
+only a few feet deep are dug under their shade. The trees are
+filled with the song of many birds and the sound of running
+lizards. The gardens around the edge of the basin produce
+vegetables and luxuries rarely encountered in the Sahara. There are
+eggs and chickens and milk and cheese in the market. All these
+things are found at Gamram, not in plenty but in just sufficient
+quantities to delight the traveller in barren lands. I came to
+Gamram a day after leaving the impenetrable bush of Elakkos and
+found it as good as Barth had described.</p>
+<p>The town has lost its Tuareg character. It is now a small
+settlement of a few hundred Kanuri and mixed inhabitants. The
+Tuareg element in the immediate neighbourhood is accounted for by
+some sedentary serfs or slaves living in<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_50">[50]</span> other hamlets near by. The noble Tuareg of
+the Isherifan tribe who used to possess Gamram wander in the
+district between this place and the bush of Guliski. They have not
+counted for very much since they were decimated in a raid by
+Belkho, the great leader of the Air Tuareg during the latter years
+of last century. Belkho had complained that the Isherifan at Gamram
+were interfering with the caravans which crossed Damergu, and as
+his people were especially interested in the traffic, he demanded
+an assurance that the annoyance should cease, failing which he
+would have to take measures. The Isherifan returned an insolent
+reply and Belkho warned them again. He offered to accept a fine in
+camels for their misbehaviour, but when this was refused, collected
+a body of some two hundred to three hundred men and came swiftly
+down the road from Tergulawen with hostile intent. He reached the
+town at nightfall. Next morning he fell on the Isherifan, who had
+prepared for the attack, defeated them, and carried off so many
+camels that each of the victorious participants, as one explained
+to me, secured five female beasts for his share. Since then, my
+informant remarked, “the Isherifan are not.”</p>
+<p>Damergu has been the scene of many bloody raids in recent times.
+At Farak, one day from Gamram, a great assemblage of men and camels
+from the Southland, bound for Ghat, was caught by the Imuzurak
+under Danda. Merchandise and camels were looted and the personnel
+was massacred.</p>
+<p>During the four years which elapsed after the journey of the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission took place in 1900, a series of important
+events occurred in Damergu which ultimately led to the occupation
+of Air. In July 1900 the French military territory of Zinder-Chad
+had come into official existence, with a base of operations under
+Colonel Peroz at Say, and subsequently at Sorbo Hausa, on the
+Niger.<a id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class=
+"fnanchor">[50]</a> In February 1901 Colonel Peroz set out towards
+Lake Chad. Sergeant Bouthel, left in command at Zinder by Lieut.
+Joalland of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>
+Voulet Mission, entered Damergu, defeated the Imuzuraq tribe of
+Tuareg at Tademari or Tanamari and killed their chief, Musa. His
+place was taken by his brother, Danda, who became ruler of the
+country, while a third brother, afterwards killed at Bir Alali
+(Fort Pradie) east of Lake Chad, in January 1902, with the
+assistance of the Senussi organised Kanem against the French. Of
+all the Air Tuareg, the Kel Owi confederation of tribes alone, on
+account of their commercial relations with the Hausa countries and
+with the north, adopted a pacific attitude. The rest of the Air and
+the local Tuareg in Damergu set about fortifying Tademari, Jajiduna
+and Gamram and raided as far afield as Zinder. Their defeat by
+Sergeant Bouthel had so little effect that they soon plundered a
+Kel Owi caravan at Fall near Mount Ginea. The French in consequence
+were forced to occupy Gidjigawa near Kallilua in southern Damergu,
+and finally, when the Farak massacre occurred, Jajiduna itself,
+where a fort was built and a nucleus of camel corps established.
+The latter, however, was restricted in its action to a small area
+north of the post; operations did not even extend to Farak, only
+thirty odd miles away. The effect of this French expansion was
+nevertheless to make many of the prouder Tuareg, who would not
+submit but foresaw the inevitable, move eastwards. Some of them
+migrated as far afield as Kanem and Wadai, others only to Elakkos.
+It was the continuation of a movement which had begun after the
+advent of the Foureau-Lamy Mission. But even east of Chad the
+ubiquitous white men arrived; the migrants fought the French with
+conspicuous success at Bir Alali on two occasions, though they were
+finally defeated. Of these Tuareg of the Exodus, some returned to
+Air, but the rest moved yet further east to the strange land of
+Darfur, where they still live in voluntary exile near El
+Fasher.</p>
+<p>The repeated attacks on the north- and south-bound caravans in
+Damergu induced the French to escort the larger convoys of 1902 and
+1903 as far as Turayet on the borders of the Air mountains. The
+departure of the irreconcilables<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_52">[52]</span> towards the east, whence only a part was to
+return after the third encounter of Bir Alali, and the gradual
+penetration of the Southland, with the consequent pacification of
+the population, left the Imuzurak alone in Damergu in open defiance
+of the French. But in the meanwhile a second pillage had taken
+place at Farak, and, moreover, in Air itself the situation from
+every point of view was most unsatisfactory. The Sultan of the Air
+Tuareg was tossed about between the important Kel Owi confederation
+and their pacific policy on the one hand, and the irreconcilables
+of Damergu and Air on the other. In Gall in the south-east of Air
+had become a head-quarters of the raiders, and the Sultan began to
+find his position intolerable. He concluded by inviting the French
+to enter and take over. The occupation of Agades took place in the
+autumn of 1904 by a camel patrol under Lieut. Jean, when the modern
+history of Air and Damergu commenced.</p>
+<p>Osman Mikitan, the Sultan of this critical period, lies buried
+in a square tomb of mud bricks in the Zungu hamlet of Gangara. He
+had changed places three times with Brahim as Sultan of the Air
+people, and died unregretted because he had sold his country to the
+foreigner.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg of Damergu number among their tribes factions of many
+of the most famous Air clans. The Ikazkazan are represented by the
+section known generically as the Kel Ulli, the People of the Goats;
+these tribes include the Isherifan of Gamram and the Kel Tamat, in
+addition, of course, to many others in Air. The Imuzurak round
+Tanamari, with the Imaqoaran, Ibandeghan, Izagaran and Imarsutan
+are tribes which seem to represent the earliest Tuareg stock in the
+neighbourhood; some of them certainly belong to groups which, when
+the first migration into the plateau from the east occurred, never
+reached Air at all. The omnipresent Ifoghas reappear in Damergu
+near Tanut and roam northward; they are apparently cousins of the
+great division of the Ifoghas n’Adrar (Ifoghas of the Mountains),
+whose centre is around Kidal, north-east of Gao on the Niger. These
+Ifoghas of Damergu also I believe<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_53">[53]</span> to have been left here in the course of the
+westward migration of the first wave of Tuareg, though some of them
+may have returned east after the initial movement. The Tamizgidda
+of Air apparently also had a section in Damergu in Barth’s
+day:<a id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class=
+"fnanchor">[51]</a> their name connects them with “the mosque,” and
+they are said by this explorer to have been regarded by the Arabs
+in his day<a id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class=
+"fnanchor">[52]</a> as “greatly Arabicised, having apparently been
+settled somewhere near a town.” A tribe of the same name occurs in
+the west; they also may be remnants, powerful as they were in
+Barth’s days, of a westward migration from the Chad area, or
+possibly of a returning wave which is known to have reached Air.
+The Tegama in Damergu, says Barth,<a id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> “form at present a very
+small tribe able to muster, at the utmost, three hundred spears;
+but most of them are mounted on horseback. Formerly, however, they
+were far more numerous, till Ibram, the father of the present
+chief, undertook, with the assistance of the Kel Geres, the
+unfortunate expedition against Sokoto. . . .” But this fighting
+certainly occurred at a more recent date than 1759, when, according
+to the Agades Chronicle, they were at war with the Kel Geres. Barth
+adds that they were said originally to have come from Janet, near
+Ghat, that they were already settled in the south long before the
+Kel Owi came to Air, and that they are found on the borders of
+Negroland in very ancient times. Ptolemy speaks of a Tegama people
+beyond Air towards Timbuctoo and the middle Sudan. Hornemann, from
+what he heard of them, “believed them to be Christians,” says
+Barth; though the only reference I can find in this authority is to
+the fact that they were probably idolatrous. I think Barth’s
+reference is to a generic group, now called the Kel Tegama, a
+collective name for the people living in the southern part of the
+area known as Tegama, which is on the west side of the northern
+borders of Damergu. Among the Kel Tegama<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_54">[54]</span> to-day would be classed the Damergu Ifoghas
+and other tribes already mentioned. I fancy Barth has used a
+generic local and geographical name as a tribal name.</p>
+<p>The belief that they were Christians is, however, particularly
+interesting. It is possible that these Tegama were not Tuareg at
+all, and that Barth’s informants may have been referring to the
+nomadic Fulani who pasture their cattle in the area where he met
+them, round In Asamed and Farak, though his description of the time
+spent in their company certainly points to their having in reality
+been Tuareg. Their “customs showed that they had fallen off much
+from ancient usages,” for not only did the women make advances to
+the eminent explorer, but even the men urged him to make free with
+their wives. He adds that the women had very regular features and
+fair skins and that the men were both taller and fairer than the
+Kel Owi, many of them dressing their hair in long tresses as a
+token of their being Inisilman or holy men (“despite their
+dissolute manners”), a peculiarity which connects them with the
+Ifoghas of Azger, who also are a tribe of “marabouts.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+His general description of the Tegama, taken in conjunction with
+their hunting and cattle-herding habits, corresponds so closely
+with the appearance of the Ifoghas of Damergu to-day that there is
+little doubt that Barth is referring to them, and that he should
+consequently more accurately have written, not “the Tegama” but the
+“Kel Tegama.” He distinctly states that they acknowledged the
+supremacy of the Sultan of Agades rather than that of the Kel Owi
+leaders, which will be seen to point to their early origin in the
+country. Normally resident in Northern Damergu, they move to Tegama
+and Azawagh after the rains to feed their cattle, goats and camels.
+The conquests of the later Tuareg immigrants reduced them to a low
+stage of poverty and degradation, though they have retained their
+nobility of caste, race and feature to a remarkable degree.</p>
+<p>The history of Damergu shows clearly the predominant<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> rôle which the Tuareg played
+among the lower-caste Kanuri sedentaries and the nomadic Fulani.
+The prepotency of a noble race among people of inferior class is
+one of the most interesting phenomena of history. The Kanuri in
+Damergu are, and probably have always been, numerically the
+stronger; they are armed with bows and arrows, the weapon <em>par
+excellence</em> for bush fighting. The Tuareg was less numerous at
+all times, but everywhere, except in the west, where he has been so
+long associated with the Sudan as to lose his nobility, disdained
+any weapon but the sword, knife or spear. Like the knight in
+medieval Europe, the Tuareg has always held that the <em>armes
+blanches</em> were the only weapons of a gentleman, yet with all
+these disadvantages his prestige was sufficient to ensure an
+ascendancy which would have continued but for the advent of the gun
+and gunpowder. In Damergu this prestige ensured the maintenance of
+the Tuareg Sultanates until the advent of the French. In the
+Southland all legends continue to magnify his prowess.</p>
+<p>In Hausaland, at Dan Kaba in Katsina Emirate, a strolling player
+came one day to give a Punch and Judy show for the delectation of
+the village people, who were in part Hausa, in part sedentary
+Fulani, and in part nomadic cattle-owning Fulani. The old
+traditional play had been modernised, and although it was full of
+topical allusions to the Nigeria of 1922, enough of the past
+remained to show the reputation and moral ascendancy which the
+Tuareg enjoyed in the Southland. The showman’s apparatus was
+simple: divesting himself of his indigo robe, he arranged it on the
+ground over three sticks and crouched hidden beneath its folds. He
+had four dolls in all and worked them like those in our Punch and
+Judy shows in England. In the place of the squeaky voice of the
+Anglo-Saxon artist he used a bird whistle to conceal his words; the
+modulations of tone and inflexion in the dialogues and
+conversations between the puppets were remarkable. The Tuareg doll
+is the villain of the piece: his body is of blue rags, most
+unorthodoxly crowned with a white turban and armed with a huge
+sword and shield.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>
+Divested of the latter and crowned with a red turban, the same doll
+in the course of the play becomes the “dogari,” or native policeman
+of the Hausaland Emirs. The King of the Bush is a Fulani man,
+impersonated by a puppet made largely of orange cretonne with huge
+hair crest and bow and arrow. He suspects his wife, made of the
+same material but ornamented with cowries before and behind, of
+having relations with the Tuareg. She soothes and pets and sings to
+her suspicious husband, playing music on drums and calabash
+cymbals. Her mellifluous tones finally persuade him to go out
+a-hunting in the bush. Needless to say, in Act II she flirts
+outrageously with the attractive Man of the Open Lands, but is
+surprised by her husband <em>in flagrante delicto</em>, most
+realistically performed, whereupon, in the next act, a tremendous
+fight ensues. The King of the Bush, discarding his bow and arrow,
+fights with an axe, the Tuareg with his sword. The latter is
+victorious and kills the King of the Bush. The wife calls in the
+“dogari” to avenge her husband and to please her Southland
+audience. In Act V the Tuareg is haled off before the British
+Political Officer, presented in khaki cloth with a black
+basin-shaped hat like a Chinese coolie and the face of a complete
+idiot. In the ensuing dialogue the fettered Tuareg scores off the
+unfortunate white man continuously, but, as all plays must end
+happily, he is condemned to death. The execution of the plot is
+good, the technique admirable, although the performance was unduly
+protracted for our tastes. The one I witnessed lasted nearly four
+hours. The predominant rôle is that of the envied and handsome
+villain, the noble Tuareg. He is glorious in life and fearless in
+death.</p>
+<p>It is unfortunately impossible for lack of space to discuss the
+Kanuri or Fulani of Damergu. The latter affect the political life
+of the country but little. They shift continually to fresh tracts
+of bush or better water for the sake of their great black cattle,
+which used to be sold in the far north as well as in Hausaland.
+They do not mix with the Tuareg, though they are recognised by
+them, as anyone must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>
+recognise them, to be of a noble race. Slender, fine-featured, but
+dark-skinned, with the profiles of Assyrian statues, the Damergu
+Fulani are of the Bororoji section of this interesting people
+which, in the course of its sojourn and gradual movement along the
+fringe of the Sudan from west to east, has provided the ruling
+class in most of the Hausa States. The recent history of Sokoto, of
+Katsina and of Kano is their history. Their conquest of power in
+Hausaland is but another instance of the ascendancy of nobility and
+a glaring contradiction of the Socialist theory of equal birth.
+When they came to power they were illiterate and pagan and had no
+political virtues; their success was due to breeding and caste.</p>
+<p>The Bororoji are a darker section of the Fulani than many of the
+purer divisions in the south. In Northern Damergu they can be seen
+stalking through the bush with their herds of black kine, naked
+except for a loin skin and a peaked cap of liberty of embroidered
+cloth, but patently conscious of their birth. They come and go as
+they please, and no one interferes with them. Some may settle in
+towns or villages, living for a time on the produce of sales of
+cattle, in which they are rich. Most of them have no permanent
+habitation. A few can be seen in villages like Gangara, where they
+come to sell an occasional bull and buy a few ornaments or some
+such luxury as grain. Their women are slender, tall and straight,
+with fine oval faces and straight, jet-black hair. The triangular
+form of face from the cheek-bones to the chin is noticeable among
+the Bororoji as among the Rahazawa Fulani of the Katsina area, but
+the face is somewhat longer in proportion to the breadth than
+further south. Their appearance is Semitic, though the nose is
+never heavy but straight, and this is the case even more among the
+women than the men. Both sexes wear bead necklaces; the peaked
+cloth cap is the ornament of the men. The women have anklets and
+bracelets of copper and as many as six large copper curtain rings
+in their ears, the only disfigurement of their handsome faces. Of
+the customs, religion and<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_58">[58]</span> organisation of the Bororoji little is known.
+Like their cousins in the south, they anoint the wide-branching
+horns of their cattle, and when they drink milk, though none must
+be spilled, a little is left in the bottom of the calabash as an
+offering to the Eternal Spirit. The Fulani believe that one day
+they will return to the East, whence their tradition says that they
+came, but how or why or when they left this unknown home has not
+been explained. Obedient to tradition, numbers of them are settling
+year by year in the Nilotic Sudan.</p>
+<p>The last belt of bush between the Sahara and Sudan is reached a
+day’s march from Tanut. The Elakkos bush further east ceases
+completely in about Lat. 15° 20′ N.; on the road to Termit the
+vegetation becomes very scanty some way south of a belt of white
+sand dunes in Lat. 15° 30′ N.: north of them the country is pure
+steppe desert. The Damergu bush, however, extends as far north as
+Lat. 15° 50′ to the Taberghit valley on the eastern road to Air,
+and to Tembellaga on the western road. Damergu forms a salient in
+the line of the Sudan vegetation.</p>
+<p>The belt of sand dunes on the way to Termit is said to run
+eastward even beyond the Bilma-Chad road south of Agadem well, and
+gradually to broaden all the way; in the west it hardly reaches the
+edge of Damergu. Some fifty miles north of Talras in Elakkos the
+same zone of acacia trees, which occur in the hollows of the dunes
+on the Termit road, follows a depression called the Tegama
+valley.<a id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class=
+"fnanchor">[55]</a> The surface, like that of the steppe desert, is
+of heavy buff-coloured sand in long whale-back dunes.</p>
+<p>The Northern Damergu bush is different to the belt which runs
+along the southern side of the country. The trees and shrubs are
+principally of the acacia variety. The larger vegetation which is
+typical of the Sudan has disappeared, but the grasses and ground
+plants are still characteristic of the south. The burr grass which
+makes life burdensome to the traveller reigns supreme. The
+“Karengia” (<i>Pennisetum<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_59">[59]</span> distichium</i>) grows in clumps or small
+tufts some fifteen inches in height. In Northern Damergu the ground
+is densely carpeted with this grass. As soon as the summer rains
+are over it sheds a little seed with a crown of small sharp spikes.
+Leather and the bare human skin alone afford the burrs no hold; any
+other material seems to attract them irresistibly. In the presence
+of this pest the bush natives have found the only solution, which
+is to go almost naked; the clothed but unhappy European blasphemes
+until he is too weary to speak. Water is the only remedy; it
+softens the little burr and makes it possible to remove it without
+disintegrating entirely the mesh of one’s apparel, but water in
+this belt of land is scarce.</p>
+<p>The next watering-points after leaving Gamram are Farak, and
+Hannekar on the Menzaffer valley. The latter is now on the most
+direct road to Air, since the slightly more eastern track from the
+former point by In Asamed well to Tergulawen became impossible when
+the latter well was filled in during the late war. At Hannekar
+there is a large depression covered with thick undergrowth and
+small trees standing in a pool of water which lasts for some months
+after the rains. As the pool dries up, shallow wells are dug in the
+bed. The water supply at Farak is all contained in shallow wells,
+but as watering from them is a much slower process than sending
+cattle and camels to drink at a pool, it is customary for the local
+Tuareg and Fulani to stay in the Hannekar area as long as they can.
+After the rains and until the wells are re-dug at Farak there is
+consequently a period when there is practically no water there at
+all, as Barth found early in 1851. Nevertheless, since the
+permanent supply at Farak below the ground is greater than anywhere
+else in Northern Damergu, it has come to be considered the real
+starting-point of the eastern road to Air. Its importance as a
+rendezvous for pasturing tribes as well as for north-bound caravans
+explains the numerous disasters which have occurred there at the
+hands of Tuareg and Tebu raiders.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>North of Farak is
+a long hill falling away steeply on the side towards the wells. It
+gave Barth<a id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class=
+"fnanchor">[56]</a> the impression of forming a sharply defined
+southern border to the desert plateau between Damergu and Air. The
+existence of so marked an edge is, however, not borne out in fact,
+for no similar escarpment exists west of it on the road north of
+Hannekar, nor yet, as Foureau<a id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> points out, on the western
+road to Air, by Abellama. The hill of Farak, like another smaller
+one at Kidigi north of Hannekar, is an isolated elevation.</p>
+<p>Permanent habitation used to extend about one day’s march north
+of Farak, to the neighbourhood of In Asamed well, but after the
+latter was filled in, which I understand occurred during the 1917
+revolt, when Tamatut well, further east, and Tergulawen on the
+borders of Air were also destroyed, Farak became the last village
+of the Sudan. Neither in recent years nor of old, however, did it
+ever possess the same permanency or importance as Gamram. Farak was
+always liable to be deserted at a moment’s notice in times of
+danger. To-day the skin and straw huts of the Ifadeyen and Kel
+Tamat tribes are scattered about in the dense bush all over the
+district. The camps change from year to year. When I passed this
+way there were Isherifan near Guliski and Ighelaf south-east of
+Gamram, Ifadeyen at Farak, and Ifadeyen and Kel Tamat at
+Hannekar.</p>
+<p>Since the more direct road from Farak by In Asamed to Tergulawen
+has been abandoned, there is now no water for caravans between that
+place or Hannekar and the Air plateau except at Milen,<a id=
+"FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+which is one day south of the mountains. The present track from
+Farak, after crossing the Tekursat valley at a point near the site
+of In Asamed well, inclines slightly west and joins the direct
+track from Hannekar to Milen, running almost due north and south.
+The apparent angle made by the Farak-Milen track at In Asamed
+puzzled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> me when I
+came to plot it on paper from a compass traverse, for the
+extraordinary straightness of these old roads between important
+points, even in the rough hill country of Air, is very remarkable.
+I eventually realised that a line from Farak produced through In
+Asamed was on the direct bearing of the old well of Tergulawen.
+This disused track is the original southern end of what is called
+the “Tarei tan Kel Owi,” or Kel Owi road, in other words, of the
+main caravan track from Tripoli to Nigeria. The road in Air and in
+the south is usually called among the Tuareg after the
+confederation of tribes in control of the way. Down this eastern
+track came Barth and his companions in 1850-1.</p>
+<p>In Asamed, meaning in Temajegh “(The Well) of Cold Water,” was
+just over 100 feet deep; its existence shows that Damergu has been
+left behind and Azawagh has begun, for the former is a land of rain
+pools and shallow and seasonal wells, while the latter, north of
+the last Sudan bush, is a desert country with occasional very deep
+wells and no surface water. It is called Azawagh, a Temajegh name
+applied to several semi- or totally desert areas in the Sahara. The
+fact that it is not confined to the country south of Air must be
+borne in mind in seeking to identify the various areas referred to
+under this name by the Arab geographers. There is, for instance, an
+Azawad, a name corrupted in Arabic for Azawagh, north of
+Timbuctoo.</p>
+<p>North of the broad Tekursat valley, with scarcely any marked
+channel and sparsely covered slopes, is a low plateau with three
+small valleys, rejoicing in the uncouth name of Teworshekaken.
+Beyond is the Inafagak valley, and finally the smaller and probably
+tributary valley of Keta. From here to the Taberghit valley the
+bush thins out more and more; patches of bare sand become frequent,
+and the trees are considerably smaller. In none of these valleys
+has the rain-water left a definite bed of flow, though dry pool
+bottoms and short sections of channel may be seen here and there.
+The valleys are sometimes several miles from side to side; they
+were probably in the first instance longitudinal
+depressions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> between
+heavy sand dunes formed along the direction of the prevalent wind;
+the sides are even now of too recent formation and too permeable to
+spill the rain-water into definite beds along the bottoms.</p>
+<p>At the southern edge of the immense Taberghit valley the
+character of the country changes quite definitely. The surface
+becomes dotted with little hummocks where the sand has been washed
+against a small bush or piece of scrub; otherwise the ground is
+bare. The few trees are grouped in scattered clumps. The ground
+vegetation is no longer predominantly “Karengia,” but one of
+several kinds of less offensive and more useful desert grasses
+impregnated with salt. The best camel fodder, curiously enough, is
+the true desert vegetation. The animals eat it avidly on account of
+the salt it contains, and even long periods of drought do not
+conquer its obstinate greenness. Its nutritive power is greater and
+it is more wholesome than the luxuriant Southland fodder.</p>
+<p>At Taberghit a track runs direct to Agades by way of Ihrayen
+spring. When both the eastern roads were in use, the Hannekar track
+was used by people going to Agades, while the more eastern Farak-In
+Asamed route by way of Tergulawen was frequented by caravans bound
+for Northern Air.</p>
+<p>A day before reaching Milen well you feel very strongly that the
+Sudan lies behind. The last bush has been left near Taberghit. In
+front is an open depression perhaps five miles wide and not more
+than fifty feet deep: it contains no stream bed, but here and there
+patches of dry cracked mud indicate the formation of short-lived
+rain pools. East and west the same stark valley runs as far as eye
+can see. Its course is clearly defined and it is without
+intersecting basins or tributaries or curves. On the far crest are
+loose buff-coloured sand dunes and then a few small acacias. The
+levels gradually rise in a series of folds, one of which contains
+the closed basin and disused Anu n’Banka<a id=
+"FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>;
+another forms a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>
+valley called Kaffardá, which is like Taberghit but on a smaller
+scale. The folds lie parallel to one another along the line of the
+prevalent E.N.E. wind which always blows in Azawagh. This wind is
+one of the peculiarities for which the country is notorious. Both
+times I crossed this region it was blowing with great violence. In
+June it was suffocatingly hot; I camped one noonday to rest out of
+sheer exhaustion in a group of trees on the northern side of
+Taberghit. There was practically no shade: the leaves of the
+stunted trees were too thin to shelter even three persons. The
+temperature was over 110° F. in the shade, and visibility did not
+exceed a quarter of a mile, owing to the blowing sand and dust. Six
+months later I returned the same way. The same wind was blowing,
+but it was so cold at midday that I was unable to keep warm, even
+walking, with two woollen shirts, a drill coat, a leather jerkin
+and a blanket over my shoulders. Where a bush or sand dune offered
+shelter from the wind the sun was quite hot, but that night the
+thermometer fell to 31° F., after having registered 92° F. at 3
+p.m. in a sheltered spot in the shade. It was very unpleasant.
+Barth’s experience of the wind and cold of Azawagh was much the
+same as mine. He writes: “The wind which came down with a cold
+blast from the N.N.E. was so strong that we had difficulty in
+pitching our tent;”<a id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60"
+class="fnanchor">[60]</a> it was responsible for the most
+“miserable Christmas” he had ever spent. I was there a few days
+before Christmas in 1922 and can vouch for the accuracy of his
+verdict. Even the blinding glare and heat of June were preferable
+to the bleak cold of the winter nights.</p>
+<p>One effect of the constant wind is that the longitudinal dunes
+in Azawagh have retained their characteristic form more generally
+than further south. Their gentle rounded contours, which the wind
+tends to restore whenever the rain happens to have modified them,
+are characteristic. There is, of course, less precipitation here
+than further south, though it has been sufficient in Tagedufat to
+produce a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
+considerable growth of desert vegetation along the bottom of the
+valley, where there are a number of small trees and an abundance of
+every conceivable type of salt bush and grass. It is said at
+certain seasons of the year to produce the finest camel fodder in
+this part of Africa.</p>
+<p>All over Azawagh are numerous deserted sites where millet used
+to be grown on the sandy slopes. The people who cultivated this
+arid country lived in temporary tents and huts except further north
+between Tagedufat and Milen, and consequently no trace of their
+dwellings remains. The evidence, however, of cleared and levelled
+patches and of broken earthenware is as unmistakable here as in
+Damergu. Between Keta and Tagedufat there is a succession of such
+clearings. It is borne in upon one that this heavy buff-coloured
+sand country where only desert vegetation now appears to thrive is
+in reality quite fertile so long as it receives any rain at all.
+The climate has probably not altered enough in recent times to
+account for the desertion of Azawagh; it seems rather to have been
+due to a decrease of the population. The Kel Azawagh, according to
+tradition, were numerous at a time when Damergu was thickly
+peopled, and there was not enough land available there or in Air to
+satisfy the needs of a people squeezed between the south and the
+north, whence the population was constantly being driven into the
+Sudan. It is clear that the Kel Azawagh who made these millet
+cultivations in a zone of desert steppe must have been of a fairly
+sedentary disposition, for a nomad people would have contented
+itself, as the modern Tuareg inhabitants of Azawagh do, with
+grazing herds and flocks on the excellent pastures.</p>
+<p>In referring to the Kel Tegama a plea was advanced that the name
+was primarily a geographical one, and one not properly appertaining
+to a single tribe. The name Kel Azawagh, to which the same
+considerations certainly apply, is found to some extent
+interchangeable with Kel Tegama. Now it will be shown later that
+the Tuareg of Air and Damergu only reached these lands
+comparatively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> late in
+history; consequently an allusion in Ptolemy to a Tegama people
+appears to refer to a non-Tuareg folk in this or some other area of
+the same name. I see no reason to doubt that it was these Tegama
+and Azawagh areas which were meant by Ptolemy, and therefore
+conclude that before the Tuareg arrived they were possessed by a
+people to whom the millet clearings and village sites are probably
+due. The later Tuareg Tegama, or Kel Tegama, as we should more
+properly say, as well as the Kel Azawagh, were merely a section of
+People of the Veil who later lived in the areas, and in the course
+of time were named after them, though it is possible that the name
+Azawagh was one given by the Tuareg to an area previously called
+Tegama by its former inhabitants.</p>
+<p>We shall see<a id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61"
+class="fnanchor">[61]</a> that among the ancient divisions of the
+People of the Veil in the Hawara group is a Kel Azawagh. The
+peculiarities of the Hawara clans would not connote any sedentary
+instinct in this tribe, whether it lived in this or in another area
+called Azawagh; but when we find in the Tetmokarak tribe of the Kel
+Geres group now living near Sokoto (whither they migrated from Air
+through this Azawagh area) a subsection called Tegama, and when we
+have learnt<a id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class=
+"fnanchor">[62]</a> that the Kel Geres are almost certainly a
+Hawara people, we can be even more inclined to the view just
+suggested regarding the use of the names Azawagh and Tegama and the
+origin of the people at various times living there. As a tribal
+name Kel Azawagh has now disappeared. The French 1/2,000,000 map
+displays it in the valley between Agades and the Tiggedi cliff, but
+out of place, for when still in use it was applicable to an area
+rather further east. Although it is no longer a proper name, it
+serves the Ifadeyen who now live in Azawagh for a descriptive term
+of themselves in accordance with the usual practice regarding local
+tribal nomenclature.</p>
+<p>In the periods between the rains the village sites in
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> Taberghit or
+Tagedufat valleys watered at the deep wells of Tagedufat, Anu
+n’Banka, Aghmat, Taberghit and presumably Tateus, though I know
+nothing of the last named. All these wells have now become silted
+up by wind-borne sand, but could easily be cleared if the
+population returned, as the water has not disappeared.</p>
+<p>The whole area between Taberghit and Tagedufat is covered with
+small mobile dunes; the two valleys themselves are, however, free
+of them. There is no loose sand at all in the Tagedufat valley, a
+curious phenomenon probably connected with the eddies formed by the
+prevalent wind in the channel of a depression between the higher
+banks. If this were true, the existence of dunes at Kaffarda would
+conversely point to its being an isolated basin, and this indeed is
+probably the case. Anu n’Banka is in a little hollow, the sides of
+which are also covered with small dunes. The bottom itself is
+clayey and free from blown sand, showing traces of having been a
+rain-pool at certain seasons. Surrounding the depression are millet
+clearings and a little rock outcrop. It is the most southerly point
+in Azawagh where stone occurs, and the outpost of the more
+conspicuous rock formations of the Tagedufat valley.</p>
+<p>Although the first part of the descent into Tagedufat is
+imperceptible, the appearance of the ground has changed
+considerably on account of the small crescentic dunes of very fine
+white sand which overlie the heavier buff-coloured sand of the
+surface. The crescentic type is characteristic of young dunes in
+process of formation,<a id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63"
+class="fnanchor">[63]</a> their last stage being the long
+whale-back down of heavy particles which tend to settle or become
+cemented and eventually to support some vegetation. The Azawagh
+valleys present a series of interesting examples of the youngest
+type of dunes, which are still moving rapidly, superimposed upon
+the oldest fixed dune formations oriented along the line of the
+prevalent wind. It is curious that at no point has the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> fine and very mobile sand which
+is continually being carried in from the great Eastern Desert
+collected in large masses: the small crescentic bodies, the horns
+of which, of course, lie down wind, or, in other words, point west
+to south-west, are neither continuous nor contiguous. The
+underlying buff-coloured surface is covered with a number of small
+trees and scattered scrub or grass in isolated clumps. This
+vegetation becomes covered by the crescent dunes and in time
+uncovered as the white sand moves westward. Where this vegetation
+can be seen emerging from the crescentic formations on the windward
+side it is still alive, pointing to a fairly rapid motion of the
+body of sand. It is true that some of this desert scrub is
+sufficiently hardy to withstand a period of, it is said, as much as
+four years without any rain, and even then it only requires very
+little moisture in the air or some dew; the numerous small acacias,
+however, if wholly engulfed for any length of time, would die. Yet
+at no point is there either a wake of dead vegetation behind the
+larger crescentic dunes or even an unduly large proportion of dead
+trees. The progress of the small dunes is therefore undoubtedly
+rapid, and is due to the constant wind, which should, however, have
+tended to create larger masses. The crescentic dunes are rarely
+more than twelve feet high at the most; their individual area is,
+of course, relatively large owing to the very flat slipping angle
+of the fine grains. Barth records dunes as far as Tergulawen; but
+there is no evidence regarding the country east of this
+point,<a id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class=
+"fnanchor">[64]</a> which is probably too far north of the dune
+belt on the Termit road to be connected with that zone.</p>
+<p>The Tagedufat valley bottom, unlike the Milen and Taberghit
+valleys, is marked by a more continuous stream bed along which
+water flows every year for a short time during the rains. The most
+remarkable feature of the valley is a series of flat bare patches
+formed by the pools of rain-water; they are of no great size, but
+the surface is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>
+stained bluish-white by chemical incrustation. The Milen and
+Taberghit valleys, while possessing a few similar rain-pools, none
+of which survives for more than the briefest period, do not exhibit
+this complexion. The point is of particular interest in connection
+with a report given to me by my guide, Sidi, who was with me on the
+way south. He is a widely travelled and knowledgable man. He stated
+that the Tagedufat depression extended eastwards across the desert
+all the way to Fashi, and was marked along the whole of its course
+by such patches of chemical incrustation. My travelling companion,
+Buchanan, observed that the ground shortly before reaching Fashi
+was stained in the manner described. In the open desert, where in
+the immensity of space it is difficult to determine the direction
+of a very slightly accentuated valley, such noticeable features are
+valuable evidence.</p>
+<p>Considering the size of the Tagedufat basin south of Milen, the
+valley shown as extending towards Termit on the French 1/2,000,000
+map and called Tegemi (Téguémi), is perhaps a confluent, or even an
+inaccurate representation, of the main valley itself. A recent
+Camel Corps<a id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class=
+"fnanchor">[65]</a> reconnaissance from Talras to Eghalgawen
+possibly followed up one such affluent in the east bank of the main
+channel of Tagedufat. The importance of the Tagedufat valley from
+the hydrographic point of view cannot be over-stated.</p>
+<p>Directly the Tagedufat valley is crossed the rock outcrop on the
+north bank becomes a striking feature. Increasing in size towards
+the west, it falls away below the surface to the east. Crescentic
+dunes reappear between the outcrops and continue almost all the way
+to Milen. On the north side of Tagedufat, near the track, for which
+it serves as a landmark, is a prominent mass of black rock called
+the Kashwar (Stone) n’Tawa or Tawar. Far away to the N.N.E. the
+relief becomes bolder, rising to a group of small summits clothed
+with loose sand, called the Rocks of Oghum. The remains of some
+stone houses, at one time the southernmost<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_69">[69]</span> permanent settlement of Air, appear in the
+loose sand near the hills. North of Oghum in a little depression
+filled with acacias is Gharus n’Zurru.<a id=
+"FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+After a further stretch of dunes a small valley running northwards
+diversifies the general lie of the ground. It is called Maisumo,
+and contains another deep well which is still in use. This valley
+after a short distance runs into the Milen depression, with the
+conical hill of Tergulawen visible to the east and the little
+massif of Teskokrit to the west. The northern part of the latter
+group extends eastwards from the main summits as a steep ridge
+forming the northern bank of the Milen valley itself.</p>
+<p>East of Tergulawen again is a small and almost unknown group of
+hills called Masalet, where in recent years Kaossen, afterwards
+leader of the Air revolt in 1917, dug a well. It only yielded
+brackish water, which, though good enough for camels, proved too
+medicinal for the Tuareg, who filled it in again. It had been dug
+for political purposes largely in order to facilitate parties from
+and for the Southland participating in the yearly caravans which
+fetch salt from Bilma. Masalet was designed to obviate these
+parties making a detour along the River of Agades or via
+Eghalgawen: it provided an easterly watering-point in Azawagh
+corresponding with Tazizilet further north in Air itself. The
+unsatisfactory nature of the supply, especially for caravans
+engaged in crossing the eastern desert, did not, however, justify
+the risk of leaving so remote a watering-point available for Tebu
+raiding parties. The fact that Masalet was constructed in recent
+years is interesting, as showing that the Tuareg have not lost the
+art of locating deep water.</p>
+<p>The western road from Tanut to Agades via Aderbissinat and
+Abellama runs over much the same sort of country as that which I
+have just described between Farak and Milen. Aderbissinat well,
+seventy-five miles from Tanut and ninety-three miles from Agades,
+is a point of such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>
+strategic importance that the French from Zinder built a fort there
+during the war in order to secure their communications with Air. It
+has not been garrisoned of late, but proved of paramount importance
+during the operations of the column which marched from the south to
+relieve Agades during the rebellion of 1917. With the exception of
+the deep but copious well of Abellama, there is no useful permanent
+watering-place between western Damergu and Agades, as the spring of
+Ihrayen in the Tiggedi cliffs has too small an output to provide
+for many animals. Nineteen miles north of Aderbissinat the bush
+ceases. As at Taberghit further east, the country rises some 200
+feet to an average level of 1700-1800 feet above the sea. Beyond
+Timbulaga sand dunes appear on the level buff-coloured steppe,
+which is covered with the usual scanty vegetation of desert grass
+in tussocks.<a id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class=
+"fnanchor">[67]</a> The ground then slopes gradually down to the
+deep well of Abellama in Lat. 16° 16′ 30″ N. and Long. 7° 47′ 20″
+E. G. Abellama as a stage corresponds with Milen on the other
+road.</p>
+<p>On the easternmost or Tergulawen road Barth<a id=
+"FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>
+shows that the country is again substantially the same. South of
+the “spacious” well, which is in a depression “ranging east and
+west,” with sand-hills on the south side bearing a sprinkling of
+desert herbage, the country is covered with small dunes on a “flat
+expanse of sand, mostly bare and clothed with trees only in
+favoured spots.” To the north is a great sandy plain running as far
+as the Ridge of Abadarjan, where the level descends to the upper
+basin of the River of Agades. The area is covered with “hád,” the
+most nutritious of desert plants and the most characteristic of the
+desert steppe of Africa. In all parts of the Sahara the
+distribution of the plant marks the division between the Desert and
+the Sown. This “hád” of the border line advances or recedes,
+sometimes from year to year, according to the rainfall. It is the
+tidal mark of the desert.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>The northern part
+of Azawagh is geographically important, as it contains the
+transverse valleys which collect the southern rainfall of Air and
+carry it westwards into the Niger basin. The course of the Beughqot
+(Beurkot) and Azelik<a id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69"
+class="fnanchor">[69]</a> valleys is wrongly shown on the French
+maps. They do not unite until they have reached a far more
+southerly point than where they are shown to do so on the Cortier
+map. Furthermore, when they have joined, they turn S.W. and not
+S.E. A recent reconnaissance as far as Masalet proved that after
+these two valleys meet they turn west into a large depression which
+is probably the same one as that in which the well of Milen is
+situated, though it might, on the other hand, be the Tagedufat
+basin; this is a point which must for the moment remain undecided.
+On a solution of this problem depends the answer to the question as
+to whether Milen or Tagedufat is the principal basin into which the
+Air valleys east of Beughqot as far as Tazizilet drain. All that is
+clear is that they turn southwards and then westwards to join one
+of the two systems in question, and do not peter out in the desert
+as Cortier’s map suggests.</p>
+<p>West of Milen well the valley in which it is situated eventually
+joins the lower Tagedufat, which runs on S.W. or W. towards the
+Gulbi n’Kaba or the Tafassasset-T’immersoi basin. That the
+Tagedufat system does not enter the River of Agades over the
+Tiggedi cliff at some point near Ihrayen is probable owing to the
+fact that all this country has been subjected to a slight southerly
+tilt. The Tiggedi cliff, the Eghalgawen-T’in Wana massif, the cliff
+east of Akaraq and its continuation along the great valley, finally
+represented by the ridge of Abadarjan, as Barth rightly judged, are
+the northern boundary of this area, which slopes gently from north
+to south. The River of Agades receives hardly any left-bank
+tributaries.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>Milen well could
+never be found without a guide. The wide valley, with sand dunes on
+the south side and a steep north bank where the now omnipresent
+rock of Air appears, is bare, dry and stony. It shimmers in the
+heat. Teskokrit appears as a black mass in the west on a bank of
+milk-white mirage set round a group of trees. The bottom of the
+valley is a gravel plain with a small patch of bare rock in it
+which an unwitting traveller would most probably pass unheeding. In
+this patch of rock is a small hole with a large circular stone near
+by. The hole, barely three feet across, is the mouth of a well
+driven through hard sandstone all the way down to the water-bearing
+stratum, seventy feet below the ground. The mouth can scarcely be
+seen fifty yards away. The rounded stone is several inches thick
+and was said to have been used to cover up the mouth of the well to
+prevent its becoming silted up with driving sand.</p>
+<p>I came there in June, after more than forty hours’ march from
+Hannekar with four tired camels and two men, an Ifadeyen guide and
+an Arab of Ghat in the Fezzan. We had very little water left, so
+little, in fact, that it was all used in one pot to cook some rice
+for us three. The place was deserted and very lonely. The wind was
+driving the sand so hard that it stung the naked calves of my legs
+as I stood at the well with Ishnegga the guide, drawing water for
+the thirsty camels. Camels in hot weather drink a great deal, and
+hauling water in a two-gallon leather bucket from a seventy-foot
+well is hard work in a temperature of over 150° F. in the sun. The
+camels drank interminably. The last and best camel was still
+thirsty and remained to be watered. The beast was rather weak. It
+had a bad saddle sore, a hole about the size of a large man’s hand,
+in its back, and it was festering and full of maggots. We had all
+just done a journey of over 500 miles from Tanut to Termit and
+back, in thirty-five days, including nine days of halts, averaging,
+in other words, nearly twenty miles per marching day for twenty-six
+days. The camel had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>
+begun to drink. Then as we were drawing a full bucket the well rope
+broke six feet from my hand and fell to the bottom of the well with
+a splash. A vain hour was spent, while the rice cooked and got more
+and more full of sand, trying to fish up the rope and bucket with
+an iron hook made of the nose-piece of a camel bridle fastened to a
+knotted baggage rope. This too was lost after hooking the tangle,
+which it joined at the bottom of the well. Prospects looked gloomy
+as our thirst increased. I have distinct recollections of the sky
+and valley getting whiter and more metallic and the heat more
+intolerable. Finally, just enough rope was found by untying all the
+baggage to ladle up water a half-gallon at a time in a small canvas
+bucket. But the poor camel had to wait a long time to finish its
+drink, for the first of the supply to reach the top was used to
+refill the tanks.</p>
+<p>As I was leaving the well two men with three camels came in from
+the south. They had started to return to their own country in the
+hills, after an enforced sojourn in the neighbourhood of the fort
+at Tanut on account of their rebellious propensities in 1917 and
+1918. They had no possessions but three young camels, and had
+started with only enough water in one small skin for half their
+journey. The two men reached Milen, having drunk nothing for
+twenty-four hours. They were rather exhausted, but had fully
+expected to have to do another ten or twelve hours’ march the same
+night to the nearest water at T’in Wana, as they had only a
+calabash bottle and no rope with which to draw any more water. They
+had risked death sooner than stay a moment longer than was
+necessary in the south, even to collect enough well rope or
+equipment for a journey which most Europeans would consider
+difficult. It was very pleasant to give these two men, an old noble
+and his serf, some especially good cold water from a small canvas
+cooler which I had prepared. When the serf carried away a pan of
+icy water, he first offered it to his master, who drank it.</p>
+<p>The second time I came to Milen was in December.<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> There was such a crowd of people
+and of flocks belonging to the Ifadeyen watering that the supply
+was practically exhausted, and it took me five hours to get enough
+water for the return journey to Hannekar. But in June the camping
+grounds were deserted, for there was hardly any pasture during
+those last few days before the rains.</p>
+<p>The deep wells of Azawagh fall into two categories. The narrow
+wells, like Milen, Aouror, higher up the Milen valley, and Maisumo,
+are intended primarily for watering flocks. Their output is copious
+but slow, and not unlimited. Not more than two buckets can draw
+water comfortably at the same time: for watering flocks where time
+is not important and the animals can be brought in from pasture in
+small batches, these wells are adequate. Tagedufat, like
+Tergulawen, on the other hand, was a caravan well; it was broad and
+capable of watering a whole caravan rapidly. It became silted up
+with drifting sand, like the pasture wells, Anu n’Banka and Gharus
+n’Zurru. Of Aghmat, Tateus and Taberghit I have no details, but
+when Barth passed this way no stop was made at either of the first
+two, which were on his road. The supposition is that unless these
+wells were dug since his day, which is not likely, as the
+population of Azawagh had by then already decreased, they also were
+intended for pastoral purposes. They are now all silted up.</p>
+<p>The theory that the wells of Azawagh were made by the Ifadeyen,
+who have only recently come into this area for winter pasturage,
+was advanced to me, but my informant, who joined my caravan as an
+unbidden but welcome guest at Milen on my way south, was himself a
+member of this tribe, so the information is prejudiced. The wells
+are certainly very old and are probably the handiwork of the denser
+population which cultivated millet and had its permanent villages
+in the Taberghit and Tagedufat valleys. The pasture wells were
+regarded as the property of the tribe in the area, and now,
+therefore, of the Ifadeyen. The big caravan wells were under the
+tutelage of the keepers of the great highway to the south, the Kel
+Owi confederation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>
+and before them, therefore, of their predecessors in Eastern Air.
+These big wells were always considered to be free for passing
+caravans to use without let or hindrance at any time, except in the
+event of a feud being in progress between the Kel Owi and the
+owners of the caravan. Caravans, on the other hand, using pasture
+wells, could only do so with the permission of the tribe pasturing
+in the area. The latter, conversely, had no rights over the great
+wells. The maintenance of these rights is the origin of
+confederations like the Kel Owi, for the freedom of the great wells
+is a vital necessity to a society of caravaneers, and has to be
+retained by force if necessary. It accounts for such raids as those
+conducted by Belkho on Gamram, where the Isherifan had interfered
+with passing caravans just once too often.</p>
+<p>One of the Azawagh wells, Aouror, has been the object of much
+dispute among the Tuareg: there are inscriptions on a neighbouring
+rock recording the ownership and, to some extent, the history of
+the well. It would be attractive to think that “Aouror” meant the
+“Well of the Dawn.” It is not impossible, since Arorá or
+Aghorá<a id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class=
+"fnanchor">[70]</a> means “dawn” in Temajegh, and Aouror is almost
+the easternmost well of Azawagh. Like Milen, it is driven through
+the rock, but is only some four fathoms deep. Like Milen, too, its
+sides are scored by rope-marks which in places have cut deep into
+the hard sandstone. Wet ropes covered with sand of course cut into
+rock quite rapidly, but even so the antiquity of these wells must
+be considerable. The rock cutting, which no Tuareg to-day is
+capable of executing, is perfect; the walls are perpendicular and
+smooth; the plan is a perfect circle.</p>
+<p>Abellama and Aderbissinat in the west of Azawagh are deep
+caravan wells with good water; the former is in friable soil, and
+has a tendency to fall in.<a id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> These two, with
+Aouror,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> Maisumo and
+Milen, are the only live wells in Azawagh to-day.</p>
+<p>After a short gentle slope up, the ground descends from the
+ridge on the north side of the Milen valley in a series of long
+terraces to a basin, the lower part of which is known as the
+Eghalgawen valley. It joins either the River of Agades at the
+south-west corner of the T’in Wana massif, or turns south-west
+towards the Milen and Tagedufat basin; my own impression, based on
+native sources which are not wholly reliable, inclines to the first
+view. East of the watering-point of Eghalgawen, the valley runs in
+a fold, into which flows one of the Southern Air valleys. The
+actual stream bed is wide and well marked by the heavy annual flood
+which it carries away from the hills of Eghalgawen and T’in Wana.
+In character the lower part of the valley along the foot of the
+hills, with its short tributaries from this little massif, belongs
+to the Air plateau, and not to Azawagh. The vegetation in the bed
+is dense and heavy. Dûm palms (<i>Cucifera thebaica</i>) and large
+trees appear. Geographically and geologically the Air plateau has
+already commenced at the rocks of Tagedufat: actually, however, it
+is not reached till the River of Agades is crossed, for Eghalgawen
+is still held to be in Azawagh.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 6</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i06a"><a href="images/i06a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i06a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">RIVER OF AGADES: CLIFFS AT AKARAQ</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i06b"><a href="images/i06b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i06b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">SHRINE AT AKARAQ</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The cliff of Tiggedi, with its continuation eastward for some
+way beyond the Eghalgawen hills, is the southern shore of a wide
+valley which serves as a catchment for all the waters of Southern
+Air that do not escape by the south-east corner of the plateau into
+the Azawagh valleys previously described. The cliff is a geological
+phenomenon of great interest. At the point where the Abellama road
+descends into the valley some forty miles south of Agades the cliff
+is sheer for a height of over 200 feet. The path down from the
+general level of the desert to the dry alluvial plain, which forms
+the bottom of the River of Agades, is steep and rough. Standing at
+the top and looking east and west, it seems like a cliff on the
+sea-shore broken by capes and small inlets; the illusion of
+maritime action is remarkable. Westwards<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_77">[77]</span> at Marandet, though still a definite feature
+of the area, it is less abrupt; erosion has broken down the
+precipice, while the Marandet torrent has eaten away a ravine
+leading even more gradually up to the level of the desert.
+Eastwards, on the other hand, the cliff continues unbroken as far
+as the Eghalgawen and T’in Wana massif, where higher hills above
+the desert level take the place of the cliff itself. Though they
+form a salient in the line, their abrupt northern slopes continue
+the eastward trend until they come to an end near Akaraq, where the
+cliff reappears. Here again it is absolutely sheer, if somewhat
+less elevated; it is broken by a narrow inlet where the Akaraq
+valley, the only tributary<a id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> of any size on the south
+bank of the River of Agades, enters the main basin. At this point
+the cliff assumes the most fantastic form. The sandstone has been
+shaped by erosion into pinnacles and blocks of the strangest
+shapes. The Akaraq valley itself runs back like a cove in a
+cliffbound sea-coast; both banks are nearly vertical, decreasing in
+height as the level of the bottom gradually rises to the desert,
+where the bare rock has been deeply cut into by the water, lying in
+a semi-permanent pool in a very narrow gully. The bottom of the
+inlet is covered with luxuriant pasture and some fair-sized trees,
+while at the mouth, in the main valley, stands an island of rock
+with vertical sides to complete the illusion of a sea-coast.<a id=
+"FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+From the top of the cliff you may look across the great broad
+valley toward the mountains of Air that are scarcely visible in the
+north. No defined bank appears to limit the far slope of the basin.
+There is deep green Alwat pasture<a id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> in the nearer distance,
+merging imperceptibly into yellow grass and bare sand further
+away.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> The blazing
+glare and shimmering heat wash the feet of the cliff where a
+shelving beach of loose white sand has been thrown up against the
+rocks. The plateau at the top of the cliff is quite flat, and
+covered with a layer of small hard gravel over the rock. It is
+without any vegetation.</p>
+<p>The great valley bears several names. At the Akaraq inlet it is
+called Tezorigi. Opposite the Eghalgawen massif it is the T’in
+Dawin, and further west the Araten valley. West again it has no
+name, but where it finally leaves the mountains of Air for the
+Assawas swamp on the way to the T’immersoi basin, the natives call
+it the Ighazar n’Agades, or River of Agades, from the city which
+stands on its northern shore, and this is the name I have adopted
+for the whole. How far the cliffs extend eastward I do not know. A
+great fork in the valley is visible from Akaraq, the channel is
+divided by a bluff promontory, but the cliff continues along the
+southern bank of the southern branch until it is lost from sight.
+The ridge of Abadarjan which Barth crossed north of Tergulawen, I
+expect, is part of the same formation.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 7</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i07a"><a href="images/i07a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i07a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">RIVER OF AGADES LOOKING SOUTH FROM TEBEHIC IN THE
+EGHALGAWEN MASSIF</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i07b"><a href="images/i07b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i07b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">EGHALGAWEN MASSIF FROM AZAWAGH</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Maritime action is highly improbable as the origin of the cliff.
+No traces of shells or beaches at different levels, to be accounted
+for by a receding sea, have been noticed. The supposition that all
+the Sahara was once a sea-bed is untenable, and in any case
+maritime action would hardly be limited to a few small areas such
+as this one. It seems easier to look for another explanation. The
+cliff and the Eghalgawen massif are a sandstone formation, but the
+Taruaji mountains of Air opposite the little Eghalgawen-T’in Wana
+massif are granitic. The cliff represents, I hazard, a fault north
+of which the igneous formation of the Air plateau has been
+extruded. The ground to the south slopes gradually away from the
+edge of the cliff, accounting for the virtual absence of any
+tributaries on the left bank of the River of Agades. There is
+apparently no igneous rock south of the basin, there is very little
+else to the north of it, with the exception of some Archean and
+very early rock. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
+fault, occasioned by the volcanic action which formed the massif of
+Central Air, erected a barrier to the southward drainage of the
+mountains, and the waters of Southern Air were diverted westward. A
+larger rainfall than now caused the gradual silting up of the area
+between the bottom of the fault and the southern part of the
+mountains. As the ground level rose and became an alluvial plain
+from which practically only Mount Gadé and the island off Akaraq
+emerge, the rain floods began to wash along the cliff and eroded
+the sandstone into the fantastic forms which are now seen.
+Wind-borne sand from the eastern desert completed the process of
+shaping the rocks. The accretion of alluvium diminished with a
+decreasing rainfall in Air, and the surface deposit of wind-borne
+sand formed what is now in dry weather a hard gravel-covered plain
+which, in the rainy season, turns into mud-flats and becomes almost
+impassable. The water flows aimlessly in the alluvium along
+deep-cut gullies with vertical sides that constantly change their
+course. The alluvial origin of the plain of the River of Agades is
+unmistakable.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc02">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class=
+"label">[44]</span></a>That is, “The People of Katsina.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class=
+"label">[45]</span></a>Chudeau has called this transitional area
+the Sahel Zone, but the name is borrowed from the north and does
+not seem to be used in the latitudes under discussion: cf. <em>Le
+Sahara Soudanais</em>, passim.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class=
+"label">[46]</span></a>Now called the “Colonie du Niger-Tchad.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class=
+"label">[47]</span></a>The natives pronounce the name Tasawa, but
+“Tessawa” is consecrated by European usage since Barth’s day.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class=
+"label">[48]</span></a>The plural of “Akri” in Temajegh.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class=
+"label">[49]</span></a>Wrongly spelt Gum<em>rek</em> by Barth,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. chap. xxi.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class=
+"label">[50]</span></a>Jean: <em>Les Touareg du Sud-Est</em>, p.
+15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class=
+"label">[51]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class=
+"label">[52]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, Vol. V. p. 554.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class=
+"label">[53]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, Vol. I. p. 529.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class=
+"label">[54]</span></a><em>Vide</em> Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+pp. 328 and 359, <em>et infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class=
+"label">[55]</span></a>On the French 1/1,000,000 map. Cf. <a href=
+"#app7">Appendix VII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class=
+"label">[56]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+521-2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class=
+"label">[57]</span></a><em>Documents de la Mission
+Foureau-Lamy</em>, Fasc. II. p. 206.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class=
+"label">[58]</span></a>There are other small wells in the immediate
+vicinity of Milen: cf. <em>infra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class=
+"label">[59]</span></a>Anu (plural Unan) means “well” in
+Temajegh.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class=
+"label">[60]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+523.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class=
+"label">[61]</span></a><em>Infra</em>, <a href="#c10">Chap.
+X.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class=
+"label">[62]</span></a><em>Infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class=
+"label">[63]</span></a>Cf. V. Cornish: <em>Waves of Sand and
+Snow</em> (Unwin).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class=
+"label">[64]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+523.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class=
+"label">[65]</span></a><em>Vide</em> <a href="#app3">Appendix
+III.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class=
+"label">[66]</span></a>“Gharus” means “deep” in Temajegh, and when
+thus used of places always signifies a “deep well.” This one,
+however, was silted up.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class=
+"label">[67]</span></a>Buchanan’s <em>Out of the World</em>, pp.
+128-30.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class=
+"label">[68]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+523.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class=
+"label">[69]</span></a>The indications on the Cortier map that the
+south-eastern and eastern valleys of the Air massif peter out into
+the desert in the direction of Termit are certainly inaccurate. Cf.
+1/500,000 Carte de l’Air, 2 sheets, Service Géogr. des Col.,
+1912.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class=
+"label">[70]</span></a>This word is believed to have been borrowed
+by the Tuareg from the Latin. <em>Vide infra</em>, <a href=
+"#c09">Chap. IX.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class=
+"label">[71]</span></a>The French are lining it with concrete.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class=
+"label">[72]</span></a>Unless, as has been mentioned, the
+Eghalgawen valley also joins the River of Agades, S.W. of T’in
+Wana.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class=
+"label">[73]</span></a>A similar island, but considerably larger,
+has been left isolated in the plain by the erosion of the water in
+the River of Agades; it is a low conical hill, rather similar in
+shape to the Tergulawen peak, called Mount Gadé, lying between the
+T’in Wana hills and Agades.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class=
+"label">[74]</span></a>A fleshy plant, growing about two feet high
+rather like a veitch, and containing as much moisture.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span><a id=
+"c03"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE CITY OF AGADES</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> Eghalgawen massif contains a number
+of watering-points. The pool of Eghalgawen is near the junction of
+a valley sloping down from the hills, the main valley here assuming
+the name of the watering-point. Abundant water exists all the year
+round under the sand in the bed near a low rock on the left bank.
+It has rather taken the place of Tergulawen well as a <em>point de
+passage</em> for caravans on the Great South Road, and used in the
+past to be a favourite resort for caravan raiders. The neighbouring
+hill, like the one at Tergulawen, is a well-known watch-tower in
+times of trouble, since both of them command the approaches to a
+strategic point.<a id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75"
+class="fnanchor">[75]</a> T’in Wana, Tarrajerat, Tebehic and some
+pools in the Isagelmas valley on the southern periphery of the
+Eghalgawen massif, are watering-points for the camels and flocks of
+the tribes which range over Azawagh, to-day the Ifadeyen. Their
+winter camping grounds can be seen all the way from Tagedufat to
+the River of Agades; they are readily distinguishable from the
+older permanent settlements of the original Kel Azawagh who grew
+millet in this area. Besides the Ifadeyen, the Kel Giga section of
+the Kel Tadek use the Eghalgawen hills and Azawagh pastures very
+considerably after the rains. The Ifoghas of Damergu rarely come so
+far north, since, having few camels, they lack incentive to seek
+these superlative desert pastures. Those members of this tribe whom
+I saw in Azawagh were typical in possessing only donkeys and goats,
+which of course will eat almost anything.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>After a 560-mile
+excursion to Termit and Elakkos, I rejoined my travelling
+companions, whom I had forsaken at Tanut, in the little massif on
+the south side of the River of Agades. They were camped a short
+day’s march from Milen, at the famous permanent pool in the T’in
+Wana valley. Of all pools in Africa it is of T’in Wana that I shall
+keep the pleasantest recollections. I was greeted by a fusillade of
+welcome and immediately went for a swim in the deep pool that had
+recently been filled by the rains. The channel cut by the water in
+the rock was in places fifteen feet deep. The pool had a sandy
+bottom, with a rock four feet high at one end for a diving
+platform. A length of twenty yards was clear to swim in, and then
+came a succession of smaller pools beneath the arches and
+overhanging sides of red and black rock. The erosion of the
+sandstone was most remarkable. There were witches’ cauldrons and
+buttresses and enchanted caves, with deep crannies in the tall
+vertical sides. In the wide valley above, masses of green bushes
+and branching palms seemed to make the place a heaven-sent garden
+of rest in a hot land. We were all very happy, and the camels were
+improving fast. Our men were delighted to see the mountains of Air
+again. My guide from the south, Ishnegga, who was of the Ifadeyen,
+found relations in a neighbouring valley. There were acquaintances
+on the road to gossip with and discuss. Poor Ishnegga shot himself
+accidentally some months later, as I heard from his beautiful old
+mother, whom I had met at Hannekar and saw for a second time on my
+way home.</p>
+<p>The sides of the T’in Wana ravine were covered with T’ifinagh
+inscriptions relating to the tribes that had pastured here in their
+time; they recorded the names of people, messages to and from their
+friends, and the professions of love of their men and women. The
+low hills behind were rough and without vegetation or soil; but
+some mountain sheep, gazelle and sand-grouse subsisted on the
+coarse grass in the ravines. The sandstone of the massif seemed to
+have been subjected to volcanic heat. A deposit of
+fossil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> trees among
+the rocks and boulders was found: a specimen piece picked up near
+Akaraq a few miles north-east had probably been brought from this
+deposit near T’in Wana. It was identified on my return as a
+Tertiary conifer, but the siliceous replacement had been too
+complete to permit of more detailed examination, except by
+microscope.</p>
+<p>A very pleasant camp was eventually broken, and Tebehic, on the
+north-west side of the hills, with two watering-places, was reached
+after crossing the Isagelmas valley, a collector for several small
+rivulets draining the western side of the hills. In spite of an
+attack of malaria, which overcame me, Tebehic proved most
+interesting, for I made friends with a family of Ifadeyen who were
+camping there during the rains. The man had some cows and supplied
+me with fresh milk, a great luxury after camel’s milk and the
+condensed sort out of a tin. He was a widower with several
+children, and quite charming. One of the children was suffering
+from a severe abscess in the right ear. It had been “treated” by
+blocking the orifice with a paste made of fresh camel dung and wood
+ash mixed with pounded leaf of the pungent Abisgi (<i>Capparis
+sodata</i>) bush. I suppose the mixture was intended to act like a
+mustard poultice, but the discharge from the abscess being unable
+to escape had been causing the child acute pain, which it was easy
+to relieve by clearing out the mess and washing the ear. The
+abscess having previously opened of its own accord, the pain ceased
+almost as soon as the “remedy” had been removed. It was the first
+of my “cures” as a doctor among the Tuareg, and laid the
+foundations of a great reputation!</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 8</p>
+<div class="figfloat">
+<figure id="i08a" class="iw11 float-left"><a href=
+"images/i08a.jpg"><img src='images/i08a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TIN WANA POOL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figfloat pb">
+<figure id="i08b" class="iw12 float-right"><a href=
+"images/i08b.jpg"><img src='images/i08b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ROCK OF THE TWO SLAVES, AT THE JUNCTION OF THE TIN
+WANA AND EGHALGAWEN VALLEYS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="clear"></p>
+<p class="space-above15">After a few days at Tebehic we proceeded
+to cross the broad plain of the River of Agades, whither one of my
+companions had preceded me. Memories of that plain are unpleasant.
+A day’s march from the shelter of the Tebehic valley we were
+overtaken by a violent thunderstorm right out in the open just
+south of T’in Taboraq. As a convalescent cure for malaria, designed
+to make any reputable European doctor shudder, I recommend
+getting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> up after
+three days in bed, marching six hours on a camel in the sun, and
+then spending two more holding up a tent in company with four other
+men in an eighty-mile-an-hour storm with a rainfall of
+three-quarters of an inch in about half an hour. The exertions of
+five of us were successful in keeping the tent up and the baggage
+dry, but proved tiring. As soon as the wind was over the five human
+tentpoles were turned on to canalisation, which soon became
+necessary to drain away the deluge. When this passed, a search over
+the countryside had to be instituted for articles of equipment
+carried away by the storm. The camp stove, an unwieldy cube of
+sheet-iron some fifteen inches each way, and weighing nine pounds,
+was found 3000 yards from the camp. But the storm had been
+magnificent. It had commenced at about 3 p.m. as a black cloud
+hanging over the Air mountains in the north. The wind, before it
+acquired full force, bore along a cloud of orange sand gleaming in
+the sun, which was still uncovered by the blue-black storm above.
+Suddenly everything seemed to be going on at once, sunshine,
+sand-storm, wind, purple squalls and a white uniformity of tearing,
+sweeping rain. By six o’clock it was all over. The sun set in a
+pale yellow sky behind the T’in Wana range. The northern hills grew
+slate-coloured and then black, and the storm went rolling on into
+Damergu, illuminating the night with lightning. Hitherto my worst
+experience of rain had been at Guliski in Damergu, when myself,
+three natives and our baggage lay in a hut nine feet in diameter;
+it rained all night, and slowly flooded us out. One felt the water
+rising among the blankets in an atmosphere of damp clamminess and
+native humanity. Then had come a hopeless dawn, but the air soon
+dried everything. Yet I had still to learn what storms in the
+mountains could be like.</p>
+<p>The north side of the River of Agades opposite Tebehic has no
+definite bank. The mountains of Air slope gradually down to the
+valley; they are intersected by larger and smaller valleys, forming
+a series of roughly parallel right<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_84">[84]</span> bank tributaries all in close proximity to
+one another. The widest of them are the Azanzara, Tureyet, Amidera,
+Teghazar and Telwa, most of which start north of the Taruaji
+mountains—the Tureyet and Telwa, in fact, have their head-waters in
+the Bagezan and Todra groups in Central Air. Some small villages
+lie among the foothills by these valleys, but it is dull country. A
+few small ill-grown trees and a little grass are all the vegetation
+on the succession of gravel patches which constitute the plain. The
+sight of the mountains of Air in front makes one want to hurry
+on.</p>
+<p>South of one of these villages the opening tragedy of the 1917
+revolution took place. A platoon of French Camel Corps, after
+completing their duties as escort to the Bilma salt caravan, had
+supervised the dispersal of the camels in their various tribal
+groups at Tabello, east of Bagezan, and were returning to Agades
+for a rest. They had been away perhaps a month and now were within
+a day’s march of the city. They knew nought of what had happened in
+Air, suspected absolutely nothing of the unfriendly disposition of
+the Tuareg. Near T’in Taboraq a large force of Tuareg, which had
+been lying in ambush behind a little hill on the northern edge of
+the plain, fell on the column as it was beginning its last day’s
+march into Agades post. A running fight ensued, in the course of
+which nearly the whole platoon of Camel Corps were destroyed. One
+officer, who was returning to France on leave, escaped southward,
+and a few wounded Senegalese “tirailleurs” found their way with
+difficulty into the fort at Agades, which had been attacked early
+one morning a day or two before while the garrison was out on
+parade. The revolution had been prepared for some time, with the
+connivance of the Sultan of Agades, by a Tuareg noble named
+Kaossen, an inveterate enemy of the French since 1900. The outbreak
+had been proposed by Kaossen and aided by the Senussiya and hostile
+elements in the Fezzan and Tripolitania as part of the anti-French
+and -British activities which continued in North Africa throughout
+the European war. The development in Air, however,<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> came as a surprise to the
+French. All the Tuareg in the plateau rose, and although the
+garrison at Agades held out for over three months in doubt and in
+complete isolation, the revolt spread into Damergu and fears were
+even entertained for the safety of Northern Nigeria. The defence of
+Agades and the arrival of a column from Zinder, acting in
+conjunction with another column from the Niger, eventually saved
+the situation. The heroic resistance of the garrison at Agades and
+the magnificent work of the military organisation of French West
+Africa, over these huge expanses of country at the end of 1917 and
+early in 1918, have probably never even been heard of, still less
+recognised, in England, where events nearer home at a most critical
+period of the war obscured the issue of “another minor incident in
+the Sahara.” The column from Zinder, in spite of a severe check on
+the way, was the largest single body of men ever successfully sent
+over a desert against a nomadic people. It is my privilege to
+record in England, I think for the first time, the courage of those
+gallant French soldiers who indirectly defended Nigeria. Their
+efforts in Air saved a British colony from facing a situation which
+might have become serious owing to the general depletion of forces
+there, as elsewhere during those tragic months of the Great War. I
+am happy to make this acknowledgment, both as tribute to the French
+soldiers whom I had the pleasure of meeting during the Great War
+and in 1922, and particularly because even in Nigeria the gravity
+of the 1917 revolution has never been sufficiently recognised.</p>
+<p>My route over the plain of the River of Agades lay in sight of
+Mount Gadé, a flat-topped hill standing alone to the south. The
+track used by parties from Sokoto passes this conspicuous landmark
+after crossing the Azawagh on the way to the rendezvous of the
+annual salt caravan at Tabello, under the eastern slopes of Bagezan
+in Central Air. After cutting this track we joined the
+Agades-Tabello road somewhat west of T’in Taboraq. East of this
+village the road passes through the other settlements which lie on
+the southern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> spurs of
+the Taruaji massif before it turns north to Tabello.</p>
+<p>The track now entered and wound along a valley called the
+Teghazar.<a id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class=
+"fnanchor">[76]</a> The small torrent bed was very sodden after the
+rain of the previous day. On either side were low hills of bare
+gravel with some rock outcrop beginning to appear here and there.
+On the low scarps or patches of loose stones a few ragged acacias
+had secured an existence, marking the foot of the Air hills along
+the River of Agades. Eventually the track rose up to the level of
+the highest undulations and we came in sight of Agades. Almost
+simultaneously two Tuareg on camels appeared on the road. They had
+been sent out from Agades with an accumulation of letters, months
+overdue, and a message to say that we were the guests of the French
+officers in the fort, about a mile north of the city. As the last
+fold of ground was crossed, by a steep bluff where Kaossen had
+constructed a military work during the siege of the French garrison
+in 1917, the whole length of the city came in sight on a low ridge
+to the south-west. The far end was marked by the stately tower of
+the Great Mosque, unchanged since Barth saw it more than seventy
+years ago. Straight ahead lay the French post, surrounded by a
+defensive wall flanked by blockhouses and containing the tall masts
+of a wireless station, near the wells of T’in Shaman in a
+diminutive plain where the Foureau-Lamy Expedition had camped over
+twenty years earlier. In 1917 there was no W/T station and scarcely
+any fort; the buildings were all disconnected and scarcely
+defensible.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 9</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i09"><a href="images/i09.jpg"><img src='images/i09.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AGADES</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The city of Agades used to be surrounded by mud walls, intended
+to baffle raiders rather than to withstand a siege. The distance
+along the line of their elliptical circumference, so far as it can
+still be traced, is a matter of three and a half to four miles. The
+wall has been much broken down and in some places is hard to find;
+its perimeter and plan seem to have varied from time to time
+according to the number of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_87">[87]</span> inhabitants. The best preserved parts are to
+the north-west beyond the Great Mosque, and to the north, where
+gates may be seen; there has evidently been considerable decay even
+since 1850.<a id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class=
+"fnanchor">[77]</a> At a distance the whole ridge on which the city
+stands appears covered with low, earth-coloured houses, for the
+most part without an upper storey. The regular sky-line is scarcely
+broken save by a few dûm palms and tenuous trees rising above the
+uniform level of the roofs. Only the tower of the mosque, like a
+finger pointing up to heaven, soars over the drab habitations.
+Their dull uniformity seems to enhance its dignity.</p>
+<p>Agades is not a Tuareg city. Its foreign aspect is at once
+apparent. Although it also struck Barth immediately, he was,
+curiously enough, not so much concerned with what is really the
+most obvious feature of the alien atmosphere as he was with the
+foreign language and origin of most of the people he met there. His
+wanderings perhaps brought him less into contact with the permanent
+settlements of the Tuareg in Air than my good fortune did me; he
+could not otherwise have failed to remark that the houses in Agades
+are those of a Sudanese town and not those of the People of the
+Veil.</p>
+<p>The most striking characteristic of the towns of the Sudan, of
+the immense walled cities of Kano and Zaria, as well as of the
+smaller places, is the mode of construction of the dwellings. There
+are two types of houses and in neither of them is stone used. The
+first type is the circular hut with a low vertical wall carrying a
+conical roof; the fashion extends throughout Central Africa. This
+abode is constructed of straw, or grass, or boughs, or of whatever
+material is readiest to hand. The ground plan is circular unless
+specific conditions have exerted a contrary influence, which occurs
+rather seldom. In the more advanced settlements of this sort in
+Northern Nigeria a development of the primitive form has taken
+place: it is a much larger structure with vertical mud walls which
+support the conical thatched roof,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_88">[88]</span> sometimes as much as twenty feet in diameter,
+standing within a compound. In many North Nigerian villages the
+dwellings consist exclusively of groups of such huts surrounded by
+low walls or enclosures.</p>
+<p>The second type of house in the large towns of the Sudan is
+many-roomed and formless. The whole building, including the roof,
+is made of mud and often has one or more stories. The flat roof of
+mud and laths is carried on rafters of dûm palm wood which is one
+of the only available trees that resists the invasion of the white
+ant. Houses of this type often cover a considerable area, rambling
+aimlessly hither and thither in rooms, courts and alley-ways,
+according to the requirements and fancy of the owner or his
+descendants. The mud construction at times displays architectural
+features of real distinction. The thick tapering walls are wide and
+smooth. The doorways have a pylon-like appearance reminiscent of
+Egypt. The heavy squat façades are by no means unimposing: deep
+cold shadows cast by angles and buttresses break up the surface of
+the red walls. The broad panels around the doors are sometimes
+elaborated with decorative mouldings or with free arabesque designs
+in relief. The larger rooms which cannot be spanned by one length
+of rafter are vaulted inside with a false arch of mud, concealing
+cantilever timbering; the effect is that of a series of massive
+Gothic arches, plain but often of noble proportions. Technically,
+mud construction is easy, inexpensive and adequate in a climate
+where the rainy season is short and well defined. Balls of mud are
+dried in the sun and cemented together with wet mud. The outer and
+inner walls are faced with a plaster of earth and chopped straw. In
+the hot tropical sun the walls dry as hard as stone. The houses
+survive for an unlimited period of time if the outside surfaces are
+refaced every year after the torrential rains have washed away the
+stucco skin. Roofs, of course, have to be carefully levelled and
+drained to prevent the water accumulating in puddles and, in time,
+soaking through the ceilings. Gutters are provided<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> with spouts projecting through
+the parapets of the roofs to prevent the water running down the
+sides.</p>
+<p>The rambling mud house and the circular mud or straw and thatch
+huts, grouped in compounds, together make up the towns and villages
+of Northern Nigeria. The two types may be seen side by side, for
+instance in the country between Kano and Katsina, where the Fulani
+and Hausa population is mixed. It would be interesting to
+establish, as <em>prima facie</em> seems to be the case, whether
+the circular houses were those of the sedentary Fulani, who are
+nearer the semi-nomadic state, and the more ambitious mud dwellings
+those of the Hausa. In neither of these two types of house is stone
+used, either as ashlar or as rough masonry. Nor do dry stone walls
+occur, for mud is more convenient even when stone is
+available.<a id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class=
+"fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+<p>When the Tuareg, on the other hand, builds permanent or
+semi-permanent dwellings, he displays characteristics which at once
+differentiate him from the people of the south. His straw and
+matting huts are not of the Central African type; they have no
+vertical wall of reeds or grass and a separate conical roof; they
+are built in one piece as a parabolic dome. Another, movable, type
+of hut or tent consists of a leather roof arched over four vertical
+uprights surrounded by matting walls on a square plan. The
+appearance of these tents is that of a cube with a slightly domed
+top. The permanent houses in Air are regular, carefully built
+constructions of stone and cement. In them mud is not employed
+except where the fashion of the south has been directly copied in
+comparatively recent times. The rambling house plan of the south is
+almost unknown. The Tuareg dwelling has a definitely formal and
+rectangular character. It rarely consists of more than two rooms.
+Even the exceptions to this rule<a id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> display considerable
+differences from the southern type of house.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>Both the temporary
+huts and the permanent dwellings of the People of the Veil,
+therefore, are intensely individual. They differentiate the Tuareg
+sharply from the southern peoples. But even a casual glance at the
+houses of Agades makes it obvious that they belong to a city of the
+south. There is plenty of stone all round the city which might have
+been used for building, yet nearly all the houses are rambling mud
+constructions like those of Kano or of any of the towns of Nigeria.
+The number of houses at Agades which reflect the formal Tuareg
+fashion of planning is small. The characteristics which one learns
+to associate with the truly Tuareg houses of Air are conspicuously
+difficult to find. When I was in Agades at the commencement of the
+rains before the annual refacing of the walls had been carried out,
+it was possible to observe the absence of stone building. An
+inspection of the broken walls of the many ruined houses confirmed
+this observation of the past. The number of pools in the town alone
+was evidence of the prevalence and antiquity of mud construction;
+Barth mentions the names of several of them. The borrow pits in the
+Sudanese towns, where water accumulates in the rainy season and
+rubbish is shot in the dry, are features which no one can escape,
+were it only on account of the smells which they exhale; for in the
+Sudan, even when stone is available as at Kano, it is not used. I
+have vivid recollections of Agades at this season and was
+particularly impressed by the efficiency of the spouts designed to
+carry the water off the roofs. Progress was necessarily circuitous
+in order to avoid drowning in the flooded holes and borrow pits,
+while distraction was afforded by a determined but usually
+unsuccessful effort to escape a series of shower-baths in the
+narrow streets.</p>
+<p>The ridge on which the city stands is surrounded by several
+depressions where are the wells that supply the needs of the
+population. In addition to those outside the town there were
+formerly nine other wells within the walls, but, like the pools,
+they were nearly all adulterated by the saline impregnation of the
+ground.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>I cannot here
+refrain from quoting Barth, whose capacity for meticulous
+observation depended on never missing an opportunity, however
+strange, of acquiring information. “The houses of Agades do not
+possess all the convenience which one would expect to find in
+houses in the north of Europe; but here, as in many Italian towns,
+the principle of <em>da per tutto</em>, which astonished Goethe so
+much at Rivoli on the Lago di Garda, is in full force, being
+greatly assisted by the many ruined houses which are to be found in
+every quarter of the town. But the free nomadic inhabitant of the
+wilderness does not like this custom, and rather chooses to retreat
+into the open spots outside the town. The insecurity of the country
+and the feuds generally raging oblige them still to congregate,
+even on such occasions. When they reach some conspicuous tree the
+spears are all stuck into the ground, and the party separates
+behind the bushes; after which they again meet under the tree, and
+return in solemn procession to the town. By making such little
+excursions I became acquainted with the shallow depressions which
+surround Agades. . . .” He then proceeds to enumerate them.<a id=
+"FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>
+The plain where the French fort lies is called Tagurast, that to
+the S.W., Mermeru; to the S.E. is Ameluli, with Tisak n’Talle
+somewhat further away to the S.S.E.; Tara Bere lies to the
+west.</p>
+<p>The city is divided into several quarters, the names of which
+are recorded on Barth’s plan. The only two I heard mentioned were
+Terjeman and Katanga, the former so called from the interpreters
+who used to live in the neighbourhood, the latter from the market
+where what Americans would term “dry goods” of the Air fashion are
+sold. Little seems to have changed in seventy-five years;
+necklaces, stone arm-rings, wooden spoons and cotton cloth can be
+bought, now as then. In the larger market near by, called by the
+Hausa name of Kaswa n’Rakumi (the Camel Market), live-stock of all
+sorts is sold. The vegetable market seems to be as ill furnished
+now as it was in 1850.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>I visited two or
+three private houses. They were not imposing, lacking the
+architectural features of the better-class houses in the Sudan. The
+use of white and colour washes in the interiors and on the outside
+walls was interesting. This practice is the only feature in which
+the houses of Agades differed from those of the Sudan; it appears
+to be peculiar in this part of Africa to the Tuareg, the habit
+having, no doubt, been copied from the north. The pigment is made
+of a chalky substance found near Agades, or of ochreous earths
+occurring in various places in Air. One of the houses which I saw
+was that of the Añastafidet, the administrative head of the Kel Owi
+tribes. The rooms were small and ill-planned; there was no attempt
+at decoration. The technique of the south had evidently not
+flourished in the atmosphere of the Sahara. The two plans of
+private houses reproduced by Barth give an idea of the rambling and
+haphazard designing.</p>
+<p>The most elaborate and well-kept house is the one which belongs
+to the Kadhi, near the Great Mosque. It must have been here that
+Barth attended several sittings of the Kadhi’s Court, adjudicating
+on inter-tribal matters which could not be settled by the tribal
+chiefs. It did not seem at all remarkable after the great houses of
+the Sudan, but was perhaps rather better kept than most of the
+other buildings in Agades. The people call it the House of Kaossen,
+and his family still live there. He carried on his intrigues from
+this place, and plotted with apparent impunity through 1917, until
+the time was ripe for open rebellion. He had returned from the
+Fezzan full of ambition to free his country from the white men whom
+he fought all his life. He had taken part in the operations against
+the French in Equatorial Africa, largely directed by the Senussiya
+from their “zawias” in Tibesti and Ennedi. When this period of
+hostility came to an end, but not before the French had sustained
+several severe reverses, notably during the fighting at Bir Alali
+(Fort Pradie), north-east of Lake Chad, Kaossen took refuge with
+the Azger Tuareg in the Eastern Fezzan,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_93">[93]</span> raiding and fighting with these lawless folk
+against their neighbours. Of his own initiative, but aided by the
+Senussiya and their Turkish and German advisers, Kaossen returned
+to his native country in 1917 with a small band of supporters to
+drive out the French, an effort in which he very nearly
+succeeded.</p>
+<p>By far the most considerable monument of the city is the Great
+Mosque. I was unable to visit the interior, but from the general
+appearance of the building I am sure that I should have agreed with
+the description of Barth, who wrote: “The lowness of the structure
+had surprised me from without, but I was still more astonished when
+I entered the interior and saw that it consisted of low narrow
+naves divided by pillars of immense thickness, the reason of which
+it is not possible at present to understand, as they have nothing
+to support but a roof of dûm-tree boards, mats and a layer of
+clay.” He goes on to speculate on the superstructure which these
+“vaults or cellars” may have been designed to carry but which was
+never completed. I do not think such speculation is necessary. The
+description fits accurately every one of the seven or eight other
+mosques in Air which I saw within and without. In none of them were
+the walls ever meant to carry an upper storey. In all of them the
+ceiling was low and the roof flat, with rows of massive pillars and
+the naves running transversely from north to south across the
+buildings, which were usually far broader than they were deep.</p>
+<p>The Great Mosque of Agades as it stands to-day was built in
+1844.<a id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class=
+"fnanchor">[81]</a> It would hardly be remarkable were it not for
+the minaret, which was rebuilt by the Sultan Abd el Qader in 1847
+to replace the one which had fallen. From a base thirty feet square
+resting on four massive pilasters in the interior of the mosque,
+this four-sided tower of mud and dûm-palm rafters rises to a height
+of between eighty and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>
+ninety feet, tapering from about one-third of its height to a
+narrow platform less than eight feet square at the top. Access is
+obtained by a spiral way between the solid core and the outer wall,
+which is pierced with small windows. From a little distance the
+foreshortening produced by the tapering faces gives the impression
+of immense height without accentuating the pyramidical form. The
+four-square, flat sides are bound together by transverse rafters
+projecting some three or four feet. These ends serve the purpose of
+scaffolding when refacing is necessary after the rains, an
+operation without which the tower would not have stood any length
+of time. Near the mosque is a heap of mud, the remains of an older
+tower called “Sofo,” presumably of the same type.<a id=
+"FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class=
+"fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+<p>The structure is properly speaking a minaret, but was used as a
+watch-tower in time of war. It is not now used for either purpose.
+The muezzin stands on the roof of the mosque below to call upon the
+Faithful at the prescribed hours to forsake their pursuits and turn
+to the only God. The Tower of Agades stands like a beacon, showing
+far over the monotonous plains. I remember this solitary pillar
+towering above a confused mass of low and ruinous buildings against
+the blood-red setting sun, which appeared and disappeared in the
+black clouds of an evening in the rains. The blue hills and sharp
+peaks of Air were distant in the north; to the south lay a drab
+plain, unbroken as far as eye could see in the gathering twilight.
+The Tower seemed like the lonely monument of a decaying
+civilisation.</p>
+<p>There are said to have been as many as seventy mosques in and
+near the city, but only two, I think, are still used. Outside the
+walls to the S.W. there is a shrine known as Sidi Hamada, “My Lord
+of the Desert,” appropriately named considering the barren nature
+of the ground all round. It is an open place of prayer of much
+sanctity, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> reputed
+to be the oldest Moslem place of worship in the neighbourhood. The
+Qibla is in a low bank, faced with a dry stone wall, which slopes
+down to the level of the surrounding ground a few feet on each side
+of the niche. On certain occasions prayers are said at Sidi Hamada,
+notably on the Feast of the Sheep, known to the Tuareg as Salla
+Laja, which I was fortunate enough to witness at Agades in June
+1922.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 10</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i10a"><a href="images/i10a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i10a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">GATHERING AT SIDI HAMADA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i10b"><a href="images/i10b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i10b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>It was made the occasion of much festivity. Every available
+camel in the vicinity was ridden by a Tuareg in the gayest saddle
+and bridle from the city to the shrine. These people do not feel
+that they are making the best of themselves unless they are mounted
+on a camel. A man and his camel are complementary and reciprocal to
+one another. When there is an occasion to celebrate they wear their
+best clothes and borrow any ornaments they can find to adorn their
+sombre garments. They are vain of their personal appearance and
+covetous of those pretty things which are considered in good taste,
+but their unselfishness is nevertheless remarkable. I have seen men
+forgo the real pleasure of wearing a silver ornament or a new face
+veil in order to lend them to a less fortunate companion whose
+general appearance was more ragged, or whose means and
+opportunities did not allow him to secure anything to smarten his
+turn-out. I had bought of the local jeweller-blacksmith in Agades a
+number of small silver ornaments of the sort which are affected by
+the Tuareg. All these, and even certain articles of clothing from
+our own scanty wardrobes, were borrowed for the day. It was curious
+to see that their sombre apparel was never lightened by any of the
+coloured materials so much in evidence in the Sudan. The
+best-dressed man is considered to be the one with the newest
+indigo-cotton robe and veil of the traditional plain design. At the
+most a red cloth is tied round the head over the face veil, or, in
+the case of the guides employed by the French, around the waist and
+shoulders: the robe must, however, always be plain white or dark
+indigo. The Tuareg of our<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_96">[96]</span> own retinue picked out the best of our camels
+to ride. They turned out a very smart patrol, the camel men Elattu,
+Alwali and Mokhammed of noble caste, with two or three buzus or
+outdoor slaves, and Ali the son of Tama, the Arab from Ghat.</p>
+<p>At an early hour the poorer people on foot began to stream over
+the tufted plain which lies between the place of prayer and the
+city. They were followed by little parties of men on camels, black
+figures on great dun-coloured or white riding beasts, girt about
+with their cross-hilted swords, and some also carrying a spear and
+oryx-hide shield. Finally, a larger group of men, preceded by three
+or four horsemen, was seen approaching. They were the Sultan of
+Agades, Omar, the Slave King of the Tuareg of Air, with his
+attendants, and the Añastafidet, a noble of the Kel Owi tribes,
+who, from the purely administrative point of view, is the most
+important man in the country. They were accompanied by the chief
+minister of the Sultan, the notables of the place, and other
+dignitaries. Among them was El Haj Saleh, the father of our camel
+man Elattu; he had performed the pilgrimage three times, in the
+course of which he had acquired the Arab fashion of dress used in
+the north. He wore the white woollen robe that is supposed to be
+descended from the Roman toga, with his head covered only by a fold
+of the cloth. El Haj Saleh has lived so long in foreign parts that
+he no longer veils his face and prefers speaking Arabic, but he is
+much respected as a learned and holy man; he is now employed by the
+French at the fort as Oriental Secretary and interpreter. With him
+were the Kadhi and the Imam, a solitary exception among the veiled
+Tuareg in the matter of display, for he had obtained from the south
+a buff-coloured silk robe embroidered with green. The Sariki
+n’Turawa, or chief minister of the Sultan, came next; near him
+gathered a number of Arab merchants from Ghat and Tuat in white
+robes; with one or two from the extreme west, there were a dozen or
+fifteen in all, who have the trade of Agades in their hands. Among
+them I perceived one Arab from<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_97">[97]</span> Mauretania, a little man with delicate,
+sensitive features and a brown beard. He came straight up to where
+I was standing to repay me a debt of five silver francs which he
+had incurred some months before at Gangara in Damergu.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 11</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw2">
+<figure id="i11"><a href="images/i11.jpg"><img src='images/i11.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">PRAYERS AT SIDI HAMADA, NEAR AGADES</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>When the crowd had collected, the men ranged themselves in rows
+facing east before the Qibla; the women stood together on one side.
+The Sultan and his party were immediately opposite the niche with
+the Imam facing them. He began to read the Quran and the multitude
+then prayed. On either side of the Sultan, as he knelt to make his
+prostrations, a Tuareg remained standing with his sword drawn,
+extended point downwards at arm’s length, in protection and salute.
+As the Sultan rose to his feet the guard sloped their swords,
+repeating the salute every time he bowed before the name of God.
+These two men are distinct from the officials in the local
+administration;<a id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83"
+class="fnanchor">[83]</a> they are the personal body-guard of the
+Sultan, chosen among the “courtiers of the king,” who are young men
+selected in turn from the tribes in Air which owe allegiance direct
+to the Sultan.</p>
+<p>After the prayers were over two sheep were slaughtered in the
+orthodox manner. Their throats were cut by the Imam, reciting the
+invocation of Islam, and the blood was wiped away with holy water
+to the accompaniment of suitable prayers.</p>
+<p>The Sultan and the people then returned to the city, making a
+detour by the N.W. side through the ruined suburb outside the walls
+and past the Great Mosque to the present palace, an indifferent
+building, both tumbledown and dirty. The reigning Sultan, Omar,
+like all his predecessors, is of slave descent. He was chosen in
+1920 by the tribes which have the right to elect him, from a
+collateral branch of the ruling family. He is a weak man, and too
+much in the hands either of interested advisers or of the French,
+which does not always mean the same thing. His<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_98">[98]</span> predecessor, Tegama, on the other hand,
+was a remarkable man. His intrigues with Kaossen were successful in
+preparing the revolution in Air so quietly that practically nothing
+was suspected of his intentions until the fateful dawn when the
+black troops on parade at the post were fired upon from the
+outskirts of the city. After the French columns had relieved the
+besieged garrison, both Kaossen and Tegama fled east to Kawar,
+whence the former found his way to the Fezzan, only to be killed,
+so it is believed, in obscure circumstances north of Murzuk by some
+Arabs. The native accounts of the story cast some doubt on his
+actual death on the grounds that his body was never found among
+those of his massacred companions. It is further represented that
+the very Turks and Senussiya whom he had served put him to death
+for his failure in Air, but it appears more probable that on his
+way to seek refuge with the Senussiya in Cyrenaica, Kaossen and his
+friends had the misfortune to fall in with a band of Arabs whom he
+had raided in the olden days, and to have been killed by them.</p>
+<p>The Sultan Tegama, on the other hand, betook himself to Tibesti,
+hoping to find sanctuary among the Tebu, who, though the hereditary
+enemies of the Tuareg of Air, were probably sufficiently hostile to
+the French to be counted on to harbour any prominent refugee from
+the wrath of the white man. By the influence of the Senussiya in
+these parts he expected to reach Kufra and so take up his residence
+among the malcontents who live in that remote land. Treacherous as
+ever and true to their reputation current all over North Africa,
+the Tebu entreated Tegama generously and took the first opportunity
+which presented itself to hand him over to a French camel patrol
+from Bilma. In the course of time he returned to Agades as a
+prisoner under an escort of negro Senegalese soldiers and was
+thrown into prison at the fort to await his trial by court-martial.
+He died suddenly one night in May 1922, by his own hand it is said,
+in the prison, while under the surveillance of the French, and he
+was buried. But one chief who was at the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_99">[99]</span> funeral told me that he looked under the mat
+which covered the alleged corpse and discovered that there was
+nothing there. The story spread that Tegama escaped and fled to the
+north, where he is still living. Perhaps it is better that this
+story should obtain credence than any other. Instead of Tegama, the
+French officer in charge of the post was court-martialled for the
+suicide of the king, but acquitted. The whole episode is curious,
+but the truth is perhaps rather unsavoury. It is another of the
+fierce tragedies of the Sahara.</p>
+<p>Before Tegama, Osman Mikitan and Brahim (Ibrahim Dan Sugi) were
+Sultans. Mikitan was Sultan when the post was first established at
+the wells of T’in Shaman, but they changed places several times in
+the course of the intrigues which took place between the passage of
+the Foureau-Lamy Expedition in 1899 and the occupation of Air in
+1904. In Barth’s day Abd el Qader, son of the Sultan Bakiri
+(Bekri), was on the throne. His tenure of office was as precarious
+as that of his successors, for he had been Sultan on a previous
+occasion before Barth reached Agades, only to be deposed in favour
+of Hamed el Rufai (Ahmed Rufaiyi), whom he again succeeded; they
+once more changed places some three years afterwards, Abd el Qader
+having reigned in all about thirty-two years, Hamed some twelve.
+The tenure of office of the Sultans of Agades during the last
+century has been as precarious as it was in Leo’s time, for we read
+in this authority<a id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84"
+class="fnanchor">[84]</a> that the Tuareg “will sometime expel
+their king and choose another; so that he which pleaseth the
+inhabitants of the desert best is sure to be king of Agades.” Bello
+in his history says the same:<a id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> “whenever a prince
+displeased them, they dethroned him and appointed a different
+one.”</p>
+<p>The installation of the Sultan with the customs that obtain is
+in the nature of a ceremonial recognition, by the representatives
+of the principal tribes of the Tuareg of Air,<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_100">[100]</span> of his elevation to office. Taken in
+connection with the traditional mode of his selection, it throws an
+interesting light on relationships of the various groups of the
+Tuareg in Air. Barth, who was in Agades on such an occasion, wrote:
+“The ceremonial was gone through inside the <em>fada</em> (palace);
+but this was the procedure. First of all Abd el Kader (Qader) was
+conducted from his private apartments to the public hall: the
+chiefs of the Itisan (Itesan) and Kel Geres who were in front
+begged him to sit down upon the <em>gado</em>, a sort of couch or
+divan, made of the leaves of the palm tree . . . similar to the
+<em>angarib</em> used in Egypt and the lands of the Upper Nile, and
+covered with mats and carpets. Upon this the Sultan sat down,
+resting his feet on the ground, not being allowed to put them on
+the <em>gado</em> and recline in the Oriental style until the Kel
+Owi had desired him to do so.<a id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Such is the ceremony,
+symbolical of the combined participation of these different tribes
+in the investiture of their Sultan.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>
+The throne-room in the old palace seems to have been more imposing
+than any part of the royal dwelling of to-day. The present audience
+chamber is a low, arched room, with a small daïs or seat at one end
+near a narrow stairway leading up to three rooms in an upper
+storey, which is now not in use. These rooms are lighted by small
+windows looking over the outer court. I wandered at random in and
+out of the palace except that small part which is still used by
+Omar himself and his women-folk. The deserted rooms were deep in
+dust and fallen plaster. The courts were infested with dogs,
+children and chickens. The palace was far less magnificent and
+certainly less well kept than many other houses in the city. Even
+the small house of the Añastafidet, with its mats and solitary
+carpet of horrid colours on the floor of the guest-chamber, was
+more cleanly.</p>
+<p>The present Sultan enjoys little or no authority;
+his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> predecessors,
+unless they were backed by the more important chiefs in Air, were
+almost equally powerless, for the position of the Sultan, or
+Amenokal, as he is called in Temajegh, is curious. It is said in
+the native tradition that in the early days there was no authority
+in the land other than that of the chiefs of the various groups of
+tribes, and these did not in any way acknowledge one another’s
+authority over affairs which interested the community at large. The
+groups and single tribes were constantly at war with one another,
+and there were then 70,000 people in the land, with no common
+ruler.<a id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class=
+"fnanchor">[88]</a> The more reasonable chiefs recognised that some
+figure-head at least was necessary, but they could not agree that
+he should be chosen from any of the principal groups of clans in
+Air. They therefore sent a deputation to Istambul or Santambul
+(Constantinople) to the Commander of the Faithful, asking him to
+appoint a Prince to come and rule over them. The Khalif called
+together the sons of his wives and offered them all the country
+from the land of the Aulimmiden in the west to Sokoto in the east
+(<em>sic</em>), and from Tadent in the north to the lands of the
+Negroes in the south. But Air was so far away that none of the sons
+of the Khalif was willing to leave the comforts of Stambul. The
+Embassy was kept waiting for three years. Finally the Commander of
+the Faithful, weakening before the tears of his legitimate wives,
+the mothers of his sons, selected the child of a concubine to rule
+over the Tuareg of the south. The candidate returned with the
+deputation to Air and from that day to this there are said to have
+been one hundred rulers in the land. This figure does not, of
+course, represent the exact number; it is only meant figuratively
+to indicate a long period of time.</p>
+<p>From the original impressions I had received in Air I came to
+the conclusion that the installation of the first Sultan could be
+assigned to the beginning of the fifteenth century <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span>, or, in other words, to a period prior to the
+capture of Constantinople by the Moslems. In the course of
+some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> research on
+the subject I discovered that 1420 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+had been suggested by one authority on the evidence of tradition,
+while the Agades Chronicle, independently of all this evidence, had
+recorded that the first Sultan, Yunis,<a id=
+"FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>
+ascended the throne in 809 <span class="sc2">A.H.</span>, or about
+1406 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span><a id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> The important thing in any
+case is that, if the story of his choice has any historical
+foundation whatsoever, it must be referred to a period when
+Christian emperors were still ruling in Constantinople. It is
+therefore all the more interesting to learn that the first Sultan
+was called Yunis, which means John, and that the wife of the first
+Sultan, a noble girl said to have been given to him in marriage by
+the Kel Ferwan tribe, was called Ibuzahil or Izubahil, a name
+bearing a curious resemblance to Isabel. It is a fitting name for
+the companion of John, the man from the distant land.</p>
+<p>If a deputation went to the Mediterranean at all, it was natural
+at this period that it should go to Constantinople, still regarded
+as the capital of nations, with which no other city in the
+fifteenth century could compare for civilisation or splendour. But
+we shall probably never know whether a Byzantine prince came to Air
+in 1406 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> or whether the names and
+legend of John and Isabel are only coincidence. Yunis is described
+as the son of Tahanazeta, and I must leave for others to discover
+Byzantine resemblances to this name. For the name of one of his
+successors, Aliso, I suggest Louis may have been our equivalent,
+and regarding the latter’s brother, Amati, who followed, comment is
+hardly necessary.</p>
+<p>Yunis reigned twenty years and was succeeded by Akasani,<a id=
+"FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+who was the son of Yunis’s sister. Elsewhere El Haj
+Ebesan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> or Abeshan,
+a son of Yunis, and his son, El Haj Muhammad ben Ebesan, are said
+to have reigned respectively as second and third Sultans, but this
+is not substantiated by the Agades Chronicle, which mentions El Haj
+Ebesan only as the grandfather of the sixteenth Sultan, Yusif, who
+came to the throne about 1594. From this record there appear to
+have been some forty rulers, several of whom reigned more than
+once, but there are certain gaps in the series.<a id=
+"FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class=
+"fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+<p>After the very first ruler the reigning family divided into two
+branches, which keep on reappearing, many of the Sultans of one
+being deposed by powerful tribes like the Itesan in favour of
+candidates of the other line. The family of El Guddala or Ghodala
+figures prominently with several notable rulers like Muhammad
+Hammad, who was known as the Father of his People. From such
+records as are available I have tried to recover the genealogy of
+this stock; but the Agades Chronicle is neither accurate nor
+complete;<a id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class=
+"fnanchor">[93]</a> although it is almost the only detailed
+information which we possess for the present. One noteworthy fact
+accords well with Ibn Batutah’s observations and with certain
+matriarchal survivals which will be referred to in detail
+hereafter: there are repeated instances of descent being traced
+through the female line. Nevertheless, this was not an essential
+condition. The ruler to this day is elected by the same tribes
+originally responsible for the elevation of Yunis to the throne: he
+must be drawn from one of the two branches of the original family,
+and his heir, subject to due and proper election, is normally
+considered to be his sister’s son.</p>
+<p>Being the son of a concubine or slave, the king, according to
+the rules of descent of all the Tuareg, was himself of slave caste,
+nor could he ever achieve the distinction of being ranked among the
+nobles. As it is the law among the People of the Veil that the
+child must follow the caste of the mother and not the father,
+whatever the latter’s claims, only the offspring of a noble Tuareg
+woman can be noble. In all<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_104">[104]</span> other matrimonial combinations the child
+must be a serf or slave. A slight distinction is sometimes drawn if
+only the mother is inferior, but it has the effect, at the most, of
+creating a mixed caste, without admitting the possibility of the
+child becoming a noble. When the problem arose of finding a wife
+for the first ruler who had been selected by the Khalif, despite
+the pre-eminence of his sponsor, tradition prevailed, that he was
+to be given a slave woman for wife. The arrangement had the
+advantage of perpetuating the status of the original Amenokal,
+since his children perforce had to continue in the inferior caste.
+For political reasons certain exceptions seem to have been made,
+and the Amenokal, though a serf, was also allowed to marry a noble
+woman, but in that case her children were not eligible. The
+marriage of John and Isabel—if she came from the noble Kel Ferwan,
+and not from Constantinople, as I suspect—may be an instance of
+such political dispensation. The restriction of the choice of the
+Amenokal to one of the two branches of the original family, and the
+force of tradition in regard to his descent, have resulted in the
+apparent paradox that in order to be Sultan of Agades the candidate
+has to be a slave. These considerations duly influenced the choice
+of the present Amenokal, Omar.</p>
+<p>Insignificant as his power nominally is, and unimportant as the
+office may practically be, many of the traditional stories which
+purport to explain the circumstances attending the Sultan’s
+elevation to the throne are probably fanciful. They may be accepted
+but still be fictions in the legal sense. Unless or until Byzantine
+researches can come to our assistance, the logical explanation, if
+there is one, must be sought. Shorn of romance, what appears most
+likely to have happened is that the Tuareg of Air at a certain
+stage were unable to reach any agreement regarding the selection of
+a head of the State. They were divided up into groups which their
+piecemeal immigration had accentuated. But the necessities of trade
+and caravan traffic made it essential for the common weal to have
+some sovereign or head, even if he were only a<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_105">[105]</span> nominal ruler, to maintain foreign
+relations and transact political business on behalf of the
+inhabitants of Air generally with the Emirates and Empires of the
+Sudan. Since none of the principal tribes was willing to forgo the
+privilege of providing the ruler, the expedient was hit upon of
+appointing a man whose status would never conflict with the
+authority of the tribal chiefs within the borders of the country,
+but who could still be delegated to speak for the whole community
+with the rulers of the Southland. With all the jealousy that exists
+among the tribes on the question of relative nobility or antiquity,
+the only people fulfilling the essentials were of servile caste.
+The choice of such a man was nevertheless possible among the
+Tuareg, for neither “imghad” nor slaves are despised or regarded as
+mere animals. This, I think, is the only explanation of the usage
+which obtains, that whatever may be the caste of the Amenokal’s
+children, only the servile ones are eligible. Although the family
+of the Sultan may include noble persons, it is, as a whole, a
+servile group in both its branches; it seems that Barth is mistaken
+in regarding the group as noble. The family may, as he says, be
+called “Sherrifa,” but probably only on account of its reputed
+origin. It is not considered any the more noble in the Tuareg sense
+of the word for all that.<a id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+<p>This does not exclude the possibility of the Constantinople
+Embassy being true, but the explanation I have given of the slave
+kings of Air seems to be sufficient on its own merits and also
+reasonable. Every factor in the situation points to the care which
+was taken to eliminate all possible chances of dispute; even the
+relegation of the choice to one servile family singled out for the
+purpose would tend to diminish friction. On the whole the procedure
+may be said to provide a rational if cynical solution of what has
+always been a difficult problem in all countries.<a id=
+"FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>
+Inasmuch as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> the
+explanation also serves to elucidate a number of other problems, it
+may be said to receive confirmation.</p>
+<p>Thus, the principal Minister or Vizir of the Amenokal is the
+Sariki n’Turawa,<a id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96"
+class="fnanchor">[96]</a> a Hausa term meaning the “Chief of the
+White People.” The White People are the Arab traders from the
+north, who themselves call this official the “Sheikh el Arab.” His
+functions are those of Minister for Foreign Affairs:<a id=
+"FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>
+his duties are to regulate the foreign community of Agades and
+settle all questions of trade with the outside world. Though
+originally appointed to deal with the Arabs of the north, he came
+eventually to have more to do with the Southland. He used to
+collect the duties on merchandise in Agades and accompany the salt
+caravans to Bilma, a service for which he received an eighth part
+of an average camel load of salt. After the salt caravan returned,
+the Sariki n’Turawa proceeded south with the camels returning to
+Sokoto, and then went on to Kano. The latter part of his journey
+had already been discontinued in 1850, but he still accompanies the
+salt caravan as the representative of the Sultan and nominal leader
+of the enterprise. In addition to these duties involving foreign
+relations, he is the Amenokal’s chief adviser and “Master of the
+Interior of the Palace,” with the Songhai name of “Kokoi Geregeri.”
+He is also known as the “Wakili” or Chief Agent of the king. The
+reason for the Chief Minister in Agades being also Minister for
+Foreign Affairs needs no further comment after what has been said
+of the Sultan himself and his <em>raison d’être</em>.</p>
+<p>Other officials and courtiers round the Amenokal include the
+Sariki n’Kaswa, or Chief of the Market Place, who collects the
+market dues and supervises the prices of commodities. There are,
+besides, police officials or policemen who are also the
+executioners, and a number of persons called after the class from
+whom they are chosen, the “magadeza.”<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_107">[107]</span> The word seems to be a corruption of
+“Emagadezi,” meaning People of Agades, but has acquired a more
+restricted meaning, and is commonly applied to a number of rather
+fat men who are reputed to be the posterity of the attendants of
+the first Yunis who came from Constantinople.<a id=
+"FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class=
+"fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+<p>By virtue of his own position the Amenokal enjoys very little
+authority. He is used as an arbitrator and Judge of Appeal. In
+cases where the disputants are both from the same group of clans
+their quarrel would normally be referred to the head of their
+aggregation, except amongst the Kel Owi, over whom the Añastafidet
+is the administrative authority, or court of the second instance;
+in minor matters the tribal chief can, of course, decide on his own
+initiative. But in disputes between persons of different tribes who
+cannot agree on the finding of the chief of either of their
+factions, the case may be referred to the Sultan, on whose behalf
+the Kadhi renders judgment. Such functions as the Sultan performs
+are executed with the consent of the governed. Although all serious
+cases might be referred to him in theory, in practice his authority
+has never run in local tribal affairs. He has a common gaol for
+criminals, used in the first instance for those of the city, but
+also for such as cannot be satisfactorily punished under the tribal
+arrangements of a nomadic and semi-nomadic people. There were cases
+when chiefs of tribes might be, and were, imprisoned at Agades, but
+then it was because the power behind the throne had so desired it.
+The Sultan apparently at one time also had a dungeon with swords
+and spears fixed upright in the floor upon which criminal
+malefactors were thrown; but already in 1850 it was rarely
+used.</p>
+<p>It cannot be too carefully emphasised that the rule of the
+Sultan as the elected head of the State of Agades was founded upon
+the consent of the governed. He is the figure-head of the community
+and performs the same useful duties which so many heads of more
+civilised States undertake. The Tuareg have probably never had
+occasion to discuss<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>
+the social contract, and the works of J. S. Mill or Rousseau are
+not current in Air, but nowhere are these theories of government
+more meticulously carried into effect or do they assume the
+practical form which they have often lacked in Europe. With all
+their aristocratic traditions of caste and breeding, the Tuareg
+have never favoured an established or hereditary autocracy. The
+government they prefer seems to be a democratic monarchy. Their
+king is a slave elected by the representatives of certain, at one
+time doubtless the most important, tribes; he exists and carries
+out certain functions because the mass of the people desire it so.
+Authority is not inherited, and even men of inferior caste may
+become chieftains. The evolution of society has also inevitably
+rendered the king dependent for support upon the principal men of
+the country, and the latter upon the smaller chieftains. Where
+there is much rivalry or where the ruler is weaker than usual the
+frequent changes and inconsistency inherent in democratic
+government ensue. Equally the ascendancy of one man’s personality
+independently of his position may override the voice of the people,
+but in the absence of organisation or bureaucracy the conditioning
+factor is efficiency and competence. Tribal leaders are selected
+because they can lead; when they cease to lead they are
+deposed.</p>
+<p>The unenviable position of the king and his dependence on the
+influence of the chiefs seem consequently to have been the same
+throughout the ages. Leo<a id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> refers to the practice of
+deposing one king and electing another from the same family who was
+more acceptable. Bello on the subject has also already been quoted.
+We have just seen how often and why Osman Mikitan and Brahim
+changed places. Barth recounts how in his day Abd el Qader was
+completely in the hands of the Kel Owi, who were represented by the
+dominant personality of their paramount chief, Annur. His own tribe
+was not even, as a matter of fact, among those responsible for the
+selection of the Sultan, but<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_109">[109]</span> his personality was such that the Amenokal,
+at his request, or with his support, felt himself strong enough to
+imprison three turbulent chiefs of the Itesan who were stirring up
+the people in Agades in favour of a pretender. Yet the Itesan, a
+tribe of the southern Kel Geres, are the foremost of the tribes
+responsible for the Sultan’s very election and his maintenance in
+power. Without Annur’s support, Abd el Qader was powerless.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<div class="figcenter iw2">
+<figure id="i12"><a href="images/i12.jpg"><img src='images/i12.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">OMAR: AMENOKAL OF AIR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I think that the persistence of tradition shows how essential
+the method devised for choosing the head of the community was, and
+is still considered to be among the Air Tuareg. Even to-day the
+Itesan retain their predominant voice in the election, though they
+live in the Sudan and are in part within the border of the country
+administered by the British Government, and though their king is in
+French territory hundreds of miles away. They were the deciding
+factor in the election, after the death of Tegama,<a id=
+"FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class=
+"fnanchor">[100]</a> of Omar from the collateral branch which lives
+with them.</p>
+<p>Only in rare cases was the Amenokal a leader in war. Muhammad
+Hammad is an instance in point, but it is clear he was an
+exceptional man. When raids had taken place or were threatening in
+such a manner as to affect the people of Air indiscriminately, or
+where individual tribes might not consider themselves sufficiently
+involved to occasion reprisals, the Sultan used to lead a
+counter-raid recruited from several clans and provisioned according
+to his direction from those groups most capable of supplying the
+needs. In no case could a Sultan lead a raid against an Air tribe,
+whether in the north or in the south, unless he had definitely
+thrown in his lot with a local intrigue, which theoretically would,
+and usually did, entail his eventual deposition. Within Air the
+Sultan was neutral, or as we should say “constitutional.” He could
+only take the field against people like the Aulimmiden of the west,
+or the Tebu of the east, or the Ahaggaren<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_110">[110]</span> of the north beyond the borders of his
+country. As a general rule, however, leading in war was the task of
+tribal chieftains and not of the king.</p>
+<p>The Amenokal does not seem to have had a fixed revenue. He lived
+principally on the presents given to him by the tribes on the
+occasion of his accession, and more especially by those tribes
+which owe allegiance directly to himself. He was entitled to
+collect a tax on foreign merchandise entering the city and a tithe
+from certain servile tribes in the southern parts of Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class=
+"fnanchor">[101]</a> In addition he had certain perquisites in the
+shape of judicial fines imposed on individuals and tribes, and a
+revenue from legitimate trading with Bilma during the great salt
+caravans.</p>
+<p>In considering the history of Agades one cannot fail to be
+struck by the peculiarity of the site.</p>
+<p>Elsewhere in North Africa, where any of the great caravan roads
+pass through areas of fertility which break up the journeys into
+sections, towns and cities, in some cases of considerable
+magnitude, have grown up. Where these settlements are near the
+margin of belts of permanent sedentary inhabitation, they play the
+part of termini or ports for the trans-desert traffic. They have
+become markets and the seats of the transport and produce brokers,
+a development which has its parallels in Arabia and Central Asia.
+There are many instances in Northern Africa of such terminal points
+becoming large and important centres: some of the more active of
+these “ports,” as they may be called, in the north are Sijilmasa,
+Wargla, Ghadames, Tripoli, Orfella and Benghazi. Corresponding with
+them at the southern end of the various roads are Timbuctoo, Gao,
+Sokoto, Katsina and Kano.<a id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> In addition to that
+there are also the true Cities of the Desert. They have arisen in
+places where caravans can call a halt to rest and replenish food
+supplies, where water is plentiful, and sometimes also, where these
+requisites are present, at the intersection of important routes.
+These settlements are like island coaling stations in
+maritime<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>
+navigation, but they are not termini; they are particularly
+interesting ethnologically, for they often mark the ends of stages
+where the transport of merchandise changes hands. At these points
+one tribe or race hands over its charge to another group of people.
+They are thus entrepôts where goods are discharged and
+reshipped—not markets, but broking centres where the transport
+contractors and merchants who live at either end of the routes have
+their agents. A money market often develops, but the local trade is
+small, for it is confined to the requirements of the place and
+immediate neighbourhood. At all costs, either by means of a strong
+local government or by mutual consent, tribes which elsewhere may
+be at war with one another must be compelled to meet in peace to
+pursue their lawful occasions. The essentials for the growth of
+such centres are invariably the presence of water, pasture and, to
+a lesser extent, food. Where these factors can be obtained at one
+definite point only, the centre is fixed, whereas if there are
+several places all more or less equally convenient for the traffic,
+the settlement has a tendency to move under the influence of
+political changes. In Tuggurt, Laghuat and Ghat may be found
+instances where the centre has been unable to shift on account of
+geographical conditions; but in the Tuat-Tidikelt area the most
+important town of In Salah has had many rivals, which have
+prevented it acquiring the same compactness or prominence as, for
+instance, the city of Ghat. At the latter place a large permanent
+water supply in an arid country practically limited the choice of
+sites to one spot. A commercial city of paramount importance, if of
+no great size, sprang up in the earliest times and continued
+uninfluenced by political vicissitudes. As an entrepôt of commerce
+where there was peace at all times among the local population,
+where feuds and racial hostility were set aside within its
+precincts, where free trade was the oldest tradition and where an
+efficient municipal organisation did not seek to extend its
+influence far beyond the walls, Ghat developed a government similar
+to that of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>
+autonomous Hanseatic town. Ghat is the most interesting of all the
+cities of the desert, but the decline of caravan trade has brought
+ruin to its people and war among the tribes, which no longer have
+the material incentive of trade to refrain from fighting.</p>
+<p>On the eastern of the two central roads across the Sahara there
+is a stage where one would expect to find a town like Ghat, for to
+the south on both these routes there is a tract of desert to be
+crossed before reaching Kawar or Air respectively. But in the
+Eastern Fezzan the choice of locality was not restricted by
+geographical and economic considerations, and Murzuk, as the
+counterpart in modern times of Ghat, has consequently not always
+been the most important centre of the area. In early classical
+times Garama, now known as Jerma, some sixty miles to the north of
+Murzuk, was the capital of the Garamantian kingdom. When Jerma was
+destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh century, Zuila, probably the
+Cillala of the Romans, became the capital of the Eastern Fezzan,
+maintaining its supremacy even after conquest by the Beni Khattab
+in the tenth century. When in the fourteenth century the Fezzan was
+overrun by the people of Kanem the capital again moved, this time
+to Traghen.</p>
+<p>Air is the next stage on the road to the Sudan after crossing
+the desert to the south of Ghat. The requisites of water, pasture
+and food are found all over this vast oasis; the principal
+settlement might therefore be presumed to have changed its site
+under the influence of politics, and in a great measure this has
+happened, but the largest settlement in the country, the City of
+Agades, is comparatively modern and appears to owe its existence to
+political rather than to economic reasons.</p>
+<p>Standing on the north side of the valley which is named after
+it, Agades is in one sense a City of the Desert, since it lies on
+the edge of a Saharan oasis. In so far as it is a true desert city
+at all, it is the greatest of them, but, as we shall see, it has
+not quite the same characteristics as its smaller<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> rivals. Ghat, before the war,
+was said to number less than 4000 people, but may have attained
+double this figure at one time; the population of Murzuk was
+variously estimated at 2800 by Barth and at 6500 by Nachtigal;
+Ghadames is believed to have a population of about 7000. But Agades
+in the days of its prosperity must have contained not less than
+30,000 inhabitants.<a id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103"
+class="fnanchor">[103]</a> By 1850 the population had fallen to
+about 7000; ten years ago the number was estimated at 10,000.
+To-day there are not 3000 people in the half-ruined city, but the
+numbers are again increasing since the efflux of population after
+the 1917 revolution. These astonishing variations in population are
+a normal feature of desert cities, even as they are of harbours and
+seaport towns where the places are entirely dependent on conditions
+of trade, which is affected by political change; in the Sahara the
+mode of life of the surrounding nomads makes these fluctuations
+even more conspicuous.</p>
+<p>None of the considerations governing the site of other desert
+cities applies to Agades. It lies on the southernmost foothills of
+the Air mountains, and in the history of the country there has
+never been any danger of invasion except from the south. Some of
+the Tuareg, it is true, gradually penetrated Air from the north,
+and pushed south by the progressive occupation of the northern
+mountains, which the original population may not have been
+sufficiently interested or numerous to occupy and defend. Small
+raiding parties can always enter the country, but it is certain
+that with even inconspicuous opposing forces the success of an
+invading army approaching Air from any direction except the south
+is out of the question, owing to the difficulties of moving large
+bodies of men over the appalling desert which separates the plateau
+from Ahaggar or the Fezzan. The same conditions obtain in the east,
+and to a great extent in the west also. On the south only is the
+position rather<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>
+different. The steppe desert between Air and Damergu is neither so
+waterless nor so pastureless nor so deep as to preclude military
+operations from that direction. In point of fact Air was invaded on
+at least one occasion from that side with conspicuous
+success.<a id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class=
+"fnanchor">[104]</a> It is therefore anomalous that the capital of
+the country should have been located on the fringe of the
+mountains, where every road is defensible, in possibly the most
+vulnerable position which could have been chosen.</p>
+<p>Nor is the explanation to be found in such economic necessity as
+has dictated the choice of site in other examples of desert cities.
+Agades is some distance from the great north-south road which runs,
+and always has run, east of the Central massif of Air, leaving the
+country on its way to the Sudan at the water of Eghalgawen or
+Tergulawen. An alternative route to the Sokoto area branching off
+the main road in Northern Air and descending by the Talak plain and
+In Gall passes some distance west of the city. No caravan road
+suitable for heavily-laden camels passes through Agades for the
+north, owing to the barrier of the Central massifs, through which
+the tracks are difficult even for mountain-bred camels. The old
+pilgrim road from Timbuctoo to Cairo enters the western side of the
+Air plateau at In Gall or further north, and passes to Iferuan and
+so to Ghat without touching Agades. Ibn Batutah’s route shows that
+this was so in his day, as it certainly has been the case since
+then. Caravans from the south crossing the Eastern Desert for Bilma
+pass across Azawagh to the eastern fringes of Air without going to
+Agades, which would involve a detour, as was explained in referring
+to the importance of the well of Masalet.<a id=
+"FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class=
+"fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>While the trade
+routes of the country do not, therefore, provide an adequate
+justification for the choice of the site, climatic or geographic
+conditions have equally little bearing, for there are a number of
+points in Air where the pasture is good and where there is
+sufficient water to supply the needs of a large settlement. At
+Agades, as a matter of fact, the water is indifferent; while the
+surrounding gravelly plain, like the rest of the valley, is only
+covered with scanty vegetation, the neighbouring Telwa valley
+contains some pastures, but they are not abundant, and camels in
+the service of the local merchants have to be sent to feed as much
+as three or four days distant.</p>
+<p>If the conditions which had led to the growth of a city in Air
+had been of a purely economic order, it might have been anticipated
+that it would have occupied the site of Iferuan, the first point
+south of Ghat where a permanent settlement with plentiful water,
+pasture and land fit for cultivation was possible. So convenient is
+the Iferuan valley that caravans, in fact, usually do rest there
+for long periods to allow both men and animals to recuperate after
+the difficult stage to the north has been negotiated. Or, again, a
+city might have stood at the eastern end of the River of Agades at
+the north end of the stage across the Azawagh, although this
+position would have been less dictated by necessity than the first
+alternative, since the steppe desert of the south cannot be
+compared for hardship with the northern waste. It would
+nevertheless have been convenient, if somewhat exposed to raiding
+parties, as a point for the concentration of caravans crossing the
+Eastern Desert to Bilma, or in other words at the branching of the
+Salt Road and the north-south route. On its present site, Agades is
+out of the way for travellers from any direction who may be bound
+beyond the city. Some other explanation must then be found, and it
+occurred to me only when I had reached the city itself.</p>
+<p>The fact of the matter is that Agades is not the capital of Air
+at all. As we have seen, the city is not the seat of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> the central government because
+there is no real central government, and the King who lives there
+is not really King at all. Agades is only the seat of an
+administration set up in the first instance to deal with exterior
+affairs, and more especially those connected with the Southland.
+These affairs were in the charge of a figure-head ruler
+unconnected, except to a very minor degree, with the internal
+problems of the Tuareg tribes. When this is once grasped, Agades
+assumes a different position in the perspective of history and it
+becomes apparent that the site is really suited to the purpose for
+which it was intended. The place where the city lies is neutral as
+far as the tribes of Air are concerned; it has easy access to the
+Sudan yet is removed from the main roads, which are considered the
+property of certain groups of clans. But it follows that the
+character of the city must inevitably partake rather of the south
+than of the Sahara.</p>
+<p>Finally, there is the most conclusive evidence of all; during
+the early part of the Tuareg occupation of Air, there was no city
+of Agades at all; it fulfilled no need despite the caravan traffic.
+It was presumably not founded when Ibn Batutah travelled through
+Air, for he makes no mention of the name; although this is negative
+evidence, it is valuable in the case of so observant a traveller.
+By 1515, when Askia conquered the Tuareg of Air, Agades, however,
+was certainly in existence, since it is on record that he occupied
+the city for a year, “sitting down north of the town,” possibly at
+T’in Shaman. Marmol, moreover, is quite definite on the subject,
+saying that the city was founded 160 years before he wrote, a date
+which has been reckoned at 1460 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span><a id=
+"FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class=
+"fnanchor">[106]</a> We know that the first Sultans of Air did not
+live at Agades, but by inference it may be supposed that they soon
+came to do so, so that the date suggested is probably correct. With
+the advent of a figure-head king there sprang up a figure-head
+capital. The story of Agades is the story of its kings: the
+explanation of both is similar.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>What seems to
+have struck Barth most about Agades was that the people spoke
+Songhai and not Temajegh; it was, in fact, one of the few places
+left where the language of the greatest Empire of the Niger still
+survived. There is reason to believe that most of the Emagadezi are
+not of Tuareg race at all. The Songhai element is probably
+preponderant even now, four hundred years after the conquest of
+Agades by the Songhai king, Muhammad Askia, who planted a colony
+there. The face veil has been adopted universally, but the physical
+type of the inhabitants is much more akin to that of people of the
+south than to that of true Tuareg. The descendants of the Songhai
+conquerors are coarse, broad-featured people with dark skins and
+untidy hair, which is an abomination among the noble Tuareg. The
+same characteristics reappear among the inhabitants of certain
+points west of Agades on the south-western outskirts of Air, where
+the Songhai element is also known to have become established and to
+have survived. The people of Agades are hardly even considered as
+natives of the country by the rest of the inhabitants of Air. They
+are not classed as a group, like the inhabitants of other
+settlements in the mountains. It is rarer to hear the “Kel Agades”
+mentioned than it is to hear such exotic compositions as “Kel es
+Sudan” or “Kel Katchena.” The people of Agades are more usually
+spoken of as the “Emagadezi,” in much the same way as the Kanuri in
+the Air dialect are called “Izghan” and the Tebu “Ikaradan.”</p>
+<p>The family of the Sultan is foreign in appearance. The
+physiognomy of Abd el Qader, who wore the white face veil usually
+associated in the north with servile caste, was not, as far as
+could be seen by Barth, that of a Tuareg. His corpulence was
+equally a foreign peculiarity, despite which Barth considered him
+“a man of great worth though devoid of energy.” The personality of
+the present Sultan, Omar, has already been described; his dark skin
+and coarse features betray a very mixed ancestry. These
+peculiarities are not unexpected in a family descended through
+slave women, who may, of course, be of any race.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>The different
+races and languages of Agades would be interesting to study in
+greater detail. The name Terjeman, given to one quarter of the
+town, is evidence in the estimation of its inhabitants of the Babel
+which has occurred. Temajegh, Hausa, Kanuri, Songhai and Arabic are
+spoken; even the more exceptional Fulani, Wolof and Tebu are heard,
+while the advent of the French garrison with its negro troops has
+introduced further linguistic complications, and will, of course,
+in time accentuate the Sudanese element in the racial composition,
+for at no time do the morals of the ladies of Agades appear to have
+been beyond reproach. The consequences of city life are felt even
+here in the Sahara. The forwardness of the ladies so moved Barth to
+indignation that he discoursed at considerable length on the
+standards of conduct which should be observed by Europeans in these
+far countries towards native women. He no doubt owed much of his
+success to the respect in which he held the feelings of the people
+among whom he travelled. Rather than provoke criticism, he
+recommends explorers to take their own wives with them. A few pages
+further on, describing his journey through the Azawagh, he is again
+referring to advances of the Tuareg women of the Tegama. One
+appreciates his resentment at these importunities, but is inclined
+to speculate on the true inwardness of his thoughts. On one
+occasion at least his artistic feelings rather than his sense of
+propriety seem to have been offended, for he writes: “It could
+scarcely be taken as a joke. Some of the women were immensely fat,
+particularly in the hinder regions, for which the Tawarek have a
+peculiar and expressive name—‘tebulloden.’”</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc03">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class=
+"label">[75]</span></a>Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+523.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class=
+"label">[76]</span></a>Literally “a small river or torrent” in
+Temajegh.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class=
+"label">[77]</span></a>Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+454.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class=
+"label">[78]</span></a>This generalisation is not intended to cover
+exceptional examples of stone construction such as those in Sokoto
+Province.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class=
+"label">[79]</span></a>For the houses of Air see <a href=
+"#c08">Chap. VIII,</a> where characteristic plans are given.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class=
+"label">[80]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+477.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class=
+"label">[81]</span></a>According to Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol.
+I. p. 451; but the minaret was built in 1847, according to the
+Agades Chronicle (<em>Journal of the African Society</em>, July
+1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class=
+"label">[82]</span></a>This is the one to which Chudeau
+(<em>Missions au Sahara</em>, Vol. II, <em>Le Sahara
+Soudanais</em>, p. 64) refers as 980 years old according to
+tradition, presumably basing himself on the same information as
+Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 86. The date is improbable, as Agades
+was not founded at that time.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class=
+"label">[83]</span></a>Cf. Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p.
+829: “The king of this citie hath alwaies a noble garde about him.”
+Cf. <a href="#i11">Plate 11.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class=
+"label">[84]</span></a>Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p.
+829.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class=
+"label">[85]</span></a>Denham and Clapperton, Vol. II. p. 397.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class=
+"label">[86]</span></a>The same procedure is indicated in the
+Agades Chronicle, which also states that the Kel Owi give him an ox
+(<em>Journal of the African Society</em>, <em>loc. cit.</em>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class=
+"label">[87]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+422.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class=
+"label">[88]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class=
+"label">[89]</span></a>Isuf or Yusuf according to Jean, who is
+certainly wrong in this respect. <em>Op. cit.</em>, p. 89. Chudeau,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 70, gives his name as Yunis, as did my
+informants in Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class=
+"label">[90]</span></a>The date of the founding of Agades is a
+measure of confirmation: <em>vide infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class=
+"label">[91]</span></a>The second Sultan is given by Chudeau,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 64, as Almubari (El Mubaraki): a ruler of
+this name succeeded a Yusif whom he deposed in 1601; some confusion
+has probably arisen on account of Jean’s error in supposing that
+the first Sultan was called Yusuf instead of Yunis.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class=
+"label">[92]</span></a>See <a href="#app6">Appendix VI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class=
+"label">[93]</span></a>See table in <a href="#app6">Appendix
+VI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class=
+"label">[94]</span></a>Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+468.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class=
+"label">[95]</span></a>See also the remarks made in <a href=
+"#c12">Chap. XII</a> regarding the tribes which elected the
+Sultan.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class=
+"label">[96]</span></a>For the explanation of the sense which these
+words have acquired, see second footnote, Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. I. p. 471.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class=
+"label">[97]</span></a>The Tuareg have forestalled many European
+Powers in making their Prime Minister also Secretary of State for
+Foreign Affairs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class=
+"label">[98]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class=
+"label">[99]</span></a>Leo Africanus, Vol. III. Bk. VII. p.
+829.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class=
+"label">[100]</span></a>The influence of the Emir of Sokoto to
+which Barth has referred is exercised through the Itesan by virtue
+of their domicile near this city. Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. I. p. 468.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class=
+"label">[101]</span></a>Cf. Leo Africanus, Vol. III. p. 829.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class=
+"label">[102]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#map01">map</a> in Chap
+II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class=
+"label">[103]</span></a>My estimate of 30,000 inhabitants was
+arrived at locally without any books of reference. On my return I
+found that Barth had arrived at the same figure, with a possible
+maximum of 50,000 (<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 472).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class=
+"label">[104]</span></a>The French operations of 1918 against Air,
+the occupation of the country from the south in 1904 and the
+passage of the Foureau-Lamy expedition are not considered, as the
+superiority of European weapons makes it impossible to compare
+these exploits with native enterprises, though the success of the
+first two and the appalling losses in camels and material of the
+last in a measure confirm the thesis.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class=
+"label">[105]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c02">Chap.
+II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class=
+"label">[106]</span></a>By Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+459, and by Cooley, <em>Negroland of the Arabs</em>, p. 26, as 1438
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span><a id=
+"c04"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE ORGANISATION OF THE AIR TUAREG</p>
+<p><span class="sc">On</span> 6th August, soon after noon, I
+marched out of Agades with twenty-six camels and eight men for
+Central Air. My two travelling companions had left the same morning
+with ten camels in the opposite direction, bound for a point called
+Tanut<a id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class=
+"fnanchor">[107]</a> near Marandet in the cliff of the River of
+Agades. Some men of the Kel Ferwan, who were camped under the cliff
+south of the river, had brought information concerning a lion. At
+Marandet, it appeared, a cow had been killed and the trail of the
+offending beast was plainly visible; notwithstanding, Buchanan was
+unable to secure this lion or any specimen, or even a skull, so it
+proved impossible to classify the animal.</p>
+<p>Circumstantial evidence goes to show that the lion still exists
+in Air, but is nevertheless very rare. In the Tagharit valley, a
+few miles north of Auderas, there is a cave in the side of a gorge
+which a large stream has cut through a formation of columnar
+basalt: a pink granite shelf makes a fine waterfall in the rainy
+season with a pool which survives at its foot all the year round. A
+lion used to live in this den until recent years, when it was
+killed by the men of Auderas because it had pulled down a camel out
+of a herd grazing in the neighbourhood. The carcase had been
+dragged over boulders and through scrub and up the side of the
+ravine into the lair; a feat of strength which no other animal but
+a lion could possibly have accomplished. When I came to the
+overhanging rock the ground was fœtid and befouled, and the
+skeleton of the camel was still<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_120">[120]</span> there and comparatively fresh. One of the
+men of Auderas who had been present at the killing secured a claw
+as a valuable charm; another had apparently been severely mauled in
+the shoulder. They had surrounded the “king of beasts,” as the
+Tuareg also call him, and had attacked with spears and swords.
+There was no doubt of the animal having been a lion.</p>
+<p>The cave in the Tagharit gorge is a short distance from the
+point<a id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class=
+"fnanchor">[108]</a> where Barth<a id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> saw “numerous footprints
+of the lion,” which he conceived to be extremely common in these
+highlands in 1850, albeit “not very ferocious.” In 1905 a lioness
+trying to find water fell into the well at Tagedufat and was
+drowned; her two small cubs were brought into Agades, and one of
+them was afterwards sent to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.<a id=
+"FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class=
+"fnanchor">[110]</a> This lion, however, may not have been of the
+same variety as the Air species, for the latter is said never to
+have been scientifically examined.</p>
+<p>The Air lion has been described as a small maneless animal like
+the Atlas species, though von Bary, who, however, never himself saw
+one, heard that it had a mane. He confirms the report that the
+animal was common, as late as in 1877, especially in the Bagezan
+massif, where it used to attack camels and donkeys.<a id=
+"FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class=
+"fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+<p>The advent of the rains during the latter part of July made
+travelling through Air in many ways very pleasant. But there were
+also disadvantages. With the first fall of rain the flies and
+mosquitoes came into their own again. The common house-flies were
+especially trying during my journey north of Agades. They infested
+the country miles from any human habitation or open water.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 13</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i13a"><a href="images/i13a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i13a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AUDERAS VALLEY LOOKING WEST</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw11">
+<figure id="i13b"><a href="images/i13b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i13b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AUDERAS VALLEY: AERWAN TIDRAK</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>South of Agades the rains proved a terrible burden. The combined
+onslaughts of flies, mosquitoes and every other form of winged and
+crawling insect made life intolerable for Buchanan’s party; meals
+had to be eaten under<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_121">[121]</span> netting and naked lights were rapidly
+extinguished by incinerated corpses. Camels got no rest. Even the
+hardened natives had recourse to any device to snatch a little
+sleep. They went so far as to make their beds in the thorny arms of
+small acacia trees in order to escape the plague. The alluvial
+plain of the River of Agades had become so soft as to be almost
+impossible to cross. Mud engulfed the camels up to their bellies.
+The drivers used to unload them and push them bodily over on to
+their sides at the risk of breaking their legs in order to let the
+brutes kick themselves free. The several stream beds of the system,
+even if not too swollen to be completely unfordable, had such
+perpendicular banks where the water had cut its way down several
+feet below the surface of the ground that they became formidable
+obstacles. The constant threat of rain made long marches
+impossible, though it was abundantly clear that the longer the time
+that was spent in the valley the worse the ground would become.
+Buchanan was rewarded for his disappointment at not finding a lion
+by securing near Tanut two fine specimens of ostrich and an
+ant-bear. He also reported the existence near Marandet of a
+cemetery in the bank of a stream bed. It was unfortunate that he
+had not time to examine this site, as it seems to be an example of
+urn burial, probably of pre-Tuareg date.<a id=
+"FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class=
+"fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+<p>Half a day’s march from Agades brought me to the village of
+Azzal on the valley of the same name, the lower part of which is
+called “Telwa,” the most convenient name for the whole of this
+important basin. Azzal and the neighbouring Alarsas<a id=
+"FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class=
+"fnanchor">[113]</a> are small settlements with a few date palms
+and some gardens. They were formerly inhabited only by serfs
+engaged in cultivating the gardens which supply Agades with
+vegetables. After the 1917 revolution in Air the noble population
+of certain villages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>
+in the Ighazar, which was evacuated, settled there temporarily
+under their chief, Abdulkerim of T’intaghoda. They were living in
+straw and reed huts, hoping in the course of time to return north
+and resume possession of the more substantial houses in their own
+country. During my stay in Air several families did, as a matter of
+fact, go back to Iferuan and Seliufet. But the presence of the
+remainder of these Kel Ighazar in the south is somewhat anomalous,
+as the country from the earliest times has been almost exclusively
+inhabited by servile people. The area, extending over the foothills
+of the main plateau, is not yet, properly speaking, Air, in the
+sense in which the name is used by the Tuareg. Like the desert
+further south, it is called Tegama.</p>
+<p>After following the Telwa for a short distance the track crosses
+to the left bank and winds over low bare hills and torrent beds. A
+little before reaching Solom Solom there is a wooded valley which
+the road leaves to cross a stretch of higher ground by a small pass
+covered with the remains of stone dwellings, the site, I presumed,
+of Ir n’Allem. The track is evidently very old at this point, for
+in places it has worn deep into the rock. The country is wild and
+picturesque, but the earth-brown hills are fashioned on a small
+scale. The district used to be infested by brigands who preyed on
+the caravans bound to and from Agades.</p>
+<p>The southern part of my journey followed the usual route, though
+Barth on his expedition from T’intellust to Agades travelled both
+there and back by an alternative track rather further east in the
+Boghel valley and via Tanut Unghaidan, which is not far from Azzal,
+where he rejoined the more habitual way.</p>
+<p>At Dabaga my road from Solom Solom rejoined the Telwa valley and
+crossed the stream bed after a short descent into a basin covered
+with dense thickets of dûm palms and acacias. The trees were filled
+with birds. The river was in full flood, over a quarter of a mile
+wide and some two feet deep—an imposing stream draining
+south-western<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>
+Bagezan and Todra into the River of Agades. I was luckily able to
+cross it with my laden camels, but some travellers only a little
+behind me were held up for several days by the floods which
+followed the heavy rain in Central Air. Travelling at this season
+of the year is slow, as camp must be pitched before the daily rains
+begin, usually soon after noon. On the other hand, it is very
+convenient to be able to halt anywhere on the road regardless of
+permanent watering-points; for every stream bed, even if not
+actually in flood, contains pools or water in the sand.</p>
+<p>Climatically Air is a Central African country. It is wholly
+within the summer rainfall belt, the northern limit of which
+coincides fairly accurately with the geographical boundary of the
+country at the wells of In Azawa. The rains usually commence in
+July, and last for two months, finishing as abruptly as they have
+begun. Within the limits of the belt, the further north, the later,
+on the whole, is the wet season, though great irregularities are
+observed. In Nigeria the rains fall during May and June, at Iferuan
+they occur in August and September.<a id=
+"FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class=
+"fnanchor">[114]</a> They are tropical in their intensity, and in
+Air nearly always fall between noon and sunset.</p>
+<p>During my stay at Auderas there were a few days when the sky was
+overcast for the whole of the twenty-four hours, with little
+rainfall; the damp heavy feeling in the air reminded one of
+England, as the atmosphere was cold and misty. On one particular
+day it rained lightly and fitfully for fourteen hours on end with
+occasional heavy showers. Such phenomena, however, are rare.
+Precipitation follows a north-easterly wind and usually lasts three
+or four hours; as soon as the westerly wind, prevalent at this
+season, has sprung up, the nimbus disperses rapidly, leaving only
+enough clouds in the evening to produce the most magnificent
+sunsets that I have ever seen.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>In 1922 the
+rainy season at Auderas was virtually over by the 10th September,
+though it continued a little later in the north. The rains were
+followed by a period of damp heat, and then by some days when the
+ground haze was so thick that visibility was limited to a few
+hundred yards. Until recent years there seems to have been a short
+second rainy season in the north of Air coinciding with the first
+part of the Mediterranean winter precipitation. In November near
+Iferuan I experienced several days on which rain appeared to be
+imminent, but none fell. Natives told me that up to three or four
+years previously they had often had a few days’ rain in December
+and January. In 1850 the last rain of the summer season, which,
+exceptionally, had begun as far north and as early as 26th May at
+Murzuk, was recorded on 7th October, but in November and December
+after a fine period the sky had again become overcast, and a few
+drops of rain actually fell in Damergu on 7th January, 1851. The
+cycles of precipitation in the Sahara are constantly varying and
+data are as yet insufficient to permit any conclusion. It would be
+quite incorrect, from the accounts of the last ten years alone, to
+suppose that the rainfall had markedly diminished, or that the
+second rainy season had disappeared.</p>
+<p>During the rains the larger watercourses meandering among the
+massifs of the country often become impassable for days on end,
+which is inconvenient, for in ordinary times they are the channels
+of communication. Owing to the lack of surface soil and vegetation
+on the as yet undisintegrated volcanic rock, streams fill with
+surprising rapidity during the rains and are very dangerous for the
+unwary traveller. The great joy of these weeks was the freshness of
+the air after the intolerable heat of June and July, especially in
+the plains. With the rain too came the annual rebirth of plant
+life, which made one’s outlook very sweet. In European spring-time
+Nature awakes from winter sleep, but in Africa a new world, fresh
+and green and luxurious, is born after the rains out of a
+shrivelled corpse of sun-dried desert.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>At Dabaga I was
+persuaded to forsake the caravan road which continues up the Telwa
+and take a riding road by Assa Pool and the T’inien mountains.
+Difficulties began at Assa, when I tried to pitch my tent on rocky
+ground, with the result that it was almost impossible to keep it
+erect in the rain squalls which followed. The evening, after the
+rain, was unsatisfactory. I wounded two jackals at which I had
+shot, but did not kill either. I missed several guinea-fowl and
+only secured a pair of pigeons among the dûm palms of the valley.
+Also, there were many flies. However, I made the acquaintance of
+one of the greatest guides in Air, Efale, who overtook me on his
+way north, and camped near me. He talked volubly that night. Next
+day, after dropping sharply into the T’inien valley by a narrow
+defile, the road became frankly devilish. At the bottom of the
+steep sides the soil is impregnated with salt, which effectually
+prevents anything growing. There are a number of circular pits
+where the sandy salt, called “ara” or “agha,” is worked. The
+mixture is dried in cakes and sold in the south for a few pence. It
+is only fit for camels, which require a certain amount of salt
+every month, more especially after they have been feeding on fresh
+grass. “Ara” can only be used for human food if the sand has been
+washed out and the brine re-dried.</p>
+<p>After leaving Assa the vegetation had almost entirely
+disappeared. Low gravel-strewn hills on the right obscured the view
+to the east. The T’inien valley soon made a right-angle turn to the
+north, closing to a narrow cleft, which became even rougher. The
+track was a series of steps between huge granite and quartz
+boulders, among which the camels kept on stumbling. Their loads
+required constant readjustment and there was no room to kneel them
+down. The way was really only fit for unloaded camels or riders on
+urgent business. There had not been a tree or bush for hours. We
+climbed some 600 feet in about a mile, almost to the very top of
+the jagged peaks on the left that marked the summit of the T’inien
+range. By 11.15 a.m. I was beginning to despair of finding a
+camp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> site before
+the rain was due, as I foresaw a similar unpleasant descent on the
+other side of the col which had so long been looming ahead. Then as
+I reached the gates of the pass a view over the whole of Central
+Air suddenly burst upon me in such beauty as I can never
+forget.</p>
+<p>The ground sloped imperceptibly to the east. It fell away only
+about a hundred feet to the north, where a row of small crags, the
+continuation of the T’inien range, cut off the western horizon.
+Straight in front in the distance, piled mass upon mass, the blue
+mountains of Central Air rose suddenly out of the uplands, soaring
+into the African sky. Between the bold cliffs and peaks of the
+Bagezan mountains and the long low Taruaji group to the right, a
+few little conical hills of black rock broke the surface of the
+vast plain which rolled away to the east. From so great a distance
+the plain seemed tolerably smooth, veined like the hand of a man
+with watercourses winding southwards from the foot of the
+mountains. Black basalt boulders covered the flat spaces between
+lines of green vegetation and the threads of white sand, where the
+stream beds were just visible. Over the whole plain the new-born
+grass was like the bloom on a freshly-picked fruit. To the
+south-east stood the blue range of Taruaji itself, flat-topped and
+low on the horizon. Either side of the hills the curve of the world
+fell gently away towards the Nile.</p>
+<p>I camped a mile or so north of the pass in a valley below the
+precipitous cliffs of a rock called Okluf, which has a castellated
+crown several hundred feet high. The rocks shone blue-black, with
+their feet in a carpet of green that seemed too vivid to be real.
+There were plenty of guinea-fowl and many other birds in the palm
+woods and thorn groves, and such grass as I thought only grew in
+the water meadows of England. I shall never forget the beauty of
+Central Air on that noonday in the rains, though I have it in me to
+regret the fiendish temper in which the day’s march had left me.
+The flies in the evening and the fast-running things upon the
+ground at night only made it worse. I had hurriedly and laboriously
+pitched a tent, and it never rained after all.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 14</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i14"><a href="images/i14.jpg"><img src='images/i14.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">MT. TODRA FROM AUDERAS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>On the following
+day I ascended the T’ilisdak valley which flows into the Telwa, and
+reached Auderas village, where some huts had been prepared for us
+by the chief Ahodu, a man who soon became my most particular
+friend. The T’ilisdak valley is renowned for its excellent grazing
+and for some mineral springs where men, camels and herds go after
+the rainy season to take a “cure” of the waters.<a id=
+"FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class=
+"fnanchor">[115]</a> Near Okluf there are the remains of several
+hut villages, and some with stone foundations of a more permanent
+character. They belong to a servile tribe of Southern Air called
+the Kel Nugguru, who at present are living somewhat further
+west.</p>
+<p>Air proper may be said to begin at the head of the T’ilisdak
+valley. The part of the plateau I had traversed was therefore still
+in Tegama, which includes the whole area south of Bagezan and Todra
+as far as the River of Agades, as well as the Taruaji massif, but
+not the country east of the latter and of Bagezan. Most of the
+villages in Tegama have gardens, and some have groves of date
+palms. That they are inhabited by serfs is, of course, natural,
+since the cultivation of the soil, in the estimation of the noble
+Tuareg, is not a worthy occupation for a man. When, however, in a
+nomad society agriculture is relegated to an inferior caste of
+people, it is inevitable that the practice should undermine the
+older allegiances. It becomes possible for the settled and
+therefore originally the servile people to accumulate wealth even
+in bad times when the profit from raiding or caravaning is denied
+to the upper classes of Air. The social effects of the disruption
+caused by the 1917 revolution may be observed in the village
+organisations, where people of different tribes are now tending
+more and more to live in association under the rule of a village
+headman, who for them is displacing the authority of their own
+tribal chiefs. The village headmen,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_128">[128]</span> it is true, are sometimes themselves the
+leaders of the tribes in whose area the village is situated, but
+more often they are merely local men acting on the delegated
+authority of the tribal chief, who in Tegama is probably the head
+of an Imghad or servile tribe dependent in turn upon some noble
+tribe living in a different part of Air. But in time the population
+of a village may become known collectively as the people of such
+and such a place, and so reference to the old tribal allegiance of
+the inhabitants disappears.</p>
+<p>Tuareg tribal names deserve close investigation. They are of two
+categories: those which begin with “Kel” (People of . . .) and
+those which begin with “I” or sometimes “A.” This “I” or “A” may be
+quite strongly pronounced, but often represents the so-called
+“neutral vowel,”<a id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116"
+class="fnanchor">[116]</a> which is very difficult to
+transliterate. Thus the word “Ahaggar” might as correctly be
+written “Ihaggar”; the initial vowel indeed is so little emphasised
+that the French have come to write simply “Hoggar” or “Haggar.” On
+the other hand, in the name Ikazkazan, an Air tribe, the “I” is
+marked; in the Azger tribe, again, the Ihadanaren, it is so lightly
+accentuated that Barth writes “Hadanarang.” This point, however, is
+of little moment: what matters is the question of the type of
+prefix to the name. To simplify reference I propose to call these
+two types “Kel name” and “I name” tribes. After examining the two
+categories at length, a distinction seemed to me to stand out
+clearly; I believe it holds good among other Tuareg as well as
+those of Air. The primary tribal divisions have names of the “I”
+category, except in certain cases where they are nearly always
+known to have been forgotten; the subdivisions of these tribes have
+“Kel names.” The former are proper names; the latter are derived
+either from the place where the people usually or once lived, or
+from some inherent peculiarity. The word “Kel” is also used to
+cover generalisations of no ethnic importance: the “I name,” on the
+other hand, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>
+scarcely ever geographical or adjectival. The generalisation will
+be clearer for a few examples, chosen among the Air tribes. The
+noble tribe called Imasrodang has for sub-tribes the Kel Elar, Kel
+Seliufet and Kel T’intaghoda, called after the villages where they
+lived in Northern Air. Again, the Ikazkazan have one section or
+group of sub-tribes called the Kel Ulli—the People of the Goats—who
+are themselves subdivided into other factions bearing “Kel
+names.”</p>
+<p>Certain other “Kel names” like Kel Ataram or Kel Innek are often
+heard in Air, but are not proper names at all; they were
+erroneously regarded by Barth as tribal names, but simply mean the
+“People of the West” and the “People of the East” respectively, and
+have no inherent ethnic significance. In Air the former term
+logically includes, and is meant to include, the Arab as well as
+the Tuareg tribes of the west.<a id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+<p>So clear is this use of geographical “Kel names” that we shall
+find repeated instances later on of tribes who, having migrated
+from a certain area, retain their old names, though these are no
+longer applicable to their new ranges. Take, for example, the Kel
+Ferwan—the People of Iferuan, in North Air; they now live in the
+southern parts of the country. Or, again, there are two Kel
+Baghzen, called after a mountain group in Central Air; the one
+group is still in that area, the other, which once lived there, has
+since migrated to the country north of Sokoto.</p>
+<p>In certain forms the word “Kel” corresponds to the Arabic word
+“ahel,” but the latter seems more usually employed in connection
+with wide geographical indications of habitat, without much ethnic
+significance, like Kel Innek. The use of this type of “Kel name” is
+the exception rather than the rule in Temajegh and has a colloquial
+rather than traditional sanction. The more common “Kel names,” on
+the other hand, are definitely individual tribal<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> names, and refer to small
+areas. They are not by any means restricted to sedentary
+tribes.<a id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class=
+"fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+<p>A third category of names commencing with the “Im” or “Em”
+prefix is regarded by Barth<a id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> as virtually identical
+with the “Kel” class, but this is not quite accurate. The “Im”
+prefix is used to make an adjectival word form of place names; the
+“Kel names” only become adjectival by prefixing “People of . . .”
+Thus “Emagadezi” would be more correctly translated as “Agadesian”
+than as the “People of Agades,” whose correct designation is Kel
+Agades. “I names” partake of neither of these characteristics. For
+the most part their significance remains unexplained. It follows
+that “Kel names,” although proper to the tribes that bear them,
+being descriptive or geographical, are certainly not so old as the
+individual and proper “I names.”</p>
+<p>There are examples of tribes which have lost their “I names” and
+are only referred to by a “Kel name,” though in many cases this is
+more apparent than real. When a tribe with an “I name” increases
+until the point is reached where it subdivides, one of the
+subdivisions retains the original “I name,” the remainder take
+other and, usually, geographical appellations. This process might
+be shown graphically:—</p>
+<table class="tree" id="map05">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col7">
+<col class="col7">
+<col class="col7">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8">
+<col class="col8"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="tdc">Original I name tribe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="brb"></td>
+<td class="blb"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="liner"></td>
+<td class="blt"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="brt"></td>
+<td class="blt"></td>
+<td class="brt"></td>
+<td class="blt"></td>
+<td class="brt"></td>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc-top">I name sub-tribe (as above)</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc-top">Kel name sub-tribe</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc-top">Kel name sub-tribe</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc-top">Kel name sub-tribe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="blb"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="bline"></td>
+<td class="brb"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="10" class="tdc">Collective Kel name often the same as
+one of the sub-tribe Kel names if the latter has come to play a
+preponderating part in the group.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>This difference
+of nomenclature has a definite bearing on the difficulties of
+co-ordinating sedentarism and nomadism in one people, which must
+have occurred to everyone who has studied the problem in
+administration. The exact relations between a village headman, the
+tribal chiefs of the persons who are living in his village and the
+tribal chief of the area in which the village is situated cannot be
+defined. One set of allegiances is breaking down and another has
+not yet been completely formed. This was already going on in Air
+when the position was complicated by the advent of a European Power
+demanding a cut-and-dried devolution of authority, and tending to
+encourage sedentary qualities in order to prevent raiding. These
+problems in Air to-day are almost insoluble, but they are of an
+administrative rather than of an anthropological order.</p>
+<p>Auderas at the present time is probably the most important place
+in Air after Agades. As an essentially agricultural settlement it
+is an excellent example of the village organisation. The valley of
+Auderas lies about 2600 feet above the sea. Seven small valleys
+unite above the village and two affluents come in below, draining
+the western slopes of Mount Todra and a part of the Dogam group.
+The main stream eventually finds its way out into the Talak
+plain<a id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class=
+"fnanchor">[120]</a> under various names. The sandy bed of the
+valley near the village contains water all the year round. Both
+banks are covered with intense vegetation, including a date-palm
+plantation of some thousand trees. Under the date palms and amongst
+the branching dûm-palm woods, where the thickets and small trees
+have been cleared or burnt off, are a number of irrigated gardens
+supplied with water from shallow wells. Some wheat, millet, guinea
+corn and vegetables are grown with much labour and<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> devotion. Onions and tomatoes
+are the principal vegetables all the year round, with two sorts of
+beans in the winter. Occasionally sweet potatoes and some European
+vegetables like carrots, turnips and spinach are grown from seeds
+which have been supplied by the French. Pumpkins do well and water
+melons are common. There is also a sweet melon. Three different
+shapes of gourds for making drinking and household vessels are
+cultivated. Cotton is found in small quantities, the plant having
+probably been imported from the Sudan. Its presence in Air is
+interesting, as in 1850 Barth had placed the northern limit of
+Sudan cotton in the south of Damergu. The cotton plant does very
+well when carefully irrigated and produces a good quality of fibre.
+Two samples which I brought home from Air were reported on
+respectively as: “good colour, strong, fairly fine 1³⁄₁₆ staple,”
+and “generally good colour, staple 1³⁄₁₆-1¼ inches, strong and
+fine”; the materials were respectively valued at 20·35 and 21·35
+pence per pound when American May Future Cotton stood at 17·35
+pence (May 1924).<a id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121"
+class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The Tuareg spin their cotton into a
+rough yarn for sewing or making cord, but in Air they do not seem
+to weave. The indigo plant grows wild in Air: it is not cultivated,
+nor is it used locally for dyeing.</p>
+<p>The gardens require much attention and preparation. The ground
+is cleared and the scrub burnt off as a top dressing. The soil is
+then carefully levelled by dragging a heavy plank or beam forwards
+and backwards by hand across the surface. The area is divided up
+into small patches about six feet square with a channel along one
+side communicating with a leat from an irrigation well. These wells
+are usually unlined and shallow, with a wooden platform overhanging
+the water on one side; on this a rectangular frame is set up with a
+second cross member carrying a pulley over which a rope is passed.
+An ox or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> a donkey
+pulls up the big leather bucket by the simple process of walking
+away from the well, returning on its tracks to lower it again. The
+bucket is a tubular contrivance, the bottom of which is folded up
+while the water is raised; when it reaches the level of the
+irrigation channel, a cord is pulled to open the bottom of the
+leather tube and the water allowed to run out. The other end of
+this cord is attached to the animal, and the length is so adjusted
+that the operation is performed automatically each time the bucket
+comes to the top. The pole and bucket with a counterweight and the
+water wheel are not known in Air for raising water; nor are any
+dams constructed either to make reservoirs in ravines or to
+maintain a head of water for flow irrigation in the rainy season.
+Each little patch in the gardens is hoed and dressed with animal
+manure. The seed is planted and carefully tended every day, for it
+is very valuable. Barth records seeing at Auderas a plough drawn by
+slaves. This was clearly an importation from the north; the plough
+is not now used anywhere in the country, which at heart has never
+been agricultural.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 15</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i15a"><a href="images/i15a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i15a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">GRAIN POTS, IFERUAN</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i15b"><a href="images/i15b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i15b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">GARDEN WELL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>As in the south, millet and guinea corn are sown during the
+rains, but they usually require irrigation before they reach
+maturity. In certain areas rain-grown crops could be raised most
+years. In the past a fair amount of cereals seems to have been
+produced in this way; to-day the Tuareg are too poor to risk losing
+their seed in the event of inadequate or irregular rainfall.
+Although the wheat grown in the Ighazar used nearly all to be
+exported to the Fezzan, where it was much in demand on account of
+its excellent quality for making the Arab food “kus-kus,” Air at no
+time has produced enough grain for its own consumption. In the
+economics of Air necessary grain imports are paid for by the
+proceeds of wheat sales or live-stock traffic with the north, and
+by the profits of the trade in salt from Bilma; these provide the
+means of purchasing the cheaper millet and guinea corn of Damergu.
+Any additional surplus, representing annual savings, is
+invested<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> in
+live-stock, especially camels, within the borders of the
+country.</p>
+<p>The breakdown of the social organisations of the Tuareg in Air
+compelled numbers of nobles out of sheer poverty after they had
+lost their camels and herds to cultivate the soil; before the war
+not even the servile people were very extensively so employed if
+they could find enough slaves to do the work.</p>
+<p>Neither the advent of a European Power nor the subsequent
+changes in the social structure of the country has had very much
+effect on the position of slaves in Air. Of these there are two
+categories,<a id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class=
+"fnanchor">[122]</a> the household slave and the outdoor slave, and
+both of them are chattels in local customary law. The former are
+called “ikelan,” the latter “irawellan,”<a id=
+"FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class=
+"fnanchor">[123]</a> or alternatively “bela,” “buzu” or “bugadie,”
+which, however, are not Temajegh words, but have been borrowed from
+the south. The term “irawel” is also used generically to cover both
+categories of slaves, although it primarily refers to the latter.
+In the use of this word Barth<a id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> makes one of the few
+mistakes of which he has been guilty, where he states that the most
+noble part of the Kel Owi group of tribes in Air is the “Irolangh”
+clan, to which the Amenokal or Sultan of the Kel Owi belonged. The
+paramount chief of his day, Annur, belonged to the Kel Assarara
+section of the Imaslagha tribe, which is probably the original and
+certainly one of the most noble of the Kel Owi, for it includes the
+Kel Tafidet, who gave their name to the whole confederation. The
+traveller’s mistaken reference to Irawellan or Irolangh
+is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> probably due to
+his having been informed by a member of some non-Kel Owi tribe that
+Annur and all his people were “really Irawellan,” or servile
+people. Such abuse of the Kel Owi is common among the other Air
+Tuareg. It is certainly not justified in fact, and is due to the
+contempt in which an older nobility will always hold more recent
+arrivals.<a id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class=
+"fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+<p>The negro slaves, the Ikelan, are primarily concerned with
+garden cultivation, and are consequently sedentary. One half of the
+produce of their labour goes to their masters and the other half to
+support themselves and their families. Ikelan also perform all the
+domestic duties of the Tuareg to whom they belong, and herd their
+masters’ goats and sheep if they happen to be living in the same
+neighbourhood. A certain proportion of the offspring of the flocks
+is also given to the slaves. Since, primarily, they are cultivators
+of the ground, they do not move from place to place with their
+owners. They consequently often escape domestic work and herding.
+Despite their legal status they are in practice permitted to own
+property, though, if their masters decided to remove it, they would
+be within their rights to do so. In other words, the theoretical
+status of slavery which makes it impossible for a chattel to own
+property has been considerably modified, and not as a consequence
+of the altered conditions, or of the legislation of a European
+Power, but because slavery among the Tuareg never did involve great
+hardship. Their slaves, furthermore, always had the hope of
+manumission and consequent change to the status of Imghad or serfs,
+a rise in the social scale which, in fact, often did occur. It was
+in slave trading and not in slave owning that the Tuareg sinned
+against the ethical standards which are usually accepted in Europe,
+and obtained so unenviable a reputation last century.</p>
+<p>Herding live-stock, and especially camels, is the primary
+function of the outdoor slave or Buzu. Though often also a negro,
+he is considered to possess a somewhat higher<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_136">[136]</span> status than the Akel, for he does not as
+a rule work in the house or village. The Buzu’s work, if on the
+whole less strenuous than that of the tiller of gardens, is felt to
+be more manly because he is associated with camels. He travels with
+nobles or Imghad, to either of whom he may belong. He does all the
+hard menial work on the march. He is responsible especially for
+herding the camels at pasture and for loading and unloading them
+each day on the road. Such duties as filling water-skins, driving
+camels down to water, feeding them on the march and making rope for
+the loads, all fall to his lot. The Buzu may even accompany his
+master’s camels on raids or act as personal messenger for his lord.
+When the camels are resting he spends his days watching the grazing
+animals, or looking after any other herds which his master may own
+in the neighbourhood. On the whole I have found the Buzu a
+remarkably hard-working person. He is almost useless without his
+master to give him orders and to see that they are carried out, but
+ready to undertake any exertion connected with his work, which he
+regards as his fate, but not his privilege to perform without
+complaint.</p>
+<p>It is difficult to determine whether there is any racial
+difference between the Buzu class, the tillers of gardens, and the
+ordinary household slaves. The first are more respected than the
+last, which may mean that they are more closely related in blood to
+their masters. The practice of concubinage, though not very
+widespread, has probably created the caste, and from them, in time,
+a certain proportion of the Imghad. While theoretically the
+children of a slave concubine and a Tuareg man ought to be “ikelan”
+like their mother, in practice they tend to rise into the superior
+caste of the Buzu, and eventually in successive generations to
+Imghad. In Air at least the general tendency is for the
+old-established caste distinctions to become more elastic and for
+the ancient order to pass away. Although the events of the last
+twenty years have contributed greatly to this change, the strongest
+factor has certainly been the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_137">[137]</span> increasing wealth of the Imghad, but
+another reason is probably that many Imghad tribes in Air were
+themselves originally Imajeghan before their capture in war or
+their subjugation by some means. Consequently with the dissolution
+of tribal allegiances in Air and enhanced prosperity they have
+tended to revert to their former status. They cling so tenaciously
+to nobility of birth that, rather than accept the logical results
+of inferiority consequent upon defeat in war, the people
+collectively combine to admit the fiction of servile people
+possessing dual status.</p>
+<p>The presence of more than one racial type among the Imghad has
+led certain travellers to make quite unjustifiable generalisations
+about this section of Tuareg society. There have also been advanced
+numerous and most unnecessarily complicated theories to account for
+the division of the race as a whole into these two castes. The
+problem is really much simpler. Although by no general rule can it
+be said that the Imghad originally belonged to this or to that
+people, they are all clearly the descendants of groups or
+individuals captured in war and subsequently released from bondage
+to form a caste enjoying a certain measure of freedom, and having a
+separate legal or civil existence under something more than the
+mere political suzerainty of the noble tribe which originally
+possessed them. In this first stage, the noble tribe represents the
+original pure Tuareg race, while the oldest Imghad are the first
+extraneous people whom they conquered, in some cases perhaps as
+early as in the Neolithic ages. “It is necessary,” says
+Bates,<a id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class=
+"fnanchor">[126]</a> with great justice, “to state emphatically
+that the division into Imghad and Imajeghan is so ancient that the
+Saharan Berbers preserve no knowledge of its origin.” This
+antiquity may be held to account for the complete national fusion
+which has taken place among the two castes: nearly all Imghad would
+utterly fail to grasp a suggestion that they were not to-day as
+much Tuareg as their Imajeghan overlords, however they may dislike
+and abuse the latter.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_138">[138]</span> As time went on more and more Imghad were
+added to the race, each group being subject to the noble tribe
+responsible for its conquest. The possibility of a group of people
+becoming the Imghad of an Imghad tribe was precluded by the
+relations obtaining between serfs and nobles, whereby it is the
+sole prerogative of the latter to wage war or make peace. Should an
+Imghad tribe capture slaves in war they could not be manumitted
+except by the Imajegh tribe, the lords of the victorious Imghad;
+and by the act of manumission the newly-acquired slaves would then
+become the equals of their Imghad conquerors under the dominion of
+the Imajeghan concerned.</p>
+<p>The Imghad of Air may be divided into three categories whose
+history is so intimately bound up with the noble tribes that it
+cannot be considered separately. There are the Imghad whose
+association with their respective Imajeghan dates from before their
+advent to Air; their origin must be looked for in the Fezzan or
+elsewhere at some very early date. Secondly, there are the Imghad
+who were the original inhabitants of Air before the Tuareg came,
+and who by some agreement at the time, like the traditional one of
+Maket n’Ikelan,<a id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127"
+class="fnanchor">[127]</a> were not enslaved but allowed to
+continue living in the country side by side with the new arrivals
+in a state of vassalage or semi-servitude. Lastly, there are the
+Imghad who are either Arabs, Tuareg of other divisions, or negroids
+from the south captured in the course of raids from Air, in some
+cases as recently as a generation ago. With these different origins
+it is not surprising to find among the Air Imghad both a strongly
+negroid type, a non-negroid and non-Tuareg type, and a type showing
+the fine features and complexion characteristic of the Imajeghan
+themselves. The first type is the pre-Tuareg population of Air. It
+is the most common, if only for the reason that negroid
+characteristics always appear to be dominant in the cross-breeding
+which ensued. The second type represents the Arab or Berber element
+acquired by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>
+conquest. The third type represents the subjugated groups of
+Imajeghan of other divisions.<a id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> Of the latter category
+are, for instance, the Kel Ahaggar, Imghad of the Kel Gharus, who
+were originally nobles from the great northern division of the
+Tuareg. Many of the Kel Ferwan Imghad are believed to be Arabs or
+Tuareg of the west, captured comparatively recently on raids into
+the Aulimmiden territory. The Kel Nugguru are the freed slaves of
+the Añastafidet, the administrative head of the Kel Owi
+confederation: they have become so prosperous that they are now
+laying claim to be of noble origin, a pretension which no
+right-minded Imajegh in Air will admit for a moment. But it is
+almost impossible nowadays to trace the history of each Imghad
+tribe in detail. Generally, in the absence of more precise data, it
+may be assumed that those Imghad tribes which have “I names” are
+the oldest; for here the process of assimilation to the mass of the
+Tuareg race is most complete, either on account of the length of
+their mutual association or owing to the fact that they were
+originally themselves of the same race; the “Kel name” Imghad, on
+the other hand, are probably more recent additions.<a id=
+"FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class=
+"fnanchor">[129]</a></p>
+<p>The confusion reigning on the subject of the “Black” and “White”
+Tuareg in the minds of the few people in Europe who have ever heard
+of the race is due to the practice in the north of the servile
+wearing a white, and the nobles a black, veil. But a “Black”
+Tuareg, being a noble, will, in the vast majority of cases, have a
+much fairer complexion and more European features than a “White,”
+or servile Tuareg. In Air the colour of the veil affords no means
+of distinguishing the caste of the wearer. The<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_140">[140]</span> best veils, being made in the south, are
+consequently cheaper in Air than in the north, and this is probably
+the reason why Imajeghan and Imghad alike in Air wear the
+indigo-black Tagilmus. When a white veil is seen, it usually means
+that the wearer is too poor to buy a proper black one and has had
+to resort to some makeshift torn from the bottom of his robe.</p>
+<p>Slaves, domestic or pastoral, do not wear the face veil at all.
+This is the essential outward difference between them and the
+Imghad. The latter, whatever their origin, are considered to be a
+part of the Tuareg people; the former cannot be so, for they are
+simply accounted to belong, as camels do, to the People of the
+Veil.</p>
+<p>The exact status of the Imghad, or “meratha” (merathra) as they
+are called by the Arabs in Fezzan, is somewhat difficult to define.
+There is no adequate translation in any European language of the
+word “amghid.”<a id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130"
+class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The process of their original
+enslavement and subsequent release to form a category of people who
+have achieved partial but not complete freedom has, I think, no
+parallel in Europe except in a modified form in the state of
+vassalage. Yet, as “servile” conveys too narrow and definite a
+relationship, so “vassal” is certainly too broad a term. In the
+state of servility or, to coin a word, “imghadage” to which the
+pre-Tuareg inhabitants of Air appear to have been reduced, the
+process of enslavement and release may be said to have taken place
+only as a legal fiction, and not, if the tradition is to be
+accepted as accurate, in real fact. The general practice seems to
+have been that when large groups of people were subjugated or
+captured in war they were simultaneously released into the state of
+imghadage, but when individuals or a few persons were acquired by
+force or by purchase, they were only manumitted in the course of
+time, if at all, and incorporated at some later date into an Imghad
+tribe or village already in existence.</p>
+<p>In contradistinction to slaves, the Imghad are not
+bound<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> individually,
+but collectively, and not to individuals, but to a noble tribe or
+group of tribes. They are in no sense considered to be the property
+of the latter; but the relationship is closer than that of suzerain
+and vassal. It is not within the power of an Imghad tribe to change
+its allegiance, since in the first instance its members were
+theoretically at least the property of its overlord tribe; they owe
+their separate existence to an act of manumission freely and
+voluntarily accomplished. A change of allegiance could occur only
+if a servile tribe were captured in whole or in part; it follows
+that when this has occurred one servile tribe might owe allegiance
+in several parts to different noble groups.<a id=
+"FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class=
+"fnanchor">[131]</a> The bond between them consists of the right of
+the responsible noble tribe alone, and therefore of its chief, to
+administer justice among the dependent Imghad, either in small
+cases by tacitly confirming the verdict of their own headman, or in
+more weighty matters by express reference. The Imghad tribe may be
+fined or punished collectively by their lords, and would have no
+right to appeal to the Amenokal without permission. For the
+Amenokal to interfere on behalf of an Imghad tribe would constitute
+a breach of tribal custom and ensure a rebuff, if not worse. A
+certain proportion of the marriage portions payable in the Imghad
+tribes goes to their Imajeghan, who have the right to give or
+withhold consent to these contracts. One of the functions of the
+Imghad is to take complete charge of and use the camels of their
+lords for long periods or to trade with them on their behalf. In
+such cases the Imghad act as the agents of the nobles, each one of
+whom has a right to ask the servile tribe as a whole to undertake
+these duties. But such obligations are imposed collectively on the
+tribe and not on any one Imghad. It is the custom to share the
+offspring of the camels thus herded in equal shares, though in the
+event of any of the animals dying whilst under the charge of the
+Imghad, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> latter
+are collectively responsible for making good the loss, save in
+extenuating circumstances. Conversely, the nobles are, in every
+case,<a id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class=
+"fnanchor">[132]</a> the protectors of their dependents. The
+relations between Imghad and Imajeghan are a mixture of those
+obtaining under the feudalism of Europe and the “client” system of
+Rome.</p>
+<p>A consequence of the interruption of caravan traffic and the
+disappearance of one of the principal sources of revenue of the
+noble Tuareg is that the Imghad as camel herders, and generally
+speaking as the more laborious members of the community, have
+gained where the nobles have lost.</p>
+<p>Prosperity is emancipating the Imghad, and is materially
+assisting the breakdown of social distinctions which in time will
+survive only in the philosophic contemplation of the Imajeghan
+dreaming idly of the return of better days. The Imghad tribes used
+to be the unquestioning allies of their overlords in war; their
+numbers contributed greatly to the strength of any Imajegh tribe.
+Though they might not make war on their own initiative, the Imghad
+carried and still carry weapons.<a id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> They used to go on raids
+with their masters, or, if the Imajeghan were busy elsewhere,
+represent them with their masters’ camels and the weight of their
+own right arms. But the chiefs of the Imghad were never more than
+subordinates, or at the most advisers to the nobles.</p>
+<p>To-day this unquestioning subservience has almost disappeared
+and we even find Khodi, chief of the Kel Nugguru, disputing with
+the noble Ahodu the leadership of the village of Auderas. This
+issue was one of great importance in local politics and originally
+arose out of the disputed ownership of certain palms which had been
+given to Ahodu when he was installed as head of the village as a
+reward for service rendered by him to the Foureau-Lamy expedition.
+The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> village is on
+the edge of the Kel Nugguru country, while Ahodu in fact comes from
+a northern tribe, the Kel Tadek, who have no real concern with this
+district. The impossibility of reconciling the tribal and settled
+organisations was clearly demonstrated in every aspect of this
+controversy. Khodi, living as a nomad with his people and camels at
+some distance from the village, sought, without success, to govern
+the community through various representatives, while Ahodu, who had
+given up wandering, was suspended by the French during the
+settlement of the legal case, and sat in the village watching
+mistake after mistake being made. Under the old system Khodi could
+never have pretended to dispute with a noble the position of chief
+of a large village: in fact an Imghad tribe without a protecting
+noble overlord would have been unlikely to administer a village at
+all. Similarly among the Ahaggaren Imghad of the Kel Gharus, a man
+of servile origin, Bilalen by name, has come to share with T’iaman
+the lordship of a once noble people of the north, a position of
+such importance that he is regarded as one of the most influential
+chiefs in Air. Bilalen has only become associated with the
+Ahaggaren by marriage; he could never have achieved even this, much
+less could he have attained so powerful a following in the country,
+under the old <em>régime</em>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map06">
+<p class="cpm">THE GOVERNMENT OF THE AIR TUAREG</p>
+<a href="images/map06.jpg"><img src='images/map06.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2"><em>Note.</em>—The scheme is largely theoretical, as
+the Amenokal has rarely had much authority over any tribes except
+the People of the King. His authority over a part of the Aulimmiden
+has been even more nominal and has varied considerably from time to
+time.</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>In addition to the social distinctions between nobles and serfs,
+the Tuareg attach great importance to tribal classification. Among
+the inhabitants of the mountains a man will describe himself as,
+say, “Mokhammad of the Kel Such-and-such of the Kel Owi,” or of the
+other category, which is called the “People of the King,” as the
+case might be. These two great tribal divisions (there were three
+before the departure of the Kel Geres for the Southland) will be
+referred to in detail when the history of the migrations of the Air
+Tuareg is considered. The divisions are absolute; a tribe either is
+of the Kel Owi or is not of the Kel Owi. There is usually never any
+doubt; the erroneous attribution of a man’s tribe to the Kel Owi
+confederation would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>
+provoke the indignant rejoinder that his clan were “People of the
+King” and did not “belong (<em>sic</em>) to the Añastafidet.” The
+distinction means all that the difference between an ancient landed
+nobility and a <em>parvenu</em> commercial aristocracy denotes.
+Many of the older men of the “People of the King” go so far as to
+say that there are no nobles among the Kel Owi at all.<a id=
+"FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class=
+"fnanchor">[134]</a> Apart from their slightly different ethnic
+origin, the principal reason why the Kel Owi have stood apart from
+the other tribes is that they possess an administrative leader of
+their own who represents the whole confederation; as they say, “he
+<em>speaks</em> for them to the Amenokal at Agades.” He is called
+the Añastafidet, the Child of Tafidet. The non-Kel Owi tribes, on
+the other hand, have no single leader other than the king; in their
+case each tribal chieftain transacts the business of his own tribe
+with the former independently of the other chiefs.<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> For them the Amenokal of Air
+assumes the dual function of nominal ruler of the whole country and
+of direct overlord of certain tribes.</p>
+<p>In accordance with the democratic traditions of the Tuareg, the
+Añastafidet,<a id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class=
+"fnanchor">[135]</a> like the Sultan, is elected. He must be a
+noble, but need not always be chosen from the same family. He is
+elected for a period of three years, but his tenure of office is
+really dependent upon a yearly revision by the Kel Owi tribes when
+they concentrate in the autumn to go with the salt caravan to
+Bilma. The tribal groups mainly responsible for the choice are the
+Kel Tafidet and Kel Azañieres; the Ikazkazan, being the junior
+group of the confederation, have little voice. The Añastafidet’s
+badge of office<a id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136"
+class="fnanchor">[136]</a> is a drum; he retains no authority on
+leaving office, though it entitles him to a certain degree of
+respect, and leads to his being consulted on State matters. In
+practice if the Añastafidet is reasonably capable he is confirmed
+in power for a succession of three-year periods. During the last
+fifty years there have been in all about six Añastafidets; one, I
+think the last holder of the office, is at present living at
+Zawzawa in Damergu. The Añastafidet’s official place of residence
+was at Assode in Central Air, but since the evacuation of the north
+he has been living at Agades in direct touch with the Amenokal. His
+principal duties are to represent the confederation at the Court of
+the Sultan and maintain the freedom of transit through Air and
+Damergu for caravans, on which the prosperity of the tribes
+depends. Trade with the north and the position of the Kel Owi in
+Air astride the great caravan road which passes from north to
+south, east of the Central massifs, have in effect combined to
+place the foreign relations of all the Air people with Ghat and the
+Fezzan in the hands of the Añastafidet, business with the
+potentates of the south, on the other hand, being, as has already
+been stated, in the hands of the Amenokal at Agades.
+The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> breakdown of
+the trans-desert traffic during the war deprived the Kel Owi of
+most of their prosperity and the Añastafidet of his work.</p>
+<p>The Añastafidet was assisted in his duties by four agents, two
+of whom dealt with local business, while the other two lived in the
+Southland to assist the Kel Owi tribes in their transactions there.
+Neither the Añastafidet nor his agents ever seem to have received a
+salary, and the former at least was expected to give munificent
+presents, but no doubt their official positions brought perquisites
+which compensated for any outlay. As in the case of the Sultan, the
+importance of the Añastafidet’s office depends entirely on the
+personality of the holder. When von Bary visited the country,
+Belkho, chief of the Igermaden tribe, living at Ajiru in Eastern
+Air, thanks to his military prowess and political wisdom, was the
+<em>de facto</em> ruler of the whole country. His relations with
+the Amenokal were strained, even though he had him more or less
+under his influence; the Añastafidet had become of so little moment
+that he is only once mentioned by this traveller.<a id=
+"FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class=
+"fnanchor">[137]</a> In Barth’s day, when Air was under the
+domination of Annur, another Kel Owi chief of the same type, the
+Añastafidet was a mere shadow in the land.</p>
+<p>The Añastafidet doubtless represents the surviving functions of
+a Kel Owi Amenokal. The restriction of his duties was probably the
+result of a compromise arrived at when the Kel Owi entered Air and
+found an Amenokal already established in the country, supported by
+the Kel Geres and the various tribes known as the “People of the
+King.” The more intimate inter-tribal relations between the various
+units of the Kel Owi confederation and the organisation of the
+“People of the King” will be referred to hereafter in detail.</p>
+<p>The system by which the Kel Owi have an administrative leader
+who seems to have practically no warlike or judicial functions has
+in no way modified the tribal or social organisation<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> of the confederation. As in
+the case of all the Tuareg tribes, other than those which have
+become entirely sedentary, the government of each unit, large and
+small, is patriarchal and similar to that of Bedawin tribes. The
+chief of a noble tribe is the leader in war and the dispenser of
+justice in peace. The functions are not necessarily hereditary. In
+council with the heads of families he exercises authority over the
+Imghad tribes associated with his clan, through the chiefs of these
+servile groups in the manner already described. The council of the
+heads of families is of great importance, but plays an advisory
+rather than an executive part. The heads of families rule their own
+households, including their slaves.</p>
+<p>Within ill-defined limits, certain tribes are grouped together
+under a common leader known as the “agoalla” or “agwalla.” This
+usually occurs in the case of tribes which are nearly related to
+each other. Three groups in the Kel Owi division have already been
+mentioned; in two of these, the Kel Tafidet and Kel Azañieres, the
+office of “agoalla” is said<a id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> to be hereditary, but I
+have been unable to find any confirmation of this except in so far
+as the son of a man who, by his personal ascendancy, has secured
+control over more than one tribe, would probably more easily step
+into his father’s shoes than another person. The grouping of tribes
+may also occur for military reasons, but in such cases it has a
+tendency to be of a temporary character. It is best to assume that
+the tribe is the unit of Tuareg society and that the tribal chiefs
+are the elements of which their Government is constructed.
+“Agoallas” are an exotic form principally due to individual
+personality or temporary conditions prevailing over long-standing
+customs.</p>
+<p>Tribes sometimes group themselves into temporary or permanent
+alliances. The former probably spring from military exigencies, the
+latter may be due to common origins in the recent past. Such
+aggregations as the Kel<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_148">[148]</span> Azañieres and Kel Tafidet in the Kel Owi
+tribes are so obviously due to common tribal origins that they
+require no further examination. But the Kel Owi confederation in
+Air plays a far larger rôle than do mere tribal alliances. Here is
+no mere question of relationship or community of origin, but a more
+strict bond, which, however, cannot be defined. Such groups as
+these have been termed confederations, though the term is a little
+misleading, as no unity of government is implied. The origin of the
+confederation, which carries with it more moral than material
+obligations, is to be explained by the entry of the Kel Owi tribes
+into Air as a mass of people confronted by an already established
+hostile or at least jealous population of the same race as
+themselves. It followed that the new arrivals would tend to hold
+together and act with one another. The conditions of the
+confederation nevertheless have been such that the representative
+is only an administrative head and not a ruler. He is there to
+embody a common policy and to dictate one. Loose as these bonds
+have been they have served the Kel Owi in good stead, for their
+commerce has gained by co-operation at the expense of their rivals,
+the “People of the King,” who in the absence of any organisation
+have been forced to rely on the fickle ties of common jealousy. How
+far there are groups or confederations like the Kel Owi within the
+larger northern division of Azger or Ahaggar I cannot say, but the
+former are a confederation as the people of Air generally never
+have been.</p>
+<p>Much has already been said of the status of the Tuareg men and
+their tribal organisation, but before it is possible to consider
+their family life, the method they follow in tracing their descent
+must be described. A man’s status, in Air, as elsewhere among the
+Tuareg, is determined by the caste and allegiance of his mother.
+Survivals of a matriarchal state of society are numerous among the
+People of the Veil. They colour the whole life of the race. A
+woman, they say, carries her children before they are
+born,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> and so they
+belong to her and not to the father. “After all,” as one of them
+said to me when we had been discussing this question for some time,
+“when you buy a cow camel in calf, the calf is yours and not the
+property of the man who sold the camel to you. It is the same with
+women,” he added; and he seemed to me to have some show of logic.
+Our medieval (and perhaps modern) lawyers would have said instead,
+“partus sequitur ventrem,” but he would have meant the same as my
+Tuareg friend. If a woman marries a man in her own tribe the
+children, of course, belong to that tribe, but if she marries away
+from her people they belong to her own, and not to her husband’s
+clan. In this case, were the husband to predecease his wife, the
+children and their mother would return to live with her tribe. If
+the father survives, the children usually go on living with him for
+a time, but as they belong to their mother’s tribe in any event,
+they eventually return there. Should inter-tribal hostilities break
+out they must leave their father and fight for their mother’s
+tribe, even against their own parent if need so be. Until this is
+understood the relationships of the Tuareg appear very puzzling to
+the traveller. When I first met Ahodu he informed me that he was of
+the Kel Tadek people, who are Kel Amenokal, but he had a
+half-brother and a paternal cousin who belonged to the Añastafidet.
+It appears that the fathers of Ahodu and Efale, the famous eastern
+guide, were brothers of a man in the noble Kel Fares of the Kel Owi
+confederation. Ahodu’s father took a wife from the Kel Tadek, so
+the son became a member of the latter tribe, whereas Efale’s father
+married within the confederation. The maternal allegiance is so
+strong that, though proud of his father’s repute as a holy man and
+representative of the fifth generation of keepers of the mosque of
+Tefgun near Iferuan, Ahodu used to speak of the Kel Owi in
+disparaging terms when comparing their recent origin with the
+antiquity of the Kel Tadek and the other “People of the
+Amenokal.”</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>The following
+examples of definite cases may assist in understanding the
+position:</p>
+<p>1. A man of the noble Kel Tadek marries a woman of the noble Kel
+Ferwan. The children are Kel Ferwan, but will live with the father
+until his death or the divorce of the mother, when they return with
+her to her own tribe.</p>
+<p>2. A man of the noble Kel Tadek married a woman of the Imghad of
+the Kel Ferwan. The children will normally be Imghad of the Kel
+Ferwan.</p>
+<p>3. If a man marries a slave woman of another tribe, this woman
+has become the property of the husband’s tribe by his purchase or
+payment of the marriage portion, and the children belong to the
+father. This occurred in Ahodu’s case. One day the Kel Gharus came
+over and stole eight slaves belonging to the Kel Tadek, who
+proceeded to retake them. The slaves in question were Kanuri people
+of Damagerim. The Kel Gharus appealed to the religious court at
+Agades, which awarded four slaves to each tribe. Later two of those
+allotted to the Kel Gharus ran away to the Kel Tadek, who were
+allowed to keep them on the ground that they had been ill-treated
+by their former masters. One of these two women Ahodu married, and
+his son is considered to belong to his own clan and not to his
+wife’s former tribe. In this case Ahodu nevertheless had to pay
+some compensation to the former masters of his wife.</p>
+<p>The derivation of tribal allegiance through the female line has
+carried in its train the consequence that a man or woman’s social
+status is always determined by that of the mother. But the
+restricted number of noble women, the deference and respect paid to
+them, and the impossibility of taking them as concubines have
+combined to diminish the numbers of Imajeghan as compared with the
+Imghad. The hard-and-fast rule among all the Tuareg, that nobles
+can only be born of a noble mother irrespective of the caste of the
+father, has done much to preserve the type and characteristics of
+the race. In recent years the custom has tended to break down, for
+where a noble father,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_151">[151]</span> who has taken unto himself a servile wife,
+is sufficiently powerful to assert himself he will often succeed in
+passing off his sons and daughters as Imajeghan. Ahodu has done so
+with his boy; but had this been impossible the child would have
+been accounted of the Irejanaten or mixed people. The old laws of
+succession are said by von Bary to have become especially slack
+among the Kel Owi, but even here the status of noble women has
+remained so unassailable that it would still be impossible to-day
+for them to marry outside their own class.</p>
+<p>The laws of inheritance and succession also show the strength of
+the matriarchal tradition. Although hereditary office is rare among
+the Tuareg nowadays, it seems to have been more frequent in the
+past.<a id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class=
+"fnanchor">[139]</a> Ibn Batutah states that the heir of the Sultan
+of Tekadda was the son of the ruler’s sister.<a id=
+"FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class=
+"fnanchor">[140]</a> Similarly of the Mesufa who were Tuareg, he
+records that descent is traced through the maternal uncle, while
+inherited property passes from a deceased man to the children of
+his sister to the exclusion of his own family.<a id=
+"FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class=
+"fnanchor">[141]</a> The traveller adds that nowhere except among
+the infidel Indians of Malabar did he observe a similar state of
+things.<a id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class=
+"fnanchor">[142]</a> Bates thinks that Egyptian records tend to
+show that the succession of the chieftainship of the Meshwesh
+Libyans passed in the female line. The genealogy of many of the
+kings of Agades is recorded by their female parentage. The Tuareg
+of Ghat not only treat their women-folk in much the same way as
+their brethren further south, but Richardson specifically states
+that the succession of the chiefs and Sultans of those parts is
+similar to the practice of the Tekadda house and at Agades. It is
+the son of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>
+sister of the Sultan who succeeds.<a id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It seems clear that
+before the advent of Islam, which has tended to modify the system,
+the Tuareg had a completely matriarchal organisation. In this
+earlier state of society may perhaps be found the explanation of
+the reputed Amazons of the west of North Africa, recorded by
+Diodorus Siculus in a grossly exaggerated version of some story
+which he had probably heard concerning the status of certain Libyan
+women.<a id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class=
+"fnanchor">[144]</a></p>
+<p>I know of no reason to suppose that these matriarchal customs
+were derived from association with the negro people; the reverse is
+quite as likely to have occurred, as the culture contacts of North
+Africa, following the trend of migration, seem to have taken a
+course from north to south and not the opposite direction.<a id=
+"FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class=
+"fnanchor">[145]</a> The matter is one of great interest,<a id=
+"FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class=
+"fnanchor">[146]</a> for the matriarchate is found in a highly
+developed state in Ashanti, and it would be of interest in
+connection with the origin of this people to learn if the system
+can be traced to a common origin.<a id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> I cannot agree with
+Barth’s<a id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class=
+"fnanchor">[148]</a> conclusion that the descent of the Sultan of
+Tekadda “is certain proof that it was not a pure Berber State, but
+rather a Berber dominion ingrafted upon a negro population, exactly
+as was the case in Walata,” where he cites the case of the Mesufa.
+Moreover, this remark is in contradiction with his previous
+assumption,<a id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class=
+"fnanchor">[149]</a><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_153">[153]</span> to wit: “With respect to the custom that
+the hereditary power does not descend from the father to the son
+but to the sister’s son . . . it may be supposed to have belonged
+originally to the Berber race; for the Askar (Azger), who have
+preserved their original manners tolerably pure, have the same
+custom. . . . It may therefore seem doubtful whether . . . this
+custom belonged to the black native,” with which statement I am
+decidedly inclined to agree. The problem, however, is one which I
+prefer on the whole to leave to qualified anthropologists.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc04">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class=
+"label">[107]</span></a>Not to be confused with Tanut in Damergu.
+The word “tanut” means a shallow well; there are consequently many
+places of this name.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class=
+"label">[108]</span></a>Just north of Auderas.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class=
+"label">[109]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+385.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class=
+"label">[110]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 148-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class=
+"label">[111]</span></a>Von Bary’s Diary (French edition), p. 183,
+etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class=
+"label">[112]</span></a>The available data are in the hands of the
+author, if some more fortunate traveller can check and examine the
+place.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class=
+"label">[113]</span></a>The “El Hakhsas,” Barth: <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. I. p. 416.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class=
+"label">[114]</span></a>The extremes in variation, for the first
+rains of sufficient volume to fill stream beds of a certain size
+with flood water, are recorded by von Bary east of Bagezan on 3rd
+June, 1877, and by Barth in Northern Air on 1st September, 1850.
+Both these dates seem to be exceptional.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class=
+"label">[115]</span></a>This, and not T’efira, is presumably the
+point south of Auderas where Barth saw “natron” encrustations on
+the ground (see Vol. I. p. 389). Salt or “ara” is collected at
+T’efira further east, but Barth would not have described “entering”
+the Buddei valley after seeing the “natron,” for the road past
+Auderas to T’efira winds down the Buddei valley.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class=
+"label">[116]</span></a>This is the vowel which in English words
+“oft<em>e</em>n,” “<em>a</em>non,” “<em>u</em>ntil,” may be written
+as <em>o</em>, <em>e</em>, <em>a</em>, or <em>u</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class=
+"label">[117]</span></a>Cf. Barth, Vol. I. p. 350, and von Bary, p.
+169, on the Kel Ataram of Auderas. The people of this village were
+simply “People of the West” for the inhabitants of Ajiru in Eastern
+Air, where von Bary was living.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class=
+"label">[118]</span></a>As Barth would have it: <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. I. p. 339.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class=
+"label">[119]</span></a>Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+339 and 347.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class=
+"label">[120]</span></a>The Cortier 1/500,000 map shows a large
+affluent to the right bank joining the Auderas valley below the
+village. This is incorrect: a small affluent called the Mafinet
+joins at the point shown, but the valley purporting to be the upper
+part of the Mafinet valley is the Tagharit valley, which falls into
+the Ben Guten, and not into the Auderas basin. The Cortier map is
+generally somewhat incorrect in this area, especially in regard to
+the position of Mount Dogam.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class=
+"label">[121]</span></a>I am indebted to Sir J. Currie of the
+Empire Cotton-growing Corporation for these reports.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class=
+"label">[122]</span></a>For fear of appearing to misinform people
+who are always ready to mind other people’s business before looking
+after their own, I hasten to add that the legal practice of slavery
+has, of course, been abolished in Air since the advent of the
+French. The psychology and habit of slavery, nevertheless, still
+remain as strong as ever, and master and slave continue to regard
+each other by <em>mutual consent</em> in the light of their former
+relationship. I therefore propose to refer to slaves and the custom
+of slavery as if they were still sanctioned by law.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class=
+"label">[123]</span></a>Respectively “Akel” and “Irawel” in the
+singular.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class=
+"label">[124]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 344
+<em>sq.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class=
+"label">[125]</span></a>Cf. <em>infra</em>, Chaps. <a href=
+"#c11">XI.</a> and <a href="#c12">XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class=
+"label">[126]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 115.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class=
+"label">[127]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a>, <em>et apud</em> Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp. 235
+and 239.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class=
+"label">[128]</span></a>When von Bary (<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 184)
+says that Imajeghan were never enslaved, he is wrong. Although the
+Air Tuareg, when they raided the Aulimmiden, often used to lift
+their cattle but spare the men because they were of the same race,
+some of the latter division nevertheless, became Imghad of the Air
+Kel Ferwan, for instance, in the course of these raids.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class=
+"label">[129]</span></a>This is, of course, not an absolute rule,
+for the “I name” might have been forgotten, as previously
+explained. The supposition that “Kel names” represent Imghad and
+the “I names” Imajeghan is, of course, quite untenable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class=
+"label">[130]</span></a>The singular form of Imghad.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class=
+"label">[131]</span></a>There are several instances of this among
+the Northern Tuareg, as will be seen from the data contained in
+<a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class=
+"label">[132]</span></a>Cf. Schirmer’s note in von Bary, <em>op.
+cit.</em>, p. 184.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class=
+"label">[133]</span></a>Barth’s statement, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol.
+I. p. 237, that the Imghad are not allowed to carry arms is not
+substantiated: he seems at this point to have confused the Imghad
+with slaves.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class=
+"label">[134]</span></a>Cf. <em>supra</em>, <a href="#Page_134">p.
+134.</a> Von Bary, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 181, notes that the
+distinction between Imghad and Imajeghan among the Kel Owi seemed
+to have broken down. This is perhaps exaggerated, but interesting,
+as this division in a sense is the most modern in development in
+Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class=
+"label">[135]</span></a>Barth erroneously calls him the
+Astafidet.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class=
+"label">[136]</span></a>Cf. Badges of Office among Libyan rulers
+given by Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 116.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class=
+"label">[137]</span></a>Von Bary, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 172 and
+188-9.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class=
+"label">[138]</span></a>By Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 106.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class=
+"label">[139]</span></a>Cf. Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 112,
+114-15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class=
+"label">[140]</span></a>Ibn Batutah (ed. Soc. Asiatique), Vol. IV.
+pp. 388 and 443. Cf. also <a href="#app4">Appendix IV.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class=
+"label">[141]</span></a>The Mesufa are a surviving section of the
+Sanhaja, and are specifically described by Ibn Batutah and Ibn
+Khaldun as a part of the People of the Veil, <em>i.e.</em> not
+negroes or negroids (<em>vide infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class=
+"label">[142]</span></a>This statement is made in spite of the
+reference a little later to the succession of the Sultan of
+Tekadda, who, though a Tuareg, does not seem to have been of the
+Mesufa. This little inaccuracy is, however, of no importance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class=
+"label">[143]</span></a>Richardson: <em>Travels</em>, etc., Vol.
+II. pp. 65-6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class=
+"label">[144]</span></a>Diod. Sic., iii. 53 <em>sq.</em> See also
+Silius Italicus, ii. 80. Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 112-13 and
+148, agrees that the existence of matriarchal society would be a
+reasonable explanation of the Amazon story.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class=
+"label">[145]</span></a>Nevertheless the matriarchate is known to
+have existed in classical times as far south as Æthiopia, in the
+Meroitic kingdom as well as in early Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class=
+"label">[146]</span></a>Perry (<em>The Children of the Sun</em>)
+would doubtless suggest that it came from Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class=
+"label">[147]</span></a>See Rattray, <em>Ashanti</em>, 1924. This
+authority thinks that the Ashanti people themselves came from the
+north. Many of the details of their matriarchal system accord
+closely with that of the Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class=
+"label">[148]</span></a>Barth, Vol. I. p. 388.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class=
+"label">[149]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, p. 341. On page 342 he says
+the Aulimmiden, who have the same custom, consider the practice
+shameful, “as exhibiting only the man’s distrust of his wife’s
+fidelity; for such is certainly its foundation.” I don’t agree with
+this conclusion; the origins of matriarchy are certainly not as
+simple as this.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span><a id=
+"c05"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<p class="sch">SOCIAL CONDITIONS</p>
+<p><span class="sc">By</span> constantly seeing the same people for
+nearly three months at Auderas and in the neighbourhood, I was able
+to dissipate much of the innate diffidence which the Tuareg display
+in their relations with Europeans. Language always remained a
+source of difficulty. An interpreter is never satisfactory, more
+especially if he belongs to a people whom the Tuareg at heart
+really despise, while real proficiency in a language cannot be
+attained in so short a time as I had at my disposal. By the end of
+my stay in Air I had acquired a sufficient knowledge of Temajegh to
+be able to travel comfortably with a guide speaking only that
+language, and to collect a considerable amount of vicarious
+information, but never at any time was I able to discuss really
+abstruse questions. At Auderas I was lucky enough to find that
+Ahodu, the chief of the village, had a working knowledge of Arabic
+which was almost as indifferent as my own; but we both made up for
+lack of grammar by volubility. The local “inisilm,” or holy man,
+named El Mintaka, was a Ghati who had been settled for fifteen
+years in Air, where he had taken a Tuareg wife. He, of course,
+spoke Arabic in addition to Temajegh, and acted as scribe to Ahodu,
+who could neither read nor write. With these two men in the
+village, with my servant Amadu, a Fulani soldier who had served
+with distinction in the West African Frontier Force during the war,
+and had a working knowledge of English and Hausa, which most of the
+Air Tuareg speak, and with my interpreter Ali, a man from Ghat, I
+found myself quite at my ease.</p>
+<p>This Ali ibn Tama el Ghati had lived for some years in Kano and
+had travelled all over the Central Sudan. He<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_155">[155]</span> was small and very black, but constantly
+cheerful and as clever as a tribe of monkeys. Somewhat of a rogue
+unless watched, he was tireless and devoted, and proved to be one
+of only two natives who, after I had been obliged to return home,
+completed the whole journey with Buchanan. He was one of the
+original race of Ghat, now called the Atara, who were there before
+the Tuareg and Berbers came. Ali spoke no English, but was
+loquacious in Hausa, Temajegh and Kanuri; he also spoke some Tebu
+and Fulani, in addition, of course, to Arabic. His especial joy was
+to wear many different combinations of gay clothes for periods of
+about ten days at a time. He would then change his apparel and
+adopt another disguise until the novelty of appearing as a Tuareg
+or a Hausa or an Arab in turn had worn off.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 16</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i16a"><a href="images/i16a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i16a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AUDERAS: HUTS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i16b"><a href="images/i16b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i16b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">AUDERAS: TENT-HUT AND SHELTER</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>On reaching Auderas I took up my residence in some huts which
+Ahodu had prepared on the edge of a diminutive plateau between the
+main bed of the valley and a secondary affluent. The area between
+the valleys and ravines which intersected the little plain was
+bare, but the sides of the valleys were covered with vegetation.
+About a hundred yards away across a steep gully was Teda Inisilman,
+the House of the Holy Men, the smallest of the three hamlets which
+together make up Auderas. On the other side of the main stream bed,
+where the water-holes of the village were dug in the sand, lay the
+larger hamlet called Karnuka, containing the house of El Mintaka.
+The third settlement was a few hundred yards further down-stream.
+These hamlets were all built of reeds and palm fronds, but the
+little plain was covered with what proved to be the ruins of stone
+houses, many of which were inhabited until 1915. Teda Inisilman is
+the village of the nobles where Ahodu and the only other three
+Imajeghan families of the place lived, together with their own
+dependent Irawellan and Ikelan, and the Enad or smith, a most
+important person in Tuareg society. Down-stream of Teda Inisilman
+and Karnuka lay the date-palm groves and most of the
+gardens;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> there were
+a few above our camp also, in a side valley and in the main bed
+under a huge mass of overhanging rock resembling the keep of a
+fortress rising high above the sheer side of the stream. To the
+south were only dûm palms and the rugged hills, called
+Tidrak,<a id="FNanchor_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150" class=
+"fnanchor">[150]</a> which formed the further edge of the valley.
+Elsewhere the ground was more open. Down-stream to the west were
+the low Mafinet and T’ilimsawin hills, joining on to the T’inien
+peaks north of the point where my road had emerged from among them
+on the way from Agades. To the north the ground rose over a low
+ridge to the Erarar (plain) n’Dendemu, the Taghist plateau<a id=
+"FNanchor_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151" class=
+"fnanchor">[151]</a> and the distant peak of Dogam.<a id=
+"FNanchor_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152" class=
+"fnanchor">[152]</a> The glistening black domes of the Abattul and
+Efaken peaks were rather nearer, on the far edge of the Auderas
+valley itself. A few miles north and north-east, this basin reached
+to the foot of the mountain group of Todra, which towers 3000 feet
+and more above the valley to a total height of about 5500 feet
+above the sea. The rounded sides rose out of a bed of green and
+yellow to a crest of bare red rock at the top. The mountain used to
+change colour all day, a whitish gleam off the rocks at high noon
+giving place to blue-black shadows under storm clouds and in the
+evening. At sunset it seemed to glow vivid red from within. It is
+one of the most beautiful mountains in the world. The Tuareg regard
+Todra and Dogam as one group, but separate from the Bagezan
+Mountains, and this is certainly the case. They are reckoned among
+the five principal massifs of Air, the others being Taruaji
+in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> the south, Bila
+or Bilet north-west of Todra, and Tamgak which includes the
+Azañieres, Tafidet and Taghmeurt ranges in the north.</p>
+<p>The advent of Europeans in Auderas caused a certain amount of
+excitement, but the novelty soon wore off as the routine of life
+was resumed. I was welcomed by Ahodu’s wife and other persons with
+a present of fresh dates, which were then ripening,<a id=
+"FNanchor_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153" class=
+"fnanchor">[153]</a> and newly-made cheese, known as T’ikammar,
+which is excellent food. The Tuareg live very simply and take so
+little trouble about their food that for Europeans it is almost
+uneatable. The staple diet is milk and cheese, but the more
+sedentary people eat locally grown or imported grain. The millet is
+pounded in a mortar as in the south and cooked with water, making a
+sort of porridge; but whereas in the Hausa countries this “pura,”
+or “fura” as it is called, can be quite palatable when seasoned or
+eaten with meat, the Tuareg in Air are too poor and too
+lackadaisical to dress it in any way. They often even forget to add
+salt, and without it the mess is peculiarly nasty on account of a
+certain glutinous consistency which it acquires. The finer flour
+obtained from the millet after it is pounded is also mixed with
+water and dry powdered cheese and drunk uncooked as very thin
+gruel; the dry cheese gives it a sour taste to which in time one
+gets used, and then it becomes really rather refreshing if one is
+thirsty. It is much better on the march for the stomach than large
+quantities of plain water. The drink is called “ghussub” in the
+south; it is often the sole means of sustenance of a Tuareg
+travelling quickly without baggage or when a scarcity of fuel makes
+it impossible to light fires. In the place of millet, guinea corn
+is also eaten; it is pounded and baked in embers into a heavy
+tasteless cake which is slightly more edible than millet porridge.
+The best food in Air is undoubtedly the wheat “kus-kus” of the
+Arabs and Berbers in the north: it is made in the same way by
+grinding wheat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> into
+rough flour, and then steaming and rubbing it until it forms grains
+about the size of small barley. It is carried dry and can be
+prepared by boiling in water or stock for a short time. It has the
+great advantage of requiring very little fuel to cook it. With no
+other adjunct than a little salt it is very good indeed. During the
+latter part of my stay I lived almost exclusively on kus-kus and
+rice, with hardly any meat, but as many vegetables as I could
+procure. When neither millet, guinea corn nor wheat is available,
+the Tuareg collect the seeds of various grasses and grind them,
+notably of the grass called Afaza and of the prickly burr grass.
+The former is a tall grass with stems of such strength that they
+are used when dry with a weft of thin leather strips for making the
+stiff mats which are spread upon their Tuareg beds. The stalks grow
+as much as five feet high; the grass is dark grey-green when fresh,
+or yellow when dry. The burr grass is fortunately rare in Air. One
+can only be thankful that Nature has found some useful purpose in
+this damnable plant as food for the Tuareg.</p>
+<p>Of all the Tuareg food their cheese is best. It is usually made
+of equal parts of sheep’s or goat’s and camel’s milk, but any of
+them alone will do. The rennet is obtained from the entrails of the
+goat; the curds are pressed in matting made of dûm-palm fronds and
+formed into cakes about 4 in. × 5 in. × ¾ in. thick. The fresh
+cheese is pure white and soft, but nevertheless crisp; it is
+delicious with dates or with any other form of food, for it has no
+sour or “cheesy” flavour. It dries yellow and hard and is carried
+about by all Tuareg as a staple commodity, but in this state
+requires soaking or crumbling before use, and acquires rather an
+unpleasant sour smell. Butter is made of goat’s or sheep’s milk,
+churned in bottle-shaped gourds or in small skins. It is not bad
+mixed with kus-kus or rice or in cooking, but indifferent on bread
+or biscuits. Meat is very little eaten, for it is a luxury. But
+even when an animal is slaughtered and divided up the Tuareg do
+not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> seem capable of
+turning it into a very edible dish. They neither roast nor fry;
+they either stew their meat in a pot with vegetables or with millet
+porridge, or on the march broil it in the hot sand under the embers
+of a fire until it becomes shredded. If ever there is a surplus
+supply of meat, it is preserved by soaking in brine and drying in
+the sun strung on cords.</p>
+<p>The preparation of food in the villages is done by the women, on
+the march by the “buzu,” or, where there is no slave present, by
+the youngest member of the party, whatever his caste or status, so
+long as he has not reached his majority. When there are no minors
+or slaves an Amghid does the work, but where all are of the same
+caste, the duty reverts once more to the youngest member of the
+party. The most arduous function is preparing the millet flour.
+Nowadays the millet is almost invariably pounded in a mortar with a
+long pestle, and the meal is then graded and separated from the
+husk and other impurities by shaking it with a circular motion on a
+flat tray. The mortar and long pestle, which is used by men and
+women standing up and working alone or pounding rhythmically with
+one or more companions, is certainly a southern invention; the
+wooden pestle is double-headed and some 3 feet long; the mortar is
+cut out of one piece of wood and stands about 12 inches high. The
+indigenous and more primitive fashion is to grind grain on the
+rudimentary saddle-stone quern, a form which has been preserved
+unchanged since prehistoric times. A large flat stone is placed on
+the ground, and the person grinding the wheat or millet kneels by
+it with a basket under the opposite lip of the stone to catch the
+flour as it is made. The wheat or other grain is poured on to the
+flat stone and crushed by rubbing it with a saddle-stone or rounded
+river pebble about the size of a baby’s head, held in both hands
+and worked forwards and backwards. As the grain is crushed the
+flour is automatically sorted out and pushed forward into the
+basket in front, the heavier meal remaining on the flat stone.
+These querns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> may be
+seen lying about all over Air on all the deserted sites; the lower
+stones can readily be recognised by the broad channel which is worn
+along their length. Except for wheat, which is too hard to be
+pounded, they have largely been discarded in favour of the handier
+mortar and pestle. I do not think a more widespread use of the
+quern necessarily indicates that wheat was more extensively eaten
+than millet in olden days nor yet that agriculture was formerly
+more pursued than nowadays. The explanation of the fact is merely
+that pounding grain in a mortar was found a simpler method in a
+country where millet was the staple cereal and the consumption of
+wheat a luxury. Moreover, the Northern Tuareg when they came to Air
+were probably less familiar with millet than with wheat, and only
+modified their habits and utensils after they had settled down.</p>
+<p>Though certain wild herbs are employed for medicinal purposes, I
+know of none which is used in cooking. Besides Afaza and the burr
+grass, several other seeds or berries are used by the more nomadic
+Tuareg for food; there are said to be some twenty odd varieties in
+Air which ripen at various times of the year. The Abisgi
+(<i>Capparis sodata</i>) leaf has a biting taste and is sometimes
+used as a condiment; the tamarind does not grow so far north; limes
+are found only in Bagezan, and are rare. Dates are eaten fresh, or
+are preserved by soaking them for a short time in boiling water,
+and pressing them into air-tight leather receptacles, which are
+then sewn up. The practice of drying dates and threading them on a
+string is resorted to in Fashi and Bilma but not in Air.</p>
+<p>Food is cooked in pear-shaped earthenware pots of red clay. The
+vessels are only half baked when they are manufactured, principally
+in the Agades neighbourhood, and have to be fired before they can
+be used. They are plain and unornamented, with a lip or rim round
+the mouth, which is bound with a cord to prevent cracking. More
+elaborate pitchers with a blue design are used for<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> liquids, since the universal
+calabash of the south is comparatively rare in Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154" class=
+"fnanchor">[154]</a> These pots are also made near Agades. The
+designs appear to be of local origin. The Sudanese jars and pots
+with bands of geometric design in straw-coloured slip and blue
+pigment are not used in Air. Many small pots for inks, spices and
+condiments are found in the houses of Northern Air: black and red
+pottery is used for such vessels and for saucers and little bowls.
+With the exception of what may be termed the “grape design”
+(<a href="#i22">Plate 22</a>), none of the pottery is very
+remarkable. The pots used in the urn cemetery at Marandet seem to
+have been shaped like the common cooking-pot or with a slightly
+more round appearance: they are reported to have stood in saucers
+or plates. None of the pottery is wheel-turned.</p>
+<p>Auderas being essentially a sedentary and servile community, did
+not contain many characteristic noble Tuareg. Neither Ahodu nor his
+wife represents the fine physical type of the race, for he is of
+somewhat mixed parentage, having, according to his own tradition,
+some Arab blood in his veins, while she is a Kanuri woman. Among
+the Tuareg, as in all races, it is hard to find the absolutely pure
+type. I came across one or two examples, and must count myself
+lucky to have seen so many. I was never able to confirm the story
+one had so often heard of Tuareg with blue eyes, but such accurate
+observers have recorded this feature that its occurrence must be
+admitted. In Air it must certainly be most uncommon; nowhere is it
+the rule; light brown and grey eyes, however, are not unusual, nor
+is it rare to see hair which is not so much black as dark brown and
+wavy; it is never crinkled or “fuzzy” unless there has been an
+obvious infusion of negro blood. Very fair skins, as fair as among
+the people of Southern Europe, are comparatively frequent, but the
+transparent white skin of the North is not known: no deduction can
+be drawn from this, as skin pigmentation is notoriously<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> unreliable. Fair skins are
+held by the Tuareg to represent the purest type: a range of every
+shade to the black of the negro occurs. The Tuareg of Air
+differentiate the colouring of people somewhat arbitrarily: they
+call the pure negro “blue,”<a id="FNanchor_155"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> but the dark-brown
+Hausa, “black”; the Arab is always “white,” whatever shade of
+bronze he happens to be; the Tuareg himself is “red,”<a id=
+"FNanchor_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156" class=
+"fnanchor">[156]</a> which is the most complimentary epithet he can
+apply to others. Fairness of complexion is much prized and is a
+social distinction, though when carried to such extremes as among
+Europeans it is apt to be regarded as strange and odd. Certain
+tribes in Air are reputed, even among the Tuareg, to be more than
+usually fair. When von Bary was in Air his acquaintances seem to
+have chaffed him about his celibacy; they offered to find him a
+woman of the Iwarwaren tribe, for, they said, she would match his
+own complexion.<a id="FNanchor_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157"
+class="fnanchor">[157]</a> Once on a time in Auderas I dressed
+completely as a Tuareg, a disguise which was not difficult, for I
+had grown a full dark beard and was very deeply sunburnt all up my
+arms and legs from wearing a sleeveless tunic, diminutive shorts
+and no shoes or stockings—the ideal garb for hot weather and an
+active life. I rode into the village on a great white camel by a
+circuitous path: the people were puzzled about my identity, and
+some, as I was later told, decided from the colour of my limbs that
+I came from the Igdalen tribe. It was typical of the Tuareg that
+they eventually recognised not me, but my camel, and so guessed who
+I was.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 17</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw6">
+<figure id="i17"><a href="images/i17.jpg"><img src='images/i17.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">THE AUTHOR DRESSING A WOUND AT AUDERAS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In spite of the occurrence of many fair-skinned people, it must
+be admitted that the vast majority of Imajeghan and Imghad in Air
+are comparatively dark, yet these Tuareg are among the purest of
+their race. Their skin pigment seems to have changed before other
+characteristics.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>
+The darkness of their complexion in Air is accentuated by the prize
+set upon indigo clothing, which is so impregnated with dye that it
+wears off on the skin of the proud owner, whose ablutions are
+conspicuously infrequent. The Tuareg does not believe in washing
+unless it is absolutely necessary, and he avers that an
+indigo-stained skin is good protection against strong sunlight,
+which may or may not be true. In justice to my friends, I must
+admit that they washed their clothing, especially their white
+trousers, very frequently, and when they washed their person, they
+did so very thoroughly from head to foot, with much rubbing and a
+prodigious splashing of volumes of water.</p>
+<p>The beauty and grace of their bodies are the principal
+characteristics of the Tuareg. They are tall, more commonly in the
+neighbourhood of six feet than shorter. They look much taller owing
+to their flowing robes. When at rest they have little superficial
+muscular development; their bodies are not corrugated and knobbly
+like the powerfully built Latin: they are more like Nordic folk in
+that their limbs and backs are smooth until exerted, when the
+muscles stand up hard and tough. Their arms and legs are long and
+shapely and exceedingly graceful; they never have flaccid or
+cylindrical limbs like Abyssinians or certain Indian races. Their
+bones are small. They have wrists and ankles as slender as a
+woman’s; it is noteworthy that whatever the degree of negro
+admixture this sign of high breeding is the last to disappear. It
+is a most infallible mark of pure Tuareg parentage. With it, of
+course, go slenderness and refinement of hands and fingers. The men
+never grow fat: they are hard and fit and dry like the nerve of a
+bow, or a spring in tension. Of all their characteristics the one I
+have most vividly in mind is their grace of carriage. The men are
+born to walk and move as kings, they stride along swiftly and
+easily, like Princes of the Earth, fearing no man, cringing before
+none, and consciously superior to other people.</p>
+<p>Grace and mystery are added to their appearance by
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> veil over the
+face and by their long black robes, which are called “takatkat.”
+They are of plain indigo black cotton stuff, and though some are
+embroidered on the breast, the old-fashioned men shun such ornament
+as ostentatious. More rarely their robes are white. Their dress, to
+be in good taste, must above all be simple. Silk is hardly known
+and not in great demand: plain native cloth made up of many narrow
+slips sewn together to the desired width is esteemed superior to
+the European sorts. Buchanan had brought for presents an indigo
+stuff of excellent quality, made in Lancashire and better than
+anything of the sort that could be bought in Kano. It was much
+appreciated, but as it had a thin white stripe in it, not a single
+man would wear it for a dress. They gave it to their women for
+skirts. Broad Moslem trousers called “takirbai” are worn beneath
+the robe; they are always of white cotton. Sometimes a tanned goat
+or sheep skin is worn around the loins below the trousers, more
+especially in bush country where burr grass is very
+prevalent.<a id="FNanchor_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158" class=
+"fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+<p>The best sandals used to be made in Agades only, but since the
+emigration of so many craftsmen from Air they can now also be
+procured in Kano, and more cheaply. They are of a shape peculiar to
+the Tuareg and are much in demand all over the Sahara. The form is
+pleasing: it is wide and round under the toes, slender under the
+instep, and at the heel, and just broad enough to carry the weight
+of the body. They are made of two thicknesses sewn together with
+neat white raw-hide stitching; the top piece is of red leather with
+a stained black border: the lower piece is of raw hide. Two red
+straps from the sides level with the instep join a thong, which
+passes under the top leather and is fastened between the two
+thicknesses of the sole in order to protect the sewing from wear on
+the ground. The thong is slipped between the big and second toes;
+the red straps pass over the breadth of the<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_165">[165]</span> foot to the sides of the sandal. The
+heel is free. It is the ideal footwear in sandy country, as nothing
+can collect on the surface and rub the foot. I wore nothing else
+for nine months and can vouch for the comfort of these sandals.
+They are usually made in two sizes<a id="FNanchor_159"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>; the correct pattern for
+all those who can afford them is 12 inches long and 6 inches broad
+across the toes. This great surface, leaving several inches all
+round the breadth of the foot, gives much support on loose sand, on
+which it rests like a platform. Many other forms of improvised
+sandals are made, covering the sole and sometimes the sides of the
+foot, but the most ingenious home-made type I saw was woven in a
+few minutes of green dûm-palm fronds. These sandals were really a
+sole of palm matting under the foot: they have the advantage of
+costing nothing and, when the fronds are still green, of being
+supple and springy in any weather, whereas the leather sandals
+become flaccid on wet ground. They are, however, not proof against
+long acacia thorns, as I learnt to my cost. During the rains I used
+to have a new pair made for me every day by Ahodu’s son, aged nine,
+at the grossly excessive rate of about 6<em>d.</em> a dozen. The
+best leather sandals cost as much as 6<em>s.</em> a pair at Agades
+nowadays.</p>
+<p>Walking barefoot over loose sand in time produces severe cracks
+in the sole of the foot. The ball of the big toe and the inside
+part of the foot are particularly liable to be affected. In cold
+dry weather it is common to see men rubbing fat into the callous
+skin of their feet and warming them in front of a fire to soften
+the leather, for when a crack has begun to appear it is very
+difficult to induce healing. The skin of their feet is so
+insensible and thick that men often take a needle and thread and
+sew up their sole as one would mend a sandal. Some form of
+foot-wear is likewise desirable when there are many thorns about,
+and in the bush, where burrs find their way into the tender skin
+between the toes. As I often wore no foot-covering at all my feet
+became very hard, but I contrived on several<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_166">[166]</span> occasions to pick up thorns, which went
+as much as three-quarters of an inch into the sole of my foot. I
+well remember how the extraction of these spikes used to cause a
+most peculiar form of pain; it produced almost physical sickness.
+Curiously enough, these wounds never seemed to get septic, and I
+have always wondered why. For several months I did have septic
+sores on my feet and legs whenever a rub or scratch occurred, but
+they were principally due to being run down after malaria and the
+rainy season. Acacia thorns or burrs in my feet never became
+infected.</p>
+<p>With a veil, robe, trousers and sandals, the wardrobe of the
+Tuareg is complete. Some carry a white blanket of heavy native
+cotton stuff known in Nigeria as “Kano cloth,” woven in six-inch
+strips sewn together, with a blue border and fringe. But the
+article is a product of the Southland and almost seems to be
+considered a luxury in Air, where few men have any additional
+clothing or covering in cold weather. Some wear the conical hats of
+Kano basket-ware associated with the Hausa countries, but the
+practice is regarded as an affectation and is not very
+common.<a id="FNanchor_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160" class=
+"fnanchor">[160]</a></p>
+<p>The scantiness of the clothing of the Tuareg in Air is very
+remarkable. Their robe is admirably suited for hot weather, since
+any covering which hangs in loose folds over the back is good
+protection against the sun. The garment consists of two large
+squares of stuff, forming the front and back, the height of a man’s
+shoulder, or say about 5 feet × 5 feet. The two lower corners of
+the squares are sewn together, the bottom and sides are left open.
+The top is sewn up except for a space of about 18 inches where the
+head is put through, and a slit with a pocket is cut on the breast.
+The sides of the upper part either fall down the arms or can be
+looped up over the shoulders to leave them clear. As the sides are
+open, the circulation of air under the robe is quite free. In cold
+weather the ample volume of the robe enables it to be wrapped well
+around the body,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>
+nevertheless it is very inadequate protection when the thermometer
+falls to freezing point. It speaks highly of the hardihood of these
+people that they wear this garment only throughout the year in
+spite of variations in temperature, such as in December I
+encountered on my way south through Azawagh, of as much as 60° F.
+in twenty-four hours. The three Tuareg with me had no sort of extra
+covering for the night until I gave them a ground sheet in which to
+wrap themselves near the fire. But they discarded it, because the
+canvas, as they said, “attracted the cold” more than did the sand.
+The dying embers of a fire warmed the soles of their feet, but the
+rest of their bodies must have been frozen.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg woman wears a long piece of indigo cloth rolled round
+her body as a skirt and tucked in at the waist. Over her shoulders
+is a garment which resembles a sleeveless coat, but is really a
+small square of light indigo or black stuff with a hole for the
+head. The ends hang down in front and behind to the level of the
+waist, the sides are open. She never veils her face; the upper
+garment, or a dark cloth worn over the head like a nun’s hood, may
+be drawn across the face, but more often in coquetry, I think, than
+in prudery. This upper garment is sometimes embroidered with a
+simple cross-stitch pattern around the neck; usually it is a piece
+of plain native cloth made, like the robes of the men, of narrow
+bands sewn together. Women who can only afford one piece of stuff
+wear it wound round their bodies close under the armpits, though,
+as a general rule, it may be said that there is no feeling of
+immodesty involved in exposing the body above the waist.<a id=
+"FNanchor_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161" class=
+"fnanchor">[161]</a></p>
+<p>This ease of garb among the women and their unveiled
+countenances are in keeping with the perfect freedom which they
+enjoy. Irrespective of caste or circumstance, whether they be noble
+or slave, rich or poor, the women<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_168">[168]</span> of the People of the Veil are respected by
+their men in a manner which has no parallel in my experience. It is
+the more significant in a Moslem people, inasmuch as Islam has not
+hitherto taught the men of the Eastern world to treat their
+women-folk as their equals, still less as their betters. In saying
+this much I write in no depreciatory spirit, for the Western world
+has happily long ceased to regard the followers of Muhammad’s
+teaching of the Faith of the One God as heathen or pagan. But the
+morals and ethical code of Islam differ most essentially from those
+of the north of Europe and America precisely in regard to women;
+and in this respect Islam has lagged behind. But even in European
+countries the complete emancipation of women is only a modern
+development which may perhaps have just begun in Islam. Yet judged
+by our Northern standards the Tuareg have much in common with
+ourselves. So strange in Africa seems their conduct to women, that
+early travellers called them the Knights-Errant of the Desert
+Roads. The extent to which they have earned this name is their
+justifiable pride.</p>
+<p>Their women have position and prerogatives not yet achieved by
+their sisters in many of those countries which we term “civilised.”
+The Tuareg women are strong-minded, gifted and intelligent. They
+have their share in public life; their advice is proffered and
+sought in tribal councils. Contrary to Moslem practice and to that
+of many European societies, a Tuareg woman may own property in her
+own name, and, more than that, may continue to own and administer
+it after her marriage without interference by her husband, who has
+no rights over it whatsoever. At death a woman’s property, unless
+otherwise disposed of in satisfaction of her expressed wish, is
+divided in accordance with the Moslem laws of inheritance, but if
+her family has been provided for as custom demands, she may
+bequeath what is over as she pleases. There are many instances of
+Tuareg women of noble birth being heiresses or receiving a share of
+property which has become available,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_169">[169]</span> by conquest or the extinction of some
+group, for distribution generally among the community. Sometimes,
+if a tribe moves away from an old area, the community goes so far
+as to divide up and settle the free land on the chief women, who
+become, as Duveyrier has called them,<a id=
+"FNanchor_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162" class=
+"fnanchor">[162]</a> the “femmes douairières” of the Tuareg.</p>
+<p>Their bravery is famous in Africa. Instances are not lacking
+where they have played great parts in war. In one engagement in Air
+the Kel Fadé women led their men into battle, covering them with
+their own bodies and those of their children to prevent the French
+firing.<a id="FNanchor_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163" class=
+"fnanchor">[163]</a> When Musa ag Mastan, the Amenokal of Ahaggar,
+went to France in 1910 his sister ruled the people in his stead.
+Though no instances are recorded in Air itself of women becoming
+chiefs of tribes they rule several villages among the Kel Geres. By
+usage and by right their functions are more consultative than
+executive. They do not seek election to tribal councils. They enter
+them as of right and not in competition, but not even then do they
+order men about. Their function is to counsel and to charm. They
+make poetry and have their own way. In recent years there seems to
+have been only one example in Air of a woman playing a definitely
+masculine rôle. Barkasho, of the Ikazkazan, was already an old
+woman when, as a small boy, Musa, of the same tribe, who was with
+me at one time as a camel-man, knew her. Soon after she married,
+Barkasho told her husband that she was going about a man’s work and
+proceeded to don the robe, veil and sword of the other sex. She set
+off on a raid to the east to avenge some depredations on her
+people. As her courage grew and became famous she turned her
+attention to the west and led a raid, it is said, as far afield as
+the Tademekkat country. On one of these expeditions she lifted,
+single-handed, seven camels from a party of three men who were
+guarding them. The curious side of Barkasho’s personality was that
+when she returned from these excursions, she put off her male
+attire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> and quietly
+resumed her place and occupations in the household. Evidently,
+however, her husband must have become restive, for in the end she
+advised him to get rid of her, or at least to marry another woman
+as well, since she was useless to him as a wife. But history does
+not relate what the husband did. Musa last saw her as an old, old
+woman, sitting in front of her hut, looking into the sunset over
+the country where she used to raid, and dreaming. I failed in my
+endeavours to obtain other stories of women leaders. I found,
+therefore, nothing to bear out the Amazonian legend,<a id=
+"FNanchor_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164" class=
+"fnanchor">[164]</a> except the survival of the matriarchal system
+generally.</p>
+<p>Kahena lives on among the Tuareg only as a memory and as a
+proper name. They do not claim as one of their race the Berber
+queen who defended Ifrikiya against the Arabs in the seventh
+century. Ahodu had heard of her as a woman of the Imajeghan who
+were in the north when the Arabs came. “She led these noble people
+and defeated the Arabs, it is true, and those Imajeghan were great
+people, of course, but she was not one of our people: our people
+are older than they; and the Arabs—why, the Arabs have only just
+come to the land,” said Ahodu, who, where his own Kel Tadek were
+concerned, was always an intolerable snob.</p>
+<p>Under Moslem law a man may take unto himself four legitimate
+wives in addition to a number of slave concubines. The rules laid
+down by the Prophet for the governance of the marital relations of
+good Moslems are theoretically, at least, in force among the Tuareg
+of Air. In practice, however, monogamy is more frequent than
+polygamy. I am not clear whether an explanation of this phenomenon
+is to be looked for in a survival of a matriarchal state of society
+where one would indeed be led to expect polyandry rather than
+polygamy, or whether the reason is rather to be sought in the
+economic condition of a people whose poverty does not allow them to
+keep more than one wife. I have no hesitation in disagreeing with
+Jean when he says<a id="FNanchor_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165"
+class="fnanchor">[165]</a><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_171">[171]</span> that monogamy is rare and even anomalous in
+Air. It does not accord with my personal observations, nor is it
+consistent with what I heard of those traditions and conditions
+which I was unable to verify. How often has it not been said to me
+that “the Imajeghan respect their women, and <em>therefore</em>
+have only one wife, not like the negroes, and heathen”? It does not
+accord with the conditions governing the status of women as
+described by Jean himself, nor yet with the remarks which he makes
+on the subject of the matrimonial relations of the Tuareg. It is,
+finally, in contradiction with the accounts given by
+Duveyrier<a id="FNanchor_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166" class=
+"fnanchor">[166]</a> and others of the Northern Tuareg, concerning
+whom his enthusiasm even led him into the exaggeration of asserting
+that polygamy was unknown.</p>
+<p>After considering the question carefully, I have come to the
+conclusion that monogamy is probably an old tradition dependent
+upon and consistent with the status of Tuareg women, and not a
+consequence of economic conditions which have, however, served to
+perpetuate the custom. It is certainly connected with the
+matriarchate. The practice of concubinage is restricted, and where
+it does occur, is usually confined to women of the slave caste. A
+noble woman is not, and never could be, a concubine so long as the
+status of noble and of serf continues to exist; but if the
+maintenance of only one wife were due to economic necessity alone,
+the same conditions would not obtain in regard to concubinage in a
+community where every additional slave, male or female, is an asset
+as a productive unit. The position of women among the Tuareg has no
+real parallel in any other Oriental country. Even in Ashanti, where
+there are analogies for some of the matriarchal survivals found
+among the Tuareg, the exceptional positions of some of the royal
+women seem to be less favourable than that of any of the noble and
+most other women in Air, where all the sex is held in honour.</p>
+<p>At Auderas I played the rôle of doctor to the best of
+my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> ability. I found
+a great ally in Ahodu’s wife, who, though not a Tuareg by race, had
+acquired all their traditions and manners. Her appearance was not
+in the least characteristic; her negroid features were frankly ugly
+from the European point of view. But she made up for these physical
+disadvantages by her unfailing sense of humour and constant
+cheerfulness, which are very valuable qualities in Africa. In
+general the young Tuareg women are handsome and possessed of
+considerable charm. They are smaller in build than the men, but
+when their parentage is reasonably pure, they possess the same
+aristocratic features and proportions. Their demeanour is modest
+and dignified. In this Ahodu’s wife resembled them. She was
+perfectly natural and had great quickness of mind. She was what
+might be called “une femme du monde.” Ahodu had divorced at least
+two previous wives for their uncouth or unrestrained behaviour. He
+was devoted to his present one. He always used to speak with pride
+of her capability, which he averred was second to no man’s: one
+could place complete reliance in her. I made a point of taking her
+with me when visiting sick women and children in the hamlets, and
+through her tact and presence of mind gradually came to understand
+their perfect ease and bearing. In their tents or huts they would
+sit and listen without fear or shyness. After the inevitable
+diffidence had worn off they talked and were free from awkwardness,
+but never familiar like the negro or negroid women. They are gay
+but not infantile. They never lose their dignity. Their dress is
+staid and sombre like that of their men, with a few ornaments of
+beads and silver.<a id="FNanchor_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167"
+class="fnanchor">[167]</a> As they grow older the women of good
+family and wealth become fat, especially, as Barth remarks, in “the
+hinder parts,” for fatness is a sign of affluence, since it implies
+a sufficiency of the good things of life, like slaves and food, to
+obviate having to do much manual work. But among the unmarried
+women I saw no large-proportioned ladies: indeed few enough even of
+the married ones<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> at
+Auderas were fat, indicating, I am sorry to say, the poverty of
+most of them. When the women do not run to fat, they age with great
+beauty; nearly all the old women looked typical aristocrats and
+conscious of their breeding.</p>
+<p>The women use henna, which grows in Air, on their finger and toe
+nails, and “kohl” (antimony) for their eyes. On festive occasions
+they have a curious habit of daubing their cheeks and foreheads
+with paint, prepared either from a whitish earth found especially
+near Agades, or with red or yellow ochres which occur in several
+places. The effect of these colours on different shades of skin is
+uniformly ghastly, especially when the more usual yellow pigment is
+used, but they apparently like the habit. A possible explanation is
+that in the first instance the custom was intended as a symbolic or
+conventional method of expressing the respect felt for the fairer
+complexions of their original ancestors. The negro is despised in
+Air, the “red” man is respected; painting the face was perhaps at
+first intended to create an illusion of purer blood. Although the
+practice is supposed to be restricted to festive occasions, where
+the women have little work to do, they remain daubed most of the
+time: this seemed to be the case at T’imia, for instance, where the
+women were noble and had plenty of slaves. Tuareg men do not so
+adorn themselves.<a id="FNanchor_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168"
+class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+<p>Before marriage, which for Oriental women occurs comparatively
+late in life, Tuareg girls enjoy a measure of freedom which would
+shock even the modern respectable folk of Southern Europe. They do
+no work, but dance and sing and make poetry, and in the olden days
+they learned to read and write. The art of literature is
+unfortunately dying out, but the women still are, as they always
+were in the past, the repositories of tradition and learning. Where
+the script of the Tuareg is still known<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_174">[174]</span> and freely used, it is the women who are
+more versed in it than the men. It is they who teach the children.
+When families have slaves, the noble woman does as little work as
+she can: her occupation among the poorer people is confined to the
+household work or to herding goats and sheep. They make cheese and
+butter and sort dates, but they do not as a rule work in the
+gardens. They are never beasts of burden. They have never learnt to
+weave or spin, but they plait mats and make articles of leather.
+The leather-working industry at Agades is exclusively in their
+hands. Their knowledge of needlework is limited; the men on the
+whole are more skilled than the women at cutting out and sewing
+clothes.</p>
+<p>The household duties are simple but laborious. The children for
+the first few years of their lives are washed frequently, but when
+they are able to look after themselves in any way the practice is
+abandoned. The hut or tent is cleaned out several times a day and
+food has to be prepared. This entails pounding millet in a mortar
+and stewing the porridge, or steaming wheat to make kus-kus. The
+women eat their food with the men, a privilege often denied their
+sex among other Moslems. Among the Kel Ferwan<a id=
+"FNanchor_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169" class=
+"fnanchor">[169]</a> the women eat their food before the men do so,
+and the latter have to be content with what is left, which is often
+not very much. A man once said to me, to emphasise the good manners
+required by usage to be observed before women, that in the olden
+days if anyone had dared to break wind in their presence, the
+insult was punishable by death alone.</p>
+<p>Half the poetry of the Tuareg deals with the loves and
+adventures of young men and women. Marriages are not arranged as
+among the Arabs. It often happens that a girl has two or more
+suitors, when her free choice alone is the deciding factor. It is
+common for a girl who is in love with a man to take a camel and
+ride all night to see him and then return to her own place, or for
+a suitor to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>
+expeditions of superhuman endurance to see his lady.<a id=
+"FNanchor_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170" class=
+"fnanchor">[170]</a> Fights between rivals are not uncommon.
+Illicit love affairs inevitably occur: if they have unfortunate
+consequences, the man is called upon to marry the woman, but
+infanticide is not unknown. Once married the woman is expected to
+behave with decorum and modesty. Public opinion on these matters is
+strong. The married state, however, does not prevent a woman
+admitting men friends to an intimacy similar to that existing,
+perhaps, only among the Anglo-Saxon peoples. In a passage in which
+Ibn Batutah describes the Mesufa, who before becoming debased were
+of the Western Sanhaja Tuareg, but had in part settled south of
+Air, he comments on the status of women in these charming
+terms:<a id="FNanchor_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171" class=
+"fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+<p>“The women of the Mesufa feel no shame in the presence of men;
+nor do they veil their faces. Despite this, they do not omit to
+perform their prayers punctually. Anyone who wishes to marry them
+can do so without difficulty. . . . In this country the women have
+friends and companions among men who are strangers. The men for
+their part have companions among women not in their own families.
+It often happens for a man to enter his own house to find his wife
+with a friend. He will neither disapprove nor make trouble. I (that
+is, Ibn Batutah himself) once went into the house of a judge at
+Walata after he had given me permission, and found quite a young
+and very beautiful woman with him. As I stopped, doubting, and
+hesitated, wanting to return on my steps, she began to laugh at my
+embarrassment instead of blushing with shame.” The great traveller
+is evidently very much shocked, for he goes on: “And yet this man
+was a lawyer and a pilgrim. I even heard that he had asked the
+Sultan for permission to perform the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_176">[176]</span> pilgrimage that year to Mecca, in the
+company of this friend. Was it this one or another? I do not know.
+. . .” Again, he goes on to describe how he visited the house of
+one of his companions of the road and found him sitting on a
+carpet, “while in the middle of the house on a couch . . . was his
+wife in conversation with a man seated by her side. I asked Abu
+Muhammad: ‘Who is that woman?’ ‘It’s my wife,’ he replied. ‘And who
+is the individual with her?’ ‘It’s her friend.’ ‘But are you, who
+have lived in our countries, quite satisfied with such a state of
+affairs—you who know the precepts of the Holy Writ?’ He replied:
+‘The relations of women with men in this country bring good and are
+correct, they are right and honourable. They give rise to no
+suspicion. Our women, as a matter of fact, are not like those in
+your country.’”</p>
+<p>And that is the whole truth. The Tuareg men and women are not
+like the other inhabitants of North Africa. But Ibn Batutah must
+have been none the less shocked, because, though Abu Muhammad
+invited him to visit him again, he did not go.</p>
+<p>Conditions have not changed since those days among the People of
+the Veil, but habits which would be considered natural in America
+or in England admittedly seem strange in Africa. They are all
+summed up in the Tuareg proverb which says: “Men and women towards
+each other are for the eyes and for the heart, and not only for the
+bed,” as among the Arabs. The consequence of such a frame of mind
+is that the men and women of the People of the Veil are often
+blessed, or cursed, with love so lasting, so sincere and so devoted
+that, like in our own society, it makes or mars a life.</p>
+<p>Bates has discussed the marriage customs of the Libyan tribes
+mentioned in the classics. While some of these groups of people may
+represent the ancestors of the Tuareg, there is no evidence of the
+outrageous performances mentioned, for instance, by Herodotus,
+having persisted into modern times in Air. Divorce among the Tuareg
+is fairly frequent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>
+and is carried out in accordance with Moslem prescription, but
+adultery is not very common. Prostitution exists, but perhaps, on
+the whole, is less common than in more favoured parts of the world.
+It is, of course, more frequent in Agades than in the villages, and
+in the latter than among the tribes. The harlot is not respected,
+and her marriage with a decent man is reprobated.</p>
+<p>The husband is required to purchase his wife, the money or
+equivalent being paid to her parents. The sum varies from a few
+silver francs to several camels. Marriage portions in cattle, sheep
+or goats, according to the circumstances of the parents, are
+frequently given to women; the “dot” remains the property of the
+bride.</p>
+<p>The children of the Tuareg, and especially the little girls, are
+adorable persons. They are fairer than their parents, largely, I
+think, because they wash more often than their elders, but even
+discounting this factor they appear to turn darker as they grow up.
+Up to the age of seven or eight the children wear no clothes at
+all, summer or winter, indoors or out of doors, except perhaps a
+rag to keep off the flies when they are asleep. After that, their
+first clothes are white cotton shifts. Small boys have their hair
+cropped close, except for a crest along the top of the head; in
+some tribes, notably in the west of Air, a lock on either side of
+the head and a patch on top are sometimes left. Little girls are
+allowed long hair until they first put on a smock or cloth about
+their waists. At the age of puberty both sexes dress their hair in
+one of the several fashions current in Air, usually in small plaits
+all over the head; thereafter the boys continue to wear white
+shirts, but the girls put on the indigo skirt cloth. The children
+are so well brought up that European parents might be envious of
+them. I have never met small boys with such perfect manners and so
+free from selfishness as I experienced in Air. As soon as they are
+old enough to take an interest in things, the boys accompany their
+fathers on journeys, to which they are thus gradually broken from
+an early age.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> They
+are made to work and do all the domestic duties that their powers
+allow in camp or on the march. They feed the camels on the road
+with grass or plants picked by the way; they carry water to their
+elders to drink; they bring in stray camels at loading-up time and
+hobble them when turned out to graze. The slaves, who prepare the
+food, are assisted by the boys and send them out to do all the
+hundred and one little jobs that are required. So the boys grow up
+to be useful men before they are mature, and in the process learn
+the respect which is due to their elders, and their elders show
+them such devotion as these pleasant little people deserve. The
+training is evidently successful, for nowhere else have I seen
+children so thoughtful or so kindly to all and to each other. It
+had never been my lot until I met the Tuareg to see a right-minded
+boy, for instance, who had been given a sweet or a penny or some
+equally valuable object, run off and offer it first to his father
+and then to his companions, who refused it. And this I saw not in
+an isolated instance, but as an universal practice.</p>
+<p>In the primitive conditions of life in Air, infant mortality is
+high. The happiest and some of the most successful days I spent in
+Air were doctoring people, and especially children, at Auderas.
+There are not many diseases in the clean dry mountain air, but
+under-feeding and malaria, which comes after the rains, take their
+annual toll. The almost miraculous effect of quinine on the fevers
+is a very saving grace. One can never have enough quinine, but
+fortunately small doses at frequent intervals will keep fever in
+check during bad attacks and prevent collapse. Thus can a great
+deal be achieved. But it was the good sense of the women, who had
+some faith in my elementary remedies, that did most to save several
+children of Auderas in the autumn of 1922.</p>
+<p>I was interested to find how long women went on suckling their
+children. I saw children of three and four years still feeding at
+the breast, though they were already eating<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_179">[179]</span> solid food. A woman will go on suckling
+an older child for many years so long as her younger ones do not
+suffer; she is especially prone to do so if her last baby has died.
+In company with most races living under primitive conditions, even
+advanced pregnancy does not interfere with a woman’s activities,
+nor do mothers suffer much from the effects of childbirth. The
+processes of nature take place unassisted: there are neither local
+medicine men nor midwives. Women in labour are attended by their
+older relations or intimate friends, whose assistance is limited to
+massaging the body with hands steeped in butter or fat. Death in
+childbirth appears to be rare. Newly-born children are wrapped in
+some ragged garment, but receive no especial care. Cradles or
+swaddling clothes are unknown; but perhaps a cushion of grass or
+leaves for the infant is prepared on the family sleeping mat or
+bed. Babies are carried on their mother’s back or by a slave woman,
+slung with one tiny leg each side of the woman’s waist, in a fold
+of the cloth which constitutes her skirt. The cloth is firmly
+rolled round the baby and the woman’s body, and tucked in over the
+breast; only the child’s head emerges from this pouch on her back.
+So the child sleeps or cries or sucks its finger, and the mother
+goes about her daily occupations, pounding millet or plaiting
+mats.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 18</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw10">
+<figure id="i18"><a href="images/i18.jpg"><img src='images/i18.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TEKHMEDIN AND THE AUTHOR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Neither at birth nor later is any form of bodily deformation
+practised. Such horrors as flattened skulls or filed teeth are
+unknown. The only eunuchs in Air are negroes purchased in the
+south. As in the case of all good Moslems, the boys are circumcised
+at the age of a few months. The diseases which I myself observed in
+Air, I must admit, seemed few. Syphilis, malaria, certain digestive
+troubles, dysentery, a few minor skin diseases and eye troubles
+were the most serious. Syphilis is common, but apparently not very
+virulent: its method of propagation and origin are well known to
+the natives: in the Northern Sahara it is called the Great Disease.
+Von Bary thought that it, like malarial fevers, came from the
+Sudan, but there is no reason<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_180">[180]</span> to believe this, for it is very evenly
+distributed all over North Africa. The juice of the colocynth as a
+purge is believed to do good in cases of venereal disease.
+Guinea-worm is fairly common; the milky juice of the Asclepias,
+known as <i>Calotropis Procera</i>,<a id=
+"FNanchor_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172" class=
+"fnanchor">[172]</a> which grows all over Air, is said to have a
+curative effect, in addition to the usual method of extraction
+known to everyone who has travelled in Africa. I saw one case of
+tuberculosis of the lungs at Auderas, accompanied by hæmorrhage. It
+was rather an interesting case of a woman whose family for three
+generations was said to have died of the disease. I was too honest,
+I suppose, to profess to be able to cure her, but I need hardly say
+that my servant, Amadu, took over the case. He claimed to have
+established a complete cure in a few days with some herb which he
+had found. My reputation suffered, but my advice to Ahodu to move
+her hut to the outskirts of the village was nevertheless admitted
+to be reasonable, and was followed. Duveyrier<a id=
+"FNanchor_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173" class=
+"fnanchor">[173]</a> mentions a form of ulcer in the nose, said to
+be due to constant sand irritation. He describes hernia from
+long-distance camel riding as being frequent: to prevent abdominal
+strains from this cause the Tuareg bind a long strip of cotton
+stuff tightly about their waists. Von Bary<a id=
+"FNanchor_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174" class=
+"fnanchor">[174]</a> records having seen, in addition to the above
+diseases, epilepsy, atrophied children, skin eruptions, small-pox,
+hypochondria and madness. He remarks that the Kel Owi seemed to
+suffer more from disease than the other tribes, that their women
+were very fat, and that they appeared to have irregular periods. My
+investigations into local medicine were unproductive. I brought
+home some drugs which were used locally as purges, lotions and
+astringents, but they were without value. The empiric knowledge of
+the Tuareg may yet be worth<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_181">[181]</span> investigating, but has so far disclosed
+nothing of any value.</p>
+<p>Festivals connected with social life are not interesting. Births
+occur without unusual or curious celebrations. The naming of the
+child is supposed to be in the hands of the local holy man, but the
+mother brings her influence to bear in his choice by suitable
+payments. Marriages are celebrated with feast and rejoicing after
+the bridegroom has wooed his bride and paid the stipulated portion.
+Burials equally follow the Moslem practice. The body is laid in the
+ground on its back, the head to the north and the feet to the
+south, with the face turned towards Mecca. The rope by which the
+body is lowered into the grave is left lying to rot away on the
+tomb. The grave is marked by one or two standing stones according
+as the deceased is male or female. The graves in Air are intimately
+connected with the architecture and dwellings of the Tuareg, and
+are dealt with in a later chapter. There are cemeteries all over
+Air: the little one now in use at Auderas lies on the south side of
+the valley under the hills of Tidrak, opposite the site of our
+camp. In the rains, malaria claimed several victims. They were
+mournful little processions which I used to see from my hut. One
+such occasion particularly impressed itself upon me. I was
+returning from South Bagezan one evening, climbing down on a rough
+path in a ravine with three camels and three men, when Ahodu, El
+Mintaka and a few more appeared, carrying a man to his grave. They
+were walking quickly so as to have done as soon as possible,
+proclaiming as they went that there was no God but God. They did
+that which there was to be done in haste, and returned at their
+leisure near sundown when the sky and the mountains of Todra were
+on fire. It had been raining and the black clouds were still in
+sight, covering the place of sunset. Above, everything was as red
+as the light of a blast furnace shining on Todra. Already the
+darkness had gathered in the north-east and the stars were coming
+out, and the deep<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>
+valley with its white, sandy bottom was scarcely seen for the many
+trees in it. A chilly wind blew down the valley, waving the palms
+and troubling the gardens. As I reached my hut, Ahodu and his men
+joined me, and night fell, leaving purple and then dark red and
+then a yellow glow in the west. Last of all came the pale zodiacal
+light climbing up nearly to the zenith of the night, and the wind
+died down. Ahodu did not speak of death because it was unlucky, but
+he sat on the sand and told me many things. Ultimately came the
+information that a raid of Ahaggaren had plundered some villages in
+Kawar. He was afraid they would come on to Air, and that the
+village would have to be abandoned, and that his people would have
+to retreat into the mountain which towered as a black shadow in the
+east. He had left this subject to the last, because there was
+nothing in the matter to discuss. The raiders either would or they
+would not come. There was a proverb: “Reasoning is the shackle of
+the coward.”</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 19</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i19"><a href="images/i19.jpg"><img src='images/i19.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">BAGEZAN MOUNTAINS AND TOWAR VILLAGE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc05">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class=
+"label">[150]</span></a>Cf. Barth, Vol. I. p. 387. The village of
+Aerwan wan Tidrak is presumably to be placed in these hills, where
+there are numerous remains of hamlets. The “village” of “Ifarghan”
+at Auderas is presumably a mistake, for “Ifargan” means “gardens”
+in Temajegh. Several of the Auderas gardens are at the point where
+Barth placed this so-called village.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class=
+"label">[151]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I., p.
+385.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class=
+"label">[152]</span></a>Mount Dogam is not west of the Ighaghrar
+(Arharkhar) valley as shown in the Cortier map, but to the east at
+the head of three tributary streams and adjoining the Todra massif.
+The latter on the map is not named and is erroneously given as a
+south-western spur of Bagezan, from which it is really quite
+distinct.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class=
+"label">[153]</span></a>First half of August, 1922.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class=
+"label">[154]</span></a>Three sorts of gourds do exist, but they
+are valuable.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class=
+"label">[155]</span></a>As does the Arab, and with some reason, for
+real negroes in the sunlight have, in fact, a blue-black
+appearance.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class=
+"label">[156]</span></a>Izagarnen or Ihagarnen—the red ones,
+possibly the etymology of “Ihaggaren.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class=
+"label">[157]</span></a>Von Bary, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 166.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class=
+"label">[158]</span></a>Among the Tuareg I have never seen or heard
+of the “penistasche,” which Bates regards as so typical of the
+Libyans.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class=
+"label">[159]</span></a>Sandals are called Irratemat.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class=
+"label">[160]</span></a>The hats illustrated by Bates, <em>op.
+cit.</em>, Fig. 32, are typically Sudanese.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class=
+"label">[161]</span></a>I believe this is not so in the north,
+where Arab influence contrasts with the more negroid customs of
+Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class=
+"label">[162]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 401.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class=
+"label">[163]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 192-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class=
+"label">[164]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c04">Chap.
+IV.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class=
+"label">[165]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 195.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class=
+"label">[166]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 429.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class=
+"label">[167]</span></a>See Plates <a href="#i36">36</a> and
+<a href="#i37">37.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class=
+"label">[168]</span></a>The practice is alluded to in Gsell’s
+<em>Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord</em>, Vol. I. Chap. IV, and a
+connection with the mysterious term Leucæthiopians is suggested,
+but I think mistakenly. It is an insult to the classical
+geographers to suggest that any people were so called because some
+negroes whitened their faces with paint.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class=
+"label">[169]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 193.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class=
+"label">[170]</span></a>I cannot agree with Jean, p. 193, that
+until their marriage girls never leave their mothers. They are not
+taken on journeys like boys, but they walk about the villages or
+encampments in a remarkably free way. Their romances are a proof of
+their freedom, which is the topic of discussion and the object of
+remark of anyone who first comes into contact with this race.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class=
+"label">[171]</span></a>Ibn Batutah (French edition), Vol. IV. pp.
+388-90.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class=
+"label">[172]</span></a>Known by various native names. In Air the
+usual name is the Hausa form Tunfafia. Barth refers to it as
+<i>Asclepias gigantica</i>. It is called Turha or Toreha or Tirza
+in Temajegh, Turdja in Mauretania, Ushr in Egyptian and Korunka in
+Algerian Arabic.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class=
+"label">[173]</span></a>Cf. Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp.
+433-5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class=
+"label">[174]</span></a>Von Bary, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 185.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span><a id=
+"c06"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE MODE OF LIFE OF THE NOMADS</p>
+<p><span class="sc">One</span> of my first trips from Auderas was
+to the village of Towar,<a id="FNanchor_175"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> which lies under the
+south-western spurs of Bagezan on the edge of the plain between
+this massif and Todra. Leaving Auderas by a very rough path over
+the hills on the south side of the valley, a narrow track with
+difficulty climbs up to the watershed of the basin where the
+central plain is reached. The northern part of the plain skirting
+Todra and Bagezan is covered with black basalt boulders all the way
+to Towar. The boulders are polished and range in size from a large
+water-melon to an orange. They were probably thrown out from
+Bagezan by some volcanic activity, which, in conjunction with later
+eruptions at Mount Dogam, also produced the basalt and cinerite
+formations in the Auderas valley. The plain is intersected by
+several valleys, the head-waters of the Buddei-Telwa system which
+drains the southern slopes of Todra. Further east is the Ara
+valley, which comes down from the south-east face of Mount Dogam
+between Todra and Bagezan. Several valleys descend from the
+south-western parts of Bagezan as tributaries to the Ara and Towar,
+which both flow into the Etaras, whose waters eventually find their
+way east of Taruaji into the River of Agades opposite Akaraq by the
+Turayet valley. The Ara valley is particularly important, for it
+divides Todra from Bagezan, which are distinct groups and not a
+single massif as the Cortier map implies.</p>
+<p>The plain between Bagezan and Taruaji is dotted with small
+conical hills. There is no vegetation except along<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> the watercourses: between the
+boulders a little grass finds a precarious existence. But there are
+many gazelle always roaming about. Of the two roads from Auderas to
+Towar village, I first tried the northern one, which is also the
+shortest. At the point where it crosses a col over a spur of Todra
+it proved precipitous and dangerous, but the alternative road, on
+the other hand, is more than half as long again, running south-east
+from Auderas and then turning north-east to rejoin the first track
+at the domed peak of Tegbeshi, some six miles east of Towar. At
+Tegbeshi the road to Towar crosses a track from Agades to Northern
+Air, running over the pass of the Upper Ara valley not far from the
+village of Dogam, which lies on the south slope of the peak. A
+branch leads up into the Bagezan mountains by a precipitous ravine
+north of Towar village.</p>
+<p>After crossing several more tributaries of the Ara and Towar
+valleys the village itself is reached, on the east side of the
+stream bed. There are two older deserted stone-built settlements,
+respectively south and east of the present site, which consist of a
+group of straw huts. The dwellings are typical of the Tuareg mode
+of hut construction. The frame is made of palm-frond ribs planted
+in the ground and tied together at the top; the section of the huts
+is consequently nearly parabolic. This framework is covered with
+thatch of coarse grass on top and mats round the lower part. The
+dwelling is built in one piece; it does not, as in the Southland,
+consist of two separate portions, namely, the conical roof and the
+vertical wall.<a id="FNanchor_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176"
+class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The stone houses of the two older
+villages point to the former settlements having been more extensive
+than the present one. There are small palm groves and a group of
+gardens on the banks of the valley, which contains plenty of water
+in the sand. The site was deserted during the war and has only
+recently been occupied. The population is mixed, but principally
+servile, derived from several tribes. The present inhabitants owe
+allegiance to the Kel Bagezan (Kel Owi) but the plain all round
+belongs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> to the Kel
+Nugguru of the chief Khodi, whose camels were pasturing in the
+little watercourses of the plain. One of the first people I met on
+camping near the village on the east bank was a man from Ghat,
+Muhammad, who had left his native town many years ago in the course
+of a feud between the leading Tuareg of the city and some
+neighbouring villages. He had become completely Tuareg and had
+almost forgotten his Arabic. The man, however, I had come to see
+was working on his garden, and I sent a friend whom I had brought
+from Auderas, one Atagoom, of Ahodu’s group of Kel Tadek, to find
+him. Eventually the man returned, and I became aware that I had
+found the purest Tuareg type in Air.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 20</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i20a"><a href="images/i20a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i20a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">HUTS AT TOWAR SHOWING METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw11">
+<figure id="i20b"><a href="images/i20b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i20b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">HUTS AT TIMIA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I went forward with the intention of greeting T’ekhmedin, but
+was met with a look of disdainful inquiry which said more clearly
+and forcibly than words could express, “Who the hell are you and
+what the devil do you want?” He is one of the most remarkable men
+in Air, and the greatest of all the guides to Ghat on the northern
+roads of Air. Now barely forty years old, he has done the journey
+from Iferuan to Ghat, which is some four hundred miles in a
+straight line on the map, more than eighty times. He knows every
+stone and mark on all the alternative tracks over this terrible
+desert, as well as one may know the way from Hyde Park Corner to
+Piccadilly Circus. He is famous all over the Central Sahara, among
+the hardest travellers of the world, as the surest and toughest
+guide alive. His birth is noble, his spirit uncompromising. He has
+fought against the French on many occasions: his activities at Ghat
+in connection with the capture of the French post of Janet are
+known to all who followed events in North Africa during the war. He
+continued to fight against the French when Kaossen came to Air, and
+was imprisoned after the termination of that revolution; the
+fetter-marks round his ankles will endure until he dies. He had
+lost all his property; the rags on his back were pitiful to see,
+but his leather tobacco bottle and sheath knife, though almost
+falling to pieces, were of a<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_186">[186]</span> quality which betokened affluence in the
+past. When I saw him he had nothing in the world but a small garden
+at Towar, which he had been reduced from high estate to cultivate
+like a mere slave. He seemed to be half starved. He was certainly
+over-worked, trying to grow enough food to keep life in his wife
+and small boy. The French at Agades have offered him pay to join
+their Camel Corps as a guide, but T’ekhmedin would have none of
+them. I wanted him to come with me as a guide, for his knowledge of
+the Central Sahara would have been invaluable to me in my
+researches, but he refused to come for pay. After I had broken the
+ice and explained my purpose in desiring to see him, T’ekhmedin
+began to thaw, and eventually became more affable. In time I
+learned to know him well, but in all our relations he never
+modified his independent attitude. He said: “I will come with you
+when my wife is provided for out of the harvest from my garden, and
+when I have placed her in the hands of my relations in T’imia. Then
+I will come with you for a month or for a year, but only because I
+want to come, and not for pay: if I come, I will go anywhere you
+want, but I will not come as your servant. You may give me a
+present if you like; you must feed me because I am poor, and give
+me a camel to ride, but I will not be paid for any service. I will
+come only as your friend because I, <em>I</em> myself, want to
+come.” On a second trip to Towar I had occasion to nurse him when
+he had fever. He was thus one of the few men I ever saw without the
+veil, and as he is so typical of the pure Tuareg, I will copy the
+description of his appearance which I recorded in my diary at the
+time. “On reaching Towar I found the whole village laid low with
+malaria due to the proximity of stagnant wells in the gardens on
+the edge of the settlement. So I delivered a lecture on the
+desirability of moving the huts further away, and set to work to
+dose T’ekhmedin with quinine, the only drug I had with me. He was
+very bad, and had been ill ever since he left me at Auderas ten
+days before. I persuaded him to come away with me again; he came,
+but had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> a rotten
+time riding in the heat of the sun, and arrived rather done up.
+Thanks to good food and quinine he is better now. He is a handsome
+man, say six feet tall, of slight build, with a small beard and
+clipped moustache which, like his hair, is just steeled with grey.
+His domed forehead joins a retreating skull running back to a point
+behind. He has heavy eyebrow bones and the characteristic Libyan
+indentation between the forehead and root of the nose, which from
+that point is straight to the flat extremity. The nostrils are
+moderately flat and wide, but thin. The lips are not at all
+everted, rather the reverse. The upper lip is of the type which is
+very short, but in his case is not unduly so. There is an
+indentation between the lower lip and chin, which is very firm,
+very fine and very pointed. The cheek-bones are prominent but not
+high, and from here, accentuating their prominence, the outline of
+the face runs straight down to the chin. The ears are small, thin
+and flat. The profile is somewhat prorhinous; it is not at all
+prognathous. His hands and ankles are as slender as those of a
+woman; his body and waist are also slender; as is the case among
+all Tuareg, there is no superficial muscular development.”</p>
+<p>T’ekhmedin’s colleagues on the north roads, Kelama, who is
+nearly blind, and Sattaf, together with Efale, in the Eastern
+Desert, enjoy enormous respect in Air and indeed among all Tuareg.
+As a race the People of the Veil are all born to travel, but anyone
+among them who has a specialist’s knowledge is as important as a
+great scientist is in Europe. In general the topographical
+knowledge of Air and the surrounding countries has declined since
+raiding ceased, for this pastime was as much a sport as anything
+else. It is now confined to the people of those areas which are not
+under European control, that is, most of Tibesti, all the Fezzan
+and southern parts of Tripolitania and the interior of the Spanish
+colony of the Rio de Oro. Some of the exploits of the raiding bands
+from these areas sound so fantastic that they would hardly be
+credited were they not<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_188">[188]</span> established facts. The Arab and Moorish
+tribes from Southern Morocco and from the Rio de Oro, for instance,
+when they have finished cultivating their scanty fields, turn out
+nearly every year for the especial purpose of lifting camels from
+the salt caravans between Timbuctoo and Taodenit, but the parties
+do not confine their operations to this area if they miss their
+objective. They have, on several occasions, gone on until they have
+found elsewhere a sufficient number of camels to make their journey
+profitable. Thus they have come as far as Damergu and Tegama, south
+of Agades, a journey from the Atlantic half-way across North Africa
+and back. Once, with consummate humour, a band stole all the camels
+of a French Camel Corps patrol in the Tahua area north of Sokoto.
+These people usually start out in as large a body of men as they
+reckon can water at the wells by the way, and break up into small
+parties as soon as they have looted some camels, returning home by
+different routes. Although they often lose a part of their booty
+and suffer casualties at the hands of the French Camel Corps, their
+tactics make them very hard to catch.</p>
+<p>The Tebu and Tuareg from the Fezzan raid Kawar and Air. Their
+procedure varies considerably, and it is impossible to know which
+way they will come or return. One year a party from the north-east
+entered Air by the western side and left in an E.S.E. direction.
+The raiding season begins as soon as the rains have fallen, when
+there is plenty of water all over the Southern Sahara even in the
+most inaccessible places. Outlying watering-points which can rarely
+be visited are their favourite haunts. The wireless stations at
+Agades and Bilma are a serious handicap, for intercommunication
+enables the French Camel patrols of different areas to obtain a
+start, and very often some idea of the possible roads which the
+raiders are following. Yet even so the two Camel Corps platoons in
+Air have let many bands slip through their fingers. It is generally
+recognised as impossible to prevent a raid reaching its objective;
+at the most the raiders can be followed up and brought to action or
+forced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> to abandon
+their loot on the way home. The latter politically is the end kept
+in view, for it exposes the raiders to the ridicule of failure
+rather than the sympathy of defeat. One of the great difficulties
+of defensive operations in the deserts of the Territoires du Niger
+is the use of the Tirailleurs Sénégalais as Camel Mounted Troops.
+The negro of the coast is not, and never will be, a good camel-man,
+and his efficiency cannot compare with that of the natives used by
+the French authorities in Southern Algeria, where tribesmen who
+have been born and bred in the saddle are enlisted as volunteers.
+Here, there is nothing to choose between the capacity of the raider
+and his opponent.</p>
+<p>The technique of raids is interesting. The size of the bodies
+attacking Air must always be limited by the capacity of the
+outlying watering-points, which, except in Damergu and Azawagh, are
+small. Bands of as few as ten men sometimes operate; a raid of one
+hundred men is considered large. They travel astonishing distances
+on practically no food or water: a few dates and a little water
+serve them for several days. If I were to record the periods of
+time for which men have lived without water in the lands of the
+People of the Veil, I would be accused of such mendacity that I
+will refrain from risking my good name. I will only say that
+seventy-two hours without water is an occurrence just sufficiently
+common not to pass as unduly remarkable. Similarly the distances
+ridden by raiders are fantastic. A hundred miles in the day have
+been covered by a band of a few hard-pressed men. Individual
+performances are even better. A messenger quite recently rode from
+Agades to In Gall in one day and back the next on the same camel,
+which therefore covered not less than one hundred and forty miles
+as the crow flies in forty hours, and probably one hundred and
+sixty by road. Another man, on a famous camel it is true, rode from
+the River of Agades near Akaraq to Iferuan, a distance of not less
+than one hundred and sixty miles, in just over twenty-four hours.
+The two messengers who brought the news to Zinder in 1917, that the
+post of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> Agades was
+besieged, covered over four hundred kilometres in under four days.
+And such instances could be multiplied. A raiding party, however,
+will not usually average more than thirty-five miles a day, and
+even so the hardship is considerable if this rate has to be kept up
+for many days. The bands are often made up of more men than camels,
+some of them in turn having to walk until they can loot more
+mounts. The Tuareg on raids are generally well-behaved towards each
+other. They do not kill unless the looted tribe or village puts up
+a fight, for it is an unwritten law among them that on ordinary
+raids, as opposed to real warfare, only live-stock is taken. Houses
+are not destroyed and villages are not burnt. This forbearance is,
+of course, largely due to the fact that there is nothing of any
+weight worth removing, such wealth as the Tuareg possess being
+principally in flocks and herds, of which only the camels can
+readily be driven off. But secrecy is essential, and when,
+therefore, a stray wanderer is met on the road who might give
+warning of the arrival of a raiding party, he may be made to
+accompany the robbers, or, if his presence is inconvenient, he may
+have to be killed. The Tuareg do not capture each other as slaves
+unless they are at war, though to steal someone’s slaves is, of
+course, as legitimate as to steal his camels. Descents on French
+patrols, posts, and tribes known to be engaged in assisting them
+are considered legitimate, but they generally have had serious
+consequences. For here more than raiding is involved—it is war. At
+the end of last century raiding from Air was frequent: lifting
+camels from the Aulimmiden had, in fact, become so common a pastime
+that it was proscribed by the Holy Men, who decided that even
+though no killing of Tuareg was taking place, the People of the
+Veil should leave the People of the Veil alone and turn their
+attentions to the Tebu, who were legitimate enemies. With the
+latter the Air Tuareg neither give nor expect to receive mercy.
+Raiding eastward at the end of last century became popular, but
+fraught with more serious consequences. On one such<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> occasion the expedition turned
+out so badly that Belkho’s own people, the Igermadan, after
+successfully lifting camels and taking many prisoners in Kawar,
+were virtually exterminated. They were surprised at night in their
+over-confidence and massacred, a reverse from which the tribe to
+this day has never recovered.</p>
+<p>In his youth Ahodu accomplished some very successful raids in
+the east. His greatest adventure was when he captured a big Arab
+caravan bound from Murzuk to Bornu, some thirty years ago. He told
+the story as follows, with Ali of Ghat sitting near him on the
+floor of my hut. Now when a Tuareg tells a story he always draws on
+the sand with his fingers to show the numbers of his camels and men
+and the direction of his march, and when he counts in that way he
+marks the units by little lines drawn with two or three fingers at
+a time till he has reached ten, and then marks up a group of ten
+with a single line to one side.</p>
+<p>“That was nearly thirty years ago,” he said, and drew:</p>
+<table class="tmed bd-collapse" id="t191a">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc bt bd-left width2">I</td>
+<td class="tdc bt bd-right width2">I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">III</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">III</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bd-left"></td>
+<td class="bd-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc bb bd-right bd-left">I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">III</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right2">IIIII</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="nind">“I was one leader and Ula with the Ifadeyen people
+was the other. There were” (rubbing out the first marks with a
+sweep of the hand):</p>
+<table class="tmed" id="t191b">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1 width3">III</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right2">III</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">I</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad1 pad-right1">II</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">I</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right2">I</td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">II</td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">II</td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right2">II</td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">II</td>
+<td class="tdl pad-right1">II</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl pad1 pad-right1">III</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="nind">(that is) “twenty-five of us and about <span class=
+"sc2">I I I</span> thirty of the Ifadeyen.</p>
+<p>“First we found a group of camels, the ones we came for, half a
+day on the Fashi side of Bilma. And some of the men went back with
+them from here. They were afraid, but we went on. As I was the
+leader I went too.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>“Then we had
+news of a caravan of Arabs coming down the road from Murzuk, but my
+men were afraid, for all the Arabs were supposed to have
+rifles—they were only old stone guns [flint-locks]—and horses to
+pursue us. We took counsel, and I agreed to go in and stampede the
+horses, when my men would rush the caravan, which was camped in the
+open under a dune. The dune had a little grass on it. [He then drew
+a rough map of the battle-field on the sand.] So we hid for the
+night behind another dune, and I crept in on the sleeping caravan
+and lay still till dawn, behaving like a Tebu. In the cold before
+dawn my men came up, but the Arabs saw them a little too soon and
+the alarm spread. My men rushed the caravan all right, but one Arab
+got away on his horse, barebacked, with a rifle, and nearly created
+a panic among my men when he sat down to shoot at us from a hill.
+He only fired two shots and they did no harm, but my men ran away
+till I showed them that we had picked up the only other two guns of
+the caravan. Then my men regained courage. We took two hundred
+laden camels with ‘malti’ [cotton stuff], tea and sugar, and we
+emptied even our waterskins to fill them with sugar, and still so
+had to leave much on the ground.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Self.</span> “What happened to the Arabs?”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “A few were able to run away—the
+rest died.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ali.</span> “Was that the caravan of Rufai el
+Ghati?”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “Yes; why?”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ali.</span> “I knew the man: he was my friend:
+and were Muhammad el Seghir and El Tunsi and Sheikh el Latif
+there?”<a id="FNanchor_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177" class=
+"fnanchor">[177]</a></p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “Yes. I killed them myself, but
+there was a child . . .”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ali.</span> “. . . who was not killed but was
+found with his head all covered with blood. He was sitting on the
+ground playing when someone found him.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “Yes, it is so.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ali.</span> “I was in Bornu then, waiting for
+that caravan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> Ai!
+There was dismay in Ghat when the news came there. It was you who
+did that! I did not know till now. The boy was my sister’s son. His
+father was her husband.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “Yes (relapsing into silence);
+and we also got another caravan that time.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Self.</span> “Will you come on a raid with me
+one day?”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu</span> (quite seriously). “Wallahi,
+anywhere; and my people will come too, and many more, if you
+want.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Self.</span> “But where shall we go?—there are
+no caravans now.”</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ahodu.</span> “Never mind, there are some fine
+female camels in Tibesti.”</p>
+<p>It was their great sport and had its recognised rules. It kept
+their men virile, but is finished now.</p>
+<p>The essence of rapid travel by camel is lightness of equipment.
+It is a mistake to suppose that the actual rate of progression on
+camels is anything but very slow. It may come as a surprise to many
+to learn that even riding camels rarely move out of a walk. They
+say in the Sahara that it is bad for the camel to run. The riding
+camels of the Tuareg are selected and tried beasts, but they are
+never, in fact, trotted except for quite brief periods. The French
+camel patrols, after many years of experience, are by regulation
+forbidden to move out of a walk: the weight of equipment which they
+have to carry may be a reason, but there must be more in it than
+that, for even raiding parties follow the same practice. It is held
+that the fatigue of man and beast consequent upon trotting is
+disproportionate to the results achieved. But the walk of a camel
+is slow at any time; to average 3·5 miles an hour over long
+distances is very good going, while 2·5 with a baggage caravan is
+all that can be managed.</p>
+<p>Where the raider has the advantage over any organised military
+body engaged in chasing him is in the lightness of his load. The
+Tuareg camel saddle weighs a few pounds only; the head-rope or
+bridle is a simple cord without trappings: a small skin of water, a
+skin of dates, a rifle and perhaps twenty to thirty rounds of
+ammunition are the only<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_194">[194]</span> serious additions to the rider’s own
+weight. But long marches under these conditions are tiring, and
+scarcely anyone not born to the saddle can survive ten to fourteen
+hours’ riding day after day for hundreds of miles on a minimum
+diet. It is the habit of the Tuareg, in Air and elsewhere as well,
+when they start on such expeditions to procure a long length of
+stuff woven in the Sudan and tie it round their bodies as support
+for the abdomen, on which the motion of the camel imposes great
+strain. In Air the stuff they use is rather like a bandage some
+four inches wide, of unbleached and undyed cotton tissue; the
+material is similar to that used for making up robes, for which
+purpose numerous strips are sewn together and then dyed. These
+strips of cotton stuff are wound several times tightly round the
+waist and then over the shoulders, crossing on the breast and
+back.<a id="FNanchor_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178" class=
+"fnanchor">[178]</a> The practice is particularly interesting,
+because many of the Egyptian pictures of Libyans show the belt and
+cross strapping. In referring to the dress of the Libyans, who are
+often described as “cross-belted,” Bates<a id=
+"FNanchor_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179" class=
+"fnanchor">[179]</a> has made a peculiarly apposite remark: “As
+seen on the Egyptian monuments, the Libyan girdles were like some
+modern polo belts cut broader in the back than in the front.” And
+the Tuareg bandages serve identically the same purpose in similar
+circumstances, namely, during periods of great physical strain on
+the stomach muscles. On the analogy of the Tuareg practice, Bates
+is right in supposing that the Libyan method of wearing the “belt”
+was to pass it several times round the body: the end was then
+pushed “down between the body and the girdle, and afterwards again
+brought up and tucked in.”</p>
+<p>To own camels, and yet more camels, is the ultimate ambition of
+every Tuareg. A man may be rich in donkeys, goats or sheep, or he
+may have houses, gardens and slaves, but camels are the coveted
+possessions. Therein the nomadic<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_195">[195]</span> instinct obtrudes. When I found T’ekhmedin
+at Towar, he possessed the few rags on his back, and a garden which
+just kept him alive. He had no prospects of becoming richer; there
+were no caravans to Ghat, by guiding which he might earn his fees:
+the French he would not serve: his surplus garden produce had no
+market. After I had known him a little while I gave him a white
+cotton robe embroidered on the breast, of the fashion worn by the
+Hausa, but not favoured in Air. One day not long afterwards I met
+him and noticed that he was in his old rags once more. He became
+confused and avoided me. He eventually begged my excuses and hoped
+that I would not be hurt; he had sold the robe I had given him to
+the Sultan of Agades, who had found the Southland fashion more to
+his taste than a true Imajegh would have done. With the proceeds of
+this deal, T’ekhmedin had bought a half-share in a young camel
+which had gone to Bilma in charge of a friend with the great
+caravan to fetch a load of salt. He became more cheerful as he
+explained. In a few weeks if all went well he expected to have
+enough money to buy a small camel of his own, and so build up his
+fortune once more. He nearly wept with gratitude when he had done
+telling his story. It seemed, I had been the means of
+rehabilitating him in the world of men, a prospect which appeared
+only a short time before to be beyond the range of possibility.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 21</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i21">
+<p class="cpm">CAMEL-BRANDS SEEN IN AIR.</p>
+<a href="images/i21.jpg"><img src='images/i21.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>To a European all camels at first look much the same, but a few
+weeks’ association with them enables one rapidly to differentiate
+between the different breeds. They vary as much in build as they do
+in colour. Camels of almost every African and some Arabian
+varieties may, sooner or later, be seen in Air, but only two
+varieties properly belong to the country or to the Tuareg of these
+parts. The tall, sandy-fawn-coloured Tibesti camel, standing an
+immense height at the shoulder, is much prized; the Ghati camel,
+reddish-fawn in colour, is fairly common. The latter is
+short-legged with heavy stubby bones and big foot-pads; he has a
+straight back, holds his head low, and is capable<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> of carrying immense loads over
+sandy country, but at a slower pace than the Tebu animal, which is
+generally more of the riding build. The western camel of Timbuctoo
+is represented by an animal with a well-arched back, generally
+lighter-limbed and more graceful than the Ghati sort. The Ahaggar
+camel is recognisable by his great height and strength, and above
+all by his very shaggy coat with a long beard and fluffy shoulders:
+he is usually dark in colour. The Maghrabi camel also has very
+hairy shoulders, the colour varying from red-fawn to very dark
+brown. The two types of camels belonging to the Air Tuareg are both
+very distinctive. There is a great white camel and a smaller grey
+or piebald animal. The white camel is said originally to have
+belonged to the Kel Geres, to have been specially bred and brought
+by them originally to the Southland. He has long flat withers and a
+round hump; but either because the Kel Geres in recent years have
+lived in the Southland, or for some other reason connected with
+their original habitat, the white camel is a plain land animal and
+is almost useless on rocky ground. He is consequently not very
+highly valued in Air.</p>
+<p>The true Air camel is very peculiar. The species may be divided
+into two categories, the grey and the piebald, the latter being
+perhaps derived from a cross between the former and some other
+breed. The Air grey is a sturdy and straight-backed animal with
+sloping quarters and a long neck, which he holds rather low. He can
+carry a fair load and negotiate any sort of ground. The colour
+varies from iron-grey to brown-ash and is quite distinctive; the
+coat is either uniform or speckled. Although the Tuareg say that
+the original stock is the piebald, the pure-bred animal apparently
+has a uniform coat. The “type animal” is called the Tegama camel,
+the iron-grey colour is known as “ifurfurzan.” In the
+parti-coloured animal the markings take the form of large patches
+of dark grey and white with sharp edges, as if the skin had been
+painted, or of small patches giving a dappled appearance, or of a
+combination of the two, or, more rarely, of undefined patches
+merging into one another. Inter-breeding has produced the
+red-fawn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> and white,
+and the brown and white animals. Though very sturdy, they are
+light-boned and small-footed, but their short legs and short
+sloping withers give them an agility which is quite unbelievable in
+what the world has always regarded as an ungainly animal. The eyes
+of these camels are sometimes pale blue and white, a peculiarity
+which makes them look very strange. The breed is much prized as a
+curiosity or freak outside Air.</p>
+<p>Temajegh, like Arabic, has innumerable names for various types
+of camels. The most valuable animal is the cow-camel which has
+calved once; they are not used more than can be helped for long or
+very strenuous work, because they are, on the whole, not so strong
+as the males. They are rested as much as possible prior to, and
+after, calving. If a cow-camel has calved on the road it is common
+to see the small calf carried on the mother’s back until it is fit
+to run alongside, which is within two or three days. Stud fees are
+unknown: attempts are made as far as possible to avoid
+cross-breeding. A certain Ahmadu of the Kel Tagei is known
+throughout Air as the possessor of the finest herd of pure Tegama
+cow-camels in the mountains: they are maintained exclusively for
+breeding purposes. These are some of the commonest Temajegh names
+used in Air:</p>
+<table class="padded2" id="t197">
+<tr>
+<th><em>Temajegh name.</em></th>
+<th><em>Meaning.</em></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a id="FNanchor_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180" class=
+"fnanchor">[180]</a>Tefurfuz</td>
+<td>Grey and white piebald camel.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Adignas</td>
+<td>White.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Aberoq</td>
+<td>Dark grey.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Kadigi</td>
+<td>Thin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Alletat</td>
+<td>“White belly.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Banghi</td>
+<td>“One eye.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Awina</td>
+<td>Blue (or black) and white-eyed camel.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Korurimi</td>
+<td>“The earless one.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Tabzau</td>
+<td>White (but not very white) camel.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Tāurak</td>
+<td>Fawn.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Imusha</td>
+<td>White-mouthed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Izarf</td>
+<td>Light grey.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Buzak</td>
+<td>White-footed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Ajmellel</td>
+<td>Spotted white.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Kelbadu</td>
+<td>“Big belly.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="pad2">Agoiyam</td>
+<td>Tebu camel.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>Camels are
+curiously delicate animals, as anyone who has had anything to do
+with them will know to his cost. They lose condition very quickly
+and mysteriously, and do not regain it easily. Camel travelling
+implies a perpetual fruitless attempt to maintain their condition
+by seeking to reconcile progress and pasturing. The ideal is to
+give the beasts at least four hours’ grazing, which must not be at
+night or in the heat of the day, when the camel is prone to rest in
+the shade of a tree instead of feeding. At the same time, when it
+is very hot it is neither good for man nor beast to march; nor
+should the camel march all night either, when four hours’ rest are
+very desirable. Lastly, it must be remembered that it is tiring for
+camels to be on and off loaded more than once a day, since every
+time they kneel or get up with a heavy burden they are subjected to
+a considerable strain; it is consequently inadvisable to divide a
+march into two parts. To reach a satisfactory compromise is
+difficult. So long as not more than about twenty miles a day are
+being covered, any system works well enough, but where long marches
+are necessary there is no really satisfactory solution. The Tuareg
+himself usually starts late in the morning and marches till dusk,
+when he off-loads; he then drives his camels to pasture, leaving
+them out all night; they are slowly collected after dawn, when they
+have again begun to feed. The disadvantage from the European point
+of view is that there is always some delay in finding the camels in
+the morning, as one or two are sure to have strayed, nor is it
+always safe to leave camels wandering about unguarded at night. The
+French Camel Corps patrols and other Europeans usually prefer to
+start in the night and march until high noon or the early
+afternoon. I have myself tried every course, and with all its
+disadvantages finally adopted the Tuareg system. To these
+complications must be added the consideration that if a camel is
+watered it should be at noon, when the sun is hot, in order to make
+him drink well. If there is no reason to anticipate long waterless
+journeys, camels are watered every third day, but if they
+are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> required to
+cross difficult tracts of desert, the intervals must gradually be
+increased beforehand. Above all, the camel must be made really
+thirsty prior to his final drink before the longest waterless
+portion of the journey is attempted. The camel must start almost
+bursting with the water in his belly.</p>
+<p>It is generally more important for a camel not to miss a day’s
+pasture than a day’s water. When the rains have fallen and green
+vegetation is abundant, camels need not be watered for long
+intervals. If they are not being worked they can go for weeks
+without drinking. Camels will eat anything if put to it, from hard
+grass with a straw like wire to any kind of tree or shrub; acacia
+thorns three and four inches long appear to make no difference to
+his digestion. Pasture is the most important factor on the march,
+for the animal is really a fastidious feeder and requires plenty of
+variety.</p>
+<p>The woes which afflict the camel are numerous. First and worst
+are saddle sores, which rapidly become stinking and gangrenous.
+They develop quickly from a slight rub or gall under the saddle,
+and often end by infecting the bones of the spine or ribs. They
+discharge a thick offensive pus either through the sore or under
+the skin. In treating them the first thing to do is to open the
+wound and let the pus escape, after which the best cure, I found as
+others have discovered, is to wash the wound with a strong solution
+of permanganate of potash. Thereafter an iodoform dressing is
+almost miraculous in its quick-healing properties, as it keeps away
+the flies, and consequently obviates maggots and re-infection. The
+great black crows in Air have an odious habit of sitting on the
+backs of camels and pecking at these sores. They do terrible damage
+with their long powerful beaks. The only way to keep them off is to
+tie a pair of crow’s wings to the hair on the hump of the camel.
+The remedy is sovereign, as I learnt by experience, but I am at a
+loss to explain the psychological process governing the action of
+the live crows which are thus scared away.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>Apart from
+deaths due to eating poisonous plants, which are far more numerous
+in the Southland than in Air, the highest mortality among camels in
+Air comes from a disease known locally as “blood in the head.” It
+is a form of pernicious apoplexy or congestion of blood in the
+head. The early symptoms are hard to observe unless one happens to
+be born a Tuareg. As the attack develops the camel becomes dazed
+and lies in the sun with rather a glassy stare, instead of feeding.
+Later it runs about, hitting its head against trees, and finally
+falls to the ground in contortions, dying very rapidly of a stroke.
+The disease is especially common after the rains, when the pasture
+is rich or when the animals are idle, recovering condition. If they
+are left in the Southland for the whole year, the rich feeding
+there aggravates the incidence of the disease. An attack may be
+staved off by the remedy, which is also used for dealing with
+refractory animals, namely, of putting tobacco snuff in their eyes.
+This apparently cruel treatment is singularly efficacious, and I
+can only suppose that the irritation or smarting has the effect of
+a stimulant which draws or dispels the blood pressure. When the
+disease is more advanced, resort has to be had to blood-letting;
+the jugular artery is cut a span below the left ear and blood is
+drawn to an amount which will fill three cup-shaped hollows in the
+ground made by removing a double handful of sand or earth from
+each. The blood is seen at first to flow very dark in colour; as it
+gradually resumes its normal hue, the hæmorrhage is stopped by
+taking a tuft of hair, dipping it into the coagulated blood and
+inserting it in the cut. As soon as a clot is formed the incision
+is covered with sand. The whole proceeding sounds a fantastically
+imprudent and septic way of dealing with an arterial hæmorrhage,
+but it works most successfully. If camels are sickening for
+disease, and especially for “blood in the head,” which may
+sometimes be recognised by the premonitory symptom of very hard,
+dry droppings, they are dosed with a mixture made of tobacco leaf,
+onion, and the seed of grain called “Araruf,” containing a
+pungent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> oil
+apparently of the mustard variety. These ingredients are pounded
+up, mixed with about a gallon of water and poured down the camel’s
+throat.</p>
+<p>Firing is resorted to for various ills, especially around bad
+sores to prevent them from spreading and to induce healing. A cow
+is very often fired across the flanks after calving, when she is
+also given a goatskin-full of millet and water “to fill up the
+empty space in her belly.” Firing round the breast pad is carried
+out when the animal is suffering from the disease which causes the
+pad to split. Mange is fairly frequent, and is treated with a
+mixture of oil and ashes. The worst disease of all is called
+“Tara,” for which there is said to be no cure: the symptoms are a
+wasting of the legs, and eventual death from debility and breakage
+of the bones: luckily I had no experience of the malady, which is
+said to be infectious or contagious. The Tuareg say that there is
+no reason for its coming, but that Allah sometimes unaccountably
+sends it.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg empiric remedies, other than those described, are not
+interesting except in their treatment of gangrenous wounds. When
+they have washed the wound with a lotion of female camel urine or
+brewed from one of several plants which seem to have remarkably
+little effect, they cover the exposed flesh with a powder of
+crumbled donkey droppings dried in the sun. I was appalled at the
+danger of septic infection when I first saw the practice, but soon
+discovered that the powder, which had, I supposed, become
+sterilised in the sun, was a really effectual method of preventing
+the great harm caused by flies settling on the wound. I can now
+confidently recommend this practice.</p>
+<p>Camels, of course, are branded with tribal marks, a complete
+study of which would be worth making. Each mark has its own name,
+and many of them are derived from certain known symbols or perhaps
+letters, all of which call for investigation in connection with
+marks from other parts of Africa. Some of the principal brands in
+Air are given in <a href="#i21">Plate 21,</a> the most interesting
+being the mark of the Ghati<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_202">[202]</span> Tuareg (Azger); it is called the Hatita,
+after the name of the famous leader of Barth’s day.</p>
+<p>This necessarily brief note on the animal which is so intimately
+bound up with the life of the People of the Veil, not to say their
+very existence, may be supplemented by some mention of the other
+domestic animals of Air.</p>
+<p>In Nigeria the best horses are described as Asben horses; yet in
+Air there is hardly a horse to be seen. The explanation is
+presumably that the Tuareg bring, or used to bring, the best horses
+for sale in Hausaland; but they were not necessarily bred in Air.
+The supposition is reasonable, for the Tuareg north of Sokoto, and
+especially the Aulimmiden, west of Air, possess a number of horses
+which are renowned for their hardiness, and of course all Tuareg in
+the Southland are called Asbenawa. In Air the best of the few
+horses are, with an even lesser show of logic, described as Bagezan
+horses; but there are no horses in the mountains. The tracks are
+far too rough for there ever at any time to have been a
+considerable number of horses in the hills. I can offer no
+explanation of the name. Air is not a horse-breeding country. The
+pasture is too rough even after the rains, while during the dry
+season the only green stuff is on the trees, which, even if it were
+good fodder for horses, could only be reached by animals of the
+build of camels. The few horses which I saw in Air belonged to the
+Sultan at Agades and to the Añastafidet. They were small and wiry
+but rather nondescript, a variable cross of Arab and Sudanese
+blood; in no case could they be said to represent an “Air breed.”
+The Tuareg say the horse came to Air from the north, and in point
+of fact all those I saw bore a certain resemblance to the little
+animals of Tripolitania. There are probably not more than 100
+horses in Air altogether to-day. Water is far too scarce a
+commodity for horses to be much used for travelling. Those in the
+mountains are never watered more than once a day, and can easily do
+three days between drinking without undue fatigue.</p>
+<p>The other domestic animals are donkeys, cattle,
+sheep,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> goats, dogs
+and a few Hausa cats. Falconry is not a pastime in Air. The cattle
+come from the south; they are of the humped and ordinary varieties.
+The bulls are used for drawing water from the garden irrigation
+wells; cows are more scarce. Before the war the Tuareg used to
+carry on an active trade in cattle, buying from the Fulani in
+Damergu and selling to the people of Ghat and the Fezzan.
+Incredible as it may seem, cattle used to be driven over the roads
+to Ghat after the rains, and do as much as four and five days
+without water. The mortality must have been considerable, but their
+cheapness in the Southland made the trade profitable. It is curious
+how all the animals in Air, including man, seem to get used to
+going without water for long periods. Oxen are used to a certain
+extent as pack animals both in Air and Damergu; Barth started his
+journey from Northern Air to Agades on an ox; he considered this
+mount indifferent as a means of transport, for he fell off and
+nearly broke his compass. The association of cattle with a
+well-watered country where they can drink every day must be
+dismissed in the Sahara, and this disposes of one of the
+difficulties surrounding the problem of the ox-drawn chariots of
+the Garamantes which so exercised Duveyrier;<a id=
+"FNanchor_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181" class=
+"fnanchor">[181]</a> loaded oxen can march comfortably with water
+only every third day.</p>
+<p>The donkey is very nearly as good a performer in the desert as
+the camel. In austerity of diet he is better, being less fastidious
+about pasture and quite as capable of doing four and five days in
+cold weather, between wells. But his pace is even slower than that
+of the camel, and his maximum load should not exceed 100 lbs.
+Curiously enough, donkeys suffer from the same disease as camels
+after the rains: they get “blood in the head,” but in their case a
+treatment of snuff in the eyes is said to be useless. They have to
+be bled by making an incision with a curious bent iron instrument
+in the roof of the mouth above the lower molars. The operation
+looks ridiculous, but the donkey is always a humorous beast. The
+ones in Air and nearly all those in the Southland<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> are small grey animals,
+standing not more than four feet from the ground, with straight
+knife-edged backs. I saw none of the large white donkeys of Egypt.
+Near T’imia and in the north-eastern parts of Air there are a
+number of wild donkeys, roaming unbroken and unherded. They are the
+descendants of domestic donkeys driven out to propagate and find
+their own livelihood by certain tribes who claim them when captured
+in their own areas. These animals, like the gazelle of the country,
+exist on pasture alone, for they often encounter no open water to
+drink for ten months of the year.</p>
+<p>The commonest domestic animals are the sheep and goats. Every
+village and tribe has large herds. After the camels they constitute
+the principal wealth of the people and do exceedingly well. The
+sheep are all of the gaunt wire-haired variety without woollen
+fleeces, resembling goats. The latter provide most of the milk in
+the villages, and vary in colour from white to black, with every
+intermediate shade of brown and type of marking. Curiously enough,
+none of the Tuareg of Air, and, I believe, none of the other
+groups, either spin the hair of goats or the wool of their own
+camels. A good sheep in 1922 could be bought for six to seven and a
+goat for four to five silver francs. Camels ranged between £5 and
+£12 a head.</p>
+<p>The number of domestic animals in Air, hard and barren as the
+country seems to be, is surprisingly large. In a rough classifying
+census of the Tuareg of Air, including only a few tribes in the
+Southland and not counting either the Kel Geres or Aulimmiden,
+Jean<a id="FNanchor_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182" class=
+"fnanchor">[182]</a> in 1904 estimated (Column I) the numbers as
+follows:</p>
+<table class="padded2" id="t204">
+<tr>
+<th></th>
+<th class="pad-right1">I.</th>
+<th class="pad-right1">II.</th>
+<th class="pad-right1">III.</th>
+<th class="pad-right1">IV.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Camels</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">20,150</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">20,000</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">60,000</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">25,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horses</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">554</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">600</td>
+<td class="tdc pad-right1">—</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cattle</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">2,491</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">2,600</td>
+<td class="tdc pad-right1">—</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Donkeys</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">2,840</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">3,000</td>
+<td class="tdc pad-right1">—</td>
+<td class="tdr pad-right1">2,500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sheep and Goats</td>
+<td class="tdr">51,300</td>
+<td class="tdr">45,000</td>
+<td class="tdr">400,000</td>
+<td class="tdr">450,000</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>The figures in
+Column II are Chudeau’s<a id="FNanchor_183"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> estimate of 1909, while
+those in Column III were compiled by another authority: those in
+Column IV are my present estimate. There is little doubt that the
+number of camels in Air before the war was grossly under-estimated
+by the early authorities. From fear of taxation and requisition the
+Tuareg will resort to every device to conceal their possessions,
+and especially the number of their camels. The same applies to
+their sheep and goats. In 1913 the number of camels in Air was put
+down at 60,000, which then was probably a reasonable figure. The
+herds were seriously depleted by the requisitions made for the
+expeditions of 1913-14 to Tibesti, when not less than 23,000 camels
+were taken, few of which ever returned to the country. This was
+certainly one of the principal grievances which led to the 1917
+revolution. During the operations of 1917-18 the herds were further
+diminished, and have only recently again begun to increase at a
+rate which is bound to be slow when it is realised that a camel
+cannot be worked at all till it is over three years old, and ought
+not to be worked till it is five, while from seven years onward it
+is at its prime for only about five years. Nowadays there are
+probably not more than about 25,000 camels in Air; the sheep and
+goats, however, have once more reached their pre-war figure, which
+must have been nearly half a million.<a id=
+"FNanchor_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184" class=
+"fnanchor">[184]</a></p>
+<p>The last domestic animals worth mentioning are the dogs, of a
+type usually resembling inferior Arabian gazelle hounds, with short
+hair, often brown in colour, or with the brown or liver-and-white
+markings like foxhounds. The “pi” dog, which is so common in the
+north of Africa, I never saw in Air. Dogs are interesting owing to
+the friendly way in which they are treated by the Tuareg; they are
+much more the companions of man than is usual among Moslems,
+a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> characteristic
+which has probably survived from pre-Moslem days. Duveyrier refers
+to three types of dog among the Tuareg: a greyhound
+(<em>lévrier</em>), a long-haired Arab dog which is very rare, and
+a short-haired cross from these two. The latter appears to be the
+domestic dog in Air.<a id="FNanchor_185"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p>
+<p>Chickens are common and are eaten. In this the southern Tuareg
+differ from the Tuareg of the north, among whom Duveyrier
+specifically states that chickens, other birds and eggs are
+prohibited as food.<a id="FNanchor_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186"
+class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p>
+<p>But all domestic animals sink into insignificance in comparison
+with the camel, whose rôle is so outstanding in the nomadic life of
+the Tuareg that one wonders how the inhabitants of the Sahara can
+have lived before the advent of this animal, which is usually
+supposed to have come from the East at a comparatively late date in
+history.</p>
+<p>The camel in Africa offers a most interesting historical problem
+around which there has been much inconclusive scientific dispute.
+The camel does not appear on Egyptian monuments before the Saitic
+period, and is not mentioned as living in Africa either by
+Herodotus or by Sallust, when the horse and probably the donkey
+were the ordinary means of transport of the nomads. It is fairly
+clear that the Carthaginians did not use camels, or we should
+certainly have found some reference to the animal in the accounts
+of the Punic or Jugurthine wars. It is said by so eminent an
+authority as Basset<a id="FNanchor_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187"
+class="fnanchor">[187]</a> that none of the Berber dialects contain
+any names for the camel which cannot be traced to Arabic origins,
+but this generalisation is also disputed. Sallust<a id=
+"FNanchor_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188" class=
+"fnanchor">[188]</a> says the Romans first saw a camel when they
+fought Mithridates at Rhyndacus, but Plutarch says it was at the
+battle of Magnesia in <em>c.</em> 190 <span class="sc2">B.C.</span>
+The first text mentioning camels in Africa is in the account of the
+fighting with Juba, when Cæsar<a id="FNanchor_189"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> captured twenty-two on
+the Zeta. A camel figures<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_207">[207]</span> on a coin attributed either to L. Lollius
+Palicanus, a prefect of Cyrenaica under Augustus, or alternatively
+to L. Lollius, a lieutenant of Pompey,<a id=
+"FNanchor_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190" class=
+"fnanchor">[190]</a> but the first mention of camels in any large
+numbers is during the Empire, when in the late fourth century
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> the general Romanus requisitioned
+4000 animals for transport purposes from the inhabitants of Leptis
+Magna.<a id="FNanchor_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191" class=
+"fnanchor">[191]</a> Other sources, including sculptures and texts
+of this period from now on, confirm their frequency, and by the
+time Corippus was writing the camel was the normal means of
+transport in the interior. The silence of Pliny<a id=
+"FNanchor_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192" class=
+"fnanchor">[192]</a> the Elder is valuable, if negative, evidence
+for Africa, as he mentions camels in Bactria and Arabia, and speaks
+of the East as the home of this animal. He knows nothing of them
+apparently in Africa. It is on such evidence that it has been
+supposed that camels were first introduced into Cyrenaica<a id=
+"FNanchor_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193" class=
+"fnanchor">[193]</a> from Sinai and Arabia. The conclusion would be
+more readily acceptable were it not for the unfortunate discoveries
+of camel skeletons associated with evidence of human industry of
+the Pleistocene period in more than one palæolithic site in North
+Africa.<a id="FNanchor_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194" class=
+"fnanchor">[194]</a> In rock drawings the camel, of course, figures
+largely; these glyphs may not be of extreme antiquity, but they are
+quite possibly prior to the earliest classical references. It has
+been said that in really early rock drawings the camel is not
+represented, but neither has any complete catalogue of the drawings
+yet been made, nor has any conclusive scheme of dating been
+compiled. The question remains undecided, for although the camel
+was rare on the coast in early historical times, there is no
+evidence that it was not used more extensively in the interior. It
+is difficult consequently to discuss the question of early
+transport methods in the Sahara, of which I would only say that
+conditions of water supply have apparently for several
+thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> years been
+much as they certainly were throughout historical and modern times.
+An interesting theory has lately been advanced that there is an
+African and an Eastern species of camel distinguished by the
+peculiarity that some camels have one and some two canine teeth on
+each side of the upper jaw.</p>
+<p>In the absence of any conclusive evidence it is safest to
+assume, as do most authorities, that the camel was not common in
+North Africa till as late as the second century <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span></p>
+<p>Gsell<a id="FNanchor_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195" class=
+"fnanchor">[195]</a> makes an interesting suggestion that “La
+prospérité de la Tripolitaine prit certainement un grand essor sous
+la dynastie des Sévères, dont le chef était originaire de Leptis
+Magna. Ce fut à cette époque que Rome mit des garnisons dans les
+oases situées sur les routes du Soudan, ce qui favorisa évidemment
+le commerce des caravanes. Peut-être le développement du trafic
+trans-saharien fit alors adopter définitivement l’usage du
+chameau.” The problem of what transport was used before this period
+is only in part answered by Herodotus,<a id=
+"FNanchor_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196" class=
+"fnanchor">[196]</a> who tells us that the Garamantes harnessed
+oxen to carts, a statement which is confirmed from other sources,
+which add that cattle were used as beasts of burden as well.
+Whether wheeled vehicles ever reached Air is doubtful,<a id=
+"FNanchor_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197" class=
+"fnanchor">[197]</a> but the use of the pack-ox there continues as
+it does in the south. Whatever the means of transport which they
+favoured in their original northern homes, the Tuareg were already
+using camels when they reached Air. Dissociation of the Tuareg from
+his camel is difficult to conceive, since his life to-day as a
+nomad is so intimately bound up with the animal, which in turn has
+served so strongly to maintain his nomadic instinct. Of all animals
+it alone enables the Tuareg to remain to a great extent independent
+of his physical surroundings. Neither oxen nor donkeys could do so
+to the same extent.</p>
+<p>The historical and anthropological aspect of the introduction of
+the ox and camel into Africa, and the identification<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> of the races with which these
+animals were associated, are questions which concern the general
+story of North Africa rather than that of the Tuareg in particular.
+Fundamentally the Tuareg remains the pure nomad even when his
+habitat has changed and circumstances have obliged him to settle in
+villages or on the land. In Air all the truest nomads inhabit the
+Talak plain and the N.W. of the plateau, with the one great
+exception of the Ifadyen tribe, which during the last generation
+has moved south to Azawagh and Tegama. The true nomads have no
+fixed centres of permanent habitation whatsoever, thereby differing
+considerably from many of the purest Arabian nomads. But, unlike
+the latter again, they do not migrate very far afield; their winter
+and summer pastures are usually not very distant from each other.
+The only exception that I know to this rule is the case of some of
+the Ahaggaren, who send their herds to graze as far afield as the
+Adghar n’Ifoghas<a id="FNanchor_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198"
+class="fnanchor">[198]</a> and at times Damergu.<a id=
+"FNanchor_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199" class=
+"fnanchor">[199]</a></p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 22</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i22"><a href="images/i22.jpg"><img src='images/i22.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<ul class="cplist">
+<li>1. Ornamentation on shields.</li>
+<li>2. Clay cooking pot.</li>
+<li>3. Clay water pot.</li>
+<li>4. Axe.</li>
+<li>5. Adze.</li>
+<li>6. Drum: calabash in a bowl.</li>
+<li>7. Drum: millet mortar.</li>
+</ul>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>For many months of the year after the rains the true nomads do
+not even trouble to cluster round a group of wells; living on the
+milk of their camels and goats, they dispense with water for weeks
+on end. So long as their camels are only pasturing and the fodder
+is green they do not require to be watered. They are therefore able
+to live many days from the nearest wells. In such conditions water
+is a luxury, for it entails long marches and is not essential to
+man or beast. In South-eastern Air I came across a small party of
+Kel Takrizat, who had wandered some distance away from their usual
+grounds in North-western Air, to an area which had been uninhabited
+since the war. I was riding out from Tabello on the upper Beughqot
+valley to look for an old village site of which I had heard.
+Neither my companion, Alwali, nor I had any baggage, and we were
+short of water, as the skin I carried was leaky. For a mere two
+days’ journey Alwali had not thought it worth while<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> to bring any food for himself
+except a small skin of millet meal milk, which he had finished
+early the first afternoon. In the evening we entered a wide valley
+known as Tsabba,<a id="FNanchor_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200"
+class="fnanchor">[200]</a> where we saw a number of camels
+pasturing. We discovered that they belonged to a charming man
+called Ahmadu ag Musa. The valley was about miles broad from lip to
+lip, very green and full of a veitch-like plant called “Alwat,”
+which contains much moisture. The bottom under the steep sides lay
+some 100 feet below the level of the plain, which was covered with
+round basalt boulders wherever there were not hillocks of bare rock
+rising above it. It is a very arid country looking out towards the
+Eastern Desert, where the last rocks of Air are swallowed up in
+sand some thirty miles further on. Ahmadu’s camp consisted of a few
+mats spread under two or three little trees. As we reached it he
+came out to meet us. When he found out who we were, he asked me to
+spend the night with him; and this, having at the time intermittent
+fever which was due that evening, I willingly agreed to do,
+provided he could let me have some water. He regretted that he had
+no water, as he had not been near a well for three weeks, but his
+men went to fetch milk. I had barely dismounted and agreed to stay
+when a man ran up with a mat for me to sit on and a bowl of sour
+milk to drink. Among the Tuareg, if a man comes as a guest his host
+is personally responsible for his guest’s life, camels and
+property, so a slave unsaddled my two camels and hobbled them in
+the usual way by tying the two fore fetlocks together with the
+short hobble rope which everyone carries. My animals were driven
+off to feed with Ahmadu’s herd of piebald cow camels. I thought at
+first it was part of the famous Tegama herd of Ahmadu of the Kel
+Tagei, but it turned out to be another Ahmadu.</p>
+<p>I met him only that once, and for a few moments two days later
+at Tabello. I have the pleasantest recollections of a great
+gentleman. We sat talking of the impending departure of the salt
+caravan for Bilma. The sun set slowly, and, as the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> light grew less, the cruel
+gleam left the basalt and granite of the plateau beyond the eastern
+lip of the valley. The rocks ceased to look metallic in the dance
+of the hot air, and became soft red and purple in the green-blue
+sky. Here and there white sand from the outer desert had been
+washed up against the hillocks. Mount Gorset, with one slope
+inundated by the sand flood, lay just north of the valley where we
+sat surrounded by acacia bushes and “Alwat.” The wind had fallen.
+More and more food was brought for us to eat, all of it of the sort
+on which the true nomad lives. Cheese, sweet and sour milk, curdled
+milk, whey water, some cakes of baked burr-grass seed and a very
+little millet. We sat down to eat; they thought I wanted to eat
+alone at first, but became more friendly when they saw that some
+white men were only human like themselves. A pot of cooked millet
+meal was set down in the middle; luckily they had added salt to the
+porridge. Each man in turn ate a mouthful from the big wooden spoon
+and handed it on to his neighbour. I ate little, having fever, but
+drank much milk, both sweet and sour. The former arrived during the
+meal, warm and fresh from the camel. It is best quite fresh; when
+it gets cold in the night it is good too, but becomes rather salt
+and thin to the taste. We went on eating slowly in the evening, and
+suddenly night came with a greenish light in the west behind our
+backs. Milk was left for me to drink during the night; a slave was
+told to fill my skin with millet meal and milk for the next day. We
+went on talking, and then the snuff-box was passed round. The
+Tuareg in Air do not smoke: their only vice, in the austere life
+they lead, is to take snuff, when they can get it, or to chew green
+tobacco mixed with a little saltpetre to bring out the taste. The
+tobacco and snuff are traded from the Southland: the saltpetre is
+found in Air, and is also used in cooking, for they say that a
+pinch in the stew-pot makes the meat cook in half the usual time.
+Presently I turned over to go to sleep on Ahmadu’s mat, in a
+blanket which I had brought. He and Alwali went on talking far into
+the night, for they were old friends: Alwali had travelled with him
+when he was a boy many years ago.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>I thought of how
+very happy these nomads were. They have no possessions to speak of:
+a few mats, the clothes they wear, some water-skins, some camel
+trappings, a few weapons, some gourds and bowls, a cooking-pot or
+two and their camels. They have no routine of life, and no cares
+except to wonder if a raiding party will or will not happen on
+them. Even in their normal centres where their tribes are living
+more or less permanently they often have neither tents nor
+covering. At the best their tent is a leather roof made of two or
+three ox skins carried on a few poles, with brushwood laid across
+so that the top is dome-shaped. The sides are enclosed with
+vertical mats, and inside, if they are rich, they have a bed—two
+poles supported on four forked sticks stuck in the ground, with six
+transverse poles overlaid with stiff mats, woven of “Afaza” grass
+and strips of leather. On this bed, which is perhaps eight feet
+square, the whole family sleeps during the rains. At other times
+they sleep anywhere, on a mat on the ground. Their smaller
+possessions are carried in a leather sack of tanned goatskins, dyed
+and ornamented with fringes. All the belongings of a rich family
+could be loaded on one, certainly on two camels. So they move about
+looking for pasture. They are independent of water; their camels
+and goats provide both food and drink, the grasses of the field a
+change of diet; a slaughtered sheep or millet porridge is their
+luxury. When they want a fire they kindle it by rubbing a small
+green stick cut about the size of, and sharpened like, a pencil on
+a dry stick; the dust and fibre rubbed off the dry wood collect at
+one end of the channel which has been rubbed, and when the friction
+is enough, ignites. They do not even require flint and steel. I am
+sure they must be very happy, for they want so little and could
+have so much when the value of their herds often runs into
+thousands of pounds, but they prefer the freedom of the open world.
+They are even envied by the village dwellers, whose sole ambition
+is to make enough money to buy camels and live in the same way as
+their wandering kinsmen.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc06">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class=
+"label">[175]</span></a>This name would perhaps be more correctly
+written Teouar for the “o” is pronounced as if with a London
+Cockney accent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class=
+"label">[176]</span></a><a href="#i20a">Plate 20.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class=
+"label">[177]</span></a>For certain reasons the names are
+fictitious.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class=
+"label">[178]</span></a>See rock drawing at T’imia, <a href=
+"#i40">Plate 40.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class=
+"label">[179]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 126, and Figs.
+17, 20 and 24, where the belt and cross are plainly shown.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class=
+"label">[180]</span></a>The initial “T” represents a feminine
+form.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class=
+"label">[181]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, <a href="#c10">Chap.
+X.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class=
+"label">[182]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, Chap. XIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class=
+"label">[183]</span></a>Chudeau, <em>op. cit.</em>, <em>Sahara
+Soudanais</em>, pp. 71-2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class=
+"label">[184]</span></a>It must be remembered that since the
+evacuation of 1918 many of these animals are with their owners in
+Southern Air, Damergu, and the south, pending a return to normal
+conditions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class=
+"label">[185]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class=
+"label">[186]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, p. 401, <em>et infra</em>,
+Chap. XVIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class=
+"label">[187]</span></a>Basset, in the <em>Actes du
+XIV<sup>me</sup> Congrès des Orientalistes</em>, II. p. 69 <em>et
+seq.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class=
+"label">[188]</span></a><em>Apud</em> Plutarchus,
+<em>Lucullus</em>, XI. 10.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class=
+"label">[189]</span></a><em>De Bello Africano</em>, LXVIII. 4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class=
+"label">[190]</span></a>Tissot, <em>Géographie Comparée de la
+Province Romaine d’Afrique</em>. Paris, 1884-8. Vol. I. p. 350.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class=
+"label">[191]</span></a><em>Ammianus Marcellinus</em> XXVIII. 6. 5,
+and others.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class=
+"label">[192]</span></a><em>Pliny</em>, VIII. 67.Cf.
+<em>Strabo</em>, XVII. 1. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class=
+"label">[193]</span></a>Cf. <em>Strabo</em>, XVII. 1. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class=
+"label">[194]</span></a>References in Gsell, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. I. pp. 102 and 105.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class=
+"label">[195]</span></a>Gsell, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 60,
+note 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class=
+"label">[196]</span></a>Herodotus, IV. 183.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class=
+"label">[197]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, <a href="#c10">Chap.
+X.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class=
+"label">[198]</span></a>Mission Cortier, <em>D’une rive à l’autre
+du Sahara</em>, p. 355.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class=
+"label">[199]</span></a>Observation of the author in Damergu in
+December 1922.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class=
+"label">[200]</span></a>The Tesabba valley of the Cortier map. It
+runs into the Afasas valley, which joins the Beughqot valley
+further down.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span><a id=
+"c07"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<p class="sch">TRADE AND OCCUPATIONS</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> Auderas country, still almost in
+Tegama, is far less interesting ethnically than the north or east.
+The old permanent habitations in the area are less characteristic
+of the Tuareg; there are hardly any inscriptions or rock drawings,
+with the exception of the large group at T’in Wana, and a few
+scattered about elsewhere. Owing to the many pools and
+“eresan”<a id="FNanchor_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201" class=
+"fnanchor">[201]</a> there are no deep wells. At Auderas itself
+there are some ruined stone-built dwellings of the later type, but
+a few earlier examples may be seen both there and at Abattul, a
+village about two miles to the N.E. in the same basin of valleys. A
+famous mosque was founded there by Muhammad Abd el Kerim el
+Baghdadi. Abattul village lies between the domed peaks of
+Faken<a id="FNanchor_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202" class=
+"fnanchor">[202]</a> and Mt. Abattul, which is itself a spur of
+Mount Todra. Behind, and between them, a valley and rough track run
+north to Mount Dogam. Just south of the village are the valleys
+which converge from Todra and Faken on the main Auderas basin. From
+Auderas Mount Faken is a prominent object on the northern horizon
+with a rounded top and vertical black sides which look unscalable.
+Almost at the foot of Faken on the Abattul side is a pool in a deep
+gorge, usually containing water enough to swim in most of the year.
+The path from Auderas to Abattul is very rough, as it crosses and
+re-crosses several small valleys where gazelle, some wild pig, and
+occasionally monkeys are to be found. Abattul village lies just
+under a low white cliff in which there are a few caves and many
+smaller holes inhabited by owls and<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_214">[214]</span> night birds. It was the first settlement in
+the basin and was only gradually abandoned as the country became
+less subject to raids and war. The inhabitants had settled in this
+place so that they could easily take refuge in the inaccessible
+crags of Mount Todra just behind their village, in time of raids.
+Even nowadays the folk from Auderas have to resort to the mountain
+from time to time, but not so often as to prevent them from living
+further away. The stone mosque at Abattul is one of the few in Air
+which is still used for prayer.<a id="FNanchor_203"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p>
+<p>The main road from Auderas to Northern Air runs over very rocky
+ground to a plain west of Faken, bordered by two valleys on the
+east and by low hills on the west side. The latter continue for
+some distance along the valley of Auderas until it eventually
+reaches the foothills of Air on the Talak plain. The different
+groups of hills are known by names which the Itesan sub-tribes
+adopted and retained.<a id="FNanchor_204"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> The plain north of
+Agades is the Erarar n’Dendemu of Barth:<a id=
+"FNanchor_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205" class=
+"fnanchor">[205]</a> it contains El Baghdadi’s place of prayer
+mentioned by the traveller, lying under a small hill. Turning left
+here into more broken country by a small tributary the track enters
+the Ighaghrar valley, which descends from the Gissat and T’Sidderak
+hills.<a id="FNanchor_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206" class=
+"fnanchor">[206]</a></p>
+<p>At the head of the basin a steep drop leads into a valley
+flowing north between Mount Bila to the west and Mount Dogam to the
+east. This drop, the descent of Inzerak, is equivalent to the
+ascent south of Auderas at T’inien on to the central platform of
+the plateau. It leads into one of the most beautiful valleys in
+Air, called Assada, the head of which, at right angles to its main
+direction, is formed by small ravines draining Mount Dogam. It runs
+along the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> eastern
+foot of Bila and falls into Anu Maqaran, the central basin of Air.
+When we came into Assada there were two or three pools near the
+foot of Inzerak; further up the T’ighummar tributary lay a small
+village of stone houses with a deep well and mosque on an
+alternative loop road from Auderas branching off at the place of
+prayer of El Baghdadi. This alternative track was the one taken by
+Barth in 1850; it debouches into the Tegidda valley, a tributary of
+the Assada from the north, at Aureran well.</p>
+<p>I camped in Assada three times in all, twice near the foot of
+the descent and once a mile or so further down at the wells of
+Tamenzaret,<a id="FNanchor_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207" class=
+"fnanchor">[207]</a> which are temporary and require to be dug
+again every year. The deep narrow valley with its sandy bed and
+immense trees growing in the thick vegetation on both banks was
+magnificent. Towering up on either side the red mountains framed,
+in a cleft towards the east, the cone of Dogam seated on a pedestal
+of black lava and basalt. Most of the Dogam massif is so rough as
+to be impassable. It seems to be a volcanic intrusion in the Todra
+group, to which it really belongs. I suspect that the basalt
+boulders covering the plain north and south of Auderas, and perhaps
+certain features of Todra itself, owe their origin to the Dogam
+activity. But Bila is hardly less imposing: on the Assada side it
+presents a wall of vivid red rock. The fine clean colours of dawn
+on the first morning I saw the mountains against a cold blue sky
+offered the most lovely spectacle I saw in all Air.</p>
+<p>The Assada and T’ighummar valleys are inhabited by a northern
+section of the Kel Nugguru, who pasture their goats and camels
+there, and owe allegiance to Ahodu of Auderas. There are a few
+ruined stone houses below Tamenzaret and the remains of a mosque at
+the old deep well of Aureran, where the main road divides. From
+here one branch proceeds north past another ruined settlement to
+the Arwa Mellen valley and mountain, the other turns east towards
+the upper part of the Anu Maqaran basin.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_216">[216]</span> I took the latter road to T’imia. It
+crossed several broad valley beds flowing northwards from Dogam,
+notably the Bacos, where there is a village and palm grove, and the
+Elazzas not far from where they fall into Anu Maqaran. The road I
+have had occasion to mention as running from Agades by the Ara
+valley over the shoulder of Dogam descends from the Central massif
+by Bacos or Elazzas. The latter corresponds to the Ara on the other
+side of the Dogam pass. By these two the Todra-Dogam group is
+divided from Bagezan.</p>
+<p>Near its junction with the main Anu Maqaran valley, the Elazzas
+is a broad bed between low rocky banks. At a certain point where it
+crosses a ridge of rock large quantities of water are held up in
+the sand. The remains of a recent village with a few date palms
+appear on the site. The rocks in the neighbourhood bear a few rude
+pictures, but the ruins, a few round pedestal foundations of loose
+stones some 15-20 feet in diameter and 2-3 feet high, on which reed
+huts used to stand, are uninteresting. Bila from here has the
+appearance of a long flat ridge, in pleasant contrast to the
+isolated peaks of Aggata and Arwa in the north, or the confused
+mass of Bagezan to the south and south-east.</p>
+<p>The upper part of the Anu Maqaran valley where the Bagezan and
+the Agalak mountains at the western side of the T’imia massif
+approach one another is called Abarakan. The road passes a large
+cemetery and the valley narrows between high hills with bare sides
+until a big fork is reached: one valley goes north to T’imia
+village, the other south, emerging on the central plateau east of
+the Bagezan mountains.</p>
+<p>T’imia village is a veritable mountain fastness. The
+Agalak-T’imia massif was evidently highly volcanic, for a great
+flow of basalt overlying pink granite boulders has taken place
+along the valley towards Abarakan. The track climbs steadily over
+the broken lava stream. The going is rough. Then suddenly the track
+seems to end altogether below an overhanging cliff of lava some 30
+feet high lying right across the bed of the ravine. We reached this
+point<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> and found the
+men of T’imia had come down to meet us in order to help our camels
+to negotiate the path which follows a narrow crevasse in one side
+of the cliff. The cleft is so narrow that a camel with a bulky load
+cannot pass at all; it is so steep that the poor animals were
+forced to proceed in a series of ungainly lurches or jumps. Above
+the cliff the valley broadens out again, and where two small side
+valleys enter it lies the modern village of T’imia.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 23</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i23a"><a href="images/i23a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i23a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TIMIA GORGE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i23b"><a href="images/i23b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i23b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TIMIA GORGE: PINK GRANITE TO LEFT, BLACK BASALT TO
+RIGHT</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>This settlement of Kel Owi nobles is very different from the
+servile Auderas. The parentage of these Kel Owi may be obscure and
+mixed, but their physique, the general cleanliness of the place and
+the neatness of their domed huts stamp them as nobles. The
+dwellings stand grouped in compounds, or sometimes as single huts,
+scattered between a row of gardens with irrigation wells, and the
+slope of a hill covered with huge boulders. In one of the smaller
+side valleys is a large grove of date palms with most of the
+gardens, near the site of the older village, a collection of
+rectangular masonry houses in ruins, and round hut sites marked by
+a ring of stones and a hearth. The little mosque of stone and mud
+construction lies between the old and new villages, but it was
+desecrated by the French soldiers and is no longer used. A matting
+shelter and compound in the new settlement serve to-day both for a
+place of prayer and a school, presided over by the ’alim ’Umbellu.
+Though over sixty he still works daily in his garden in the
+intervals of teaching the children of the village. Fugda, chief of
+T’imia, is one of the cleverest men in Air. Under the guidance of
+these two men the community has prospered. The villagers are
+enterprising. In the changing conditions of things they are an
+exception to the usual rule, for the men combine caravaning and
+trading on a large scale with gardening and date cultivation,
+without the help of any Imghad. When we came this way some of their
+camels were fattening in Abarakan ready to go to Bilma with the
+annual salt caravan in charge of a selected party of men. Another
+herd of some 100 head was going to Damergu to fetch millet for sale
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> the French post
+at Agades, and later I met yet another drove in Assada going south
+from Iferuan by way of Auderas to fetch more grain for sale in
+Northern Air after working on transport duties in Nigeria for the
+winter.</p>
+<p>The life of the camel-owning Tuareg may be said to centre round
+the autumn salt caravan, which all the best camels accompany. It
+usually leaves in October, starting from Tabello<a id=
+"FNanchor_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208" class=
+"fnanchor">[208]</a> in the upper Beughqot valley, where parties
+from all over Air, Damergu and the Southland rendezvous in order to
+start together. Since the war these caravans have been
+comparatively small, but even during the last few years they have
+numbered 5000 camels. Ever since the occupation of Agades by the
+French, the Camel Corps has been turned out to guard the
+concentration and escort the caravan across the desert, for so
+valuable a congregation of camels might any year, as it sometimes
+did in the past, prove an irresistible temptation for raiders. The
+largest caravan ever escorted reached the fantastic total of over
+30,000 camels. The caravan marches for five days to the oasis of
+Fashi, where it is joined by a smaller caravan from Damagarim via
+Termit. There, a halt is made for a short time to water and feed on
+whatever scanty pasture is available, and in some three more days
+Bilma is reached. The animals go out empty except for a little
+grain or live meat in the form of goats and sheep, and some trade
+goods for the Tebu and Kanuri inhabitants of Fashi and Kawar and
+Tibesti. They bring back salt and dates both from Fashi and Bilma.
+The latter place has perhaps the finest salt deposits in Africa. It
+costs nothing to get except the labour at the pans of making it up
+into loaves and loading it wrapped in matting bales. The outlay may
+be threepence to fivepence a load, in addition to an export tax of
+two francs per camel levied by the French authorities. The salt is
+sold in Hausaland for anything up to 7<em>s.</em> or more a loaf
+according to the time of year. As a fully-grown camel can carry
+four to six loaves of salt, the trade is extremely lucrative.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>Both Fashi, or
+Agram as the place is also called, and Kawar have practically no
+pasture, and the few camels which live permanently there eat dates.
+The desert for five and a half days between Tabello and Fashi and
+three days between Fashi and Bilma is not only waterless but also
+nearly pastureless as well. The camels start out loaded with a
+sufficient supply of fodder for the outward and return journeys;
+the huge bales of grass are dropped <em>en route</em> at the end of
+each day’s march to provide for the equivalent return stage. Since
+the practice of escorting caravans has been instituted the French
+authorities quite rightly forbid isolated parties crossing the
+desert and attracting raiders to the neighbourhood. The route now
+chosen for the caravan runs from Tabello to Tazizilet on the edge
+of the Air mountains, and then straight across to Fashi in an
+almost due easterly direction. Formerly another road, which was
+more convenient for the northern tribes of Air, was also in use. It
+left the mountains at Agamgam pool in North-east Air and went to
+Ashegur well, north of Fashi; this way the distances between
+watering-points was shortened, and there was also rather more
+pasture.</p>
+<p>This annual salt caravan is the largest enterprise of its sort
+in the world at the present time. It is called in Air the
+“Taghalam,” a word derived from “aghelam,” meaning a “prize camel,”
+but the French call it the “Azalai,” which means the “Parting” or
+the “Separation,” the name given to a similar caravan which
+annually leaves Timbuctoo to collect salt at Taodenit for sale
+along the Niger.</p>
+<p>With the advent of European salt in Nigeria the trade has become
+somewhat less remunerative, as the Air “Taghalam” no longer enjoys
+its ancient monopoly in the Central Sudan, but the infinitesimal
+cost of production and the cheap transport in the hands of nomads
+will always enable it to compete with the imported European trade
+product to some extent. Bilma salt is of good quality; it is
+comparatively free from sand or medicinal chemicals and is
+preferred by the natives of the south to the purer European
+product.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> The loaves
+are made up in conical form and are pink in colour, standing some
+18-24″ high by 9-12″ at the base.</p>
+<p>The return journey of the “Taghalam” follows the same course as
+the outward one. The whole trip, which is extremely strenuous for
+men and camels alike, takes some three weeks. There are always a
+number of casualties among the camels from exhaustion, but so large
+are the profits that every Tuareg is ready to take the risk and
+send as many of his herd as he can possibly spare at least once a
+year, either in the autumn or on the smaller “Taghalam” which goes
+in the spring. After returning from Bilma the camels are rested and
+then proceed to Damergu and the south to sell their salt and their
+services. They are joined by any other camels fit to go, and when
+they have disposed of their merchandise engage in transport work
+between the cities of the Southland until about March or April.
+Then they begin to move north again before the rains set in in the
+Sudan. The proceeds of this work and of the sale of Bilma salt, or
+dates from Fashi and Air, are invested in grain and such trade
+goods as cotton cloth, tea, sugar, snuff and hardware, which are
+the only luxuries of Air. By the time they reach the mountains the
+summer rains have probably begun, and they have some three months
+in which to recuperate on the fresh pasture of the hills in
+preparation for the next year’s routine.</p>
+<p>Transactions in salt and grain are measured by the camel load,
+which varies considerably from place to place. Metrology is not an
+exact science in Air, but recognised standards nevertheless exist.
+The actual measures are kept by the tribal chiefs, and it is, of
+course, common gossip to hear it said that a certain chief gives
+unduly short weight. The only truly Tuareg measure is a unit of
+capacity; in the first instance it is the handful, whether of grain
+or salt or other commodity. But the measure has been standardised
+by establishing that a handful shall be as much millet grain as an
+ordinary man can pick up in his hand with the fingers<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span> <em>closed</em> palm
+upwards.<a id="FNanchor_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209" class=
+"fnanchor">[209]</a> Six such handfuls nominally make one
+“tefakint,” which is measured by heaping the grain in a small
+circular basket with sloping sides 1¾″ deep × 3⅝″ in diameter at
+the mouth × 2″ at the bottom. The next larger measure is the
+“muda,” a cylindrical wooden cup with a hemispherical bottom in a
+<span class="sym">U</span> section. As the handful and the
+“tefakint” are too small to measure bulky wares like dates, the
+“muda” has become the effectual standard in the country, but it
+varies in certain areas. At Auderas it is of five “tefakint,” but
+in Agades of ten. The T’imia and Kel Owi or Ighazar “muda” is
+different again, three of them being the same as two Auderas or one
+Agades “muda.” The three “mudas” are, however, generally recognised
+and are not the subject of bargaining in each transaction. The
+measure corresponding to the Air “tefakint” basket in Damergu is a
+round section cut from a large calabash; this slightly convex plate
+is held by a loop for the fingers fixed to the underside. All these
+grain measures are considered to be full when the grain is heaped
+up so that it runs over the edge.</p>
+<p>For small weights the silver five-franc piece, or “sinko” as it
+is called, is now also used, especially in measuring the value of
+silver ornaments. The rate of exchange current in 1922 in Air at
+Agades was four silver shillings or five silver francs to the
+“sinko”; a general rate of five obtained elsewhere in Air, as
+silver francs and shillings were not distinguished from each other.
+The people of Air have the nomads’ dislike for paper currency in
+any form. Various coins, including the Maria Teresa dollar, are
+still in circulation, but French coinage is gradually replacing all
+others. Cowrie shells are no longer used and gold is now unknown.
+The mithkal of Agades dates from the time when the gold trade was
+still flourishing, and its form here is peculiar to this city. It
+seems to have been a unit of weight and not of currency; as a
+recognised amount of gold it was used as<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_222">[222]</span> the basis for striking bargains, but the
+metal probably did not pass from hand to hand owing to the
+inconvenience of handling dust. With the decline of the gold trade
+the mithkal survived as a unit of weight, but its theoretical value
+changed considerably in the course of centuries. We find in Barth’s
+day the exchange was reckoned at 1 mithkal = 1000 cowries, and 2500
+cowries = 1 Maria Teresa dollar; but whereas the Agades mithkal was
+only worth two-fifths of a dollar, the Timbuctoo mithkal was worth
+one-third of a dollar. It is interesting to arrive by a round-about
+method at a rough estimate of the change in value of the unit.</p>
+<p>The mithkal as a simple unit of weight was a part of a larger
+unit in the following equation:<a id="FNanchor_210"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> 100 mithkal = 3 small
+karruwe = 1 large karruwe = 6½ Arab rottls. The Arab rottl weight
+varies between 225 grammes in Persia and about 160 grammes in
+Cairo, several slightly different standard rottls being used in
+other parts of Egypt. Taking 160 grammes as the equivalent of 1
+rottl, and assuming Barth’s equation to be correct, we get 10·4
+grammes for the Agades mithkal. The unit of 10·4 grammes of gold
+dust in the fifteenth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> was in
+the nineteenth century equal to two-fifths of a Maria Teresa dollar
+weighing 28·0668 grammes silver 0·833 fine, or in other words, 13·5
+grammes of silver.</p>
+<p>The only measures of length in Air are the “aghil” (plural
+“ighillan”)<a id="FNanchor_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211" class=
+"fnanchor">[211]</a> and the “tedi” or “teddi.” The former is the
+universal dra’, ell or cubit measured from the inner elbow-point to
+the first joint of the middle finger on an average man, say 5 ft.
+10 in. tall. Ten “ighillan” make one “amitral,” the two measures
+being only used for cloth, etc. The “tedi” is the fathom and is
+used for measuring the depth of wells or the length of rope, etc.
+There is no measure in Air for distance, which is invariably
+calculated by the parts of a day or the number of days taken to
+cover the ground.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>The pack-saddle
+of Air is peculiar to the country. It is very simple, consisting of
+two sheaves of grass or straw, two semi-circular pieces of matting
+made of plaited dûm palm fronds, a skin filled with grain or
+stuffed with dry camel dung and a wooden arch terminating in flat
+boards. A bundle of grass, with the butt ends even and trimmed, is
+laid on the semi-circular mat, which is then rolled around it and
+sewn up with ribbands of palm frond by a long wooden or iron
+bodkin; the flowery ends of the grass project beyond the matting.
+One of these mat cylinders or cushions is fitted each side of the
+camel’s hump with the butts nearly touching one another over the
+withers. Over these pads is placed the arch of wood, the ends of
+which terminate in boards some 9″ × 3″ at the ends, resting on the
+pads, which are tied on with twisted dûm palm rope. A stuffed
+goatskin thrown transversely over the back of the camel behind the
+hump forms a rear pad. Its corners are tied to the two ends of the
+arch with adjustable cords to regulate the distance between them.
+The loads, which must be carefully balanced, are slung over the
+pack-saddle; two loops on each load are hitched to the other two on
+the other load with two short sticks. The weight of the load rests
+on the side pads and the ends of the back pad; the load cords bear
+on the latter and on the side pads just in front of the wooden
+arch, which prevents them slipping backwards. The load ropes rest
+on, and are not tied to, the saddle. No girths, crupper or
+breastband are used unless the loads are very bulky or need special
+steadying. Unloading is extraordinarily simple, for as soon as the
+camel has been knelt down the loops are disconnected by pulling out
+the short sticks and the loads fall down on either side.</p>
+<p>The pack-saddle is simple and cheap, but is not efficient on
+steep slopes where the camel may stumble or lurch awkwardly. As
+these conditions prevail all over Air, the arrangement is really
+far from ideal, though in the plain land it is practical enough.
+The principal advantages are that every part of the saddle is
+easily adjustable to suit any particular camel, while the whole
+equipment weighs next<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_224">[224]</span> to nothing. The goatskin used as the back
+pad on long journeys is filled with a provision of grain, saving an
+additional receptacle on each camel of the caravan. The resultant
+economy of space and bulk is unequalled in any other system.</p>
+<p>The rest of the camel’s equipment consists of a head rope, a
+hobbling rope and the load ropes. In Air all rope is made of split
+dûm palm fronds soaked in water till they have fermented, or, if no
+time is available, from fresh material. The strips are twisted like
+ordinary two or three strand “cable laid” rope. It is a strong,
+serviceable material costing nothing and available everywhere where
+the dûm palm grows, which is all over Air and the Sudan. The
+scarcity of date palms precludes the use of the brown fibre which
+grows below the fronds, known to camel travellers in the north. The
+dûm palm rope does not wear so well as the latter but is easier to
+manufacture. Every camel-man in Air spends a certain part of the
+day making rope, twisting the fronds from split ribbands about ¼-½″
+broad, bundles of which he carries about; he sits on the ground
+talking and twisting, using his big toe to hold the end of the rope
+he has made, and weaving in strand after strand with incredible
+speed. The rope is nearly all two-stranded cable, but the tightness
+of twist and the finish vary with the use. Load ropes are very
+closely twisted cable, passed twice round the package at each end
+and terminating in a loop adjusted by a running half-hitch to raise
+or lower the load on the side of the camel. Lashing rope and rough
+nets are made of loosely twisted strands. The camel head rope is a
+long piece with a slip knot at one end passed over the lower jaw of
+the camel and pulled tight behind its front teeth. Hobble ropes are
+stout lengths passed round one foreleg, then twisted and passed
+round the other, leaving about 18″ of movement between the limbs:
+the ends are secured by passing a knot through a small loop.
+Carefully made rope is beaten with a stone to make the strands pack
+tightly.</p>
+<p>Loading camels is hard work and can only properly be done by two
+men. The pack-saddle is put on the kneeling<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_225">[225]</span> camel, which is prevented from rising by
+slipping one of his knees through a looped hobble rope, which, when
+not in use, is carried round the animal’s neck. The camel protests
+vigorously in season and out of season and pretends to bite the
+men. They work stripped to the waist, wearing only their trousers
+tucked up to the thigh, and the inevitable veil. They stagger under
+150 to 200 lbs. loads, swinging them on to the camel’s back,
+slipping the loops through one another and securing them with the
+two sticks. The camel is then released, gets up with a jerky
+movement resembling a deck chair being opened, and probably throws
+its burden to the ground immediately, when the operation
+recommences. If this does not happen at once the head rope is
+secured to the next camel in front with a half-hitch that can be
+released by pulling the free end. By the time fifty camels have
+been loaded, at least five in an endeavour to graze on the same
+bush have bumped into one another and their loads have fallen off.
+The operation of loading may take place in the early morning when
+it is cool, or before dawn when it is always cold, or at noon when
+the temperature is like a furnace; it is always tedious and
+tiresome and bad for the temper, which the incessant complaining of
+the camels aggravates.</p>
+<p>Eventually the caravan moves off. The camel-men walk along,
+watching their loads if they are conscientious, and when everything
+is going well they climb up on their camels and sit on the loads.
+They jump up on to the neck of the camel after pulling its head
+down and so reach the top, but they never kneel a camel after it
+has started on the march until the day’s journey is over, unless
+the load has been thrown or has slipped very badly. The guide takes
+the head of the caravan and the march starts. The Tuareg of Air
+know their mountains as well as the average Londoner knows London:
+they can find their way along the more important tracks. For the
+less known ways a special guide must be found: in the outer deserts
+the reliable guides can be counted on the fingers of both hands.
+Efale, the leader of the “Taghalam” and veteran of the Eastern
+Desert, T’ekhmedin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>
+and Kalama on the northern routes—are all resourceful, patient and
+observant men when travelling, but complete autocrats whose orders
+cannot be questioned. Their knowledge of the roads depends on
+estimation of time and memory and not on any supernatural powers.
+They know the stars<a id="FNanchor_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212"
+class="fnanchor">[212]</a> and have some sense of direction, but
+especially do they know every fold of ground and almost every bush.
+Their powers are remarkable but not inexplicable; their observation
+and memory rarely fail them, but for obvious reasons they do not
+care to travel by night. Once started the march goes on hour after
+hour. The heat grows more intense. The narrow path winds down the
+bed of a valley or among the trees on the banks, or over rocky
+plains or amid sand dunes.</p>
+<p>In Air the vegetation exists principally along the valleys. In
+the south the dûm palm grows in veritable forests or in low
+thickets, when it resembles the dwarf palm. The <i>Acacia
+Adansonii</i>, <i>Acacia Arabica</i> (“Tamat” in Temajegh),
+<i>Acacia Tortilis</i> (the “Talha” of the Arabs and “Abesagh” or
+“Tiggeur” in Temajegh), as well as two or three other varieties,
+are common. They occasionally grow to very large dimensions. The
+Aborak (<i>Balanites Ægyptiaca</i>) also does very well; trees with
+trunks up to 2 feet in diameter are common in the larger valleys,
+and in North-eastern Air I have seen some up to 3½ feet across. The
+bushes and grasses are innumerable, but flowers are rare, except
+for the yellow and white mimosa blossom on the trees. Nearly all
+the trees and bushes are thorned, some with recurving barbs which
+are dangerous for the careless rider. If burr grass is less
+frequent than in the south, spear grass abounds and is almost as
+painful. Vegetation in Air defends itself against pasturing animals
+vigorously but vainly, for the animals in the country seem to
+thrive on a diet of thorns, and man ends up by being the worst
+sufferer from these useless provisions of Nature. Thorns are not
+the only minor horror of life. How often after a long march has
+some delicious glade appeared at<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_227">[227]</span> hand, cool and inviting. After angrily
+dismissing the suggestion to choose a camp site in the middle of an
+open river-bed where the sun on the sand will cook an egg in a few
+minutes, you throw yourself down to rest in deep green shade fanned
+by the breeze. The unwary traveller soon learns the consequences of
+disregarding native advice, for he will quickly arise from a bed of
+thorns with his clothes full of burrs, and his mouth full of bad
+words, while his whole attention will probably be directed towards
+dodging a large tarantula or scorpion or, happily less often, a
+little yellow-crested sand viper, than which there is hardly
+anything more deadly in all Africa.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 24</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw5">
+<figure id="i24"><a href="images/i24.jpg"><img src='images/i24.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">ABOVE: NECK WALLETS, POUCH, “STAR” GAME TRAP</p>
+<p class="cp3">CENTRE: AMULET BAG, WOODEN LADLE, WOODEN SPOON,
+AMULET POUCHES</p>
+<p class="cp3">BELOW: STRIP OF MATTING, LEATHER BOTTLE, HOUSEHOLD
+POTS OF CLAY AND HIDE, SKIN FOR CHURNING BUTTER</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Apart from trades directly connected with camels the Tuareg have
+practically no industries. They neither dye nor spin anything,
+except a rough sewing thread of local cotton; nor do they weave in
+wool or cotton. Mats of two sorts are made; the one of palm fronds
+plaited in bands some two to three inches broad and sewn together
+spirally to form rectangles or ovals worked in varying degrees of
+fineness, the other made of stiff grass and thin strips of black
+leather. The technique of the latter is good: deep borders with an
+intricate geometric ornament are woven in the leather warp.
+Mat-making and leather-working are carried on by the women. They
+attain great skill, but although leather-working is usual all over
+the country, it is at Agades that the craft is especially well
+developed. Fine designs in coloured strips of leather are made on
+cushions, bags and pouches like a sort of embroidery. The industry
+is in the hands of a few women and is probably of Manding origin,
+brought to Air by the Songhai conquerors or even before. Decorated
+camel riding saddles, leather head ropes and travelling wallets or
+pouches of various shapes are made. The leather used is the
+goatskin locally tanned with the seed pod of the “Tamat” acacia,
+and dyed with red maize leaf or indigo. A certain amount of
+prepared leather is also imported from the south. In these articles
+the foundation is usually of black leather, which is ornamented
+with coloured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>
+strips or bands and metal studs. Camel head ropes are made of
+twisted or plaited leather strands with coloured tassels; the more
+elaborate, the finer are the strands used; the tassels are bound
+with coloured leather threads woven in patterns. The technique of
+these head ropes is the best of its sort I have ever seen. Cutting
+leather in strands to the thickness of coarse sewing thread is a
+highly skilled art, and all the more remarkable in that only knives
+are used, for scissors are unknown except in the blacksmiths’
+equipment. I have seen cords for carrying amulets or pouches made
+of ten or a dozen threads, each less than ¹⁄₃₂″ thick, bound at
+intervals and at the ends.</p>
+<p>A most characteristic article is a flat rectangular envelope of
+leather some 6″ long × 3″ broad. It is only open at the bottom and
+slides up and down the two cords, by which a sort of portfolio is
+hung from the neck; this consists of four to six leather flaps in
+which amulets, trinkets, needles and papers are preserved. The
+black cover is ornamented with some stamped rectilinear pattern and
+has small tassels at the bottom. A similar object is the small
+leather amulet case about 3″ broad × 2″ long × 1″ deep, also slung
+round the neck, and provided with a lid like a box. A larger
+semi-circular pouch with a design in strips of coloured leather
+suspended over the shoulder by a long cord is typical Agades work.
+Triangular travelling bags of all sizes are made of soft leather,
+closed at the neck with a running cord; they vary in size from
+those 5 inches long for snuff to others 2 feet or more for clothing
+and food. Both these bags and ornamented goatskins for packing
+personal belongings have polychrome patterns on the surface, which
+is roughed and rubbed with moist dyes. The plaited head ropes and
+the surface dyeing of leather seem to be a more indigenous
+technique than the “Agades work” proper, in which the design is
+procured by appliqué strips.</p>
+<p>Carpentry is rudimentary and the craft akin to iron-working. The
+artisan, known as the “Enad” or smith, whatever his caste, is a
+person of standing in the community:<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_229">[229]</span> he is a man whose advice is sought in
+council though he rarely becomes a leader. In the olden days the
+“Enad” is said even to have had a peculiar form of grave to
+distinguish his resting-place from that of other men, but however
+this may have been, there is nothing now to show that the smith of
+Air ever belonged to a separate race or caste. To-day the smith is
+only respected for his skill. The position is usually hereditary
+and includes the duties of the blacksmith, jeweller, carpenter and
+farrier, with the same set of tools for all these trades. His adze
+is an acute-angled crook of wood with a socketed iron cutting edge
+bound on to the point of the short limb; the form dates back at
+least to the Neolithic period of civilisation. The axe is equally
+primitive: the cutting edge, instead of having a socket, ends in a
+point which is fitted into a hole bored through the club head of a
+wooden haft. With these two tools, a few hammers, usually of
+European shape, tin-shears, pincers, files and chisels, the “Enad”
+contrives to turn out some remarkably fine work. Using only his
+adze he will cut spoons with a pointed bowl at a slight angle to
+the flat handle, or round ladles, from a solid block of “Aborak”
+wood. They are then ornamented with geometric patterns burnt on the
+handles around the edge. The Air “Enad” does not smelt iron, for
+all the presence of ironstone in the hills and magnetite sand in
+the river-beds. The only iron-working done is quite simple bending,
+beating or tempering on an anvil shaped like a huge horseshoe nail
+planted in the ground. A goatskin bellows closed by two wooden
+slats and a clay nozzle are used as in the Southland. The iron is
+heated in a hearth in the sand filled with charcoal. A certain
+number of inferior iron knives are forged, but the Tuareg of Air
+must be regarded as having hardly yet reached the iron-working age
+of evolution.</p>
+<p>The Agades blacksmith-jewellers melt down silver coins heated in
+small clay crucibles. They lose a lot of silver by oxidation, but
+the work is remarkably well finished, considering the primitive
+nature of their tools and the heavy hammers employed. The wooden
+household furniture will<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_230">[230]</span> be described later; so far as there is any
+at all, it is well made, but rough. The principal skill of the
+smiths is displayed in making and decorating camel riding saddles
+and certain <span class="sym">U</span>-shaped luggage rests, to
+which particular reference will be made hereafter.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg riding saddle, or “tirik” (“t’iriken” in the plural)
+in Temajegh, or “rahla” in Arabic, is a highly efficient
+production, combining comfort with extreme lightness. It consists
+of a circular seat over an inverted <span class="sym">V</span>
+frame which fits across the withers of the camel. High above the
+seat are a broad, tall cantle shaped like a Gothic arch and large
+cross pommel. The whole saddle weighs perhaps 10 lbs. at the most.
+Its equipment includes a quilted saddle cloth over the withers and
+a single plaited leather girth two inches broad. No iron is used in
+the saddle, except for two rings which pull by diagonal straps from
+the underside of the seat over the flat <span class="sym">Ʌ</span>
+shaped frame of the saddle. The girth is permanently attached to
+these straps at one end, the other end is lashed to the ring on the
+off-side straps by a leather thong. The seat, cantle and pommel are
+made of separate pieces of wood held together by raw hide, which is
+pulled over them wet and dried in place; the violent contraction of
+the hide holds the component parts together as firmly as if they
+were screwed or dovetailed. The broad <span class="sym">Ʌ</span>
+sides which fit over the withers are of soft tanned leather
+stretched over a rectangular frame: the upper part is covered with
+leather over hide and wood. The common saddle has dark red leather
+over the seat and cantle and black leather over the cross pommel
+and along the edges of the cantle. The elaborate decoration of the
+more ornate patterns is invariably the same. In this variety the
+seat and edging are of red and black leather as previously
+described, but the back of the cantle and the front of the cross
+pommel are covered with pale green leather, on which is applied a
+geometric decoration of horizontal and diagonal strips of stamped
+and fretted silver or white metal, with red cloth showing through
+the holes. Every example I saw<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_231">[231]</span> had the same green leather background on
+the front of the pommel and back of the cantle. I observed no
+instance where the ornament was on a different background or where
+green leather without the silver metal design had been used. Where
+the design comes from I have no idea; it is remarkably well
+executed and dignified without being so barbaric in splendour as
+the horse saddles of the Sudan. Every element of the construction
+and ornament is traditional and rigidly adhered to. I can offer no
+suggestions regarding its origin, but can only note its presence.
+Some symbolism is probably involved.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 25</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw7">
+<figure id="i25"><a href="images/i25.jpg"><img src='images/i25.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">LEFT: BRIDLE STAND AND SEAT</p>
+<p class="cp3">CENTRE: CAMEL RIDING SADDLE WITH PLAITED GIRTH AND
+THONG</p>
+<p class="cp3">ABOVE: PLAITED LEATHER CAMEL BRIDLE AND LEATHER
+HOBBLE</p>
+<p class="cp3">RIGHT: WOODEN ARCH OF CAMEL PACK SADDLE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Where a man can afford to have a leather bridle he usually
+dispenses with the running noose which, when rope is used, is
+slipped over the camel’s lower jaw behind the front teeth. The
+leather bridle is fitted to a head collar consisting of an arched
+iron nose-piece with a curved iron jowl-piece attached to one side
+by a brass or copper link ring. The bridle is fastened to the other
+end of the jowl-piece and runs through a ring on the nose-piece
+itself, so that any pull on the bridle closes the former on to the
+latter, compressing the jaws of the camel. The nose-piece is kept
+in position by a horizontal band of plaited leather attached to the
+ends and passing round the back of the camel’s head below the ears.
+The top of the arched nose-piece is usually shaped into a loop on
+to which a crest of black ostrich feathers may be attached.<a id=
+"FNanchor_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213" class=
+"fnanchor">[213]</a> As an alternative or in addition to this
+equipment the riding camel often also has a nose-ring in the left
+nostril for a light rope or leather bridle. The nose-ring is the
+mark of a good riding camel, but is sometimes not employed for
+guiding the animal, as its use necessitates light hands to avoid
+injuring the beast.</p>
+<p>In addition to its lightness the Tuareg riding saddle has the
+inestimable merit of bringing the weight of the rider over the
+shoulders of the camel, or in other words over the part where the
+animal is strongest. The hinder parts of the camel are sloping and
+can carry no weight; all the heavy<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_232">[232]</span> work is done by the fore-legs. The rider,
+sitting in the saddle, which must be arranged with padding if
+necessary over the front part of the withers to bring the seat
+horizontal, rests one foot against the vertical part of the camel’s
+neck just above its curve, holding on to the neck with a prehensile
+big toe. The other leg is crooked below and falls over the opposite
+shoulder of the camel at the base of the neck. Bare feet are
+essential for good riding, as, in addition to enabling some grip to
+be obtained, they are used to guide the camel with recognised
+“aids.” With a broad cantle and a high pommel between the legs a
+far better grip can be obtained than on the Arabian saddle, on
+which a good seat is entirely a question of balance. Provided the
+saddle cloth under the Tuareg saddle is properly adjusted there is
+practically no galling of the withers or sides. If provisions or
+water-skins are carried they are slung under the seat of the riding
+saddle, their front ends attached to the girth rings, their rear
+ends tied together behind the hump, resting on a small pad to
+prevent rubbing over the backbone.</p>
+<p>The large goatskins for water and small ones for meal do not
+differ from those used throughout the East. The goat is skinned
+without cutting the hide except around the neck and limbs: the skin
+is peeled off the carcass and well greased. The legs are sewn up
+and roped for slinging: rents or holes are skilfully sewn up or
+patched with leather and cotton thread so that they do not leak. A
+new skin recently greased with goat or sheep fat is abominable, as
+the water becomes strongly impregnated with the reek of goat. But
+water from a good old skin can be almost tasteless, though such
+skins are hard to come by. Some of the water one has drunk from
+goatskins beggars description; it is nearly always grey or black,
+and smelly beyond belief. The one compensation is that the wet
+outside of the skin keeps the water deliciously cool owing to
+constant evaporation. With a riding saddle, a skin of water and a
+skin of meal or grain as his sole equipment, the Tuareg reduces the
+complications of travelling to a minimum.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>His weapons are
+few but characteristic. First and foremost he wears a sword, called
+“takuba,” as soon as he reaches man’s estate, and before even he
+dons the veil. His sword has been romantically associated with the
+Crusaders and I know not who else. It is a straight, flat,
+double-edged cutting sword of the old cross-hilted type up to 3 ft.
+6 ins. long by 2-3½ ins. broad below the hilt, tapering slightly to
+a rounded point. The guard is square and broad and the hilt is
+short, for the Tuareg have small hands. The pommel is flattened and
+ornamented. The hilt and guard form a Latin cross. The type never
+varies, though of course the blades differ greatly in quality and
+form, ranging from old Toledo steels with the mark “Carlos V” on
+them to an iron object called a “Masri” blade made in the north.
+Some are elaborately ornamented, but the most prized are plain with
+two or three slight canellations down the middle; they are probably
+of European manufacture. The commonest Masri blades bear two
+opposed crescent “men in the moon” faces as their mark; another
+cheap variety has a small couchant lion. The Tuareg prizes his
+sword as his most valued possession and many, like Ahodu, speak
+with pride of a blade handed down in their families for
+generations. His particular sword was reputed to have magical
+properties, for it had been lost in a fight at Assode, where the
+owner, rather than allow it to be captured, had thrown it from him
+into the air, only, through the instrumentality of a slave, to find
+it again many years afterwards, buried deep in the rocky ground on
+a hillock near the site of the battle. The sword is worn in a red
+leather scabbard slung from two rings by a cotton band over the
+shoulder. The edges of the blades are kept very sharp. As a weapon
+these swords are quite effective. Ahodu in a raid received a sword
+wound from a blow which had glanced off his shield; it ran from the
+left shoulder to the left knee, and had cut deep into his arm and
+side. It would have killed most Europeans; he not only recovered
+but had to ride four days from the scene of the fight back to
+Air.</p>
+<p>Two sorts of spears are used, the wooden-hafted with<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> a narrow willow-leaf socketed
+blade and an iron socketed butt, and one made throughout of metal.
+The latter, called “allagh,” is a slender and beautiful weapon up
+to six feet long.<a id="FNanchor_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214"
+class="fnanchor">[214]</a> The head is very narrow, not above an
+inch broad: the greatest breadth is half-way down the blade, which
+projects on either side of a pronounced midrib. Below the head are
+one or more pairs of barbs in the plane of the blade. The haft is
+round and about half an inch in diameter, inlaid with brass rings.
+Two-thirds of the way along the haft is a leather grip; below that
+is an annular excrescence, and then the haft is splayed out,
+terminating in a chisel-shaped butt 1½″-2″ broad. These spears are
+used as lances or as throwing weapons. They are graceful and
+well-balanced, but are not made locally. Wherever they appear the
+influence of the Tuareg can seemingly be traced. It was from this
+people also that the cross-hilted sword probably came to be adopted
+in the Sudan, while they themselves certainly learnt its use in the
+Mediterranean lands, perhaps even from the Romans.</p>
+<p>Sheath knives some 6″ long, with fretted or inlaid brass hilts
+and red leather or leather and brass sheaths, are worn at the
+waist. The arm dagger is the most typical of all Tuareg weapons.
+They seem to be the only people to use it: it has a small wooden
+cross hilt and a long, narrow, flat blade. This weapon is worn
+along the forearm, the point to the elbow, the hilt ready for use
+under the hand: the sheath has a leather ring which is slipped over
+the wrist. The hilt is held in the hand, knuckles upward and two
+fingers each side of the long member of the cross. It is, in fact,
+a short stabbing sword, the handiest and most redoubtable of all
+the weapons of the People of the Veil.</p>
+<p>For defence they have large shields<a id=
+"FNanchor_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215" class=
+"fnanchor">[215]</a> roughly rectangular in shape and as large as 5
+ft. × 3 ft., of sun-dried hide from which the hair has been
+removed. The best are made in<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_235">[235]</span> Elakkos and some parts of Damergu of oryx
+hide. The edges are bound in leather, but the shield remains stiff
+yet fairly flexible, as it consists of only one thickness of hide.
+The corners are rounded and the sides somewhat incurved, the bottom
+being usually a few inches broader than the top. A loop in the
+centre of the top side is used to hang the shield from the camel
+saddle. In use it is held in the left hand by a handle attached
+behind about a third of its length from the top rim. There are no
+arm loops, as the shield is too ungainly to move rapidly in parry,
+though its size effectually protects the whole body. The hide of
+the white oryx is extremely tough and is said to turn any sword-cut
+and most spear-thrusts. The shield is especially remarkable for its
+ornamentation. Some of the more elaborate have metal studs with
+roundels of red stuff near the edges, but an uncoloured cruciform
+design worked on the surface by a series of small cuts always
+appears in the upper part of the shield on the centre line. The
+design in all examples I have seen, and probably in most cases, is
+much the same and is certainly symbolic, for we hear of the shield
+and cross ornament being engraved on rocks. The design seems to be
+derived from a Latin cross, the lower and longer arm of which
+terminates in a group of diagonal members, usually three on each
+side, forming a radial pattern. In this form it resembles nothing
+so much as the Christian cross standing on a radiating mass
+representing light or glory, but certain examples have the
+radiating marks at the top as well as at the bottom of the
+cross.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg does not usually use either bows and arrows or the
+throwing iron with its many projecting knife-blades. Instances are
+not wanting in which these weapons have been used, but they are
+neither typical of the equipment of the Tuareg nor natural to his
+temperament. Where they have been used they have been consciously
+borrowed from some neighbouring or associated people, such as the
+Tebu, who use the throwing iron extensively. The People of the Veil
+have one most especial vaunt, which is that they fight<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> with the <em>armes
+blanches</em> and disdain insidious weapons like arrows. The advent
+of civilisation has brought them the rifle, which they are as proud
+to possess as any fighting man must be, but they have never been
+seduced from the sword, spear and knife which are their old
+allegiances. It is common to hear a Tuareg say that he would be
+ashamed to stoop to the infamy of the Tebu: he will explain that
+whatever happens the Tuareg will never creep up to a camp at night
+and cut his enemy’s throat in the dark. He will fight fair and
+clean, attacking with spear and sword, preferably by day. He prides
+himself on the distinction which he draws between murder by stealth
+and killing in a fight or raid. He may be a liar and not live up to
+his vaunt; but to have the ideal at all is remarkable; it must be
+said to his honour that on the whole he has proved that he can live
+up to his self-set standard. In all the bitter fighting with the
+French during the last two generations I am only aware of one
+instance in which the Tuareg have stooped to what in their own view
+was treachery, and that was when they tried to poison the survivors
+of the Flatters Mission after the attack at Bir Gharama.</p>
+<p>Their tactics in war are the usual ones of desert fighting.
+Guerilla warfare, ambushes, surprise attacks and harassing descents
+on stragglers are all known. On one occasion in an attack on a
+French patrol, which had exacted a fine of camels from a tribe, the
+men came up in the dark on the opposite side of the square to that
+on which the animals were lying and called to them, whereupon the
+animals, recognising the voices of their masters, rose and swept
+through the sleeping camp, which was over-run and decimated. In the
+desert men neither give nor get quarter, for prisoners and slaves
+are encumbrances to free movement. In ordinary raids the losing
+side is either destroyed or dispersed.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 26</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw9">
+<figure id="i26"><a href="images/i26.jpg"><img src='images/i26.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">TUAREG SWORD AND SHEATH, SHIELD, ARM-SWORD AND
+SHEATH AND TWO KNIVES</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>As far as possible the Tuareg fight according to their code,
+which in a less cynical age would be called chivalrous. They obey
+the injunctions of Islam neither to destroy palm trees nor to
+poison wells. They will give water in the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_237">[237]</span> desert to their worst enemy. They will lie
+and deceive their opponent whenever possible, but they will not
+infringe the laws of hospitality. When they have given the “Amán”
+or peace, they do not break their word. They are faithful to the
+tribes which they take under their protection and to those who have
+received their “A’ada” or “right of passage,” confirmed with the
+“Timmi” or oath suitable to the occasion. Their reputation as base
+fighters has little real foundation. Every case of which I have
+heard, when such an accusation was brought against them, has
+resolved itself into some surprise attack by a raiding party, the
+essence of whose success depended upon an unexpected descent upon
+an unsuspecting enemy. Of their courage I will write nothing, for
+it is too easy to exaggerate; but their proverb says: “Hell itself
+abhors dishonour.”</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc07">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class=
+"label">[201]</span></a>Singular: Ers. Water-scrapes in the sand of
+valley-beds.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class=
+"label">[202]</span></a>Or Efaken.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class=
+"label">[203]</span></a>See <a href="#i35">Plate 35.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class=
+"label">[204]</span></a>See the Kel Geres group in <a href=
+"#app2">Appendix II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class=
+"label">[205]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+385.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class=
+"label">[206]</span></a>Misnamed the Dogam Mountains on the Cortier
+map. Dogam is to the east. The Ighaghrar valley runs south and
+then, assuming the name of Tagharit, west, and then on to the Talak
+plain. This valley does not run into the Auderas valley as the
+Cortier map shows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class=
+"label">[207]</span></a>The “Assada well” of the Cortier map.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class=
+"label">[208]</span></a>Quite close to the Nabarro of Barth. The
+name is not given on the Cortier map.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class=
+"label">[209]</span></a>Specifically it is not as much as a man can
+heap on his open or hold in his half-closed hand.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class=
+"label">[210]</span></a>Cf. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+467 and 479.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class=
+"label">[211]</span></a>In Masquerey’s Temajegh dictionary as
+“iril” and “irillan” respectively.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class=
+"label">[212]</span></a>The Great Bear is called “Talimt,” the Cow
+Camel; the Pleiades are the “Chickens.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class=
+"label">[213]</span></a>See <a href="#i36">Plate 36.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class=
+"label">[214]</span></a>In <a href="#i47">Plate 47</a> Sidi is
+carrying such a spear flying the author’s pennant.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class=
+"label">[215]</span></a>The round shields mentioned by Duveyrier as
+in use among the Northern Tuareg are unknown in Air. See Plates
+<a href="#i22">22</a> and <a href="#i26">26.</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span><a id=
+"c08"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<p class="sch">ARCHITECTURE AND ART</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> Bagezan group looms large in Central
+Air, but even its general features are unknown. The mountains have
+neither been reconnoitred nor mapped. The area they occupy figures
+as a blank on the Cortier map. I travelled around Bagezan and
+climbed up into one broad valley in the heart of the massif, but my
+own additions to the cartography hereabouts are confined to a few
+details along the towering sides. Buchanan in 1919-20 crossed the
+western side, from Towar to a valley which runs into the Anu
+Maqaran basin, where it is called Abarakan. A detachment of Jean’s
+first patrol to Air visited the southern valleys. But no European
+has ever entered the eastern or north-eastern part of the group.
+The reason for this apparent lack of enterprise is due to few of
+the mountain tracks being fit for camels; many of them are not even
+suitable for donkeys, and the complications of travelling in this
+sort of country, where none of the inhabitants will act as porters,
+thus become considerable.</p>
+<p>The massif rises some 2000 feet above the general level of the
+central plateau, except in the north-east, where the latter at 3500
+feet above the sea is itself over 500 feet higher than in the north
+and west. The principal peaks must be well over 6000 feet, the
+bottoms of the upland valleys perhaps 3500 to 4000 feet above the
+sea. Many of the latter contain perennial streams, and rumours
+reached me of a small lake somewhere in the unexplored
+north-eastern part; but this may only be a fairy tale. The southern
+sides of Bagezan fall almost vertically on to the central plain
+between Towar and Arakieta on the upper Beughqot valley. Several
+small villages are hidden in the folds of the mountains
+above,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> wherever
+there is a permanent supply of water. In some cases the streams are
+sufficient to irrigate a few gardens; at one or two points there
+are some date palms and the only lime trees in Air. The climate is
+cooler and everything ripens some four to six weeks later than on
+the plateau below. Frost is common in the winter.</p>
+<p>A few of the villages, notably those like Tasessat and Tadesa,
+near the southern edge of the massif, have been visited by French
+patrols. In addition settlements known as Atkaki, Emululi, Owari,
+Agaragar and Ighelablaban have been reported to exist, but
+generally speaking, owing to the difficulties of
+intercommunication, the villages are almost unknown. They are said
+to consist of stone houses apparently of the earliest period
+associated with the Itesan tribes, in whose country the mountains
+lay. Some of the houses, however, differ from any of those
+encountered in other districts of Air.</p>
+<p>In order to see the type of country and visit some of the people
+of the mountains I climbed from Towar up to the Telezu valley,
+where there were some Kel Bagezan, to-day a composite tribe made up
+of portions of Kel Tadek imghad and various Kel Owi elements. They
+are under the chief Minéru or El Minir, who owes allegiance to the
+Añastafidet. My way from Towar led past the ruined town of Agejir
+to the Tokede valley, which soon turned east and disappeared into
+the mountain. I subsequently found that the Tokede was the same
+valley as the one called Telesu higher up and Towar further down.
+The path turned west along the foot of Bagezan, past a scree of
+enormous boulders, ranging from five to twenty-five feet across, on
+which numerous families of red monkeys were playing. There we
+turned, T’ekhmedin, Atagoom and myself, and wound up the side of
+the mountain by a path so steep and rough that a self-respecting
+mule would have walked warily. The camels went up and up over loose
+stones. The left side dropped away precipitately into the deep
+valley which divides massifs of Bagezan and Todra. A stream roared
+in a gorge hundreds of feet below at the foot<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_240">[240]</span> of a cliff of gleaming rock. Still we
+climbed over stones and boulders by a two-foot path gradually
+turning north and then north-east and then east. We followed up a
+narrowing tributary bed of the stream in the gorge until we came to
+a pass between bare earth-coloured hills, the tops of which were
+only a few hundred feet above us, and at last dropped gently down
+the other side past some grazing camels which seemed interested in
+our arrival and followed us inquisitively into Telezu. An enclosed
+plain opened out full of big green trees and grass with wonderful
+pasture and plenty of water in the sand. It ran from west to east
+before turning and narrowing southwards to fall over the edge into
+the Tokede below. The valley was shut in all round by low peaks and
+rough crags along the sky-line. One had no impression of being so
+far above the plateau of Air on a higher table-land. The great
+summits of Bagezan had become small hills.</p>
+<p>There was no other way out of Telesu except on foot, either over
+the hills or down the ravine made by the stream falling towards
+Tokede, so we returned as we had come, after drinking milk with the
+Kel Bagezan who were living there. The descent was terrific; the
+camels had to be led and we only made Towar by nightfall. After
+reaching the bottom of the scree we cut off a corner instead of
+going by Agejir, and marched towards the standing rock of Takazuzat
+(or Takazanzat), which looks like the spire of a cathedral, on the
+edge of the Ara valley near the isolated peak of In Bodinam.</p>
+<p>All the ways up to the Bagezan villages are similar, if not
+harder. The agility of the camels that have to negotiate these
+paths is unbelievable until it has been experienced.</p>
+<p>The only account which I can give of the houses of Bagezan is
+second-hand, and this is the more unfortunate, because Jean’s
+description<a id="FNanchor_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216" class=
+"fnanchor">[216]</a> of them as the first houses in Air does not
+correspond with the character of the earliest ones I saw. I will
+quote his exact words, as the point is important:<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> “Les premières constructions
+édifiées furent Afassaz et Elnoulli; maisons à dôme central
+recouvrant une grande pièce sombre entourée de nombreuses
+dépendances; l’étage aujourd’hui effondré avait été solidement
+étayé par des piliers de maçonnerie à large et forte structure.” To
+Afassaz, a large group of villages in a valley east of Bagezan, we
+will turn later; Barth erroneously supposed it lay near Towar,
+having apparently confused it with Agejir. “Elnoulli” I was
+entirely unable to trace under this name, and concluded that
+Emululi, which is one of the Bagezan villages, was intended.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 27</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i27">
+<p class="cpm">HOUSE TYPES.</p>
+<a href="images/i27.jpg"><img src='images/i27.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 28</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i28">
+<p class="cpm">HOUSE TYPES.</p>
+<a href="images/i28.jpg"><img src='images/i28.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>My interest in Tuareg architecture was first aroused near
+Tabello, east of Bagezan, a point reached while I was
+circumnavigating the massif. From Auderas we had been to visit
+T’imia, whence we returned to the Abarakan valley. We then climbed
+laboriously up the bed of the Teghazar<a id=
+"FNanchor_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217" class=
+"fnanchor">[217]</a> tributary, and so reached the plateau east of
+the Central massif. We camped at about 3500 feet, by the spring of
+Teginjir. The water here is strongly mineralised, and comes out of
+the ground at about 90° F. charged with carbonic acid gas. Within a
+short distance of the spring is the volcanic crater and cone of
+Gheshwa,<a id="FNanchor_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218" class=
+"fnanchor">[218]</a> the only recent vent which I came across in
+Air. It was visited and described by Von Bary, but curiously enough
+is neither referred to in other works nor shown on the Cortier map.
+The cinder cone is small and rather broken down on the west side,
+but the sides are still exceedingly steep and covered with loose
+scoriæ. The lava flow which came out of the vent extends from the
+foot of the cone, for some five miles to the south-east; it appears
+to have originated in the course of a single eruption. The lava
+stratum is level and about 20 feet thick, overlying the Teginjir
+plain, which consists of a surface alluvium from the neighbouring
+mountains, and, at one point, a disintegrating crystalline outcrop.
+The lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> is acid
+and vesicular, resembling in appearance recent flows from Vesuvius
+or at Casamicciola on the island of Ischia in the Bay of Naples.
+The surface of the Teginjir flow proved indescribably rough and
+devoid of vegetation; it has as yet had no time to disintegrate and
+is undoubtedly still in the same twisted and cracked form which it
+had assumed during the cooling process. E.S.E. of Mount Gheshwa are
+two small black hillocks which appear to be minor cinder cones, not
+connected with any lava flows. The eruption which formed the
+Gheshwa cone and neighbouring lava flow is certainly posterior to
+the general configuration of the plateau and is a most recent
+geological phenomenon, but I found no tradition among the natives
+of any volcanic activity within living memory.</p>
+<p>The ground drains eastward from Teginjir along the southern side
+of the T’imia massif to the Anfissak valley, named after the
+buttress hills which form the south-east corner of this group. East
+of Anfissak the plain extends towards and beyond Mount Mari in the
+north; a number of hillocks litter the plain to the south. The
+caravan road from Tripoli to the Sudan runs down this plain by the
+Adoral valley past Mari well, which is now filled in, by Anfissak
+well, and by Adaudu and the Tebernit water-holes to Beughqot.
+Thence it goes due south to Tergulawen and over the Azawagh to
+Damergu and Nigeria.</p>
+<p>A short distance to the south the Anfissak valley changes its
+name to Tamanet, so called after a watering-place which we reached
+in one day’s march from Teginjir. At least it was meant to be a
+watering-point, but we found that insufficient rain had fallen that
+year in Eastern Air and there was no water in the sand of the
+valley bed. We camped and left next day on a short ration of water
+over one of the most difficult parts of Air which I encountered in
+the whole of my journey. The plain is not boldly accidentated, but
+the valleys have cut deep into the disintegrating plateau. Their
+sides are steep and the flat places between them are so thickly
+covered with boulders that the area is almost impossible
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> cross. We
+eventually reached the Tebernit<a id="FNanchor_219"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> valley just above Adaudu
+and sent camels up the valley to find water at a point called
+Emilía on the way to Ajiru. Our supply had completely run out. It
+was thirsty work waiting for the watering party to return, and
+one’s worst apprehensions were of course aroused. I prowled about
+to relieve the tedium, and found a place where a ridge of rock
+crossed the bed or channel of the valley. I began digging in the
+sand to find water, for it seemed a likely place for an “Ers,” as
+there was an old village site near by. Sure enough I found water
+about two feet down, and everyone cheered up, as the Emilía party
+was not due back for several hours. The place became known to the
+expedition as “Rodd’s Ers.”</p>
+<p>Marching from here to Tabello was light work; we camped in the
+valley where the Arakieta tributary comes down from Bagezan near a
+small hut village, and then made an easy stage to the rendezvous of
+the salt caravan. The valley known as Tabello we discovered to be
+the upper part of the Beughqot: it was another example of the
+confusing habit of giving a multitude of names to a single system.
+Each section bears a different name to which a traveller, according
+to where he happens to be, may refer. The Ajiru, Tellia, Tebernit
+and Afasas are really the same valley; similarly the Telezu,
+Tokede, Towar, Tessuma and Etaras are another, while the Abarakan,
+T’imilen, Agerzan, Bilasicat, Azar and Anu Maqaran are also one and
+the same watercourse.</p>
+<p>The country east of Bagezan now belongs to the Kel Owi
+confederation. The northern part of the plain is the country of the
+Kel Azañieres, but before their advent the Immikitan came as far
+south as Tamanet. The Kel Anfissak, living presumably at Barth’s
+well of Albes, are a Kel Azañieres sub-tribe. Ajiru was the home of
+Belkho and the head-quarters of the Igermaden; but Tabello belonged
+to the Igademawen. It was at Ajiru that Von Bary was
+detained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> as a
+virtual prisoner by Belkho until he decided to abandon his
+projected journey to the Sudan.</p>
+<p>The countryside had evidently at one time been quite thickly
+inhabited, but presumably before the immigration of the Kel Owi,
+for nearly all the ruined villages contained a characteristic type
+of house, which every Tuareg agreed was built by the Itesan, who of
+course came to Air long before the Kel Owi. In the Beughqot valley
+where it is called Tabello a great deal of water is available all
+the year round in the sand, and consequently several villages
+sprang up on both banks. The largest group, which will be described
+in detail, is the northernmost on the west bank, called Tasawat.
+The houses here are all of the characteristic “old type,” which is
+culturally far the most advanced dwelling in Air. Many of the
+buildings here are very well preserved except for the roof, which
+in almost every instance has collapsed. In the Tabello houses the
+walls are for the most part well preserved, but elsewhere in Air
+the constructional material was less good, for little remains of
+the oldest type dwellings but the ground plan.</p>
+<p>The oldest houses, which I will call the “A type,” are
+rectangular in plan and have two rooms, a larger one with two or
+three outer doors, and an inner one with one door in the partition
+wall and no outer doors. All the houses of this type and most of
+the later houses in Air are oriented in the same direction, namely,
+within a few degrees of north and south, with the smaller room at
+the northern end. There were a few exceptions in the fourth group
+which I examined at Tabello; they were houses on a N.N.W.-S.S.E.
+line, or oriented E.-W. with the small room at the west end. The
+latter is an interesting point, because although the Air dialect of
+Temajegh contains a proper word for north (“tasalgi”), the word for
+west (“ataram”), which in some other dialects of the language has
+acquired the significance of north, is also sometimes used for this
+cardinal point.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 29</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i29a"><a href="images/i29a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i29a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TIMIA: “A” AND “B” TYPE HOUSES AND HUT CIRCLES</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i29b"><a href="images/i29b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i29b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TABELLO: INTERIOR OF “A” TYPE HOUSE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The big rooms of these “A type” houses in all the village groups
+examined varied but little in size, the largest one I<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span> measured being 29 ft. × 14 ft.
+inside. The small rooms varied rather more, ranging between 9 ft.
+and 12 ft. in length, the breadth being the same as for the big
+room. The head room was in all cases remarkable, one house I
+measured being as much as 12 ft. from the floor to the underside of
+the dûm palm rafters of the roof. In every instance the height was
+more than sufficient for a man to stand upright, a feature which
+does not obtain in the later houses. The large room was usually
+provided with three doors, the east and west ones being of similar
+dimensions, the south door rather smaller. In two cases in one
+group at Tabello and in other instances in the north I noticed that
+the east doors of the old houses had small buttresses outside as if
+to enhance their importance, though in one house the east door had
+been reduced to a small aperture; but this was exceptional.
+Buttresses were not observed on any of the west doors. In two cases
+I noticed here there was no south door, an omission which also
+occurred elsewhere among the later houses. The east and west doors,
+varying slightly according to the size of the house, were 4 ft. or
+more in height by 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. in breadth. In all the
+Tabello houses the door openings were recessed on the inner side to
+take a removable wooden door some ten inches broader and taller
+than the opening itself. The recess was continued for a sufficient
+space laterally to allow the frame to be pushed to one side without
+taking up room space. One side of the recess was provided with an
+elbow-hole in the outer wall of the house about 2 ft. from the
+ground for access to a latch for securing the door frame. In the
+later houses, but not at Tabello, the sliding frame door gave place
+to one swinging from stone sockets in the threshold and lintel;
+these doors are in some cases over 3 ft. broad and cut out of one
+piece of wood: they also were provided with a latch or bolt fitting
+into a catch in the inner part of the elbow-hole by which the door
+was secured and sometimes locked with a rough padlock of Tripolitan
+or Algerian manufacture. No doubt the door frames of the earlier
+houses were provided with a similar latch and lock, but
+none<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> of the
+woodwork has survived. The neatness of design of the sliding door
+recess was particularly striking in these dwellings.</p>
+<p>The threshold of the doors in the older houses was on the floor
+level, which was a few inches above the outside level. The larger
+rooms had quadrangular niches of different dimensions at odd points
+in the walls, as well as certain peculiar and characteristic niches
+in the partition walls. The inner rooms were provided with small
+niches made of pots built into the walls; in many cases there were
+four shelves across the corners some 3-4 ft. from the ground made
+of heavy beams, evidently intended to carry considerable weights.
+The surfaces of these shelves, like all the inner walls of both
+rooms, were carefully plastered with mud mortar whitened or
+coloured with earths similar to those used in the washes on houses
+at Agades. In one case a dado or wainscot of a different colour had
+been applied with a finger-drawn zigzag border of another shade.
+The stucco surfaces were brown, earthy crimson, ochre, yellow or
+white.</p>
+<p>One characteristic feature was observed in all the “old type”
+houses which still had walls standing of sufficient height for
+something more than the mere ground plan to be seen. On either side
+of the doorway in the partition or north wall of the large room
+there was a niche of very peculiar shape. The top was rather like a
+Gothic arch, and a recess was cut out in the base. The niches and
+the door in some cases were ornamented with an elaborate border, in
+other cases they were entirely unadorned. The shape of the niche,
+however, was constant and the size generally uniform. The style of
+decoration will be seen in Plates <a href="#i29a">29</a> and
+<a href="#i30">30.</a></p>
+<p>The later houses in Air are clearly an adaptation of the earlier
+type, for they have many common characteristics. These houses I
+have called the “B type” to distinguish them from the “A” or
+“Itesan type.” The “B houses” also are rectangular but
+single-roomed; for the most part they too are oriented north and
+south. An Imajegh whom I questioned on this point at Iferuan said
+he did not know why<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>
+this was so, but that all the correct houses of nobles were built
+in this manner, including the one in which his own family had
+always lived. He added that the three usual outside doors were
+called Imi n’Innek, the Door of the East, the Imi n’Aghil, the Door
+of the South, but the west door, instead of being called the Imi
+n’Ataram, was called the Imi n’Tasalgi, which properly means the
+Door of the North. When I asked him to explain this curious fact,
+he told me that it was because the Tuareg came from there, a
+statement which seemed inadequate, albeit significant. The
+confusion of west and north is especially curious; and the
+explanation of the house oriented E. and W. at Tabello is probably
+due to a misunderstanding on this point in the mind of the early
+builder. The problem is not unconnected with the varying sense of
+the word Ataram. Analogies between the “A” and “B” types of house
+are not, however, confined to those peculiarities of orientation
+and doors. A door in the north wall of the “B type” houses is very
+rare; on the other hand, in the majority of examples of this type I
+noticed that there was a long, very low niche on that side of the
+room. These recesses were not more than four or five inches high by
+eighteen to twenty-four inches long; they were used for keeping the
+Holy Books in and for no other purpose. The position of these
+niches, it is true, was not absolutely constant, nor was the type
+of niche for the Holy Books in the north walls always that shape,
+but the conclusion I reached from their frequent occurrence was
+that they in some way correspond to the ogive niches of the earlier
+houses, which I conceive had an indisputably ritual or religious
+significance. In a “B type” house at Assarara in Northern Air I
+came across two rectangular niches in a west wall which were
+obviously developments of the ornamented ogive niches of the “A
+type” house, and may also have been used for Holy Books, but this
+example of displacement with the varying and fortuitous practices
+adopted in the later dwellings convinced me that the use which had
+prescribed the earlier fashion was in process of being forgotten as
+modern times<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> were
+approached, and that no explanation was therefore likely to be
+obtained by consulting local learned men. In the “B type” houses,
+as in the earlier dwellings, there was usually a profusion of other
+niches in the walls serving different household purposes.</p>
+<p>The niches and the style of ornamentation of the “A type” houses
+of Air occur in the Sudan, but the formality of planning, the
+constant orientation and the ritualistic properties of the
+recesses, so far as I know, have no analogies outside Tuareg lands.
+I am not aware that attention has hitherto been drawn to these
+points either in the accounts of Air prepared by the French or in
+descriptions of dwellings in other parts of Africa, with the
+exception of one reference in Richardson’s account of his travels
+in 1845-6 in the Fezzan. He describes the houses at Ghat as having
+niches, and, from sketches he made, some of them are evidently of
+the same type as those in the Air houses of the first period.<a id=
+"FNanchor_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220" class=
+"fnanchor">[220]</a> They afford a problem which requires
+elucidation and which might throw much light on the cultural
+contacts of the Tuareg, among whom they seem to be traditional.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 30</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i30">
+<p class="cpm">HOUSE INTERIORS.</p>
+<a href="images/i30.jpg"><img src='images/i30.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The constant type of the houses, despite their disparity of
+date, is so marked that it cannot be fortuitous. I examined in the
+course of my stay in Air the villages and towns of Auderas, Towar,
+Agejir, the Tabello and Afassaz-Tebernit groups, T’imia, Assode,
+T’in Wansa, Igululof, Anu Samed, T’intaghoda, Tanutmolet, Iferuan,
+Seliufet, Agellal, Tefis and Anu Wisheran, and found the “A” and “B
+types” or their derivatives predominant to an extent which made it
+quite clear that some fundamental principle was involved in their
+construction. The earlier houses betray so highly developed a
+technique of building that we are clearly concerned with the
+remnants of a far higher cultural state than that which the Tuareg
+now possess. I say “remnants” advisedly, for since the date of the
+“A type” dwellings there has been a progressive deterioration in
+the art of construction. Technically, in Air, what is best is
+earliest. The first houses<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_249">[249]</span> of the Tuareg were obviously planned and
+executed with care. The walls, where still standing, measured about
+2 ft. 9 in. to 3 ft. at the base, tapering 9 to 12 in. to the top.
+The inside faces were perpendicular, all the taper being on the
+outside, where it is clearly visible in the profiles of the
+corners. The outsides of the walls were roughly faced with mud
+stucco; the insides were more carefully plastered to produce a very
+smooth surface, which in the best houses appears to have been
+procured with a board; hand marks on the plaster surface seemed
+rare. The dûm palm rafters of the roofs, door lintels and tops of
+recesses were carefully placed so that any curve of the wood was
+upward in order to give as much height as possible. The most
+noticeable feature in the construction of the “A type” houses was
+certainly the squareness and accuracy of the corners, which were
+sharp and cleanly finished. The later houses were less carefully
+executed and the corners, instead of being square, were rounded
+both within and without. The walls were less perpendicular and
+straight, the rectangular planning was sometimes out of true, the
+stucco-work, while better conserved on the outer walls owing to
+their more recent date, was manifestly rougher; there was often,
+nay usually, hardly room to stand upright inside the
+dwelling.<a id="FNanchor_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221" class=
+"fnanchor">[221]</a></p>
+<p>The constructional material of both types of house was observed
+to vary very much according to the supplies available on the spot.
+Small stones up to six inches long set in mud mortar are generally
+used. The coursing of the stones was carefully levelled, and in the
+“A type” very regular; a deterioration was seen in the later
+dwellings. The influence of the Sudanese style of construction is
+reflected in one or two houses at Tabello, where dried mud cakes
+have been used instead of stones; but even in these cases the mud
+cakes have been used like stones, set in mud mortar, levelled and
+regularly coursed, and contrasting with the more irregular methods
+of the Southland. Generally speaking<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_250">[250]</span> the numbers of “A” and “B type” houses in
+Air built only of mud seemed exceedingly small. In the stone, as in
+the mud constructions, some re-surfacing every year after the rains
+must have been inevitable.</p>
+<p>The roofs are made of palm fronds, brushwood and mud mortar with
+a low parapet around the edge, and often with six pinnacles,
+respectively at the four corners and half-way along the longest
+sides.</p>
+<p>The ruins of the “A type” houses at Tabello and Afasas were
+nearly always surrounded by other derelict buildings within an
+enclosure of large stones marking a sort of compound. The
+enclosures were not formal; they sometimes surrounded the whole
+house, sometimes only one side. The outhouses in the compound had
+no particular character: they were storehouses or the dwellings of
+the slaves. The buildings were as formless as the main houses were
+formal: they were either one-roomed or many-chambered with or
+without inter-communicating doors. They rarely adjoined the “A
+type” buildings, and were invariably more roughly constructed, many
+more of them being built of mud. In the “B type” settlements one
+was struck with the greater absence of outhouses and enclosing
+walls. Where subsidiary dwellings existed there had been a tendency
+to build them on to the main dwelling. A large number of both “A”
+and “B” houses in the Ighazar had wooden porches or shelters
+outside the east door, and were surrounded by a sort of wooden
+fence or stockade.</p>
+<p>Such are the two most characteristic types of house in Air.
+Other forms of dwellings I will refer to as the “C,” “D” and “E
+types.” The last-named “E type” can be disposed of immediately, for
+it is of no particular interest in connection with the Tuareg.
+<a href="#i28">Plate 28</a> gives the plan of one such a house
+formerly inhabited by Fugda, chief of T’imia, before the
+inhabitants moved to the present village and lived in huts. It is
+characteristic of the Southland both in design and construction,
+and, like all the recent “E type” houses, was built of mud.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span>The “D type” is
+a many-roomed dwelling, apparently occupied by several families.
+The largest example I saw was at Tabello. The plan is given on
+<a href="#i28">Plate 28.</a> In this case the construction was of
+stone and mud, but principally of the former. The technique was
+very inferior; several periods of construction were observable. The
+individual dwellings in this group were apparently at least four,
+consisting of areas numbered in the plan 1 to 7, 8 to 10, 13 to 17,
+and 20 to 26, respectively. Areas numbered 4, 9, 21, 22 and 24 were
+courtyards, the entrance to 21 having holes in the wall for wooden
+bars, and being apparently designed as a cattle-pen. The group had
+at least one well in area 16, and possibly another one in 12,
+though the latter might only have been a grain-pit. Another example
+of the “D type” house situated in the Afassaz valley group is given
+on <a href="#i28">Plate 28.</a> It lay at the foot of a rock,
+beneath which there is a permanent water-hole in the sand. A few
+hundred yards away was a village of “A type” houses. Along the
+valley in the same vicinity were enclosures of dry stone walls on
+the tops of the hills bordering the valley. I hazard a conclusion
+that these “D type” dwellings were used by the inhabitants of the
+area when the larger settlements were abandoned by the Itesan and
+Kel Geres in their move westward as a result of raiding from the
+east.<a id="FNanchor_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222" class=
+"fnanchor">[222]</a> The “D type” dwelling is a semi-fortified
+work, or at least a defensible building where several families who
+had remained in a dangerous area might congregate for safety in
+times of trouble. These dwellings with the hill-top enclosures
+along the Afassaz valley are the nearest approach to fortifications
+which I discovered in Air.</p>
+<p>The last type of house to be described represents a later
+development of the “A type.” The “C type” houses retain many of the
+characteristics of the earlier buildings, and although it is not
+always easy to date them, their preservation indicates that they
+are more recent. The rectangular formality of the earlier type
+survived but the orientation has been lost. The technique in many
+cases<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> is better
+than in the “B type”; but the ogive niches are absent and the
+interior stucco-work was often very rough. The various forms which
+the plan may take are given in Plates <a href="#i29a">29</a> and
+<a href="#i30">30.</a> Some of the “C type” houses belong to the
+Itesan period and are descended from the “A type” building, while
+some of them are certainly late Kel Owi houses. The town of Agejir,
+north of Towar, from which the plans on <a href="#i27">Plate 27</a>
+are taken was an Itesan settlement, probably founded when these
+tribes moved away from the plain east of Bagezan. Here I found only
+one true “A type” house, but as there must be over 300 ruined
+houses, I may well have missed many more. The state of the
+buildings here was very bad owing to the lack of good mud mortar,
+which has preserved those at Tabello. The better houses at Agejir
+seemed to fall into two categories: the one a single-roomed
+structure of about 20 ft. × 10 ft. internal dimensions, having
+usually two doors in the centre of the longest or east and west
+sides; the other a two-roomed structure. In the latter, the larger
+room was about the same size as in the single-roomed dwellings, the
+smaller room being about 10 ft. × 7 ft.; the common wall was not
+pierced, which may have been due to the use of inferior building
+materials. All the other buildings at Agejir were formless
+quadrangular structures, but the two types described are clearly
+descended directly from the “A type” house.</p>
+<p>Of the three villages at Towar, the modern one is a collection
+of mud huts; the older site on the same bank is a group of
+single-roomed “B type” houses, while the oldest of the three
+settlements is on the west bank and is called the Itesan village.
+Among the twenty ruined houses which I examined there I found three
+very good examples of the “A type,” correctly oriented north and
+south, in addition to several others of the single-roomed variety,
+the better ones being similar to those at Agejir. The 100 odd
+houses on this site were in too ruinous a condition to be readily
+identifiable.</p>
+<p>The houses in Northern and North-eastern Air will be described
+in a succeeding chapter, but the subject cannot here<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> be left without reference to
+certain dwellings which I encountered at Faodet at the head of the
+Ighazar basin. Here, side by side with some ordinary “B type”
+dwellings, were a few straw and thatch huts of about the same size
+constructed on a rectangular plan in obvious imitation of the
+neighbouring masonry dwellings. They were correctly oriented and
+had flat thatched roofs. Their inhabitants, though using an
+unsuitable material, had evidently tried to construct that type of
+dwelling which they felt was more correct for permanent occupation
+than the temporary round huts, a more suitable shape, of course,
+for brushwood, grass and matting construction. This example of
+innate sense of formality is most significant.</p>
+<p>It is possible to draw certain conclusions on the style of
+Tuareg house construction in Air, even without the material
+evidence necessary for a more detailed study or comparative dating.
+Could excavation be undertaken, information would not be lacking,
+for pottery and stratified débris abound, only, unfortunately, time
+was not available for such investigations in the course of my
+journey.</p>
+<p>The “A type” houses, according to the unanimous tradition of the
+present inhabitants, were built by the Itesan. Their vicarious
+distribution in Air suggests that all the Tuareg of the first wave
+used this style of dwelling. That fewer have survived in areas from
+which they were dispossessed by the Kel Geres and Kel Owi is
+natural. It is not, therefore, fortuitous that the present Tuareg
+call the houses Itesan rather than Kel Geres, despite the later
+association of the two groups of people; whatever claim has been
+put forward on behalf of the latter for a share in the earlier
+architectural development I am inclined to regard as simply due to
+their comparatively recent historical association. The later
+immigrants do not appear to have been so troubled by traditions of
+the formality which imbued their predecessors. In the essentially
+Kel Geres areas west of the Iferuan-Auderas-Agades road, other than
+the part which the Itesan occupied astride the line in the Auderas
+area,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> the “A type”
+houses occur, but are rare. The “B” and transitional “C types,”
+predominate. Nevertheless these Kel Geres “B type” houses are
+larger and better in technical execution than the late “B type,”
+which are known to have been made and used by the Kel Owi. The
+latter in their dwellings display a more formal conception than the
+Kel Geres; many of the old characteristics, like orientation,
+arrangements of the doors, ritual niches and proportion come out
+more strongly in North-eastern Air than, for instance, in the
+Agellal and Sidawet areas. The formless quadrangular buildings of
+Assode with very few of the old peculiarities are apparently Kel
+Geres work. The influence of the first or Itesan immigrants was,
+however, still sufficiently powerful to render their technique of
+construction in many respects superior to that of the Kel Owi.</p>
+<p>The persistence of the characteristics of the Itesan period
+among the later Kel Owi, in fact its existence till quite recently
+among all the Air Tuareg in one form or another, is proof that we
+are not concerned with any fortuitous manifestation. Both the
+sentiments held by the people to-day and the occurrence of
+rectangular straw huts on the “B type” plan at Faodet, substantiate
+this conclusion. But if I am right in my feeling that the
+characteristics in question were more strongly present among the
+first Itesan or Kel Innek wave and among the third or Kel Owi wave
+than among the Kel Geres, then the explanation is tenable that the
+features are derived from the civilisation of the Lemta or
+Fezzanian branch of the Tuareg, who, we shall see, are the original
+stock from which the first and last wave of immigrants into Air
+were probably derived, the former by way of the Chad countries, the
+latter also from the north or north-west, but perhaps by way of the
+Adghar of the Ifoghas and Tademekka.<a id=
+"FNanchor_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223" class=
+"fnanchor">[223]</a> This line of reasoning, which is put forward
+very tentatively, indicates that the Fezzan requires to be examined
+in some detail before an advance in the solution of the problem
+surrounding the cultural origin<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_255">[255]</span> of the Air house can be made. Even if the
+evidence of their houses were all, I should be satisfied that the
+culture of the Air Tuareg was a shadowy memory of some higher
+civilisation. I will hazard no guess regarding its first cradle,
+but only suggest that some clues may be found in the Fezzan.</p>
+<p>Another aspect of Tuareg architecture in Air remains to be
+examined. It concerns the style of their mosques. These buildings
+are comparatively numerous and all on much the same plan. The
+simplest form is a long, narrow construction running north and
+south with a “Qibla” in the centre of the east side. It is
+noteworthy that in several cases the “Qibla” gives the impression
+of having been added to the building, after the main walls had been
+erected, but this may only be an illusion due to defective
+workmanship. The larger mosques have one or more “aisles,” the wall
+or walls between them being pierced at many points to give the
+illusion of columns supporting the low roof. With the exception of
+one at Agejir, the head room of all the mosques I examined never
+exceeded 6 feet. Even the mosque at Assode, which was the largest
+in Air, had so low a ceiling that it was scarcely possible to stand
+upright anywhere inside. In one or two examples which I saw there
+was a separate construction, consisting of a single or double
+“aisle,” standing some feet away, west of the mosque proper. These
+buildings were of the same dimensions from north to south as the
+latter and served as alms-houses or “khans” for the distribution of
+food to the poor, who were also allowed to sleep there when
+travelling from village to village. In the mosque of Assode and in
+that of Tasawat in the Tabello group of villages certain portions
+of the sacred building were reserved for the worship of women, or
+as schools. In the Tasawat mosque the windows of the “harim”
+enclosure looked into the main part of the mosque, but had lattice
+gratings of split palm fronds crossing one another diagonally. This
+mosque was certainly later than any of the “A type” houses in the
+vicinity. Its construction<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_256">[256]</span> was indifferent, but noteworthy for the
+elaboration of the holes pierced in the partition walls, every
+alternate one being shaped like the ogive niches in the partition
+walls of the “A type” houses with the same recess cut out of the
+base. Neither in these openings nor in the niches of the houses has
+the principle of the true arch been applied: the ogives were built
+up by a wooden cantilever framing set in the thickness of the
+walls. With the exception of the great mosque at Agades, which is
+of the same type as the other holy buildings in Air, Assode is the
+only example which possessed a minaret. It is curious that the
+early houses of the Tuareg should be so noteworthy for the height
+of the roof, while the mosques should be equally remarkable for the
+lowness; the feature is one associated with a late period of
+building.</p>
+<p>It is very difficult to date any of the mosques, or indeed any
+of the other buildings or graves in Air, absolutely, in the absence
+of archæological field evidence. Jean<a id=
+"FNanchor_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224" class=
+"fnanchor">[224]</a> has collected a tradition to the effect that
+the mosque of Tefis is the oldest in Air, and this accords with my
+information. He dates it, however, at 1150 years ago, and states
+that it was built by the Kel Geres, who, according to him, were the
+first Tuareg to reach Air. Though I cannot agree with the last part
+of this conclusion, I concur in finding that the Kel Geres were the
+first Tuareg to enter Air by the north, and that they were,
+therefore, perhaps responsible for the introduction of Islam into
+the country. If this should prove to be the case, it is indeed
+probable that they built the first mosques. But Jean’s acceptance
+of the traditional dating of the mosques is closely connected with
+the dates which he assigns to the advent of the Tuareg, namely, the
+eighth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>, a period which for
+reasons given elsewhere I am inclined to consider too early.</p>
+<p>The traditional date for the founding of the mosque at Tefis in
+the eighth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> is hardly
+admissible, for it is more than doubtful whether Islam had spread
+so far south by that time. It is alternatively uncertain whether a
+Christian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> Church
+then existed in the land. By the year 800 <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> Islam had only penetrated Tripolitania and
+Tunisia to a limited extent and in the face of much opposition
+which persisted for long. Jean’s dates must be regarded, not as
+absolute, but only as indicating a chronological sequence. The
+second mosque according to him was founded at T’intaghoda fifty
+years after the one at Tefis. The building, he states, was made by
+the Kel Owi, but if they were responsible for its construction the
+date must be set down as much later. My information agrees with its
+having been the second mosque in Air to be built; and this much of
+Jean’s information I accept, but discard its Kel Owi origin.<a id=
+"FNanchor_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225" class=
+"fnanchor">[225]</a> The third mosque was built at Assode about 100
+years later than Tefis. The one at Agades followed after an
+interval of 40 years, 980 years ago, and is said to have been
+offered to the second Sultan of Agades as a present from the
+tribes. Chudeau adds to this information the additional detail that
+the minaret of the mosque of Assode, which, according to him, was
+1000 years old, fell four centuries ago, but as the débris has not
+been cleared away to this day, the accuracy of the statement seems
+doubtful. Both Chudeau’s and Jean’s dates are all too remote. Undue
+importance must not be attached to the round figures in which the
+Tuareg are prone to reckon their traditional history.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 31</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i31">
+<p class="cpm">MOSQUES.</p>
+<a href="images/i31.jpg"><img src='images/i31.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 32</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i32">
+<p class="cpm">MOSQUES.</p>
+<a href="images/i32.jpg"><img src='images/i32.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The etymology given by the Arabs to the word “tarki” or
+“tawarek,” even if not strictly accurate, indicates that the People
+of the Veil adopted the Faith of Islam long after the other
+inhabitants of North Africa. When they did so, they appear to have
+been lukewarm converts and to have retained many practices which
+the Prophet directed good Moslems to abhor. At Ghat, which was ever
+under their influence and where numbers of them have always lived,
+the tradition of their recent conversion may be found in the
+two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> parts of the
+town, known as the Quarter of Yes and the Quarter of No, from the
+people who accepted or refused Islam. At so late a period as when
+the Kel Owi arrived at the end of the seventeenth century
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> the Kel Ferwan whom they drove out of
+the Iferuan valley in Northern Air were still “heathen,” though we
+are not told what their religion was. A very early date for the
+mosques of Air is therefore inherently improbable even if the Kel
+Geres did found Tefis as the first permanent place of worship for
+the new Faith. Assuming that the Kel Geres came to Air in the
+eleventh or twelfth century, the foundation of T’intaghoda mosque
+some 400 years later is not improbable; and it is not wholly
+impossible to reconcile such a date with the implications involved
+in the story of the gift of the mosque of Agades to the second
+Sultan of Air, who, we believe, reigned half-way through the
+fifteenth century. I prefer to consider that the mosques as a whole
+are not very old. Their style of construction demonstrates them to
+be more recent than the “A type” houses, though admittedly this
+view might have to be altered in the event of excavations providing
+additional or contradictory evidence.</p>
+<p>Apart from the numerous places of prayer marked by a “Qibla” of
+a few stones laid on the surface of the ground or by a
+quadrilateral enclosure of small stones, I only came across one
+site which might have been a pre-Moslem place of worship adapted to
+the later Faith. In the upper part of the River of Agades, on the
+south shore below the cliffs, at the entrance of the gulf where the
+Akaraq valley joins it, there is a square enclosure marked by what
+looks like the remains of a wall of which only the foundations on
+the ground level survive. The walls may never at any time have been
+more than a few inches high; what remains is of stones set in mud
+cement. At each of the four corners of the square there was a large
+stone. The four sides, each of some 15 ft. long, were true and
+square and oriented on the cardinal points. The enclosure was
+obviously not that of a hut, nor like the ground-plan of any of the
+houses in Air. In the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_259">[259]</span> centre of the eastern side at a later
+period two standing stones had been set up. The stones were fossil
+trees, some other fragments of which were lying loose on the top of
+the neighbouring cliff. They had obviously been brought by human
+agency, as curious or interesting stones, from another place at no
+very remote period.<a id="FNanchor_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226"
+class="fnanchor">[226]</a> The two standing stones were about 2 ft.
+6 in. apart. They were intended to mark the east, but were quite
+clearly later additions to the place, for they were merely
+standing, and not built into, the foundation of the enclosure. They
+were not even symmetrical or exactly in the centre of the side. The
+enclosure may, I think, be regarded as a pre-Moslem place of
+worship and not merely as a dwelling-house, because the “Qibla”
+pillars of an Islamic place of prayer could as readily have been
+set up elsewhere, had there not been a deliberate design to convert
+a site from one religious use to another. Its form does not
+resemble that of any of the usual buildings of Air. In the vicinity
+was a group of graves, some of which were circular enclosures,
+while others, obviously more recent in date, were oblong and
+correctly oriented from the Moslem point of view.</p>
+<p>The graves and tombs of Air might well form the object of
+interesting archæological excavation. Many of them display an
+indubitably non-Moslem appearance. The most common type which
+continues throughout the period of Tuareg occupation in one form or
+another is a ring of stones set on edge around a raised area
+covered with small white pebbles. The grave is too low to be termed
+a tumulus or mound, it is convex or shaped like an inverted saucer,
+but the centre rises only a few inches above the surrounding
+ground. The ring of stones may be roughly circular, oval or
+elliptical. In the Moslem period the graves are definitely oblong,
+the major axis being directed north and south, in order that the
+body may be placed in the grave with the head turned towards the
+east. The older graves were the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_260">[260]</span> round, or elliptical enclosures, the latter
+with no fixed orientation; the earlier they are the more nearly
+circular they seem to be. This is especially noticeable in the case
+of the graves near, and probably contemporary with, the “A type”
+houses at Tabello. A large central circular grave is often
+surrounded by smaller oval ones lying in any direction, clustering
+about a more important burial.</p>
+<p>The later Moslem graves are smaller, but the practice of
+covering the surface with white pebbles or chips of quartz
+continues. The shape becomes narrower, less circular and more
+inclined to turn into a rectangle. The appearance of head-stones or
+head and feet stones, which the Arabs call “The Witnesses,”
+coincides with correct Moslem orientation, but even in modern times
+it is rare to find any inscription. The few I saw were rough
+scratchings in Arabic script and sometimes, in T’ifinagh, of some
+simple name like “Muhammad” or “Ahmed.” I only saw one instance, at
+Afis, of an inscription of any length; it recorded the interment of
+a notable sheikh, and was scored with a pointed tool on a potsherd.
+Neither in the houses nor in the graves of Air is there any
+evidence of the Tuareg having attempted to cut stone. Even the
+petroglyphs are hammered and scratched but not chiselled.</p>
+<p>A great deal has been written about the funerary monuments of
+North Africa known as the “argem.”<a id="FNanchor_227"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> They are found in many
+parts of the Northern Sahara, in the Ahnet mountains and the Adghar
+n’Ifoghas, and in the Nigerian Sudan, but not in Tuat. They have
+been reported in the Azger Tassili, at In Azawa on the north road
+from Air and at several points in Air. Bates reports them in the
+Gulf of Bomba and in the Nubian cemeteries of Upper Egypt.<a id=
+"FNanchor_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228" class=
+"fnanchor">[228]</a></p>
+<p>They are enclosures of piled stones varying in shape from round
+to square, but generally the former; or they take the form of
+tumuli containing a cist or tomb. In certain cases the graves are
+described as surrounded by concentric circles<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_261">[261]</span> of stones. The distribution of these
+“argem” recalls immediately the geographical situation of the
+Tuareg. It would be easy to assume that their existence was due to
+this people, were it not for the difficulty that the monuments all
+appear quite late in date. To quote Gautier<a id=
+"FNanchor_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229" class=
+"fnanchor">[229]</a>: “En résumé la question des monuments
+rupestres du Sahara, funéraires et religieux, semble élucidée, au
+moins dans ses grandes lignes. Le problème d’ailleurs, tel qu’il se
+pose actuellement, et sous réserve de découvertes ultérieures, est
+remarquablement simple. En autres pays, en particulier dans les
+provinces voisines d’Algérie et du Soudan, le passé préhistorique
+se présente sous des aspects multiples. En Algérie les redjems
+abondent, mais on trouve à côté d’eux des dolmens, quelques
+sépultures sous roche, pour rien dire des Puniques et Romaines. Au
+Soudan, comme on peut s’y attendre, en un pays où tant de races
+sont juxtaposées, le livre de M. Desplagnes énumère des tombeaux de
+types divers et multiples, poterie, grottes sépulcrales, cases
+funéraires, tumulus.<a id="FNanchor_230"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> Rien de pareil au
+Sahara. On distingue bien des types différents de redjem, les
+caveaux sous tumulus du nord qui sont peut-être influencés par les
+dolmens et sépultures romaines, les redjems à soutaches du Tassili
+des Azguers, les chouchets du Hogar qui semblent nous raconter
+l’itinéraire et l’expansion des nobles Touaregs actuels. . . .
+Parmi tant de pierres sahariennes entassées ou agencées par
+l’homme, on n’en connaît pas une seule qu’on peut soupçonner de
+l’avoir été par une autre main que Berbère.” But here the
+difficulty appears, for “ceci nous conduirait à conclure que les
+Berbères ont habité le Sahara dans toute l’étendue du passé
+historique et préhistorique si d’autre part tous ces redjems ne
+paraissaient récents. . . . Les mobiliers funéraires contiennent du
+fer, et on n’en connaît pas un seul qui soit purement et
+authentiquement néolithique. Cette énorme lacune est naturellement
+de nature à nous inspirer la plus grande prudence dans nos
+conclusions. D’autant plus<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_262">[262]</span> que, après tout, les monuments similaires
+algériens, dans l’état actuel de nos connaissances, ne paraissent
+pas plus anciens.”</p>
+<p>While the distribution of “argem” seems then to coincide with,
+and be due to the Tuareg, the “Berbères” to whom Gautier refers
+arrived in North Africa and spread into the interior before the
+advent of the metal ages. The last word has certainly not been said
+regarding the age of these monuments, and in spite of this
+difficulty of dates I have little hesitation in finding in them
+evidence of the individuality and racial detachment of the Tuareg
+stock from that of the other Libyans, who do not seem to have used
+this funerary apparatus. After all, the late neolithic and early
+metal ages in inner Libya were hardly separate from one another,
+and in the south, where we know the Tuareg are only fairly recent
+arrivals, the lateness of the “argem” is readily understandable.
+But if we believe them to be due to the Tuareg, the earliest
+remains in the north must be far older than Gautier supposes.</p>
+<p>Although certain remains of a presumed funerary or religious
+nature in Air have been described as “argem,” it has apparently
+escaped notice that both the pre-Moslem as well as the later graves
+of the country are all linear descendants of the older and more
+pretentious monuments. Yet if the term has any significance at all,
+there has been a tendency perhaps to describe rather too many
+enclosures as “argem.” Certain examples illustrated by Gautier are
+probably devoid of any spiritual significance. There are in Air,
+for instance, especially in the north of the country near Agwau, a
+number of groups of concentric stone circles, which were simply
+enclosures round temporary huts or tents. The old hut circles of
+the T’imia village (<a href="#i29a">Plate 29</a>) show clearly how
+an isolated example might be assumed to have been a prayer or
+religious enclosure. Again, the circular heaps of stones at Elazzas
+resemble the “argem” illustrated by Bates<a id=
+"FNanchor_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231" class=
+"fnanchor">[231]</a> so much that one might be tempted to conclude
+that they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> were
+such, if it did not happen to be known that they were the raised
+plinths on which huts used to be constructed. A deduction drawn
+from the occurrence of the latter might indicate that the origin of
+the true “argem” was derived from a desire to commemorate in death
+the only permanent part of a man’s hut dwelling in life. Such an
+explanation is not only permissible but even probable; it is even
+possible that in some cases tombs were actually made in the very
+floor of the hut or side of the pedestal where the deceased had
+lived.</p>
+<p>In the lower Turayet valley in Southern Air I passed a number of
+graves which seemed to suggest an intermediate type between the
+large prehistoric “rigm” and the later small enclosure of stones
+covered with white pebbles. The Turayet graves were small circular
+platforms like the hut foundations at Elazzas, but not more than 10
+ft. in diameter with vertical sides a few inches above the ground
+level and flat tops covered with white stones. The occurrence of
+these tombs on the Turayet valley, not far from the mouth of the
+Akaraq valley, where also is perhaps a pre-Moslem place of worship,
+and the existence of what may prove a pre-Moslem urn burial
+cemetery at Marandet, all of which places are in the extreme south
+of Air, are interesting points when it is remembered that the first
+Tuareg inhabitants of Air came to the country from the south. It
+may nevertheless be pure coincidence that there seemed to be fewer
+obviously ancient monuments in Northern Air than in the southern
+part.</p>
+<p>The absence of funerary inscriptions is in marked contrast with
+the profusion of rock writings in Air. Written literature is,
+however, almost non-existent, but traditional poetry takes its
+place. The esteem in which poetry is held and the popularity which
+it enjoys are proof of the intellectual capacity which is present
+in this people.</p>
+<p>When it is realised that, alone among the ancient people of
+North Africa, the Tuareg have kept an individual script, it seems
+extraordinary that drawing, painting and sculpture should have
+remained in so primitive a state. Even if we are to admit that the
+earliest and therefore the best of the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_264">[264]</span> rock drawings of North Africa are the work
+of the ancestors of the Tuareg, it is hardly possible to qualify
+them as more than interesting or curious. Few of them are
+beautiful. Some of the “Early Period”<a id=
+"FNanchor_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232" class=
+"fnanchor">[232]</a> drawings were executed with precision and
+care, but even if full allowance is made for the possibility of
+their having been coloured there are hardly any artistic
+achievements of merit. They do not bear comparison with the bushman
+drawings of South Africa, still less with the magnificent cave
+paintings of the Reindeer Age in Europe. But while some doubt
+exists regarding the authorship of the early drawings, the later
+North African pictures can be ascribed to the Tuareg without any
+fear of controversy. The Tuareg are still engaged in making them,
+but this modern work is even more crude. The drawings have become
+conventionalised; the symbols do not necessarily bear any likeness
+to the objects which they purport to represent.</p>
+<p>The rock drawings in Air display continuity from bad examples in
+the style of the early period down to the modern conventionalised
+glyphs. In most cases both the early and the late work is
+accompanied by T’ifinagh inscriptions. The earlier drawings
+represent animals which exist, or used to exist, in Air. The most
+carefully executed I saw were in the valley leading up from
+Agaragar to the pass into the Ighazar basin above Faodet. The place
+was near some watering-point, used by the northern Salt Caravan
+from Air to Bilma. The pictures were somewhat difficult to see as
+they had in part been covered by later drawings. The execution was
+rough, consisting of little more than an outline with a few
+markings on the bodies of some of the animals. As in the late
+petroglyphs there was no chiselling or cutting: the lines were made
+by hammering with a more or less suitable instrument and then by
+rubbing with a stone and sand. Among the animals thus represented,
+the giraffe and the ostrich in a wild state survive south of Air.
+An antelope<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> with
+sloping quarters and large lyre-shaped horns, the ox, the camel,
+the donkey, a horse, a large bird, and the human figure, both male
+and female, could also be traced. The large antelope I cannot
+identify for certain, but the large bird is probably the Greater
+Arab Bustard.</p>
+<p>In the later work the conventionalised symbols remain fairly
+constant. The ox is shown as a straight line with four vertical
+lines representing legs, a clear indication of the hump, and two
+short horns. The rectangular camel symbol had become so debased
+that for a long time I was at a loss to interpret it. The
+representations of the human figure are only curious inasmuch as
+they emphasise the long robe worn by the Tuareg and sometimes the
+cross bands over the breast, so typical of the Libyans in the
+Egyptian paintings. An interesting point in these rudimentary
+examples of the pictorial art is that even in the early period they
+portray a similar fauna and habit of life to those of to-day. A
+faint Egyptian influence may be detected in the human figures. I
+know of no drawings in Air to compare with the ones found by Barth
+at Telizzarhen, nor any which appeared to have a religious
+significance. The most interesting example is certainly that of the
+ox and cart referred to in the following chapter.</p>
+<p>The necessity of pictorial expression was evidently less felt
+than that of poetry, a condition to which nomadism has undoubtedly
+contributed. Yet even in ornament and draughtsmanship the Tuareg
+seem once to have reached a higher plane of civilisation in the
+past than that which they now possess and which their life has led
+them progressively to abandon.</p>
+<p>They have little knowledge of history outside their own tribal
+or group lore with the exception of that modicum of knowledge
+derived from a superficial study of the Quran. At the same time,
+men like Ahodu have heard and remembered stories of the past such
+as those of Kahena, Queen of the Aures, and of her fighting against
+the Arabs. Their knowledge of local geography is enormous, of the
+general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> form or
+shape of North Africa small. They know of the Mediterranean and
+their language has a word for the sea. They have heard of the Nile,
+of Egypt, of the Niger and of Lake Chad, but they have only very
+vague inklings of the existence of Arabia or of the whereabouts of
+Istambul, where the Defender of the Faith lived. They can draw
+rough maps of local features on the sand and understand perfectly
+the conception of European maps on a wider scale. When I showed
+them an atlas with a map of the world and laboriously explained
+that it was a flat representation of a spherical object, Ahodu and
+Sidi surprised me by saying that they knew that the world was
+round, and that if you went in by a hole you would eventually come
+out on the other side. Duveyrier and others have been surprised at
+the knowledge of European countries and politics which they have
+found in the Sahara. The communication of news between distant
+parts of Africa is highly developed and at times astounding.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 33</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i33">
+<p class="cpm">TIFINAGH ALPHABET</p>
+<a href="images/i33_large.jpg"><img src='images/i33.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>If only on account of their script the Tuareg have deserved more
+attention in this country than they have received. I have no
+intention at this juncture of examining either T’ifinagh or
+Temajegh in detail, as they require study in a volume dedicated to
+them alone; but, as an ancient non-Arabic script which has survived
+in Africa, I cannot refrain from a brief description of the former.
+T’ifinagh is an alphabetic and not a syllabic script, but owing to
+the abbreviations practised in writing and the absence of all
+vowels except an A which resembles the Hamza or Alif, it has come
+to resemble a sort of shorthand. It is usually necessary to know
+the general meaning of any writing before it can be read. The
+T’ifinagh alphabet consists of between thirty and forty symbols
+varying somewhat from place to place. Duveyrier<a id=
+"FNanchor_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233" class=
+"fnanchor">[233]</a> collected an alphabet of twenty-three letters
+used in the north: Hanoteau,<a id="FNanchor_234"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> who wrote the best
+grammar of Temajegh yet published, gives twenty-four letters:
+Masquerey<a id="FNanchor_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235" class=
+"fnanchor">[235]</a> gives twenty-three letters for the Taitoq
+dialect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span> and script:
+Freeman found twenty-five in the Ghadamsi Tuareg dialects. In
+addition to these letter symbols there are about twelve ligatures
+of two or sometimes three letters. All these signs are used in Air,
+but there are also certain additional symbols which may be
+alternative forms. Of the twenty-three to twenty-five letters in
+T’ifinagh, some ten only have been derived from the classical
+Libyan script as exemplified by the bilingual Thugga inscription
+now in the British Museum. Of these ten letters perhaps five have
+Punic parallels, while for the thirty known Libyan letters six
+Phœnician parallels have been found. It has hitherto been
+assumed<a id="FNanchor_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236" class=
+"fnanchor">[236]</a> that the T’ifinagh alphabet was descended from
+the Libyan, which, it may be noted, has not yet been found in any
+inscription proved to be earlier than the fourth century
+<span class="sc2">B.C.</span> Many theories have been advanced for
+the origin of the Libyan script, but Halévy is usually accepted as
+the most reliable authority on the subject. He supposed that the
+Libyan alphabet was derived from the Phœnician with the addition of
+certain non-Semitic symbols current nearly all over the
+Mediterranean. If this were universally admitted as the correct
+view it would still not be possible to explain why the T’ifinagh
+alphabet contains so many symbols which are not common to either
+the Libyan or Punic systems. On evidence which cannot here be
+examined in detail, it seems easier to believe that the ancestors
+of the Tuareg brought to Africa, or copied from a people with whom
+they had been in contact before reaching the Sahara, an alphabet
+replenished by borrowing certain symbols from a Libyan system
+partly founded on the Phœnician one. A consideration of this
+problem, like the one which concerns the Temajegh language itself,
+must be left to experts to resolve. As much false analogy and loose
+reasoning have been used on this question as on the subject of the
+origin of the Libyan races. One thing only seems to me to stand
+out, namely, that the T’ifinagh alphabet and Temajegh language were
+not evolved in Africa but came from without, probably<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span> from the east or north-east,
+into the continent, where they developed independently. To
+postulate an Arabian origin, for instance, for T’ifinagh and
+Temajegh could not be construed as evidence in support of any
+theory regarding the origin of the Tuareg themselves. Linguistic
+evidence is notoriously unreliable from the anthropological point
+of view, since more often than not it only indicates some cultural
+contact. The most interesting aspect of the linguistic question is
+the evidence which it may afford regarding the cultural development
+of the older Tuareg. In their present stage of development there is
+no reason for them to have retained, still less for them to have
+evolved by themselves, any form of script. Their mode of life does
+not necessitate the use of writing: they are for the most part
+illiterate or are in process of becoming so. To have had and in so
+far as they still use T’ifinagh, to have retained an individual
+script, is to my mind the most powerful evidence in favour of the
+conclusion to which I have already on several occasions referred,
+namely, their far higher degree of civilisation in the past.</p>
+<p>In Air, T’ifinagh is dying out. One tribal group is famous for
+having retained it in current use more than any other section of
+the Southern Tuareg. The Ifadeyen men and women still read and
+write Temajegh correctly if somewhat laboriously. They use it for
+sending messages to each other or for putting up notices on trees
+or rocks, saying how one or other of them visited the place. Among
+most of the other tribes a knowledge of T’ifinagh is confined to
+the older women and a few men. The younger generation can neither
+read nor write either in T’ifinagh or in Arabic: the scribes and
+holy men usually only write in Arabic script. In the olden days all
+the Tuareg women knew how to write and it was part of their duties
+to teach the children.</p>
+<p>The rocks of Air are covered with inscriptions which have
+neither been recorded nor translated. Owing to the changing
+linguistic forms of Temajegh and the absence of any very fixed
+rules for writing it, it is difficult to decipher any
+but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span> the modern
+writings. Words are not separated, vowels are not written, and
+where one word ends with the same consonant with which the
+following one begins, a single symbol is usually written for the
+two.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 34</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw1">
+<figure id="i34"><a href="images/i34.jpg"><img src='images/i34.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN TIFINAGH</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>T’ifinagh script may be written from left to right or from right
+to left, or up and down or down and up, or in a spiral or in the
+boustrophedon manner. The European authors who have written of
+Temajegh have variously reproduced T’ifinagh running from right to
+left and from left to right, but the two best authorities, Hanoteau
+and de Foucauld,<a id="FNanchor_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237"
+class="fnanchor">[237]</a> have adopted the former direction. It
+ill becomes me to differ from such learned authorities, but the
+existence of certain inscriptions in Air leads me to believe that
+the left to right manner was, there at least, perhaps the most
+usual system. On <a href="#i40">Plate 40</a> is reproduced an
+<em>Arabic</em> inscription written by a Tuareg in Arabic
+characters running in the wrong direction, namely, from left to
+right, nor do I think the writer would have made this mistake
+unless he had been accustomed so to write in the only other script
+of which he could have had any knowledge, namely, T’ifinagh. The
+inscription, of course, records the common “La illa ilallah
+Muhammed rasul Allah.” I came across two or three other instances
+of the same sort.</p>
+<p>The T’ifinagh inscriptions in Air, like the pictures with which
+they are so often associated, belong to all periods. Some of them
+certainly date back to the first Tuareg invasion.</p>
+<p>There is a tradition that the Quran was translated into Temajegh
+and written out in T’ifinagh, a most improper proceeding from the
+Moslem point of view. But no European has seen this interesting
+book, which is said to have been destroyed. It may possibly have
+survived in some place, for Ahodu told me he had once seen a book
+in Air written in T’ifinagh, though all the documents which I found
+in the mosques were in Arabic calligraphy. Until a “Corpus” of
+T’ifinagh inscriptions has been compiled it will be very difficult
+to make much progress.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>Such a
+collection would assist in the study of Temajegh itself, for the
+language is in a somewhat fluid state, tending to vary
+dialectically from place to place and period to period. It is one
+of the languages termed “Berber,” the only connection in which I am
+prepared to admit the use of this word. By many it is considered
+the purest of the Berber forms of speech. Although related to such
+dialects as Siwi and Ghadamsi, and to western forms like Shillugh
+or the Atlas languages, Temajegh is distinct; it was not derived
+from them but developed independently, and probably preserved more
+of the original characteristics.</p>
+<p>The relationship of the original tongue to the Semitic groups of
+languages has not yet been defined. The two linguistic families
+have certain direct analogies, including the formation of words
+from triliteral verbal roots, verbal inflections, derived verbal
+formations, the genders of the second and third persons, the
+pronominal suffixes and the aoristic style of tense. Nevertheless
+there are also certain very notable differences, like the absence
+of any trace of more than two genders, the absence of the dual
+form, and verbs of two or three or four radicals with primary forms
+in the aorist and imperative only. Berber does not appear to be a
+Semitic language. But the two are probably derived from a common
+ancestor.</p>
+<p>The Air and Ahaggar dialects of Temajegh differ somewhat from
+each other. They are mutually quite intelligible, and so far as I
+could judge not more diverse than English and American. Barth
+stated that, unlike the rest of the Air Tuareg, the Kel Owi spoke
+the Auraghiye dialect, which is the name often given to the Ahaggar
+language. The name is, of course, derived from the Auriga or Hawara
+ethnic group, which, as we shall see, is the name of the parent
+stock of most of the Ahaggaren tribes. I have it on the best
+authority, however, of Ahodu, ’Umbellu and Sidi, that the Kel Owi
+language does not differ materially from the dialect of the rest of
+Air and am therefore at a loss to be able to explain Barth’s
+statement.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>The absence of
+the Arabic ع (<em>’ain</em>) in Temajegh necessitates its
+transcription by the letter غ (<em>ghen</em>) which is so
+characteristic of Berber. In all words, therefore, adopted from the
+Arabic, and especially in proper names like ’Osman, ’Abdallah,
+’Abdeddin, etc., the forms Ghosman, Ghibdillah, Ghabidin are used.
+The Temajegh letter (<em>yegh</em>) ⵗ or <em>ghen</em> is common
+and so strongly <em>grasseyé</em> that it becomes very similar to
+an R. The difficulty of transcription of the T’ifinagh into
+European languages is therefore very considerable,<a id=
+"FNanchor_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238" class=
+"fnanchor">[238]</a> for the R and Gh sounds are very confusing. In
+some T’ifinagh inscriptions the Arabic letter ع is frankly used
+when Arabic words occur.</p>
+<p>The great feature of the Temajegh language and of the Tuareg is
+the diffusion of poetry. It is unfortunately impossible to give any
+examples in this volume, but the collections made by Duveyrier,
+Hanoteau, Masquerey, Haardt,<a id="FNanchor_239"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> and de Foucauld<a id=
+"FNanchor_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240" class=
+"fnanchor">[240]</a> show the natural beauty and simplicity of this
+art among the People of the Veil. Their prosody is not strict, but
+nevertheless displays certain formality. Iambic verses of nine, ten
+and eleven syllables are the most usual forms of scansion, with a
+regular cæsura and rhymed or assonated terminations. In the matter
+of rhymes there is considerable freedom: the use of similarly
+sounding words is allowed. Terminations like “pen,” “mountain” and
+“waiting” would, for instance, all be permissible as rhymes. Poetry
+is sung, chanted or recited with or without music. The themes cover
+the whole field of humanity, from songs of love or thanksgiving to
+long ballads of war and travel. The Tuareg are in some measure all
+poets, but the women are most famous among them. They make verses
+impromptu or recite the traditional poems of their race which are
+so old that their origin has been forgotten. One hears of women
+famous throughout the Sahara as the greatest poets of their
+time.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>Their way of
+life is attractive. These famous ladies hold what is called a
+“diffa,” which is a reception or “salon.” In the evening in front
+of their fires under an African night they play their one-stringed
+“amzad” or mandoline and recite their verses. Men from all over the
+country come to listen or take part. They seem to live and love and
+think in much the same manner as in Europe those of us do who
+retain our natural feelings. Only perhaps there are fewer
+<em>grandes dames</em> in Europe now than in the Sahara.</p>
+<p>Poetry, music and dancing are all to a great extent branches of
+a single art in so far as they all depend on rhythm and seek to
+express the emotions. In Air the syncopated music of the negro has
+had more influence than in the north, so the “amzad” is less
+common. Their other instruments are drums, but the lilt of their
+dance is rather different from that of the south. Their improvised
+drums are most ingenious. There is the hemispherical calabash
+floating in a bowl of milk, the note of which varies according to
+the depth to which the gourd is sunk, and the millet mortar with a
+wet skin stretched over the mouth by two parallel poles weighed
+down with large stones lying across their ends. The other various
+drums of the Southland are also known and used by those who can
+afford them. The dances of the Tuareg men are done to a quick step
+on a syncopated beat. The most effective one is a sword dance by a
+single man running up to the drum and executing a series of rapid
+steps, with the sword held by both hands at arms’ length above the
+head. I have never seen any women dancing among the Air Tuareg and
+it is said not to be their practice. This may be so, for even among
+the men dancing is relatively uncommon and has probably been
+borrowed from the south. It seems hardly to be consistent with
+their grave and dignified demeanour, of which poetry is the more
+natural counterpart.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc08">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class=
+"label">[216]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 82 and
+176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class=
+"label">[217]</span></a>Called Assingerma on the Cortier map.
+Teghazar is the diminutive of Ighazar, and means a small river or
+torrent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class=
+"label">[218]</span></a>Also spelt Reshwa. Von Bary calls the cone
+Teginjir, which is inaccurate.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class=
+"label">[219]</span></a>Which is also called Tellia, as Barth
+refers to it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class=
+"label">[220]</span></a>Richardson, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. II. p.
+71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class=
+"label">[221]</span></a>Naturally many more of the “B” houses than
+of the “A” class still have the roof on them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class=
+"label">[222]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class=
+"label">[223]</span></a>The evidence for these movements is in
+<a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class=
+"label">[224]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class=
+"label">[225]</span></a>Jean throughout regards the Kel Owi as very
+ancient inhabitants of Air, but if due allowance is made for (as I
+think) this error and his traditions are not taken to refer to an
+earlier period than the one with which this group is associated,
+they are still valuable, from the comparative point of view.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class=
+"label">[226]</span></a>Fossil trees exist in the sandstone hills
+of Eghalgawen and T’in Wana, a few miles away.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class=
+"label">[227]</span></a>Or “rigm” or “rigem” in the singular.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class=
+"label">[228]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, App. I.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class=
+"label">[229]</span></a>Gautier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class=
+"label">[230]</span></a>Desplagnes: <em>Le plateau Central
+Nigérien</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class=
+"label">[231]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, App. I., Figs.
+90, 93 and 94.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class=
+"label">[232]</span></a>According to the classification of Pomel
+and Flamand. Cf. Frobenius: <em>Hadshra Maktuba</em>, and Flamand,
+<em>Les Pierres Ecrites</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233"><span class=
+"label">[233]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234"><span class=
+"label">[234]</span></a>Hanoteau, <em>Grammaire de la Langue
+Tamachek</em>, Algiers, 1896.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235"><span class=
+"label">[235]</span></a>Masquerey, <em>Dictionnaire et Grammaire
+Touaregs</em> (Dialect des Taitoq).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236"><span class=
+"label">[236]</span></a>As, for instance, by Bates, <em>op.
+cit.</em>, p. 88, following Halévy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237"><span class=
+"label">[237]</span></a>De Foucauld, <em>Dictionnaire
+Touareg-Français</em>, 2 Vols., Alger.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238"><span class=
+"label">[238]</span></a>Hence the difficulty surrounding the
+writing of Ghat, or Rat or Rhat. I have used “gh” through this
+volume, but the French usually use “r.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239"><span class=
+"label">[239]</span></a>See especially MM. Haardt and Dubreuil’s
+account of the Citroën Motor Expedition across the Sahara.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240"><span class=
+"label">[240]</span></a>In R. Bazin’s life of Père de Foucauld.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span><a id=
+"c09"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<p class="sch">RELIGION AND BELIEFS</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Nominally</span> at least all the Tuareg of Air
+are now Moslems with the possible exception of some of the Imghad
+of the Ikazkazan, who were described to me as Kufara (heathens).
+Nevertheless, even to-day the Tuareg are not good Moslems, and
+though, as a general rule, they say their prayers with regularity,
+they are remiss in such matters as ablutions. These they never
+perform except with sand or dust, which the Prophet enjoined were
+only to be resorted to on journeys or where water was scarce.</p>
+<p>As was explained at the beginning of this volume, the word
+“Tuareg” is not used by the people themselves. It is used in the
+first place by the Arabs, in a somewhat derogatory sense. Barth
+makes no doubt about the etymology of the word Tuareg, or, as he
+spells it, Tawarek. “. . . if the reader inquires who gave them the
+other name (<em>i.e.</em> Tuareg), I answer in full confidence, the
+Arabs; and the reason why they called them so was probably from
+their having left or abandoned their religion, from the word
+<span class="ar">ترك</span> (as in), ‘tereku dinihum’; for from
+other evidence which I have collected elsewhere it seems clear that
+a great part of the Berbers of the desert were once Christians . .
+. and that they afterwards changed their religion. . . .”<a id=
+"FNanchor_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241" class=
+"fnanchor">[241]</a> The name is written either with a ك or a ق,
+but according to the learned traveller more often with the former
+letter. The form “Terga” or “Targa” would, however, if the word is
+identical radically with “Tuareg,” point to ق being correct in a
+country<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> where this
+letter so often becomes a hard ج in the local Arabic. The singular
+form of “Tuareg” is “Tarki” or “Tarqi,” with both forms of plural,
+<span class="ar">توارك</span> and <span class="ar">تاركيون</span>.
+Duveyrier<a id="FNanchor_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242" class=
+"fnanchor">[242]</a> and nearly all other authorities agree in
+accepting this etymology, though some have suggested that it meant
+“The People of the Sand.”<a id="FNanchor_243"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> Others add, as an
+alternative explanation for the <span class="ar">ترك</span>
+derivation, that it was not so much Christianity from which they
+fell away but Islam after their conversion, and in support of this
+their laxity in ritual is quoted. Duveyrier says that they were the
+“Abandoned of God” on account of the delay in their conversion to
+Islam and the numerous apostasies which occurred, or else because
+of their evil and violent habits of life. There is no doubt of the
+reproach attaching to the word, but the etymology is
+unsatisfactory. In its original usage it seems to have referred
+rather to a section of the Muleththemin than to the whole
+race<a id="FNanchor_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244" class=
+"fnanchor">[244]</a>: if this observation is correct the religious
+flavour attaching to the word is misleading, and it becomes simply
+a proper name belonging to a section analogous to that of the
+Sanhaja and Hawara.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg of Air observe the usual religious feasts, but their
+fasting during Ramadhan, which they call Salla Shawal, like their
+ablutions, is usually excused on the grounds that they are
+travelling. On the first day of Ramadhan it is customary to visit
+the graves of ancestors and friends. The feast of Salla Laja or
+Laya is held on the tenth day of the moon of Zu’lhajja;<a id=
+"FNanchor_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245" class=
+"fnanchor">[245]</a> it is known in Turkey and Egypt as Bairam. On
+this occasion sheep are slaughtered and the people feast for three
+days. The feast of Bianu on the 20th of Muharrem is a sort of
+Saturnalia, and very similar to certain festivities described as
+occurring in Ashanti. The<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_275">[275]</span> feast lasts for a day and a half and is
+marked by scenes of joy and happiness, for it commemorates God’s
+forgiveness of humanity after the Flood. There is much dancing and
+love-making and laughter, and the old people, the children and the
+unmarried persons of the villages and camps are sent out of the
+settlements while the revelries are in progress. The feasts of the
+Birthday of the Prophet and of the Beginning of the Year are also
+celebrated. It is customary when a journey is successfully
+completed to give a sheep to be sacrificed for the poor, and when
+there is much sickness among men or camels the same habit obtains.
+When three of our camels had died in rapid succession at Auderas we
+were urged to make sacrifice, and did so with three sheep.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 35</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i35"><a href="images/i35.jpg"><img src='images/i35.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">MT. ABATTUL AND VILLAGE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I regret that I was never sufficiently fluent in Temajegh to
+learn much of the superstitions of the Tuareg of Air. Such
+information can only be obtained after prolonged residence among a
+people, and superficial conclusions are worse than useless. There
+is no doubt that underlying all their Islamic practices they hold
+fundamental beliefs dating from their earlier religious practices,
+regarding which only very few indications are available. The
+existence of certain apparently Christian survivals led Duveyrier
+and other authorities to assert that the Tuareg were Christians
+before they were converted to Islam, and I am prepared to accept
+this view in spite of the denials which have been expressed by so
+eminent a writer as Bates. De Foucauld, I understand, was also
+doubtful of their having been Christians, for among the earlier
+beliefs which he found to be retained by the Tuareg of Ahaggar he
+detected the remains of a polytheistic rather than a monotheistic
+system. Bates has laboriously collected all the references to
+religious beliefs among the Eastern Libyans, and any reader
+interested in the subject cannot do better than refer to his work,
+for even as far as Air is concerned I can add nothing
+thereto.<a id="FNanchor_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246" class=
+"fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+<p>There are certain incontrovertible facts which demonstrate the
+influence, at least, of Christianity among the People
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span> the Veil. Much
+has been written of their use of the cross in ornament, nor can its
+so frequent occurrence be entirely fortuitous. I am aware that the
+cross is a simple and effective form of decoration which any
+primitive people is likely, unless formally prohibited, to have
+used; but I find it hard to believe that the Tuareg, who, after
+all, are not so very primitive in their culture, however much of it
+they may have lost, had no other inducement than a lack of
+imagination to drag in at every turn this symbol which their
+religion expressly forbids them to use. Their cross-hilted sword,
+which has been likened to a Crusader’s, may be a chance example of
+the use of a design which is as convenient as it is simple, but the
+tenacity with which they cling to the form, and only to this form,
+is none the less curious. The cross in T’ifinagh script for the
+letter “Iet” (T) is doubtless a pure accident occasioned by the
+rectilinear character of the alphabet. But in that case the absence
+of the equally convenient diagonal or St. Andrew’s cross is
+strange. In other instances the appearance of the cross can be even
+less lightly dismissed. The traditional form of ornamentation on
+the Tuareg shield is purely and simply the Latin cross rising out
+of what in design, apparently, is a traditional representation of
+glory or light, depicted as a radiating mass. Bates argues that the
+occurrence of a drawing of a shield with a cruciform design thereon
+upon a rock in Tibesti is an argument against the view which I have
+adopted, and that the use of this symbol is probably due to a
+former practice of sun worship which he finds widespread in Libya.
+But when it is realised how much the Tuareg of Air, to consider
+only one group, raided in that direction, and how natural it would
+be for them to commemorate a success by drawing their shield and
+cross, which they regard as characteristic of themselves, on a
+rock, his explanation seems rather lame. In the curved top of the
+iron camel head-piece of Air I am inclined to see another survival
+of the cross, such as also is probably the square top of their
+spoons. The pommel of their camel saddle, a design which is always
+strictly maintained, is another<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_277">[277]</span> convincing example, especially if the whole
+equipment is compared with the Tebu sort. In construction the
+Tuareg and Tebu saddles are very similar, though the cantle of the
+latter is generally low. The pommel of the Tebu saddle takes the
+form of a short upright member without any crosspiece or cruciform
+tendency; it rarely rises much above the level of the rider’s legs.
+It may be said, on the contrary, that the cross pommel of the
+Tuareg saddle is the most prominent part of their whole gear. It is
+of no practical value whatsoever, for the grip of the rider’s legs
+never reaches as high as the projecting arms of the cross-top, and
+it is extremely inconvenient for rapid mounting or dismounting in
+their flowing robes. The cross is also extensively used in
+ornamenting the leather-work of the saddle, and it plays a
+considerable part in the traditional metal-work of the more
+expensive quality.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 36</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i36">
+<p class="cpm">ORNAMENT.</p>
+<a href="images/i36.jpg"><img src='images/i36.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<ul class="cplist2">
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>1. “Agades Cross,”
+ornate form.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>2, 3 and 4. “Agades
+Crosses,” debased forms from Damergu.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>5. Necklaces.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>6. Bridle Stand.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>7. Ornamental strip
+around door at Agades made of tin plate.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>8. Finial to border on
+riding saddles.</li>
+<li><span class="word-spaced03">&nbsp;</span>9. Wooden spoon.</li>
+<li>10. Iron head-piece of camel-bridle.</li>
+</ul>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In the course of my wanderings I saw two examples of sticks
+which are planted in the ground when camp is pitched; they have a
+crook on one side and are surmounted by a small cross of the same
+shape as the one on the camel saddle. On these sticks are hung the
+bridles and ropes when the camels are unsaddled. They are planted
+outside a man’s tent, and sometimes indicate his high position or
+prosperity.</p>
+<p>At Agades I saw a house door ornamented with a border of tin
+plate in which was cut the cross and ball design shown in <a href=
+"#i36">Plate 36.</a> A similar example of the cross in design is in
+the characteristic Agades cross which will be described later.</p>
+<p>In addition to this evidence of the use of the cross, certain
+words in Temajegh seem to be so closely associated with
+Christianity as to require more explanation than the suggestion
+that they were borrowed from the north in the course of contact
+with the Romans or other Mediterranean influence. The commonest of
+these words are given in the following list:<a id=
+"FNanchor_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247" class=
+"fnanchor">[247]</a></p>
+<table class="tless tabw50" id="t278">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_278">[278]</span><em>Word in Temajegh.</em></th>
+<th><em>Meaning.</em></th>
+<th><em>Suggested derivation.</em></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Mesi”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">God.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Messiah.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2">With “Mesina,” “Mesinak.”</td>
+<td rowspan="2">⎰<br>
+⎱</td>
+<td>My God,</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Thy God.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Amanai.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">God.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Adonai (suggested by Duveyrier).<a id=
+"FNanchor_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248" class=
+"fnanchor">[248]</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Amerkid.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Religious merit.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">From the Latin: merces, mercedis.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Abekkad.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sin.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> peccatum.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Tafaski.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Feast day.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Pasca, or from some later form
+of the word meaning Easter.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Andjelous,” or “Angelous.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Angel.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">From the Latin: Angelus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“Aghora,” or “Arora.”</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Dawn.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> <span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Aurora.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In Air, God is referred to either as Mesi or as Ialla, which, of
+course, comes from Allah. But there seems to be a slight difference
+in the use of the two words, for when Ahodu and others talked of
+praying they spoke of Ialla, but when he said to me that they were
+aware there was only one God, who was mine as well as theirs, Mesi
+was used.</p>
+<p>The cumulative effect of all this evidence is to my thinking too
+great for Bates’ view that the occurrence of the cross among the
+Tuareg is merely due to the survival of certain practices connected
+with the worship of the sun.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg believe in Heaven and in Hell and in the Devil, but
+the latter seems to be a somewhat vague personage in their cosmos.
+Much more present are the good and evil spirits with which their
+world, as that of all Moslems, is peopled. Belief in these spirits
+among the Tuareg, however, is probably older than Islam, for they
+also assert the existence of angels who are indistinguishable from
+those of various Christian Faiths. Unfortunately the angels are
+less active in Air than the many other sorts of spirits who haunt
+the country. Among the latter are the Jinns or Elijinen,<a id=
+"FNanchor_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249" class=
+"fnanchor">[249]</a> as they call them, which are ghosts living in
+certain places or the spirits which attack people and send them
+mad. Certain country-sides are known to be haunted by the sounds of
+drumming, and curious things happen to people who visit<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span> these parts after dark. The
+spirits have to be fed, and bowls of porridge and water are left
+out for them at night; they are invariably found empty next
+morning. Occasionally the spirits make merry: then they can be
+heard to play the drum and dance and sing. Elijinen speak Temajegh
+and sometimes Arabic: people have spoken with them. The spirits are
+rarely harmful, though they occasionally play practical jokes like
+deceiving travellers or frightening sheep or goats. From time to
+time, however, they do torture unfortunate people who displease
+them.</p>
+<p>The most powerful spirits in Air are identified with the
+mountains just north of Iferuan, called Ihrsan, opposite which are
+the mountains of Adesnu. In the olden time they fought against one
+another, the one armed with a spear and the other with a sword. In
+the equal combat Adesnu was transfixed and remains split to this
+day, while the crest of Ihrsan was battered with the sword and
+retains a serrated poll. They do not fight any more, but they often
+talk to one another. Aggata in Central Air is also the home of a
+spirit population, and so is Tebehic in the south.</p>
+<p>Spirits are part of the every-day life of the universe. No one
+doubts their existence. They may be found anywhere, even in the
+open desert, where their drums are often heard. Evidence of such
+noises is so circumstantial; although I have never experienced them
+myself, I cannot fail to believe that they are heard. Some physical
+explanation on the lines suggested by the late Lord Curzon in an
+essay must certainly be accepted.<a id="FNanchor_250"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p>
+<p>The spirits which obsess men and women are more serious. I was
+able to observe a case at Auderas, where Atagoom’s sister became
+possessed—an affliction to which she had been liable for a long
+time at irregular intervals. Her fits lasted from one to seven
+days. She used to lie crouched and huddled all day, sometimes in
+uncomfortable postures, but not apparently suffering from muscular
+contraction or fits or spasms. At night she used to wander about
+oblivious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> of her
+surroundings, waking up the children or treading on the goats. Then
+she would seize a sword and wave it about, thinking she was a man
+and dancing like a man. It was said that if she could only get some
+sleep, the spirit would go away, so I provided a sleeping draught
+which her relations joyfully promised to administer. But they
+failed in their endeavours because the spirit, of course, knew what
+the medicine was and made the patient refuse to take it! The
+treatment for these possessions is both kind and sensible.
+Atagoom’s relations sat around her trying to attract her attention,
+calling on her by name, and saying familiar things to her. All the
+while they beat a drum to distract the spirit’s attention, and she
+was constantly called or given things to hold or shown a child whom
+she knew. As soon as the glassy stare leaves the patient’s eye, and
+the attention can be caught, even for a moment, a cure is certain.
+Persons afflicted in this way are usually women; it will happen to
+them at the time they first become aware of men, which is not
+necessarily when they first marry, but this rule also has many
+exceptions. Atagoom’s small brother, aged about twelve years, was
+shortly afterwards afflicted in the same way, but his access only
+lasted one day.</p>
+<p>The difficulty of exorcising spirits, at which the Holy Men of
+Ghat, for instance, are said to be very proficient, is, as Ali
+explained, that most of the people in Air who can read the Quran do
+not understand it sufficiently well to do any good. Of course it
+was useless, he added, to make charms unintelligently against the
+“jenun.” In Air there was only one man who is really proficient. El
+Mintaka, the scribe of Auderas, the man from Ghat, was said to know
+the method, but it was not his speciality and he had not been very
+successful.</p>
+<p>The consensus of opinion is that, unlike many of the spirits at
+Ghat, where they take the form of objects like pumpkins rolling
+down the road in front of people who happen to be walking about at
+night, those in Air do not assume visible shape. The spirit which
+attacks women, nevertheless, is<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_281">[281]</span> stated to have been seen by some people and
+to have the aspect of a dragon; it is called “Tanghot.” Ghosts,
+more especially the ones who live near tombs and deserted villages,
+are called “Allelthrap.”</p>
+<p>A famous legend in Air is that of the column of raiders which by
+the mercy of Allah was swallowed up suddenly as a result of the
+prayers of the Holy Man Bayazid. They were on the point of
+capturing Agades when the ground opened before them, and in proof
+thereof the Hole of Bayazid is shown to this day. The famous event
+lives on in memory because at that place the water, which we have
+already seen is naturally somewhat saline and foul in the immediate
+vicinity of the city, is said to have been poisoned by the corpses
+of the band. There is another story, too vague to record, of a
+legendary hero or religious leader called Awa whose tomb in the
+Talak area is an object of devotion. The rumour may repay
+investigation, for the tomb was mentioned to me in connection with
+the religious practices of the Air Tuareg before they became
+Moslems.</p>
+<p>Divination is resorted to by means of the Quran, and also by
+playing that curious game resembling draughts which is so
+widespread all over the world. In Air the game takes the form of a
+“board” of thirty-six holes<a id="FNanchor_251"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> marked in the sand. Each
+player has thirteen counters made of date stones, or bits of wood,
+or pebbles, or camel droppings. The object of the game is to
+surround a pawn belonging to one’s adversary, somewhat on the
+principle of “Noughts and Crosses.” The game is called “Alkarhat”
+and when a Holy Man presides, the winner of three successive games
+carries the alternative submitted for divine decision. Another form
+of divination is resorted to by women who desire to obtain news of
+their absent husbands or lovers; they sleep on certain well-known
+tombs, and thus are favoured with a vision of their desire. The
+women of Ghadames and of the Azger Tuareg do the same. The practice
+appears to be identical with that described by Herodotus as current
+among the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>
+Nasamonians. It is also reported by Mela of the people of
+Augila.<a id="FNanchor_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252" class=
+"fnanchor">[252]</a></p>
+<p>The consequence of these beliefs in spirits is that amulets are
+much in demand. They are especially in request to ward off the
+direct influence of particular evils, which are, of course, more
+especially potent when the local Holy Men have not been
+sufficiently regaled with presents. There is no man in Air who does
+not wear an amulet—usually a verse of the Quran in a leather
+envelope—somewhere on his person. The more modest may confine
+themselves to a little leather pouch tied in the white rag which is
+worn around the head to keep the veil in place. On the other hand,
+Atagoom, whose wealth permitted him the luxury, had little leather
+pouches sewn on to every part of his clothing in addition to some
+twenty-five strung on a cord round his neck. The manufacture of
+these amulets is the principal source of revenue to the Holy Men of
+Air. Besides verses written out on paper or skin other objects are
+also used. Lion claws are very efficacious, and in some cases
+fragments of bone of certain animals are good. I saw one bag
+containing the head of a hawk, and another filled with pieces of
+paper covered with magic squares. These leather amulet pouches are
+the principal ornament worn by men, with the exception of the
+“talhakim,” a most interesting object, the distribution of which in
+Africa still remains to be ascertained.</p>
+<p>The “talhakim” is an ornament shaped like a triangle surmounted
+by a ring with three little bosses on its circumference. The
+material used for making these objects is red agate or white
+soap-stone or turquoise blue glass. They are so prized in the
+Sahara and Sudan that cheaper varieties of red and white china or
+glass were made in Austria before the Great War for trade purposes.
+The stone “talhakim” are not made in Air. They come from the north.
+I have it on the authority of Ali that they are not made at Ghat or
+in the Fezzan either, I have, however, still to learn
+where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> they actually
+are made. The stone “talhakim” are beautifully cut and invariably
+of the same design. The upper part of the triangle is sometimes
+slightly thicker than the point, and in all cases is divided from
+the ring part by a ridge and one or two parallel lines with the
+addition, in some cases, of little indentations. I can neither find
+nor suggest any explanation of the significance of the design. It
+may be the prototype of the Agades cross, but I do not think it
+likely. The bosses on the ring are essential to the design, and
+somewhat similar, therefore, are agate rings which I used to see
+worn in the same way as ornaments strung on leather cords around
+the neck; they seemed too small to be worn on the finger. Most of
+them had on one side three little bosses analogous to those on the
+upper portion of the “talhakim.” These rings also came to Air from
+the north.</p>
+<p>The flat tablet or plate of stone or wood hung around the neck,
+which is so widespread throughout the East, occurs in Air, but is
+not common. The finest example I saw was worn by a man at Towar; it
+was made of white soap-stone without any inscription on either
+surface, but was very thin and finely cut.</p>
+<p>The women but not men wear necklaces of beads, or beads and
+small stone ornaments, resembling small “talhakim.” It has been
+suggested that these little objects were similar to those which are
+known, as far afield as Syria, to have been derived from stone
+arrow-heads conventionalised as trinkets after they had ceased to
+be used for weapons. In Air, however, I am convinced the necklace
+ornaments are intended as small “talhakim,” and I am loth to
+believe that the latter are conventionalised arrow-heads both on
+account of the difficulty presented by their large size and also on
+account of the essential upper ring portion, which points to a
+different origin. Circular bangles and bracelets with an opening
+between two knobs such as are worn in the north are affected by the
+Tuareg women; they are made of brass and copper and in some cases
+of silver. The workmanship of the latter, considering that they are
+made by the local blacksmith with<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_284">[284]</span> his ordinary tools, is remarkably good. On
+these bracelets the knobs are surprisingly accurate cubes with the
+eight corners hammered flat, forming a figure having six square and
+eight triangular facets.</p>
+<p>Of all the Air ornaments the so-called Agades cross is the most
+interesting. The lower part is shaped like the cross on the pommel
+of the camel saddle; its three points terminate in balls or cones.
+The fourth or upper arm of the cross fits on to a very large ring
+similar to that on the “talhakim,” and curiously enough also
+provided with three excrescences, though in this case all near one
+another at the top of the circle. An elaborate form worn by Ahodu’s
+wife had a pierced centre, but this was not generally a part of the
+design. A conventionalised form was seen among the Fulani and
+Kanuri of Damergu, where in one case the shape had been so lost
+that it had become a simple lozenge suspended from a small ring. In
+all the examples which I saw in Air the large ring of the ornament
+was obviously, as in the “talhakim,” an essential part of the
+whole; all the rings also had the three protuberances on the
+circumference. The cross is worn by men and women alike; it is
+referred to as the Ornament of the Nobles. They regard it as
+characteristic of themselves. The stone “talhakim” is worn in the
+Sudan, but the Agades cross is only known in Damergu, where it has
+been borrowed as a result of contact with the Tuareg, and in a
+debased form. In Air it seems as characteristic of the race as the
+face veil, and like the latter it is never put off, as are the
+amulet pouches and garments when heavy work necessitates
+stripping.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 37</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i37"><a href="images/i37.jpg"><img src='images/i37.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">ABOVE: FLAT SILVER ORNAMENTS, “TALHAKIM” OF RED
+STONE, BLUE AND WHITE PASTE, AND SILVER, SILVER HEAD ORNAMENT FOR
+WOMEN</p>
+<p class="cp3">BELOW: UNFINISHED AND FINISHED ARM RINGS, SILVER
+“AGADES CROSS,” RED STONE SIGNET RING</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The origin of both “talhakim” and cross must remain matters of
+conjecture. The former may or may not be, but the latter certainly
+is, peculiar to the People of the Veil; its occurrence is yet
+another example of the deep-rooted habit of mind which inculcates
+the use of the cross among the race. The ideal explanation, in view
+of the common characteristics of the ring and three excrescences
+thereon, would be that the “talhakim” and cross had an identical
+origin. But the cross suggests association with
+Christianity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span> while
+the large ring points rather to some derivation from the Egyptian
+Ankh: the latter in my own opinion is more probable.</p>
+<p>Two other adornments there are in Air, both restricted to men: a
+flat plaque and stone arm rings. The former is a flat rectangular
+piece of tin or silver, usually 2½ to 3 inches long by 1 inch
+broad, with some slight embossed design on the surface. It is often
+worn on the head, tied by two little thongs or threads to the band
+of stuff which is used to secure the veil around the forehead. The
+ornament may simply be a metal form of amulet pouch, but it
+certainly bears a striking resemblance to a fibula, which in the
+course of time for the sake of easier manufacture is turned out
+without a pin. The plaque is also worn on the shoulder, like
+certain classical brooches were on the Roman togæ, from which the
+white robes of North Africa are said to be descended.<a id=
+"FNanchor_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253" class=
+"fnanchor">[253]</a></p>
+<p>No man among the Tuareg will be seen who does not wear one or
+more arm rings, usually above the elbow and upon either or both
+arms. The rings are of two main types, a cylindrical ring some ¾ to
+1 inch deep by ⅛ to ¼ inch thick, and of the circumference of a
+man’s forearm, with two or three ridges on the outer surface, and a
+flat ring some ¼ inch thick, of the same inner circumference, and ¾
+to 1 inch broad. The second type is the most important and appears
+to be the traditional sort. Deep significance is to be attached to
+the custom of wearing these rings, and there are differences
+attributed to the numbers and position of the rings on the arms.
+But whilst I was well aware of the importance of these usages, I
+was unable to ascertain their precise interpretation. Only it is
+clear that boys do not wear the rings, that a ring is worn when the
+sword is girt on, that in the first place only one ring is worn,
+and that once a ring has been put on it is not again put off. The
+rings of all types should be made of stone. In Air a soft
+argillaceous stone of a greenish-grey hue found in the eastern
+hills is used. The rings are cut by hand without a lathe from a
+lump of stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> about
+one inch thick. The rough ring is smoothed and fined down with
+rasps and files and finally cleaned with sand and water. The
+traditional flat rings tend to taper from the inner to the outer
+circumference. When the cutting and shaping of the rings have been
+finished, they are dipped in fat and then baked, to give the
+slightly porous stone a deep black colour and a polished surface.
+The flat rings seem to be very important, for they are passed on
+from father to son. They are often mended with riveted brass plates
+if they happen to have been broken, and sometimes bear
+inscriptions, for the most part only names, in T’ifinagh. Of late,
+rings appear to have been made of a hard baked clay which is also
+dipped in fat, but they break too readily.</p>
+<p>Elaborate and fanciful explanations have been suggested for the
+practice, which has a sacred or at least mystic association. One
+author, who shall be nameless, has suggested that the rings were
+worn—and presumably he saw a Tuareg with many rings on both arms—to
+enable a man to crush his enemy’s skull when they closed in battle.
+I myself cannot offer any explanation worthy of much consideration.
+I must, however, note that such rings, especially when worn, as
+some always are, above the elbow, and also at the wrist, afford a
+valuable protection to the vulnerable arm muscles against
+sword-cuts. Nevertheless, if such was the reason for their first
+use they have become traditional with the lapse of time.</p>
+<p>The last of these matters to which I propose to allude is the
+use of the Veil, a practice which has certainly assumed a ritual
+form. No self-respecting Tuareg of noble or servile caste will
+allow himself to be seen even by his most intimate friends without
+a veil over his face. The habit has no analogy in the practice of
+the Arabian Arabs, who sometimes cover their faces with the ends of
+their head-cloths to protect the mouth and face against the sun and
+sand. This is a hygienic device<a id="FNanchor_254"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a>; the Tuareg veil is more
+mysterious.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> Not the
+least of the difficulties connected with the veil is, that it is
+not mentioned by classical authors in referring to people in North
+Africa who seem to be the ancestors of the present Tuareg and
+otherwise to correspond to descriptions of the latter. It is only
+with the advent of the Arabic writers that these same people are
+first referred to by the name of Muleththemin, the Veiled
+People.</p>
+<p>The veil or “Tagilmus” is a long strip of indigo cloth woven and
+dyed in the Sudan. The best quality is made of six narrow strips
+about one inch wide sewn together, edge to edge. The material and
+the open stitching leave plenty of room for the air to pass
+through, and even a considerable degree of transparency. The veil
+is put on in the following wise: about one-half of the length is
+folded over three times into a band only 2½ inches wide. The part
+where the full breadth begins is placed over the forehead low
+enough to cover the nose; the narrow band is to the right, the
+broad part to the left. The latter is then passed round the back of
+the head and looped up under the narrow part, which is wound around
+the head on top of the broad portion so as to hold the latter in
+place. The broad part over the nose is pulled up into a pleat along
+the forehead and forms the hood over the eyes, being called
+“temeder.” There remains a long loop of the dependent broad portion
+held by the narrow fastening band: it hangs loosely from over the
+right ear, behind which it is passed, over to the left ear, behind
+which the end is brought and passed, under the narrow fastening
+band running round the head. The lower part of the veil thus falls
+below the wearer’s chin in a loop, both ends being under the narrow
+band which holds them in place. The centre of the strip is taken
+and placed on the bridge of the nose, and all the slack is pulled
+in from the two points over the ears. The lower part of the veil,
+called “imawal,” should now hang from the bridge of the nose over
+the mouth and chin without touching them; the upper edge from the
+nose to the lobes of the ears ought to be nearly horizontal. Thus
+worn, the veil leaves a slit about ½ to 1 inch wide<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> in front of the eyes, which,
+with a small part of the nose, are all that one can ever see of a
+Tuareg’s face.</p>
+<p>In this veil the men live and sleep. They lift the “imawal” up
+to eat but in doing so hold their hand before the mouth. When the
+veil requires re-fixing, a man will disappear behind a bush to
+conceal his features even from his own family. These rigorous
+prescriptions are to some extent less strictly observed in the
+south among the younger generation, but they belong to the pride of
+race of the Tuareg. Even when the French induced some Tuareg to
+visit Paris, they declined to allow their photographs to be taken
+unveiled. They declared that they had no Moslem prejudices on the
+subject but firmly refused to entertain the idea.</p>
+<p>What is the explanation of this curious habit? Every unlikely
+theory has been advanced, from that of the desire of raiders to
+conceal their faces in order to escape recognition, to the one
+which suggests that the Tuareg were the Amazons of the classics,
+and that the habits adopted by men and women respectively in such a
+society had become confused. Of this order of hypotheses the
+simplest one is that which explains the veil as a purely hygienic
+accessory designed to protect the wearer against the blinding glare
+and the sand of the desert: from the first use of the veil for this
+purpose the habit gradually became so innate as to acquire a ritual
+significance.</p>
+<p>But none of these theories are really tenable: the Tuareg
+recognise each other, and foreigners can do the same in a short
+time, as easily in the veil as a man of another race without the
+veil. The Tuareg are not the Amazons of the classics, at least in
+the form in which popular beliefs have conceived the latter; nor is
+there, as a matter of fact, any reason to suppose that the Amazons,
+either male or female, veiled themselves. There is no logic in only
+the men veiling their faces and the women going unveiled if the
+veil were really intended for hygienic purposes; still less is any
+explanation of this nature reasonable for the use of the veil at
+night or in the rainy season. Yet almost all Tuareg,
+unless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> they have
+become denationalised, would as soon walk unveiled as an English
+man would walk down Bond Street with his trousers falling down. No
+other race in the world possesses this peculiar habit, though some
+among the population of the Fezzan and the Sudan in contact with
+them have adopted it. The habit is essentially characteristic of
+the Tuareg. It is as typical of them as the cross-hilted sword, the
+cross-pommelled saddle, the status of their women, and their
+T’ifinagh script.</p>
+<p>On attaining the age of puberty, Tuareg youths in Air put on the
+large trousers which all Moslems should wear, and soon afterwards
+they begin to carry a sword and wear an arm ring. The first event
+may take place when they reach sixteen or seventeen; the others,
+two or three years later. As soon as they have put on the dress of
+a man they are inscribed in the register of the Holy Man of their
+village or tribe and they commence their individual existence. The
+veil, however, is sometimes not donned until the mature age of
+twenty-five years; in no case is it worn until several years have
+elapsed after the sword is girt on. The ceremony of putting on the
+veil for the first time is accompanied by much rejoicing in the
+family and feasting and dancing.</p>
+<p>Two aspects of this habit strike one. In the first place the
+ceremonial significance to which I have already alluded is very
+apparent, and in the second place the comparatively late age at
+which the veil first begins to be worn is curious in an Eastern
+people, where physical development takes place early in life. A
+parallel may perhaps be noticed in the late date at which marriages
+take place in Air. I questioned Ahodu closely about these practices
+connected with the veil, but obtained no satisfactory information:
+he had nothing to say on the subject except that a man was not a
+proper man until he had put on the veil. And there, for the moment,
+one must leave the matter.</p>
+<p>The veil will be found wherever the Tuareg live, and only when
+the riddle of their origin is solved will an explanation probably
+be forthcoming. Equally obscure is the absence of any reference to
+the veil among them until the time of the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_290">[290]</span> Arab authors. But up to the present no
+reasonable theory has been advanced.</p>
+<p>Mention has been made on several occasions of the Holy Men of
+Air. As is natural among superstitious people, they have always
+been a powerful part of the community. In mitigation, it must be
+said that they have probably had a hard fight to keep the Tuareg in
+the way of Islam at all. Where Europeans have been concerned their
+influence has been uncompromisingly hostile. It was certainly the
+Inisilman, as they are called in Temajegh, of T’intaghoda who tried
+to have Barth and his companions killed on more than one occasion.
+The attack on the Foureau-Lamy Mission at Iferuan was also due to
+them. Their counsel to fall on the French expedition a second time
+would have prevailed at Agades had it not been for the advice of
+Ahodu and the common-sense of the Sultan, who replied to their
+promptings that if the attack failed he would have to face the
+consequences alone, while they, in the name of God and the Faith,
+saved their own skins.</p>
+<p>With an effete monarch and lazy Añastafidet at Agades, the most
+important men in Air to-day are Inisilman like Haj Musa of Agellal,
+Haj Saleh of the Kel Aggata at Agades, Agajida of the Kel Takrizat,
+’Umbellu of T’imia, and Abd el Rahman of the Ikazkazan. Their
+influence is not exerted through sectarian organisations nor has
+any “tariqa” like that of the Senussi taken root in Air. The Tuareg
+have repeatedly come under the influence of the Senussiya,
+especially during the late war, but in Air at least they never
+became affiliated to the sect. They have continued to regard its
+tenets as heretical and its policy as selfish.</p>
+<p>A certain number of the Air tribes such as the Igdalen, Kel
+Takrizat, Isherifan, etc., are reputed to be holy. The Igdalen are
+said not to carry or resort to arms, but use only pens and prayer.
+It is difficult to ascertain the exact nature of the distinction
+which they possess over other noble tribes, but the same
+differentiation is known among other sections of the People of the
+Veil. They cannot and do not claim<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_291">[291]</span> descent from the Prophet, nor are their
+lives any holier or in the main different from those of their
+fellows. The Kel T’intaghoda who are Inisilman are reputed even in
+Air to be great scoundrels. The Kel Takrizat are not less warlike
+than other tribes. Their <em>raison d’être</em> must be sought in
+the shadowy past to which all problems surrounding the early
+religion of the Tuareg are still relegated. On this subject too
+little information is at present available.</p>
+<p>The people of Air belong to the Maliki persuasion of Islam, as a
+result of the teaching of a great leader who came amongst them in
+the early sixteenth century. His name was Muhammad ben Abd el Kerim
+el Maghili, surnamed El Baghdadi, and he was the Apostle of Islam
+in the Central Sudan. El Maghili belonged to Tilemsan and was born
+either at that place or in Tuat, where he was brought up. He was a
+contemporary of El Soyuti (<span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+1445-1505), the Egyptian, whose encyclopædic works were destined to
+perpetuate Moslem learning of the fifteenth century. El Maghili was
+a man of bold and enterprising character. By his uncompromising
+fanaticism he stirred up massacres of the Jews in Tuat, which he
+eventually left in order to convert the Sudan. He preached in
+Katsina and in Kano, as well as in Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255" class=
+"fnanchor">[255]</a> “Living in the time when the great Songhai
+empire began to decline from that pitch of power which it had
+reached under the energetic sway of Sunni Ali and Muhammad el Haj
+Askia, and stung by the injustice of Askia Ismail, who refused to
+punish the murderers of his son, he (El Maghili) turned his eyes on
+the country where successful resistance had first been made against
+the all-absorbing power of the Asaki, and turned his steps towards
+Katsina.” On his way thither he passed through Air, where he
+preached and gave to those Tuareg who were already Moslems a way of
+salvation, and to the others the first beginnings of their present
+Faith. He founded a mosque at Abattul near Auderas, and one of his
+sons is said to have been buried there; the tomb at least is
+described as his. A short distance<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_292">[292]</span> away on the road north from Auderas he
+knelt to pray in the Erarar n’Dendemu at the point known as
+Taghist, and the place was marked by a roughly rectangular
+enclosure of stones with a semi-circular bay in the eastern side
+near a small tree marking the Qibla. Travellers always stay there
+to make their prayers by the road. The place is remembered and
+far-famed as the “Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” but others
+call it the “Msid Sidi el Baghdadi,” the name by which he is
+usually known in Air, where men who have lived long in the East
+often earn this surname. His stay in Air was not entirely
+peaceable, for he was eventually driven out by these lax Moslems on
+account of his uncompromising attitude. It is reported
+traditionally that he was attacked by a party of Aulimmiden in
+Western Air, but was not apparently killed, for thereafter he again
+preached in Katsina. He eventually heard that one of his sons had
+been murdered in Tuat, probably by the Jews, for motives of
+revenge, and he set out for the north once more, but died before
+reaching the end of his journey. It is probably to this period that
+the attack in the west on his person must be referred. His death
+occurred between <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1530 and 1540. El
+Maghili left behind him the greatest name of any religious teacher
+in Air and in the Central Sudan. Twenty volumes of his works on law
+and theology, in addition to a correspondence in verse and prose
+with El Soyuti,<a id="FNanchor_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256"
+class="fnanchor">[256]</a> have survived in various places.</p>
+<p>Near the “Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” which is only one
+of many similar prayer enclosures in Air, are some mounds of loose
+stones. On every important road such enclosures and mounds may be
+seen. The simplest form of praying-place is a semi-circular line of
+stones; the larger places have a rectangular plan like the mosques.
+Whenever a standing camp is set up, a place of prayer is cleared
+and marked, and once made these hallowed areas are not disturbed.
+The mounds of stones by the roadside mark spots where some holy man
+has stopped to pray or where some equally important but long since
+forgotten incident has<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_293">[293]</span> befallen. But although oblivion may have
+overtaken the event, passing caravans continue to commemorate the
+place; each man picks up a stone and throws it on the heap. The
+habit is good, for it clears the paths of loose stones. I acquired
+much respect by observing the custom scrupulously myself. I made my
+men do the same, and so assisted in perpetuating a highly
+commendable and utilitarian practice. Thanks to the many prayers
+which El Baghdadi must have said all over the neighbourhood, the
+paths over the Erarar n’Dendemu have been cleared of loose stones.
+The heaping of stones serves the additional purpose of marking
+tracks in a difficult country. Where rocks abound or the exact way
+through a defile is hard to find, it has also become the habit to
+indicate the way by placing different coloured stones in little
+heaps on the guiding rocks. It is a superstition that if the
+traveller does not either add to a mound or help to mark a path,
+some evil will befall him by the way.</p>
+<p>In spite of the proselytising of El Baghdadi and the Holy Men of
+Air, much of the older Faith remained. They were unable to
+eradicate the use of the cross. The people are also given at times
+to using camel bells despite the injunctions of the Prophet, who
+denounced it as an object associated with Christianity. It is also
+possible to see in the status of women the practice of monogamy,
+the ownership of property by women, and the treatment of the wife
+as her husband’s equal, survivals of a state of society which must
+in many respects have been regarded by El Baghdadi as heretical and
+tending towards Christian ideals.</p>
+<p>Is there after all any difficulty in accepting the view that the
+Tuareg were Christians before Islam in the Near East became
+victorious over all that schismatic and heterogeneous Christianity
+of the Dark Ages which did so little credit to the religion which
+we profess? There was a time when the Bishoprics of North Africa
+were numbered by the score. What was more natural than that
+Christianity should have spread into the interior? When the Arabs
+first came into Africa, we are told by Ibn Khaldun and El Bekri
+that they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> found in
+Tunisia and Algeria a majority of the population apparently
+Christian. Certain “Berber” tribes, however, were Jews, while the
+Muleththemin, in part, were heathens. The profession of Judaism by
+people including the inhabitants of the Aures hills, who had Kahena
+the Queen as their leader in the eighth century <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span>, means no more than that they professed some form
+of monotheism which is not inconsistent with Aryan Christianity.
+But in any case Christianity was quite sufficiently widespread to
+have accounted for the survival of certain beliefs among the People
+of the Veil. Even so remote a part of Africa as Bornu was known to
+have been subjected to the influence of Coptic Christianity from
+the Nile Valley, and we have Bello’s testimony that the Gober
+chiefs were Copts.<a id="FNanchor_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257"
+class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Why, then, should not the Tuareg have
+been Christians too?</p>
+<p>Neither to Islam nor to Christianity, however, can be attributed
+what is susceptible only of explanation as a survival of totemism.
+The Northern Tuareg<a id="FNanchor_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258"
+class="fnanchor">[258]</a> believe that “they must abstain from
+eating birds, fish and lizards, on the score that these animals are
+their mothers’ brothers. This reason at once suggests that these
+taboos are both totemic and matriarchal in their origin”; but while
+the facts have been alluded to by many authors, the possibility
+that the taboos may be of recent and therefore of Sudanese, origin
+has not been sufficiently taken into account.<a id=
+"FNanchor_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259" class=
+"fnanchor">[259]</a> As against their southern origin—for birds and
+fishes are recognised as totemic animals, in Nigeria, for
+instance—it may be pointed out that no proscription against these
+animals obtains in Air. Instead, however, another taboo is strongly
+indicated in the belief which the Tuareg of the latter country
+hold, that the harmless and vegetarian jerboa is second only in
+uncleanliness to the pig. Any food or grain which the jerboa has
+touched must be destroyed, but rats and mice are not abhorred, and
+the large rat or bandicoot of the Southland is even
+eaten.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> Bates cites
+examples of the ceremonial eating of dogs among the Eastern
+Libyans, and considers that this may also have been a taboo animal,
+but these rites are not found in Air, where the eating of dogs,
+pigs, horses, donkeys or mules in any circumstance is regarded as
+infamous. Incidentally the prohibition regarding pigs is probably
+very old, for Herodotus states that none of the Libyans in North
+Africa bred swine in his day, and the women of Barca abstained from
+eating pork, as well as in certain cases cow’s flesh, on
+ritualistic grounds.<a id="FNanchor_260"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 38</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw2">
+<figure id="i38"><a href="images/i38.jpg"><img src='images/i38.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">MT. ARWA: DRAWN BY T. A. EMMET FROM A SKETCH BY THE
+AUTHOR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I have a distinct impression of an animistic view of nature
+among the Tuareg in Air, but I am unable to base it on any tangible
+evidence. Herodotus tells us that the Libyans sacrificed to the sun
+and moon,<a id="FNanchor_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261" class=
+"fnanchor">[261]</a> and Ibn Khaldun<a id=
+"FNanchor_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262" class=
+"fnanchor">[262]</a> certainly states that the early Berbers
+generally worshipped the sun. Bates deduces that the Eastern
+Libyans revered the sun, and connects their rites with bull worship
+and the Egyptian deity Amon. The only surviving Libyan name for the
+solar deity is preserved by Corippus as Gurzil.<a id=
+"FNanchor_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263" class=
+"fnanchor">[263]</a> A trace of sun worship survives in Air perhaps
+in association with the Kel Owi tribes. When the sun is veiled by
+white cloud in the early morning and the temperature is low, it is
+customary to say that “it is as cold as the mother of the Kel Owi,”
+or “the mother of the Kel Owi is cold.” I asked for an explanation
+of the remark, and was told that the sun was the mother of the Kel
+Owi, and that when the early morning air was cold the saying was
+used, for the Kel Owi are known to be ungenerous and mean.</p>
+<p>The weather superstitions of the Tuareg are numerous. The
+climate on certain mornings of the year is heavy and still, with a
+thick cirro-cumulus cloud in the sky; when this occurs it is held
+to presage some evil event. A north-west wind, with the thick haze
+which so often accompanies it, indicates the advent of raiders from
+the north, probably because in the past some famous raids have
+occurred in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>
+weather. Similarly a haze without wind, or a light north-east
+breeze and a damp mist, are warnings of Tebu raids. The fall of a
+thunderbolt is a very evil omen, as also is the rare form of
+atmospheric phenomenon to which the general name of “Tufakoret” is
+given. It consists of a slight prismatic halo around the sun in the
+clear morning sky when there is no evident sign of rain. The
+phenomenon is probably due to the refraction of low sunlight in
+semicondensed water vapour derived from heavy dew. A sunset behind
+a deep bank of cloud causing a vivid or lurid effect but obscuring
+the disc of the sun is also called “Tufakoret” and is equally a bad
+sign. A morning rainbow “Tufakoret” was seen in Air shortly before
+the late European war broke out. An ordinary rainbow in wet weather
+is a good omen.</p>
+<p>The two most noticeable virtues among the Tuareg, that of
+patience and of a sense of honour, have not come to them from
+Islam. They are attributable to something older. Their patience is
+not that of quietism or of fatalism. It is rather the faculty of
+being content to seek in the morrow what has been denied in the
+present. They take the long view of life and are not querulous;
+they are of the optimistic school of thought. Theirs has seemed to
+me the patience of the philosopher and not the sulky resignation of
+a believer in pre-ordained things.</p>
+<p>Their ethical standards of right and wrong, while differing
+profoundly from our own, and in no way to be commended or condemned
+in our shallow European way, seem to come from some older
+philosophy, some source less obvious than their present religion.
+Not only have they standards which the Quran does not establish or
+even approve, but they hold certain codes of conduct for which
+there can be no legislation. When right and wrong, or good and
+evil, are not obviously in question, and a Tuareg will still say
+that a man does not do a thing because it is dishonourable and an
+action such as no Imajegh would commit, it must mean that his
+forefathers did learn in an ancient school to seek some goal which
+is no reward in the present material life.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span>Such development
+is only found in societies, whether Christian, Moslem or otherwise,
+which have for long been evolving under the guidance of a few men
+who have learnt much and taught much. Yet the feet of the Tuareg
+are not now kept in this way; their conduct is unconscious. They
+are no community of philosophers seeking by choice to live in
+primitive conditions for the betterment of their souls. They hold
+what they have as an inheritance of grace from bygone generations.
+In mind, as in custom, they are very old. Only a slight glow of the
+past glory remains to gild the meanness of their perpetual struggle
+and the eternal hardship of existence. It is doubtful whether they
+could still be caught and moulded afresh. There is too little left
+of the now threadbare stuff; it just survives in the clean air of
+the desert; it would fall to pieces in the atmosphere of more
+luxurious circumstance. And then, nothing would remain but lying
+tongues and thieving hands unredeemed by any saving grace.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc09">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241"><span class=
+"label">[241]</span></a><em>Op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp. 227-8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242"><span class=
+"label">[242]</span></a><em>Op. cit.</em>, p. 317.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243"><span class=
+"label">[243]</span></a>From “Reg” or “Areg,” an Arabic
+geographical term for a certain type of sandy desert.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244"><span class=
+"label">[244]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245"><span class=
+"label">[245]</span></a>Not, I think, Zu’lqada, as Jean, <em>op.
+cit.</em>, p. 224, suggests. It is properly the greater Bairam,
+though sometimes known as the Lesser. Sale: <em>Koran Prelim.
+Dis.</em>, § VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246"><span class=
+"label">[246]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, Chap. VIII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247"><span class=
+"label">[247]</span></a>Cf. Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 414.
+Cortier: <em>D’une rive à l’autre. . . .</em>, p. 283. Barth,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. V. p. 570.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248"><span class=
+"label">[248]</span></a>Perhaps a connection with “Amana,” pardon,
+etc., may be suggested.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249"><span class=
+"label">[249]</span></a>From the Arabic “el jenun.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250"><span class=
+"label">[250]</span></a>Curzon: <em>Tales of Travel</em>, p. 261.
+“The Singing Sands.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251"><span class=
+"label">[251]</span></a>Jean says forty: cf. <em>op. cit.</em>, p.
+215.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252"><span class=
+"label">[252]</span></a>Herodotus, IV. 1723. Mela, i. 8. Duveyrier,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 415. Ben Hazera: <em>Six mois chez les
+Touareg du Ahaggar</em>, p. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253"><span class=
+"label">[253]</span></a>Worn by Arabs and Berbers but not,
+normally, by Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254"><span class=
+"label">[254]</span></a>The illustration of the Persian in
+Maspero’s <em>Histoire Ancienne</em>, Chap. XIII, is an example of
+the use of the head-cloth in early times as a protection in the
+Arabian manner.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255"><span class=
+"label">[255]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+386-7; Vol. II. pp. 74 and 76; Vol. IV. p. 606.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256"><span class=
+"label">[256]</span></a>C. Huart: <em>Arabic Literature</em>, pp.
+383-4.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257"><span class=
+"label">[257]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, Chap. XII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258"><span class=
+"label">[258]</span></a>Cf. especially Ibn Khaldun <em>ed.
+cit</em>., I. 199-209.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259"><span class=
+"label">[259]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 176-7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260"><span class=
+"label">[260]</span></a>Herodotus, II. 18 and 47, and IV. 186.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261"><span class=
+"label">[261]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, IV. 188.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262"><span class=
+"label">[262]</span></a>Ibn Khaldun, IV. p. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263"><span class=
+"label">[263]</span></a>Corippus, Johannis, IV.,
+<em>passim.</em></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span><a id=
+"c10"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<p class="sch">NORTHERN AIR AND THE KEL OWI</p>
+<p><span class="sc">When</span> I returned to Auderas from Tabello
+I found the valley had dried up very much. The hamlets were already
+in great part deserted. The people had moved out of the settlements
+with their flocks in search of better pasture than could be found
+on the parched trees and straw of the little valleys. Ahodu,
+temporarily relieved of his authority pending an adjudication in
+Agades on a dispute regarding the possession of certain date palms,
+was living about two miles down the valley with a part of our
+camels and his own goats and sheep. I was now anxious to stay as
+short a time as possible in this part of the country, since I
+wanted to see the north during the time which remained before I was
+due to return to England. Ahodu himself was unable to come with me,
+but he provided as guide an Imajegh called Sidi from his own Kel
+Tadek people at Auderas. With a few camels, my servant and two
+other men I set forth once more on November 3rd by the now familiar
+road to the Assada valley. Camping there on the second day out, I
+met a large caravan of Kel T’imia bound for Damergu via Agades.
+They were ostensibly trading in dates but were in reality destined
+for the Southland to undertake transport work in Nigeria during the
+winter months.</p>
+<p>The weather was very pleasant, but in the open country the
+temporary watering-places were fast disappearing. The maximum day
+temperatures varied between 90° and 95° F. in the shade; the nights
+were already fresh with temperatures as low as 42° F.</p>
+<p>On the following day after leaving the Assada camp I did a
+thirty-mile march along the valley, past the site of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> Aureran well with a few ruined
+stone houses both there and on the way there, and then up a side
+valley under Mount Arwa Mellen. At the mouth of the Tegidda valley
+my track branched off from the road which I had followed earlier in
+the year with Buchanan to T’imia. I proceeded north into the Anu
+Maqaran basin over the low pass to which both Barth and Foureau
+refer. From the col a long sweep of grassy plain ran gently down to
+the great valley of Central Air. It is here called T’imilen after
+the mountains which lie on the north bank of the section higher up,
+where it is named Abarakan. The T’imilen mountains are a
+continuation of the small Agalak massif which was just visible to
+the north; its south-west face lying on my right was very imposing
+with steep and rugged sides. Straight in front of the pass, beyond
+the valley, a gap appeared between the broken mass of the Agalak
+and a small, bold mountain called Aggata on the left hand. The gap,
+wherein were framed the distant mountains of Northern Air, proved
+to be a basin containing the Agalak and Aggata tributaries of the
+main T’imilen valley. I camped within an hour of the pass, a few
+hundred yards from the north bank of the main bed at the deep well
+of Aggata, not far from the mountain which is also called by that
+name.</p>
+<p>When the Bila and Bagezan massifs appear on the southern
+horizon, one may be said to have entered Northern Air. While the
+north-eastern part is more properly the country of the Kel Owi
+tribes, the whole area north of the central massifs, including the
+western plain and the towns of Agellal, Sidawet and Zilalet, was
+largely under their influence. This part of Air is a rugged plateau
+crossed by wide valleys and broken by only relatively small
+mountain groups. The most distinctive feature is the number of
+little peaks which rise abruptly into sharp points and ridges. But
+though small they are no mere conical hillocks, for they are
+crowned with the pinnacles and towers usually associated with the
+Dolomites. T’iriken, for instance, on the way to Assode, has a
+triple crest rising out of a crown,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_300">[300]</span> like the fangs of a tooth. T’imuru is a
+saddle-backed ridge with turrets along the crest like the spikes on
+a scaly reptilian back. Asnagho, near Agellal, is shaped like an
+axe; the one profile is sharp as a blade set on edge, the other
+flat and long. Most beautiful of all are Arwa and Aggata, soaring
+out of the plain like dream castles, with battlements and keeps and
+curtain walls perched high above the cliffs and screes of the lower
+glacis. The landscape is rather less coloured than in the centre or
+south, for until the edge of the northern mountains of Air is
+reached there are hardly any big trees or green vegetation in the
+valleys. But the same red and black of the rocks against a blue sky
+and straw-coloured ground prevail.</p>
+<p>Aggata well proved copious but somewhat stagnant. Agalak well is
+also deep and similar. It is the country of deep wells, and they
+are ascribed to the first Tuareg, the Itesan. They are anything up
+to 100 feet or more deep and 10 to 12 feet broad. The sides are
+carefully dry-walled with rough basalt boulders. The well mouths
+are slightly raised above the level of the ground and surrounded by
+great logs of wood, scored with rope-marks. They are undoubtedly
+the work of highly-skilled diggers and may be pre-Tuareg. Many of
+them require cleaning out, but none of them seems to have fallen
+in.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 39</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i39"><a href="images/i39.jpg"><img src='images/i39.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">MT. AGGATA: DRAWN BY T. A. EMMET FROM A SKETCH BY
+THE AUTHOR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>I slept quite quietly at Aggata and was disappointed at not
+hearing the Drums of the Spirits which haunt the mountain. The next
+day I again marched some thirty miles, around Aggata and T’imuru
+peaks, where there is an old deep well, now, alas! silted up, and
+reached Assode, once the most considerable town in Air after
+Agades. The plain was flat and the going good, even over the
+scattered rock outcrop. Mirages were showing all the time. The
+mount of T’in Awak, north of the point I was making for, shone in
+the dancing air like a chalk hill standing in a blue lake. There
+was no shade and it was hot. We were all tired and disappointed by
+the elusive valley which continually crept away beyond another
+ridge, so when Assode was finally<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_301">[301]</span> reached we were very glad. The Agoras, or
+“The Valley” by which the town lies, is not inspiring; and the site
+is marked by no prominent feature. The position, however, is
+otherwise interesting. The Agoras rises in the Agalak-T’imia massif
+and joins the basin of Northern Air not far north of Assode; the
+low hills on the north bank of the Agoras surround the town like
+the rim of a saucer. The position is not artificially fortified,
+but could readily have been defended, were it not that the only
+well lies some hundreds of yards distant from the houses in the bed
+of the valley.</p>
+<p>Assode is said by Jean<a id="FNanchor_264"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> to have been built by
+the Kel Owi for the first Añastafidet, but is certainly older than
+that. It very possibly dates from the first immigration of Tuareg.
+The reputed date of its foundation in <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+900 is therefore far more probable than that which Jean’s statement
+implies. Nor is there any reason to follow Barth<a id=
+"FNanchor_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265" class=
+"fnanchor">[265]</a> in setting it down to be of recent origin
+simply because it is not mentioned by Arabic authors. The
+superficial extension of the place is considerable, but the
+settlement belongs to various periods, and not all the 1000 ruined
+houses were probably ever inhabited at the same time. Although it
+is completely abandoned to-day, the population, even in Barth’s
+time, had become scanty, for he heard that only eighty houses were
+occupied, despite the fact that it was then, as in former and also
+more recent times, the official place of residence of the
+Añastafidet.<a id="FNanchor_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266" class=
+"fnanchor">[266]</a></p>
+<p>On a small rise in the middle of the little basin is the mosque,
+the largest building in Air.<a id="FNanchor_267"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> The minaret fell many
+years ago, but the mosque is still well preserved in spite of the
+rain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> which, since
+the evacuation of 1918, has gradually been breaking down the roof.
+The saucer in which the town lies warrants the construction of a
+minaret to serve, like the one at Agades, as a watch-tower. The
+general plan of the building may be gathered from <a href=
+"#i32">Plate 32.</a> The roof is low, as in all the Air mosques.
+The various outhouses and separate portions were used as khans and
+as schools. It once boasted a large library, the rotting remains of
+which I collected. I made up a whole camel load of these
+manuscripts<a id="FNanchor_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268" class=
+"fnanchor">[268]</a> and took them to Iferuan, where I placed them
+in charge of the local alim, who turned out to be El Mintaka from
+Auderas. The books in part proved to be the remains of the private
+library of El Haj Suliman of Agellal, who possessed over 1000
+volumes; he lived in the last century and belonged to the Qadria
+sect.</p>
+<p>North of the mosque was the quarter where the Añastafidet used
+to live. The houses seemed to be mainly of the “A type.” The
+dwellings further south were more numerous, and included examples
+of all types and periods. The houses for the most part were
+surrounded by low compound walls and lay close together along
+narrow streets and lanes. No particular details are worth recording
+except the presence in many of the houses of grain pits, some of
+which had been used for concealing belongings and might repay
+investigation.<a id="FNanchor_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269"
+class="fnanchor">[269]</a></p>
+<p>The most interesting feature of Assode, considering its size,
+was the absence of all traces of garden or date cultivation. The
+town was obviously inhabited only by camel-owners and their
+domestic slaves. It was a trading depot and a metropolis, but not a
+productive centre, for even the pasture in the neighbourhood is
+limited. The selection of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_303">[303]</span> the place as the residence of the
+Añastafidet must have been due to its convenience as a centre for
+the tribes of the Confederation of Kel Owi. It also suited the
+conditions of their trade, and therefore probably that of their
+predecessors in the area, the first Tuareg to enter Air. As a
+strategic position it was admirably located, well within the
+borders of the plateau, and consequently not liable to be easily
+raided from without; tactically, also, it was defensible. It is
+interesting to note that of the thirty to forty wars, most of which
+were in Air and Tegama, mentioned in the Agades Chronicle, only two
+are recorded at Assode, whereas Agades was repeatedly involved.
+Assode was, to my mind, unquestionably the first real capital of
+the country, before Agades or any town in Tegama assumed an
+important rôle.</p>
+<p>The great Kel Owi tribes in modern times are the Kel Azañieres,
+the Kel Tafidet and the Ikazkazan. The major part of the
+confederation lived in North and North-eastern Air; the Ikazkazan
+alone were in the west with sections ranging as far afield as
+Damergu and Elakkos. A little research makes it clear that both the
+Kel Azañieres and the Kel Tafidet are “Kel name” sections of older
+“I name” tribes; in the course of time they became so powerful and
+numerous that their parent stems were obscured. Of the latter three
+main stocks can still be traced, in addition to the Ikazkazan,
+certain unattached Imghad tribes, and several settled communities.
+The three parent tribes bear the names of Imaslagha, Igermaden, and
+Imasrodang.</p>
+<p>The Imaslagha include the important Kel Azañieres tribes of the
+Azañieres mountains in the extreme north-west of Air, as well as
+the Kel Assarara of the north-eastern plain. When the Kel Owi
+entered Air, this stock occupied the area of the Immikitan and
+Imezegzil tribes of earlier Tuareg known as the People of the
+King.<a id="FNanchor_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270" class=
+"fnanchor">[270]</a> It contains several ancient “I name” sections
+which might also be considered as separate stocks, were it not that
+on the one hand they never<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_304">[304]</span> split up into “Kel name” tribes associated
+with definite localities, and, on the other, that they continued to
+be traditionally connected with the parent Imaslagha stems until
+to-day. These “I tribes” are the Izeyyakan, who are also said to be
+People of the King and may in fact have been a part of the latter
+division absorbed by the Kel Owi, the Imarsutan, and the now almost
+extinct Igururan, represented by one surviving section, the Kel
+Fares, who take their name from Fares water and pasture in the far
+north of North-eastern Air on the edge of the desert. If the
+Izeyyakan were originally People of the King, their absorption
+would afford a precedent for a similar process which can be
+observed in progress among the Immikitan who have fallen under the
+political influence of the Imaslagha stock of tribes. The Imarsutan
+are said to have come from an unidentified place called Arsu, which
+is presumed not to be in Air. In popular parlance all these tribes
+have collectively come to be known as the Kel Azañieres, but,
+although of the same Imaslagha stock, the Kel Assarara are usually
+not included under this head. The Kel Assarara with the
+subdivision, Kel Agwau and Kel Igululof, were the people of Annur,
+the paramount chief of Air in Barth’s day. Their villages are along
+the great valley of North-eastern Air, for which the Tuareg have no
+one name. They call the valley after the various villages on its
+banks, and these in turn are named from the neighbouring
+tributaries. It is into this basin that the Assode Agoras flows.
+The Kel Assarara fall into a somewhat separate category from the
+Kel Azañieres because Annur had made them into a powerful people,
+his own position being in reality far greater than either that of
+the Amenokal or the Añastafidet. It was due to him that his tribe
+acquired independent status in genealogical systems. Barth gives a
+good picture of the chief, and it is worth reproducing as the
+impression of a traveller who had no reason to be prejudiced in
+favour of the Air Tuareg, having at that time recently been
+attacked and nearly massacred by them.<a id=
+"FNanchor_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271" class=
+"fnanchor">[271]</a> “We saw the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_305">[305]</span> old chief on the day following our arrival.
+He received us in a straightforward and kindly manner, observing
+very simply that even if, as Christians, we had come to his country
+stained with guilt, the many dangers and difficulties we had gone
+through would have sufficed to wash us clean, and that we had
+nothing to fear but the climate and the thieves. The presents we
+spread out before him he received graciously, but without saying a
+single word. Of hospitality he showed no sign. All this was
+characteristic. We soon received further explanations. Some days
+afterwards he sent us the simple and unmistakable message that if
+we wished to proceed to the Sudan at our own risk, he would place
+no obstacle in our way; but if we wanted him to go with us and
+protect us, we ought to pay him a considerable sum. In stating
+these plain terms he made use of a very expressive simile saying
+that as the ‘leffa’ (or snake) killed everything she touched, so
+his word, when it had once escaped his lips, had terminated the
+matter in question—there was nothing more to be said. . . . Having
+observed Annur’s dealings to the very last, and having arrived
+under his protection safely at Katsena, I must pronounce him a
+straightforward and trustworthy man, who stated his terms plainly
+and dryly, but stuck to them with scrupulosity (<em>sic</em>); and
+as he did not treat us, neither did he ask anything from us, nor
+allowed his people to do so. I shall never forgive him for his
+niggardliness in not offering me so much as a drink of ‘fura’ or
+‘ghussub water’ when I visited him, in the heat of the day, on his
+little estate near Tasawa, but I cannot withhold from him my esteem
+both as a great politician in his curious little empire, and as a
+man remarkable for singleness of word and purpose.”</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 40</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i40">
+<p class="cpm">ROCK DRAWINGS.</p>
+<a href="images/i40.jpg"><img src='images/i40.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Annur was killed in 1856 by raiders from Bilma, which he had
+frequently attacked. As another example of a similar type of chief,
+I will copy the entry made in my diary when Ahodu and Sidi
+described to me Annur’s successor, Belkho of Ajiru, chief of the
+Igermaden during the last years of the nineteenth century. “He was
+the last independent<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_306">[306]</span> ruler of Air. He was small and rather
+hunched, but with authority unquestioned from Ghat to the Sudan.
+His raids were swift, well planned and executed in a manner which
+betrayed imagination. He had a great reputation for generosity,
+combined with personal magnetism of such a remarkable nature that
+his power was believed to be derived from communing with the
+spirits. ‘We used,’ said Sidi, ‘to see him sitting near the fire at
+night when he was travelling or raiding, crouched with his back
+turned on his companions, saying no word, but looking into the
+darkness with the firelight flickering on his small form, casting
+shadows in the distance, where his friends among the spirits sat
+and conferred with him!’”</p>
+<p>Belkho’s people, the Igermaden, are the parent stock of the Kel
+Tafidet, who not only became the most distinguished tribe in the
+Confederation, but also gave their name to the administrative ruler
+of the Kel Owi and the Confederation generally. They inherited the
+Tafidet mountains in the easternmost parts of Air and include an
+old “I name” tribe, the Igademawen. The name Igermaden seems to
+associate them with Jerma or Garama in the Fezzan, but I am aware
+of no particular reasons for supposing that they came to Air from
+there, though it may once have been theirs in the remote past.
+There are, incidentally, numerous names of places in Air containing
+the root ‘Germa’ in their composition.</p>
+<p>The third group of the Kel Owi, the Imasrodang, occupied the
+Ighazar valley and villages, whence they drove the Kel Ferwan.
+Certain small nuclei of People of the King, however, remained in
+this area, as we have seen also occurred elsewhere. The Imasrodang
+deserve no particular comment except that a section, the Kel
+T’intaghoda, is reputed to be “holy.” There is no justification in
+their conduct for the description. They are the lords of the
+servile people of Tamgak, as well as of the so-called “Wild Men of
+Air.”</p>
+<p>I never succeeded in seeing these curious people. Their origin
+is a deep mystery. Buchanan on his first journey ran across a party
+of them in Northern Air, but they come down<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_307">[307]</span> very seldom from Tamgak and betray the
+utmost nervousness of any strangers. The Tuareg call them
+Immedideran and admit that they are noble, though not of their own
+race. They emphatically deny that these people are negroid. They
+are said to speak a language which the Tuareg do not understand.
+When they meet any Tuareg they are reputed, probably quite untruly,
+to hold their noses as if to indicate that they smelled a bad or at
+any rate a curious smell. According to Sidi, who has seen them,
+they live in Tamgak in a very primitive state, wearing hardly any
+clothes except a few rags or skins. They nevertheless all affect
+the Veil, but although they possess many sheep and goats, the camel
+seems strange and unfamiliar to them when they come down to the
+valleys to sell their animals. They live neither in houses nor in
+huts nor in tents, but in very low shelters made of three uprights
+of stone or wood, with a fire in front and a roof of skins or
+grass. The Tuareg know nothing of their origin, but say that they
+were there before the Veiled People came. They are apparently as
+fair as the Tuareg themselves, and not negroid in type, but who
+they are it is not possible even to surmise, unless they are the
+Leucæthiopians of the classics.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 41</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="i41">
+<p class="cpm">ROCK DRAWINGS.</p>
+<a href="images/i41.jpg"><img src='images/i41.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The Ikazkazan group are the junior partners of the Kel Owi, but
+probably the most numerous group in the Confederation of the
+Children of Tafidet. They range as far south as Elakkos, which
+sometimes makes one wonder if they are perhaps a non-Kel Owi tribe
+which threw in its lot with these people when they entered Air.
+Their many tribes are grouped into two main divisions, the Kel
+Tamat (the People of the Acacia) in the north, and the Kel Ulli
+(the People of the Goats) in the south, both of which appellations
+are in the nature of distinctive nicknames to distinguish the two
+geographical units. The names may have a totemic significance, in
+which case the Kel Tagei (the People of the Dûm Palm) and Kel
+Intirza (the People of the Asclepias) could be cited as other
+examples of the practice. There is no particular reason for calling
+the People of the Goats by this name, since they own as many camels
+as do the other Tuareg<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_308">[308]</span> and are not in any way the only tribe to
+keep goats. Their occupation of Elakkos is reputed, probably
+rightly, to be fairly recent. The most important tribe of the
+northern section is the Kel Gharus (the People of the Deep Well) in
+Talak—with their dependent Imghad, the Ahaggaren.</p>
+<p>Such, briefly, is the Kel Owi tribal system. From Assode I
+determined to examine their country in the great north-eastern
+basin of Air contained between the mountain groups of Afis,
+Taghmeurt, Azañieres and Tafidet. Somewhere in this area clearly
+was the village and valley of T’intellust where Annur lived and
+where Barth’s expedition made its head-quarters in Air. The name
+does not figure on the French maps, and since such indications as I
+had received from native sources seemed to be confused, I was
+determined to find it for myself.</p>
+<p>The country east of Assode was a broken plain, out of which only
+one small massif emerged, the Gundai<a id=
+"FNanchor_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272" class=
+"fnanchor">[272]</a> hills, standing isolated and compact against
+the background of the eastern mountains. Between Gundai and T’imia
+the country is drained by the Unankara valley, which is crossed by
+the trans-Saharan caravan road on its way from the Ighazar to Mount
+Mari. The watering-point of Unankara lies below Gundai opposite the
+Talat Mellen hills: from there a branch off the Tarei tan Kel Owi
+runs up to T’imia village by a very difficult road along a
+watercourse which is the upper part of the Assode Agoras. Whenever
+in the south-eastern plain I crossed the main Kel Owi road and
+plotted the point on a map compiled from my compass traverse, I was
+impressed by the directness and straightness of its course across
+country. From Mount Mari southward the line was almost due north
+and south; at that point a change of direction takes place, and a
+line drawn somewhat west of north from Mount Mari to Unankara and
+produced, would, as the road does, pass within a short distance of
+Assatartar and enter the Ighazar between T’intaghoda and Iferuan.
+The upper part of the great caravan road in Air is as straight as
+the southern section<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_309">[309]</span> across the Azawagh and Damergu. Great age
+alone can account for the directness of the road and the worn
+tracks on the rocky ground. Its conquest and tenure by the Kel Owi
+is only an episode in the history of one of the oldest roads in the
+world.</p>
+<p>Leaving three men with my baggage at Assode to take care of
+themselves, Sidi and I on two camels set out to look for
+T’intellust, which he had often visited in his younger days. I
+passed one or two small settlements of stone houses, including
+Assadoragan, near Assode, and T’in Wansa, and reached Igululof
+after crossing or ascending a number of small valleys which flowed
+from Gundai into the Agoras. Igululof is a largish village with a
+date grove and the remains of some gardens; the houses were nearly
+all of the “B type” and were still filled with the household
+effects of the inhabitants who had evacuated the country in 1918.
+Apart from the usual collections of skins for water and grain,
+mortars, saddle-stone querns and pottery, the frequent occurrence
+of beds and furniture deserves mention as indicating the prosperity
+of the communities in the past. One also saw here, as elsewhere in
+these northern villages, swinging doors hewn out of one piece of
+wood set in stone sockets. The trees from which they were cut must
+certainly have been four feet in diameter, a few such were still to
+be seen in all the larger valleys. In one house I remarked a wooden
+bridle stand with a broadening top like the capital of a column
+surmounted by four wooden horns, on which were hung looped bridle
+ropes and halters. There were examples of low kidney-shaped or
+rectangular seats standing not four inches from the ground cut out
+of blocks of wood: they were used by the women when preparing food,
+and constituted the nearest approach to a chair in a country where
+it is the universal custom to sit on mats on the ground. Many of
+the houses had long rectangular racks of palm ribs up to 10 ft. × 5
+ft. × 1 ft. deep slung from the roof, with the household effects,
+which they were intended to contain, still in their places. The
+niches were filled with the pots and skins<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_310">[310]</span> and trinkets of the former owners. The
+spectacle of desolation produced by these pathetic human remains
+made one sympathise profoundly with the unfortunate people who had
+had no time even to save their few worldly goods.</p>
+<p>By far the most important household implement appeared to be the
+double luggage rest which was conspicuous in all the houses. It
+consists of a pair of <span class="sym">U</span>-shaped wooden
+crutches on a short round pole, which is planted in the ground. The
+upper or <span class="sym">U</span>-part of these rests, in the
+ordinary variety, has plain flat surfaces some four inches broad by
+a half-inch thick. The elaborate variety has a broader front member
+which spreads gradually from some four inches at the base, where it
+joins the round pole or leg, to a breadth of twelve to fifteen
+inches. The tops of these members are flat or stepped down in the
+centre, so as to make the corners appear like wide projecting
+horns. Their front surfaces were very elaborately ornamented with
+brass ribs and silver, lead or zinc studs. The brass was nailed on
+or hammered into the surface of the wood as an inlay. Brass sheet
+fretted in patterns with green leather or red stuff behind it
+covered the larger spaces. The designs were geometrical and
+somewhat analogous to the ornamentation on the camel saddles, but
+rather more varied. The workmanship was excellent and displayed the
+most finished craft in Air. These rests were traditionally used in
+pairs on the march to keep valuable merchandise and baggage out of
+the wet. Their great weight—as they measure up to 5 ft. high and 2
+ft. 6 in. between tops of the arms, and are always cut in one piece
+from a log of hard wood—in practice rendered it impossible to use
+them much on the road, and they have consequently become articles
+of household furniture. So far as I know, both the shape of the
+objects themselves and the designs which ornament them are
+traditional and peculiar to the Tuareg.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 42</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i42"><a href="images/i42.jpg"><img src='images/i42.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ORNAMENTED BAGGAGE RESTS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In view of their having been so recently inhabited and being at
+the same time so similar to the older “A type” houses, these houses
+were very interesting, as they showed the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_311">[311]</span> mode of life of the earlier Tuareg. Within,
+the floors were neatly sprinkled with sand or small quartz gravel;
+two rings of stones containing coarser pebbles marked the places
+where personal ablutions were performed or where rubbish was
+collected. A group of large stones represented the hearth. The
+absence of windows and the lower roofs and doors make the more
+recent houses seem rather dark, but otherwise they are quite
+pleasant dwellings. The older houses must have been most
+comfortable. Their cleanliness, as early travellers remarked,
+depended on the owners: judging by the state of their present-day
+huts they were very well kept.</p>
+<p>Crossing to the north of the broad Igululof valley, Sidi and I
+entered a very rough plateau covered with large ochreous and brown
+boulders; it was intersected by numerous small valleys and gullies
+flowing north into the main basin. We climbed laboriously over a
+steep ravine and up a pass between two hillocks where there was a
+way down into the further valley of Anu Samed.<a id=
+"FNanchor_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273" class=
+"fnanchor">[273]</a> It was already late in the evening and the sun
+was setting on our left: in front the whole plain of the basin of
+North-eastern Air was spread out with a great green and white snake
+of a bed winding through it. In the distance along the horizon were
+the fantastic purple mountains which reach from Tamgak to Tafidet
+along the edge of the desert. We descended slowly in the dusk into
+the Anu Samed ravine, and lay down to sleep where this tributary
+enters the stream bed of the nameless basin. Night came on
+immediately. I made some cocoa, but we had to put out the fire as
+soon as possible, for this is the way by which raiding parties
+enter Air from the east. There is no permanent habitation nearer
+than T’imia or Iferuan, fifty miles away to the south and west
+respectively. The country was impressive and rather
+frightening.</p>
+<p>Next morning I said I wanted to go to T’intellust. We set off up
+the main valley in an east to north-easterly direction; it was
+filled with big trees and had a series of small villages on either
+bank. After riding for some hours Sidi<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_312">[312]</span> turned to me and asked me if I wanted to go
+to T’intellust village or to the House of the Christians. I
+supposed the latter was some old French Camel Corps camp, but
+expressed mild curiosity about it. I asked him why, particularly,
+it was so called. Sidi replied that in the olden days when his
+father was alive, he had told him that some Christians had come to
+the valley and had lived with the chief Annur. This interesting
+information decided me to make for the House of the Christians,
+which proved to be not so very far from T’intellust village itself,
+a settlement of “B type” stone houses with a few enclosures and
+brushwood huts. It lay on the north side of the great bed, which
+here was several hundred yards broad and contained many large trees
+between various flood channels. As we approached a group of large
+trees south of the village I saw some piles of brushwood. They
+turned out to be the ruins of two thatch huts. I dismounted,
+tethered the camels and again questioned Sidi, who repeated his
+story, adding that the Christians were three white men of whom he
+supposed I knew, for they had not been French. Because they were
+great men and friends of Annur their houses had neither been
+inhabited nor pulled down since they went away. Their dwellings had
+been left slowly to decay, but not before the place had been called
+after them, the House of the Christians.</p>
+<p>Sidi had vouchsafed this information unsolicited; he had no idea
+of what I was coming to seek. There is no doubt that the ruined
+huts are the remains of the camp occupied by Barth and his
+companions in 1850. When they reached T’intellust after narrowly
+escaping massacre at T’intaghoda, they had camped on a low hill to
+the south of the village where Annur himself was living. Another
+attack, by robbers this time, took place there, and for greater
+safety they moved their camp rather nearer to his village. It was
+this second camp which I saw.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 43</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw2">
+<figure id="i43"><a href="images/i43.jpg"><img src='images/i43.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">T’INTELLUST</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Little remains to-day of the falling huts. There was a small
+wooden drinking-trough and a semicircle of stones to mark the east,
+to which their servants knelt in prayer. Three-quarters<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span> of a century have passed and
+gone, but their camp has never been touched, “because they were the
+friends of Annur,” who had given them his word that they would be
+safe in Air. Barth’s speculation was fulfilled when he said: “This
+spot being once selected the tents were soon pitched, and in a
+short time there rose the little encampment of the English
+expedition. . . . Doubtless this said hill will ever remain
+memorable in the annals of the Asbenawa as the ‘English Hill,’ or
+the ‘Hill of the Christians.’”<a id="FNanchor_274"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> And so it has come to
+pass. The site induced in me a justifiable glow of pride. Her
+Majesty’s Government had sent the first successful expedition to
+Air. A German, Heinrich Barth, assisted by another compatriot of
+his, had been Richardson’s companions. Their memory survives in the
+land as the white men who were not French and who did not come as
+conquerors but as the friends of Annur. In the light of history,
+the broad-mindedness of the statesman who selected a German to
+assist Richardson in his work on behalf of Her Majesty’s Government
+is only less worthy of praise than the loyalty with which Barth
+carried out his task when lesser men would have considered
+themselves free to return to Europe after accomplishing only a
+fraction of what he achieved.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 44</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i44a"><a href="images/i44a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i44a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i44b"><a href="images/i44b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i44b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">BARTH’S CAMP AT T’INTELLUST</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Neither T’intellust nor Oborassan, a little further up the
+valley, deserve any special mention. Annur had houses in both
+villages, though his official residence was in the latter. They are
+small settlements of a nomadic people, dependent upon camels and
+goats for sustenance, and lie near the point where the great valley
+receives the waters of Gundai by a large tributary from the south.
+The west side of the mountains of Tafidet also drain into the main
+basin, the upper part of which eventually turns north-east towards
+the Taghmeurt n’Afara hills. These mountains are the last barrier
+which divide the plateau of Air from the desert. The plain north of
+T’intellust and the right bank of the valley bed are
+low,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> rocky and
+devoid of vegetation. Along the western side of the plain runs the
+Agwau valley. Agwau village, marked by a white hillock, is the
+principal settlement of the Kel Agwau section of the Kel Assarara
+tribe in the Imaslagha group of the Kel Owi. It boasts a number of
+houses of the “B type,” a small mosque, a few “A type” dwellings
+and many large circles which were once hut enclosures.</p>
+<p>Marching west from Oborassan and T’intellust towards Agwau,
+there were few landmarks of any note along the north side of the
+main valley. I gradually left the line of the main bed and skirted
+some low rocky ground, which reaches for some distance towards the
+north. Beyond Agwau I crossed a grassy plain in the direction of a
+big group of bare mountains, one side of which is called the
+Assarara and the other the Afis massif;<a id=
+"FNanchor_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275" class=
+"fnanchor">[275]</a> it is an isolated southern spur of the great
+Tamgak formation just visible behind it in the north-west. The
+Agwau torrent flows down between its eastern side and the plain of
+North-eastern Air. A road from the great nameless valley runs
+northwards up its course and eventually leaves the mountains for
+the desert by Fares and T’iwilmas watering-points.</p>
+<p>The most important settlement of this north-eastern basin of Air
+is Assarara, a small town lying in a cranny between two
+boulder-strewn peaks which rise suddenly out of the gentle slope of
+the northern bank of the main valley. Here I spent a night after
+looting a number of ethnological specimens from deserted houses,
+mainly of the “B type.” The dwellings were all well built and were
+still filled with abandoned household goods: several had stucco
+decorations derived from the older “A type” house decoration which
+has already been described. There were also a mosque and khan.
+Thence I returned to Assode by Assatartar village, crossing the
+Tarei tan Kel Owi as it emerges from the plateau south of the main
+valley by the little left bank ravine called Azañieres.<a id=
+"FNanchor_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276" class=
+"fnanchor">[276]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span>By the next day
+I had again set forth towards the north, halting after the first
+march at Afis village, not far from Assarara, but on the other side
+of the Afis massif. There also I saw a number of stone houses and
+another mosque. The country in a sense was dangerous, because the
+neighbouring watering-point called Agaragar, has often proved to be
+the favourite camping-ground for raiders entering Air from the
+north. It happened while I was taking an astronomical observation
+during the night at about 1 a.m. that a sudden wind arose in the
+valley, and the camp woke up with a sense of foreboding. The air
+seemed filled with impending danger, of which the camels also
+became aware. Almost at once a camel was seen silhouetted on a
+ridge against the dark sky. Amadu, my servant, seized a rifle and
+quickly but silently woke up Sidi and the camel men. They said that
+a raid was upon us, and with difficulty I restrained them from
+firing indiscriminately into the night. We took up our positions
+behind the baggage in the black shadow of a tree under which we
+were camped. But the camel on the sky-line turned out to be one of
+my own beasts which had strayed, and calm was restored. We had
+received a visitation from the great god Pan.</p>
+<p>On the following day we crossed the Agaragar valley and wound
+slowly up a defile towards the upper part of the Ighazar basin. We
+climbed to a pass over a spur of the Tamgak mountains. The rocks
+all round were covered with drawings and inscriptions, for the way
+was very old. It was the road of the Northern Air salt caravan
+which went to Bilma from Iferuan by Faodet, Agwau, Taghmeurt
+n’Afara and the pool of Agamgam on the edge of the desert in the
+far north-eastern corner of the mountains. From Agamgam the caravan
+used to march by an easier route than the southern track which is
+now followed to Ashegur well, north of Fashi and from that place to
+Bilma.</p>
+<p>From the pass the road fell steeply to Faodet in an amphitheatre
+of great hills, a picturesque place, and important on account of a
+good, deep well. Although the houses were<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_316">[316]</span> few the site proved interesting by reason
+of the existence of rectangular grass huts constructed at great
+labour to preserve the traditional type of the Tuareg house. They
+provided an excellent example of the tenacity of custom, for the
+material of which they had been built was totally unsuited to their
+shape or plan.</p>
+<p>The upper waters of the Ighazar basin collect in three valleys
+which unite between T’intaghoda and Seliufet. On the way down the
+valley from Faodet, the village and palm grove of Iberkom were
+passed, whence a fine valley runs up into the heart of Tamgak and
+provides some degree of communication between T’iwilmas or Fares on
+the desert, and the villages in the Ighazar. Further on we come to
+Tanutmolet village, remarkable for a modern elaboration of the “B
+type” house displayed in the strictly rectangular but many-roomed
+dwelling shown in <a href="#i27">Plate 27.</a> T’intaghoda is
+interesting as possessing an early mosque and several fine “A” and
+“B type” houses covered with a stucco of red earth. Most of the
+houses had been built on two low hills standing in the bottom of
+the valley. There are no gardens near them nor any palm grove. The
+importance of the merchants and holy men who used to live there had
+made of T’intaghoda the capital of Northern Air. A little further
+on begins the palm grove of Seliufet, and from there date palms and
+gardens continue all the way to Iferuan, with a chain of almost
+contiguous settlements on both sides of the valley bed.</p>
+<p>At Iferuan the French established a small fort in 1921 near the
+site where the Foureau-Lamy expedition had camped and had been
+attacked some twenty years before. The fort is valueless except for
+the moral support it may offer to induce the local Tuareg to return
+to their old villages from the south. The Senegalese soldiers of
+the garrison are not mounted and would be powerless to do anything
+in the event of a raid. By the end of 1922 some families, but only
+a few compared with the numbers who lived there before the war, had
+returned to their homes.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>Iferuan was a
+very delightful place. The peak of Tamgak stands pointing like a
+finger to heaven on the edge of the massif. The gardens and the
+groves of palm trees, some of which, alas! have died through lack
+of attention during the years of neglect since 1917, give the area
+a distinctly fertile aspect. It is impossible to say how many palm
+trees there are in the Ighazar, but they must run into many
+thousands. There are said to be 4250 at Iferuan alone. This number
+exceeds the next largest single group at In Gall west of Agades,
+where there are some 4000 trees, and the former are only a part of
+the total in the Ighazar.</p>
+<p>The date palm is a comparatively late arrival in Air, where it
+was introduced from the north. The trees are a cross of the Medina
+and Fezzan varieties. As elsewhere in North Africa, each tree is an
+immovable asset like a house, and often does not belong to the same
+man as the ground on which it is grown.</p>
+<p>At the foot of the palms were numerous gardens growing
+vegetables and grain. The fort had a wonderful kitchen garden with
+all sorts of melons, gourds and welcome European green food. The
+French officer in command of the post used to declare that Iferuan
+was the Switzerland of the Sahara, and the cool climate seemed to
+justify his praise. The Tuareg buildings had nothing remarkable
+about them with the exception of the large mosque of Tefgun not far
+away, and the khan or caravanserai built on the Arab plan. The
+Sudanese habit of making large clay amphoræ and baking them <em>in
+situ</em>, for the storage of wheat and millet grown in the
+gardens, has been adopted in Iferuan, and to my knowledge not
+elsewhere in Air.</p>
+<p>Although the open desert on the way to Ghat is not reached much
+before In Azawa, several days further north, now, as in the past,
+Iferuan is the last permanently inhabited point in Northern Air.
+Between these points the mountain mass of Fadé has first to be
+crossed; it contains several watering-points and some pastures, and
+huts were occasionally built at a pool called Zelim, but they had
+no permanence.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> The
+mountains and the watering-places have long since been abandoned by
+their old owners, the Ifadeyen and Kel Fadé and now belong to the
+Ikazkazan and Kel Tadek tribes.</p>
+<p>At Iferuan several important roads meet. The road from Air to
+Tuat and to Ghat, which is the main north and south caravan track
+across the Central Sahara, and the Haj road from Timbuctoo to
+Cairo, all three have a stage in common from Iferuan to In Azawa.
+The Haj road used to leave the Niger at Gao and enter Air at In
+Gall, whence it skirted the western edge of the plateau and then
+turned into the mountains to Iferuan: after passing In Azawa and
+Ghat it ran through Murzuk, Aujila and Siwa to Cairo. From Iferuan
+there are also several roads to the west, while the northern of the
+two alternative eastern roads across the desert to Kawar equally
+started from there, running, as already stated, by way of Taghmeurt
+n’Afara, Agamgam and Ashegur.</p>
+<p>In seeking to identify Air with the Agisymba Regio of the Roman
+geographers, Duveyrier presumed that the Fezzanian Garamantes were
+in the habit of visiting the plateau in ox-drawn chariots or
+wagons. If they had, in fact, done so, it is logical to suppose the
+road they used would have come to Iferuan or one of the Ighazar
+villages. Indeed he states that he heard rumours of a direct road
+from Murzuk or Garama to Air, a “Garamantian way” which passed
+through a place called Anai, where there were rock drawings similar
+to those found in Algeria and Tripolitania. This Anai was
+south-west of Murzuk and must not be mistaken for the better known
+Anai of Kawar, which is north of Bilma on the Murzuk-Chad road.</p>
+<p>I was at particular pains to inquire into the existence of this
+road from all the most prominent guides and personages in Air whom
+I could find. It would have been peculiarly interesting to
+establish its existence, for Duveyrier says, “<em>La voie, avec ses
+anciennes ornières</em>, est encore assez caractérisée pour que les
+Tebou, mes informateurs, qui en arrivaient, n’aient laissé dans mon
+esprit aucun doute à ce<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_319">[319]</span> sujet.”<a id="FNanchor_277"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> Other writers,
+presumably on his authority, have added that where this road
+crossed the sand, stone flags were laid for the wheels to pass
+over. Duveyrier’s informers stated that the petroglyphs at Anai
+represented ox-drawn vehicles, and that the road also passed by way
+of Telizzarhen, where Barth discovered the famous rock drawings
+depicting men with animal heads.<a id="FNanchor_278"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> While the broad valley
+at T’intellust would afford easy passage for a wheeled vehicle,
+there is no way to the south for any but pack transport. There are
+no signs of any road for vehicles ever having existed either east
+or west of the Bagezan massif. The great Kel Owi road is only fit
+for pack animals; and although many parallel tracks are visible in
+the open country there are numerous defiles where a single path
+only a few inches broad occurs. I am convinced that wheeled
+transport could never have been used anywhere in Central or
+Southern Air. But, it may be asked, could chariots have arrived
+even as far as T’intellust or Iferuan? There are only three ways
+into the plateau from the north-east that are at all suitable even
+for loaded camels. They are (<em>a</em>) through the Fadé mountains
+to Iferuan, (<em>b</em>) by Fares water and the Agwau valley to the
+great north-east basin, and by Taghmeurt n’Afara to T’intellust.
+The first two are not practicable for wheeled traffic, and on
+hearsay evidence the third one is equally out of the question. I do
+not, therefore, think that wheeled transport could ever even have
+entered Air from the north or north-east, though wagons might, of
+course, have come as far as the borders of the mountains to points
+such as Fares or Agamgam, provided the surface of the desert were
+hard enough. This cannot be determined until Anai and the country
+between it and Air have been visited.</p>
+<p>If any direct road between these areas ever existed, it
+is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span> very unlikely to
+have run straight from Anai to T’intellust, as Duveyrier’s map
+shows. In my inquiries I heard in all of only four roads across the
+Eastern Desert: (<em>a</em>) the southernmost from Damagarim by
+Termit;<a id="FNanchor_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279" class=
+"fnanchor">[279]</a> (<em>b</em>) the direct road to Fashi and
+Bilma from Southern Air, starting at Tabello; (<em>c</em>) the old
+Kel Owi Taghalam road from Agamgam to Ashegur, whence one branch
+goes north to Jado oasis and the other south to Fashi; and
+(<em>d</em>) a northern road from Fadé to Jado direct. Guides like
+Efale, who know every part of the Eastern Desert, state that there
+is no road from Air direct to Murzuk which does not go either by
+way of Jado or by way of the usual caravan road between Kawar and
+the Fezzan. The northernmost road from Fadé to Jado runs through
+two places called Booz and Ghudet, where water is found a short way
+below the surface; Efale travelled this way in his youth. He told
+me that it was known to and used by Tebu raiders to-day. But there
+are no deep wells on this track to be filled up to prevent raiders
+passing down the old Garamantian way, as Duveyrier implies was
+done. From Jado it, of course, is possible to reach Murzuk either
+by Anai or by joining the usual Chad road via Tummo. The existence
+of this northern Anai is certainly substantiated, and Jado, a Tebu
+oasis with a palm grove, is known to exist. It is called by this
+name among the Arabs, but Agewas by the Tuareg of Air and Braun by
+the Tebu themselves. The place has been reconnoitred by certain
+French officers, one of whom, a commandant of the fort of Bilma, I
+had the good fortune to meet. He was aware of the story of a
+flagged road, but after visiting Jado several times found no trace
+of any such track and did not believe in its existence. That the
+Garamantes and, indeed, other inhabitants of the Fezzan at one
+period in history used chariots drawn by oxen is quite likely, but
+it is highly improbable that they ever ventured so far afield in
+them as Air.</p>
+<p>The existence of a road between Air and the Fezzan may be
+admitted as possible, but only on condition that it is
+not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> made to run
+direct between these countries. South of Anai it would almost
+certainly pass through Jado, and thence may have reached the
+plateau either by Ghudet and Booz to a water-point called
+Temed<a id="FNanchor_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280" class=
+"fnanchor">[280]</a> on the eastern edge of Fadé north of the
+Tamgak group, or else by Ashegur and Agamgam north-east of
+T’intellust. This is not the road of the Garamantes on Duveyrier’s
+map; and beyond this his story cannot be further substantiated. As
+against this line of argument it must be observed that Von
+Bary<a id="FNanchor_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281" class=
+"fnanchor">[281]</a> during this stay in Air collected information
+which led him to believe that there was a road from Air to Jerma by
+way of Anai. It is implied that it went direct, but he was never
+able to learn any details and was probably influenced by
+Duveyrier’s statements. He heard that there were some traces
+visible, but found no evidence to confirm the report of flagstones,
+wheel-marks or sculpture along its course.</p>
+<p>There is nevertheless one piece of evidence which militates in
+some measure against my belief that chariots never were seen in
+Air, and that is a rock drawing which I found in Air on a boulder
+in the Anu Maqaran valley just west of Mount Arwa. The drawing is
+reproduced in <a href="#i41">Plate 41.</a> In the conventional
+manner adopted in these designs it represents oxen pulling
+four-wheeled vehicles. The identification of the ox is confirmed
+from the many other similar pictures of this animal on rocks in
+Air. The object behind it must apparently be a cart. The whiteness
+of the marks in the Anu Maqaran drawing appears to indicate that it
+is a comparatively recent production, although the colour and
+degree of patination of Saharan drawings are of course no real
+criteria, for weathering is notoriously uneven in its action. Near
+the drawing of the ox and chariot, but on a different boulder, was
+the magic square shown in the same figure. Both drawings were in a
+very sheltered place and seemed contemporary. The evidence of this
+picture of the chariot or<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_322">[322]</span> wagon is too unreliable and slender to
+establish any theory, but it is certainly difficult to understand
+where the draughtsman obtained his idea except as a result of
+seeing chariots drawn by oxen, a condition which does not, I think,
+obtain in the Fezzan to-day. Wheeled vehicles have only been known
+in the Sudan since they were imported by Europeans during the last
+twenty years, and I am not aware that even those are ox-drawn.
+Furthermore, although the most puzzling point about the Anu Maqaran
+rock drawing is its apparent modernity, which is paradoxical in
+view of the disuse of wheeled vehicles in the Sahara, it is almost
+certainly older than this century. Yet the application of an ox to
+a cart is not likely to have been imagined by any Tuareg who had
+not seen an instance of it, and there seems to be no adequate
+reason for him to reproduce his knowledge on a rock in Air even if
+chance had taken him so far afield as the Mediterranean littoral,
+where he might have seen the equipage, unless it had in some way
+become associated with Air.</p>
+<p>The identification of Air with the Agisymba Regio of the Romans
+has been accepted by many authorities other than Duveyrier. It
+raises the whole problem of the Roman penetration of the Sahara.
+They are known to have administered the Fezzan, and it is even
+pretended that they reached the Niger, but evidence on this point
+is more scanty. Doubtless as the exploration of the Central Sahara
+is carried out systematically further evidence of their penetration
+will come to light. I am, for instance, not aware that any remains
+have actually been found at Ghat, though the city, which was known
+to them as Rapsa, was almost certainly that place and was visited
+in 19 <span class="sc2">B.C.</span> by Cornelius Balbus. The Roman
+remains discovered by Barth on the road from Mizda over the Hammada
+el Homra to Murzuk are better known. This route seems to have been
+opened about the time of the Emperor Vespasian, and to have
+rendered possible or at least easier the occupation of the Fezzan,
+which had, however, already been visited by military expeditions
+earlier than that reign. Pliny writes: “Ad Garamantes iter
+inexplicabile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span>
+<em>adhuc</em> fuit. Proximo bello, quod cum Œensibus Romani
+gessere auspiciis Vespasiani Imperatoris, compendium viæ quatridui
+deprehensum est. Hoc iter vocatur ‘Præter caput saxæ.’” Evidently
+the road was called by the natives, even in those days, by the same
+name which it now possesses, for the Pass over the Red Rock Desert
+at 1568 feet above the sea is still known to the Arabs as “Bab Ras
+el Hammada.”<a id="FNanchor_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282" class=
+"fnanchor">[282]</a> In about <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+100<a id="FNanchor_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283" class=
+"fnanchor">[283]</a> Septimius Flaccus penetrated from the Fezzan
+into Æthiopia at the head of a Roman column; Julius Maternus
+marching from some point on the coast to Garama had joined forces
+with the Garamantes in order to proceed southward together against
+various Æthiopian bands. By this date, then, it is probable that an
+occupation of the Fezzan had been accomplished, for this alone
+would justify a further advance or punitive expeditions on such a
+scale against raiders from the south. Indeed, from the account
+given by Pliny<a id="FNanchor_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284"
+class="fnanchor">[284]</a> of Cornelius Balbus’ expedition of 19
+<span class="sc2">B.C.</span> to the Fezzan, it might be supposed
+that the occupation of Southern Tripolitania and the Central Sahara
+had taken place a century earlier. The identification of the cities
+conquered by Balbus has not been satisfactory except in the case of
+Cydamus, Cillaba or Cilliba, Tabudium,<a id=
+"FNanchor_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285" class=
+"fnanchor">[285]</a> Rapsa and Jerma, respectively Ghadames,
+Zuila,<a id="FNanchor_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286" class=
+"fnanchor">[286]</a> Tabonie, Ghat and Garama; the last named being
+the capital of the Garamantes and of the whole Fezzan, a position
+which later passed on to other places and finally to Murzuk.</p>
+<p>These operations of Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus have
+been held to concern Air. The latter, ἀπὸ Γαράμης ἅμα τῷ βασιλεῖ
+τῶν Γαραμαντίων ἐπερχομένῳ τοῖς Αἰθιόψιν ὁδεύσαντα τὰ πάντα πρὸς
+μεσημβρίαν μησὶ τέσσαρσι ἀφικέσθαι εἰς τὴν Ἀγίσυμβα. . . .<a id=
+"FNanchor_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287" class=
+"fnanchor">[287]</a> It is important to try to identify<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> the area, since it appears to
+be the most southerly point to which Roman geographical knowledge
+is recorded as having extended. Duveyrier, arguing, on what may in
+any case be a false premise, that because Pliny mentions no camels
+in Africa there were no camels, concludes with the fantastic
+statement that the Romans must have used wheeled transport on their
+expeditions, and that that is why the “Iter præter caput saxæ”
+played such an important part in their operations; but I have seen
+no evidence which might lead one to suppose that this route over
+the Hammada el Homra was fit for wheeled traffic. The Garamantes
+were said by Herodotus to have used wagons drawn by four
+horses.<a id="FNanchor_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288" class=
+"fnanchor">[288]</a> From this Duveyrier concludes that at a later
+date oxen were substituted for horses, and that in virtue of a
+perfectly imaginary road from Murzuk by way of Anai Air must be the
+Agisymba Regio. He gives no convincing reason for the
+identification, but implies that by a process of elimination it
+must be so. The name Agisymba and Bagezan have been connected by
+displacing the terminal and initial syllables respectively of the
+two words, but undoubtedly it was not this so much as the existence
+of a Garamantian road which appealed to the learned author.</p>
+<p>One of the principal objectives which I had in mind in visiting
+Air was to seek evidence of Roman penetration. In the course of
+their long historical knowledge and occupation of the Fezzan, it
+seemed natural for the Romans to have explored the Air road. But I
+found no remains, nor evidence whatsoever of their penetration, not
+even at points which had considerable strategic value. Some more
+fortunate traveller than myself may one day chance upon an
+inscription or a camp. Such a discovery in so vast and little known
+a land is quite conceivable, but up till now the weight of evidence
+is against the Romans ever having come to Air. There is a certain
+historical analogy in the fact that the Arabs never invaded the
+country either. Their influence on the Tuareg of Air was confined
+to an unenthusiastic conversion to Islam<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_325">[325]</span> in comparatively recent times. On the other
+hand, the Arabs in the first century of the Hijra, like the Romans,
+seem to have descended the Chad road at least as far as Bilma, and
+again, Arab influence in Central Africa east of the lake is at
+least as strong as, and perhaps even greater than, the Western
+Arab-Moorish influence on the Upper Niger.</p>
+<p>I am, however, much more inclined to regard Tibesti and not Air
+as the Agisymba Regio. We find the Arabs in the Fezzan evidently
+feeling the same necessity of expansion southwards along the Chad
+road as did the Romans. By 46 <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> the
+Fezzan had already twice been conquered by the Arabs, first in 26
+<span class="sc2">A.H.</span>, soon after the occupation of Egypt
+had been completed and the attention of Islam was turned to North
+Africa, and again when the inhabitants had cast off their servitude
+to the Arabs. Okba ibn Nafé was induced by this breach of
+faith<a id="FNanchor_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289" class=
+"fnanchor">[289]</a> to leave his army, which was on its way to
+conquer Ifrikiya (Tunisia and Western Algeria), at Sert in the
+Great Syrtis, and to lead an expedition to reconquer the desert. He
+took Wadan and Jerma, near Murzuk, and the last strong places of
+the country, and asking what lay “beyond,” learnt of the “people of
+Hawar,”<a id="FNanchor_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290" class=
+"fnanchor">[290]</a> who had a fortress on the edge of the desert
+at the top of an escarpment. It was said to be the capital of a
+country called Kawar, the name which is borne even to-day by the
+depression along which the main caravan road passes south through
+Bilma and other small villages, any one of which may have been
+their stronghold, which El Bekri<a id="FNanchor_291"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> also calls Jawan. After
+a march of fifteen nights Okba came to this place and eventually
+captured it. At one moment his expedition nearly perished of
+thirst, but according to the story Okba’s horse found water in the
+sand and saved the column, wherefore the place was called Ma el
+Fares, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> “Water
+of the Horse.” This point is now spelt Mafaras on the Murzuk-Kawar
+road in about Lat. 21° 15′ N.<a id="FNanchor_292"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></p>
+<p>The Romans seem to have had much the same experience as the
+Arabs, though we can identify the movements of the latter with
+greater certainty. The expedition of Septimius Flaccus and Julius
+Maternus started from Garama. Now an expedition from the Fezzan
+proper to Negroland would normally have proceeded along the Chad
+road, which runs south, and not in the direction of Air, which lies
+south-west. Furthermore, we have already seen that there is no
+direct road from the Fezzan to Air save by making a detour via Jado
+and crossing the worst part of the desert. Had the Romans intended
+to use the Air road to Negroland they would assuredly have started
+from Rapsa (Ghat) and not from Garama; alternately had they started
+from Garama and proceeded by way of Ghat, it is likely to have been
+mentioned, nor would the enterprise have been so directly connected
+with the Garamantes. After marching south from Garama the
+expedition reached the Agisymba Regio. But if the Air mountains are
+neither south of Garama nor on a direct road from that place, both
+these conditions do apply to Tibesti. This country lies due south
+of the eastern Fezzan and there is a direct road from Garama by way
+of Tibesti to Negroland, though it is not so well known as the main
+Chad road. The latter trade road, however, and the Tibesti
+mountains seem to fit the description of the course taken by the
+expedition sufficiently well, and clearly better than the Air road
+and plateau. The Romans, we are told, marched for three months to
+the south; it may be objected that this would be an inordinately
+long time to take on a journey to Tibesti and that Air, being
+somewhat further away from Garama, is the more probable. But
+expeditions may take longer or shorter times to traverse any
+particular desert road<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_327">[327]</span> according to the difficulties encountered,
+the fighting sustained and the pasturage available on the way for
+the transport animals, and I do not think that any conclusion can
+be drawn from the reported length of the march. A period of three
+to four months might as easily bring one expedition from the Fezzan
+to Tibesti or to Air as it would be insufficient for another under
+different conditions but on the same road to get more than
+half-way.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 45</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw2">
+<figure id="i45"><a href="images/i45.jpg"><img src='images/i45.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ASSARARA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>If circumstantial evidence seems to point to Tibesti, there is
+also that of the place names given in the account. The Agisymba
+Regio contained the mountains of Bardetus, Mesche and Zipta. No
+similarity to these names can be found in Air, but in Tibesti the
+first may well be the area and massif round the village of Bardai,
+while Mesche may be a Latinised form of Miski, a valley and group
+south-west of Bardai. For Zipta I can offer no suggestion.</p>
+<p>Like the Romans and the Arabs the modern Turks also penetrated
+Tibesti as a consequence of their occupation of the Fezzan in an
+attempt to stop the Tebu raiding. History is curiously consistent
+in that we have no evidence of the Arabs or the Turks having
+penetrated Air. The Romans, I assume, probably did not do so
+either.<a id="FNanchor_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293" class=
+"fnanchor">[293]</a></p>
+<p>The Romans must have come into contact with the Tuareg in the
+Fezzan, where the latter, it might be assumed from Arab evidence
+alone, were early established if they did not actually constitute
+the majority of the original population. It is possible to trace in
+Roman records the names of certain well-known Tuareg tribes. The
+description which Corippus gives of the Ifuraces, the Ifoghas tribe
+of the Southern Tuareg, corresponds accurately with that of the
+present-day camel riders of the Sahara. In a description of an
+encounter with the Byzantine forces under John, the general himself
+cuts down a camel with his sword and the rider falls with the
+accoutrements and paraphernalia, which are those of a Tuareg on
+campaign or in battle to-day.<a id="FNanchor_294"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> The
+activities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span> of the
+Circumcelliones during the troubles described by Opatus<a id=
+"FNanchor_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295" class=
+"fnanchor">[295]</a> during the Donatist heresy in North Africa in
+the course of the fourth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+remind one irresistibly of those of the Tuareg. These bands of
+marauders from the desert came into Southern Tunisia and Algeria on
+swift and remorseless errands of plunder for the greater glory of
+their heretical Faith. They lived in the barren hills of the outer
+waste and descended to burn churches, sack houses and carry off
+live-stock with such deadly efficiency and ease that the motive
+power of their organisation can only have come from a spirit which
+considers raiding a national sport. “When they were not resisted
+they usually contented themselves with plunder, but the slightest
+opposition provoked them to acts of violence and murder. . . . The
+spirit of the Circumcellians, armed with a huge and weighty club,
+as they were indifferently supplied with swords and spears, and
+waging war to the cry of ‘Praise be to God’ . . . was not always
+directed against their defenceless enemies, the peasants of the
+orthodox belief; they engaged and sometimes defeated the troops of
+the province, and in the bloody action of Bagai they attacked in
+the open field, but with unsuccessful valour, the advance guard of
+the Imperial cavalry.”<a id="FNanchor_296"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p>
+<p>So in later years the Tuareg of Ahaggar, disdaining any but
+<em>les armes blanches</em>, fell in ranks under the rifle fire of
+the French troops at Tit.</p>
+<p>But it is curious that in none of these and other early
+descriptions of the Tuareg is any mention made of their outstanding
+characteristics, so obvious to the person who sees them for the
+first time—the Face Veil worn by the men. It seems very strange
+that none of the classical and post-classical authors should have
+recorded a feature which so distinguishes these people from other
+races. There is no reference to the Veil until we come to the first
+Arab authors, when the whole race is immediately described by this
+very peculiarity, as the Muleththemin, <span class=
+"ar">ملثّمين</span>,the “Veiled Ones,”<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_329">[329]</span> a second form plural past participle from
+the root <span class="ar">لثم</span>, which also forms the word
+<em>litham</em>, <span class="ar">لثام</span>, the Arabic name for
+the Veil itself. How it came about that the Arabs should be the
+first to record the use of the Veil is a problem to which I have
+been able to find no satisfactory solution.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc10">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264"><span class=
+"label">[264]</span></a>Cf. remarks in <a href="#c08">Chap.
+VIII</a> regarding the dating of the mosques in Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265"><span class=
+"label">[265]</span></a>Barth did not himself, unfortunately, visit
+Assode. <em>Op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 376.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266"><span class=
+"label">[266]</span></a>There were sixty-nine inhabited houses in
+1909, with 200 inhabitants, according to Chudeau. <em>Op.
+cit.</em>, Vol. II. p. 66.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267"><span class=
+"label">[267]</span></a>I could not trace any other of the seven
+mosques referred to by Barth, nor is the great mosque decorated
+with columns as he says, unless the pierced walls supporting the
+roof can so be described. There is no “mimbar.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268"><span class=
+"label">[268]</span></a>Some of them were quite old and had painted
+borders and coloured letters. The work was all, however, rather
+rough; no T’ifinagh writing was found. I had no facilities for
+examining the work in detail.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269"><span class=
+"label">[269]</span></a>People have stumbled upon small beehive
+grain pits in Air cut in the rock away from villages. In these no
+doubt the Tuareg who were hastily cleared out of Air in 1918 hid
+their small treasures. They will in many cases remain undiscovered
+perhaps for centuries and will prove the happiness of some later
+archæologist.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270"><span class=
+"label">[270]</span></a>The significance of the name “People of the
+King” will be explained in <a href="#c12">Chap. XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271"><span class=
+"label">[271]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+360-1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272"><span class=
+"label">[272]</span></a>Or Bundai; Barth has “Bunday.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273"><span class=
+"label">[273]</span></a>The Cortier map is somewhat inaccurate
+hereabouts.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274"><span class=
+"label">[274]</span></a>“Asbenawa,” from “Asben,” the alternative
+name for Air in Southland, is the name which is there given to the
+Tuareg. Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 334.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275"><span class=
+"label">[275]</span></a>Wrongly called Tamgak on the Cortier map.
+The name Tamgak is only given to the larger group on the north of
+the Ighazar.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276"><span class=
+"label">[276]</span></a>Not in any way, of course, connected with
+the Azañieres mountains, which are many miles away.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277"><span class=
+"label">[277]</span></a>The italics are his. Duveyrier, <em>op.
+cit.</em>, p. 458.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278"><span class=
+"label">[278]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 197.
+That the road should have run from Telizzarhen to Anai and then to
+Air is very doubtful, as this would have entailed a very devious
+route. What, doubtless, was meant was that it ran from Murzuk or
+Garama via Anai to Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279"><span class=
+"label">[279]</span></a>See <a href="#app3">Appendix III.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280"><span class=
+"label">[280]</span></a>Temed is a mountain north of Tamgak: there
+is a pool below the peak in a cave on which the prophet Elijah is
+reputed by the Tuareg to have lived.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281"><span class=
+"label">[281]</span></a>Von Bary’s diary, <em>op. cit.</em>, p.
+192.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282"><span class=
+"label">[282]</span></a>“The Gate of the Head of the Desert.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283"><span class=
+"label">[283]</span></a>Ptolemy (Marinus of Tyre), I. 8, sec. 4
+seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284"><span class=
+"label">[284]</span></a>Pliny, <em>Nat. Hist.</em>, V. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285"><span class=
+"label">[285]</span></a>Tabudium and Thuben are both mentioned,
+either of which might be the well of Tabonie on the Mizda Murzuk
+road.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286"><span class=
+"label">[286]</span></a>In the Fezzan: there are several places of
+this name elsewhere.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287"><span class=
+"label">[287]</span></a>Ptolemy, <em>loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288"><span class=
+"label">[288]</span></a>Herodotus, IV. 183.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289"><span class=
+"label">[289]</span></a>Narrative of Ibn Abd el Hakim in Slane’s
+translation of Ibn Khaldun, <em>op. cit.</em>, Appendix I to Book
+I.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290"><span class=
+"label">[290]</span></a>I think this name has nothing to do with
+Hawara but is derived from Kawar (see below).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291"><span class=
+"label">[291]</span></a><em>El Bekri</em>, ed. Slane, 1859, p. 34.
+Cf. Jawan, <span class="ar">جاوان</span> or, <span class=
+"ar">حاوار</span> = Hawar, or <span class="ar">خاوار</span> =
+Khawar? Kawar.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292"><span class=
+"label">[292]</span></a>El Noweiri tells the same story of a later
+expedition in Morocco led by Okba. If only for the fact that no
+place of this name can be found on the route of the latter
+expedition, the attribution of the incident to the Kawar campaign
+is justified, though there are also other reasons for accepting
+this identification.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293"><span class=
+"label">[293]</span></a>See Schirmer’s note on Von Bary’s diary,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 192.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294"><span class=
+"label">[294]</span></a>Corippus, Johannis, IV. 1065-83 <em>et
+passim.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295"><span class=
+"label">[295]</span></a>De Schis. donatistarum,
+<em>passim.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296"><span class=
+"label">[296]</span></a>Gibbon: <em>Decline and Fall</em>, Chap.
+XXI.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span><a id=
+"c11"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE ANCESTRY OF THE TUAREG OF AIR</p>
+<p><span class="sc">After</span> the close of the classical period,
+the works of that great historian and philosopher, Abu Zeid Abd el
+Rahman ibn Khaldun, are our most fruitful source of information
+regarding North Africa. Himself a native of North Africa, whose
+inhabitants he esteemed inferior to none in the world, Ibn Khaldun
+compiled a monumental <em>History of the Berbers</em>, which has
+become a classic in the Arabic language. His lifetime, falling
+between <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1332 and 1406, was still
+sufficiently early for him to have had experience of conditions and
+people before they had fallen so completely under the influence of
+the Arabs as we find them a century or two later. On the subject of
+the Tuareg, or Muleththemin as he calls them, the work is perhaps a
+little disappointing, for the author seems to have drawn his
+material from several sources; he is not wholly free from
+contradictions. To avoid, however, adding unduly to the
+complications attending a study of the divisions of the Tuareg in
+the Central Sahara, it will be preferable in the first instance to
+examine the account of another historian, Leo Africanus. Hassan ibn
+Muhammad el Wezaz el Fazi or el Gharnathi, to give him his full
+name, was also a North African, but born, probably in <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> 1494 or 1495, at Granada. In the course of his
+life he became converted to Christianity, when he relinquished his
+original name. He travelled extensively in North Africa, and after
+living for some time in Rome, died at Tunis in 1552.<a id=
+"FNanchor_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297" class=
+"fnanchor">[297]</a></p>
+<p>According to Leo,<a id="FNanchor_298"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> in the interior of Libya
+there was a people who wore the Litham or Veil. The nations of
+this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span> people were
+called Lemtuna, Lemta, Jedala, Targa,<a id=
+"FNanchor_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299" class=
+"fnanchor">[299]</a> and Zenega; in other lists the names are given
+as Zenega or Sanhaja, Zanziga or Ganziga, Targa, Lemta and Jedala.
+While “Lemta” and “Lemtuna” have been regarded in some quarters as
+two forms of the same name, the groups are only ethnically
+connected, inasmuch as both were Muleththemin. In Leo’s
+descriptions of the deserts of Inner Libya the Lemta figure in the
+country between Air and the Tibesti mountains; the northern part of
+their area is almost identical with the present habitat of the
+Azger Tuareg. The Lemtuna, on the other hand, as we shall presently
+see, were a subdivision of the Sanhaja who lived much further west.
+The passage is a little obscure, but I find it difficult to agree
+with the interpretation put upon it by the learned editors of the
+Hakluyt Society in their reprint of Leo’s works.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map07">
+<p class="cpm">LEO’S<br>
+SAHARAN AREAS</p>
+<a href="images/map07.jpg"><img src='images/map07.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<table class="width-full">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl ipub">F. R. del.</td>
+<td class="tdr ipub">Emery Walker Ltd. sc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<p>Leo writes:<a id="FNanchor_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300"
+class="fnanchor">[300]</a> “Having described all the regions of
+Numidia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> let us now
+proceed with the description of Libya, which is divided into five
+parts. . . .”</p>
+<p>“The drie and forlorne desert of Zanhaga which bordereth the
+westward upon the Ocean Sea and extendeth eastward to the salt pits
+of Tegaza”<a id="FNanchor_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301" class=
+"fnanchor">[301]</a> is clearly the Atlantic area, now called
+Mauretania by the French, between Southern Morocco and the Upper
+Niger and Senegal rivers. The Zanhaga are the Sanhaja, a famous
+part of the Muleththemin early in their recorded history, but now
+fallen into great decay.</p>
+<p>The second area appears to be east of the first. The great
+steppe and desert area bounded by Southern Morocco and Southern
+Algeria in the north, and by the Niger country from Walata<a id=
+"FNanchor_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302" class=
+"fnanchor">[302]</a> to Gao<a id="FNanchor_303"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> in the south, is divided
+into two and shared between the Sanhaja in the west, inhabiting his
+first area, and the Zanziga or Ganziga in the east, inhabiting his
+second area. The latter names are akin to the former and the
+people, if not identical, are probably related.</p>
+<p>The third area was inhabited by the Targa. It commences from the
+desert steppe west of Air and extends eastwards towards the desert
+of Igidi.<a id="FNanchor_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304" class=
+"fnanchor">[304]</a> Northward it borders on the Tuat, Gourara and
+Mzab countries, while in the south it terminates in the wilderness
+around Agades and Lower Air. The boundaries of this area are quite
+clear: they include the massifs of Air and Ahaggar and the deserts
+immediately east and west of the former.</p>
+<p>The fourth and fifth areas we will come to later.</p>
+<p>Leo is obviously attempting to describe the principal
+geographical divisions of the Sahara and the Veiled People
+inhabiting them. The boundaries of each area are given in terms of
+intervening deserts, or of countries inhabited by sedentaries or by
+other races which did not wear the Veil.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_333">[333]</span> His divisions, therefore, are not deserts
+but habitable steppe or other types of country bounded by deserts,
+or non-Tuareg districts.</p>
+<p>Some confusion reigns in regard to the third area, the eastern
+limit of which is described as the Igidi desert. What is known as
+the Igidi desert to-day is a dune area south-west of Beni Abbes in
+South Western Algeria; but the position of this Igidi, lying as it
+does on the road from Morocco to Timbuctoo, cannot be the
+<em>eastern</em> boundary of the third area. This Igidi is, in
+fact, in the northern part of the second area, which is that of the
+Zanziga. Now this second area is said to contain a desert zone
+called “Gogdem,” a name which cannot now be traced in that
+neighbourhood, though the well-defined Igidi south-west of Beni
+Abbes immediately jumps to the mind as a probable identification.
+The eastern boundary of the third area, which includes Air, or, as
+Leo calls it, “Hair,” must lie between these mountains and those of
+Tibesti. This vast tract is in part true desert, with patches of
+white sand dunes, and in part desert steppe with scanty vegetation;
+it also contains a few oases. In it is one particular area of white
+dune desert crossed by the Chad road and containing a famous well
+called Agadem.<a id="FNanchor_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305"
+class="fnanchor">[305]</a> One of two hypotheses is possible:
+either the names “Igidi” and “Gogdem” in the paragraphs<a id=
+"FNanchor_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306" class=
+"fnanchor">[306]</a> dealing with the second and third areas
+respectively have become transposed in the text and Gogdem is to be
+identified with the Agadem dune desert, or else the whole phrase
+relating to the desert of Gogdem has been bodily misplaced at the
+end of the section dealing with the Zanziga area, instead of
+standing at the end of the succeeding paragraph on the Targa area,
+in which case Leo would be calling the Agadem dunes the Gogdem
+desert, within or near another Igidi<a id=
+"FNanchor_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307" class=
+"fnanchor">[307]</a> waste. Agadem is quite sufficiently important
+as a watering-point on a most difficult section of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span> the Chad road to give its name
+to the area, nor is it hard to account for the corruption of the
+name into Gogdem<a id="FNanchor_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308"
+class="fnanchor">[308]</a>—such changes have occurred in many
+travellers’ notes.<a id="FNanchor_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309"
+class="fnanchor">[309]</a> The first hypothesis is the most
+probable; it affords a simple explanation of an otherwise obscure
+passage and renders Leo’s boundaries lucid.</p>
+<p>The fourth of Leo’s areas inhabited by the Lemta is described as
+extending from the desert east of Air <em>as far as</em> the
+country of the Berdeoa. This area seems to be that in which the
+Chad road and the wells to the east of it are found. It would
+include a part of the desert of Agadem, the Great Steppe north of
+Lake Chad, and oases like Jado and the Kawar depression.</p>
+<p>The fifth and last area is that <em>of</em> the people of
+Berdeoa; it adjoins the Fezzan and Barca in the north, and in the
+south the wilderness north of Wadai, including presumably Tibesti
+and the Libyan desert west of the Nile Valley. It is said to extend
+eastward to the deserts of Aujila, though north-eastward would have
+been a more accurate definition.</p>
+<p>Between the people of Berdeoa and the Nile Valley are the
+Egyptian oases inhabited by the Arabs and some “vile” black
+people.</p>
+<p>Leo’s description of the Sahara is far from being incorrect or
+confused; his information may be summarised as follows:<a id=
+"FNanchor_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310" class=
+"fnanchor">[310]</a></p>
+<p class="hang2 space-above15"><em>Areas I and II.</em>—South of
+Morocco and Western Algeria; north of the Niger and Senegal rivers;
+between the Atlantic littoral and the Ahaggar and Air massifs with
+their immediately adjacent deserts or steppes. Inhabitants: Sanhaja
+in the west and Zanziga in the east.</p>
+<p class="hang2"><em>Area III.</em>—Air and Ahaggar, with their
+adjacent areas; south of Tuat, Gourara and Mzab, and north of
+Damergu. Inhabitants: Targa.</p>
+<p class="hang2"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_335">[335]</span><em>Area IV.</em>—Desert and steppe between
+Air and Tibesti from Wargla and Ghadames in the north to the
+country of Kano and Nigeria generally in the south, including the
+country of Ghat and the Western Fezzan. Inhabitants: Lemta.</p>
+<p class="hang2"><em>Area V.</em>—The Libyan desert of Egypt, the
+Cyrenaican steppes and desert, a part of the Eastern Fezzan and
+Tibesti, Erdi and Kufra. Inhabitants: the people of Berdeoa with
+Arabs in the north-east and some blacks in the south-east.</p>
+<p class="space-above15">In the fourth area the Lemta were in the
+country where the Azger now live, but the southern and the eastern
+sides have since been lost to the Tuareg. Kawar, whence the Tuareg
+of Air fetch salt, is under the domination of the latter, but, like
+the other habitable areas on the Chad road and in the Great Steppe,
+is now inhabited largely by Kanuri and Tebu. There is nothing
+improbable in the statement that the Lemta covered the whole of the
+fourth area. We have quite other definite and probably independent
+records of the Tuareg having lived in the Chad area and in Bornu,
+whence they were driven by the Kanuri, who are known to have
+conquered Kawar in fairly recent historical times.<a id=
+"FNanchor_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311" class=
+"fnanchor">[311]</a></p>
+<p>The people of Berdeoa are the only inhabitants of any of the
+five areas who were not Muleththemin. I have little doubt that they
+are the inhabitants of Tibesti, where the town or village of Bardai
+is perhaps the most important of the permanently inhabited places.
+To-day they are Tebu, a name which seems to mean “The People of the
+Rock,”<a id="FNanchor_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312" class=
+"fnanchor">[312]</a> with an incorrectly formed Arab version,
+Tibawi. The racial problem which they present can only be solved
+when they are better known. Keane<a id="FNanchor_313"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> assumes that they are
+the descendants of the Garamantes, whose primeval home was perhaps
+in the Tibesti mountains. He notes the similarity of the names of
+their northern branch, the Teda, and a tribe called the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> Tedamansii, who seem, however,
+to have lived too far north to be connected with them.<a id=
+"FNanchor_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314" class=
+"fnanchor">[314]</a> The Southern Tebu or Daza section is certainly
+more negroid than the northern, and there are reasons for not
+accepting the view that the Garamantian civilisation was the
+product of a negroid people. Leo<a id="FNanchor_315"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> records the discovery
+“of the region of Berdeoa,” which from the context is probably a
+misreading for <em>a</em> “region of the Berdeoa” in the Libyan
+desert of Egypt. The area is described as containing three castles
+and five or six villages. It is probably the Kufra archipelago of
+oases. The story of accidental discoveries of oases is also told of
+other places; Wau el Harir,<a id="FNanchor_316"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> an oasis in the Eastern
+Fezzan, was reported to have been found by accident in 1860, and
+the Arab geographers relate similar stories of other points in the
+Libyan desert. The accounts of Kufra by Rohlfs and Hassanein Bey go
+to show that before it became a centre of the Senussi sect, with
+the consequent influx of Cyrenaican Arabs and Libyans, the
+population was Tebu. The identity of Berdeoa, which I think must be
+Bardai, was the subject of some controversy before circumstantial
+accounts of its existence were brought back by travellers in modern
+times. The name was for long assumed to be a misreading for Borku
+or Borgu, as D’Anville suggested. In Rennell’s map accompanying the
+account of Hornemann’s travels at the end of the eighteenth century
+the town (<em>sic</em>) of Bornu north of what is presumably meant
+to represent Lake Chad is a mislocation for Bornu province, while
+Bourgou in Lat. 26° N., Long. 22° E. is intended to represent
+Bardai in Tibesti, the Berdeoa of Leo. The “residue of the Libyan
+desert”<a id="FNanchor_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317" class=
+"fnanchor">[317]</a> (<em>i.e.</em> other than that of the Tebu
+people of Berdeoa), namely, Augela (Aujila oasis) to the River of
+the Nile, we are told by Leo was inhabited by certaine Arabians and
+Africans called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span>
+“Leuata,” a name which coincides with the Lebu or Rebu of Egyptian
+records. Idrisi places them in the same area as Leo, calling them
+Lebetae or Levata. The stock is referred to under the general name
+of Levata or Leuata by Ibn Khaldun in several connections. An
+ethnic rather than a tribal name seems to be involved, and this is
+natural if they are the descendants of the Lebu. Bates concludes
+that in the name of this people is the origin of the classical word
+“Libyan.”<a id="FNanchor_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318" class=
+"fnanchor">[318]</a> The Leuata<a id="FNanchor_319"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> assisted Hamid ibn
+Yesel, Lord of Tehert, in a war in Algeria against El Mansur, the
+third Fatimite Khalif. In <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 947-8, when
+El Mansur drove Hamid into Spain, the Levata were dispersed into
+the desert; some who escaped found refuge in the mountains between
+Sfax and Gabes, where they were still living in Ibn Khaldun’s day;
+others he places in the Great Syrtis and in the Siwa area. In
+Byzantine times they are shown in the Little Syrtis. El Masa’udi
+states that the Leuata survived in the Oases of Egypt. Their
+principal habitat is, in fact, not far from the country of the
+Lebu, who were in Cyrenaica according to Egyptian records. Both the
+Tehenu further east and the Lebu are known to have been subjected
+to pressure from the Meshwesh in the west, and some fusion between
+the two may well, therefore, have occurred. The ancestors of the
+Levata of Arab geographers and the modern Libyan inhabitants of
+Siwa and the northern oases of the Western Desert of Egypt are
+either the product of this fusion or the descendants of the Lebu
+alone. The Levata and Lebu seem to have this in common, that they
+are probably a non-Tuareg Libyan people immigrant from across the
+Mediterranean at the time of the invasions of Egypt by the Libyan
+and Sea People. In the course of history they were displaced and
+reduced; only in the north-east of the Libyan desert did they
+remain at all concentrated or homogeneous.</p>
+<p>The Targa who inhabited the third area of Leo
+concern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span> this volume
+most particularly, as their zone includes Air as well as Ahaggar.
+So long as the Tuareg were believed to be only a tribe they were
+identified with the Targa, but when the former term was discovered
+to have a wider or racial significance it was not clear, unless it
+was a proper name, why Leo used it of any one section of the
+Muleththemin. The exact significance only appears when Ibn
+Khaldun’s narrative is considered.</p>
+<p>In his History of the Berbers Ibn Khaldun attempted to make a
+comprehensive classification of the Libyans. After working out a
+comparatively simple system which emphasises both the obvious
+diversity as well as the superficial appearance of unity<a id=
+"FNanchor_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320" class=
+"fnanchor">[320]</a> of the population of North Africa, he proceeds
+to elaborate more complex schemes of classification which are
+difficult to reconcile with one another. He seems throughout to
+have derived his information from two or more sources which he was
+himself unable to co-ordinate.</p>
+<p>Ibn Khaldun divides the Libyans into two families descended from
+the eponymous heroes, Branes and Madghis, a theory which recognises
+the difficulties involved by the assumption that they all belonged
+to a single stock. The division may be traced even to-day. In many
+Libyan villages the inhabitants are divided into two factions
+which, without being hostile, are conscious of being different. The
+factions are not found among the nomadic tribes, where
+opportunities for living in separate places are greater than in the
+sedentary districts, but their existence among the latter, however,
+is hardly otherwise explicable than by the assumption of separate
+racial origins. This view is suggested by Ibn Khaldun’s
+classification, and also by the result of a detailed examination of
+the different constituent elements of the Libyan population. Among
+the Tuareg, whom I consider belong to a single stock, different
+from that of the various races which composed the other Libyans,
+these factions do not exist even in the villages where tribal
+organisation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> is in
+process of breaking down and people of different clans live
+together under one headman.</p>
+<p>Out of deference to the patriarchal system of the Arabs—a habit
+of mind which pervades their life and often distorts their
+historical perception—Ibn Khaldun has given to the two Libyan
+families of Branes and Madghis a common ancestor called Mazigh.
+Both “Madghis” and “Mazigh” are probably derived from the common
+MZGh root found to be so widespread in North African names.<a id=
+"FNanchor_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321" class=
+"fnanchor">[321]</a> All three are almost certainly mythical
+personages. The selection of Mazigh as the common ancestor points
+to an attempt having been made, in accordance with patriarchal
+custom, to explain the one characteristic which is really common to
+all the Libyans including the Tuareg, namely, their language. While
+the MZGh root is not at all universally used as the root of a
+national appellation, its occurrence in various parts of North
+Africa might well allow one to talk of “Mazigh-speaking People,”
+or, as we might more comprehensibly say, “Berber-speaking People.”
+And so I would confine the use of both “Berber” and “Mazigh” to a
+linguistic signification, analogous to that of the word “Aryan,”
+which simply denotes people, not necessarily of the same racial
+stock, speaking one of the Aryan group of languages.<a id=
+"FNanchor_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322" class=
+"fnanchor">[322]</a></p>
+<p>Ibn Khaldun places the home of most of the divisions of the
+Beranes and Madghis Libyans in Syria. They were, he says, the sons
+of Mazigh, the son of Canaan, the son of Ham, and consequently
+related to the Philistines and Gergesenes, who did not leave the
+east when their kinsmen came to Africa. All Moslems possess a form
+of snobbishness which is displayed in their attempt to establish
+some connection, direct or indirect, with an Arabian tribe related
+to the people of the Prophet Muhammad. In Morocco this feeling is
+so strong that it is common to find Libyan families free from all
+admixture with the Arab invaders, boasting ancestral trees
+descended from the Prophet. The Maghreb is full of pseudo-Ashraf; a
+term in the Moslem world which is properly<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_340">[340]</span> reserved for the descendants of the Leader
+of Islam. The same occurs in Central Africa. Much of the legendary
+history of the Libyans relating to an eastern home may therefore be
+discounted as attempts on the part of Moslem historians to connect
+them with the lands and race of Islam. Nevertheless, even when all
+allowances have been made for this factor there remains to be
+explained a strong tradition of some connection between North
+Africa and the Arab countries. Not only is it commented upon in all
+the early histories, but it is to some extent still current to-day
+among the people. I am not convinced that it cannot be explained by
+the presence among the Libyans of one element which certainly did
+come from the East in the period preceding and during the invasions
+of Egypt, when the people of the Eastern Mediterranean co-operated
+with the Africans in their attacks on the Nile Valley. The
+undoubted occurrence of migrations within the historical period
+both from Syria and from the east coast of the Red Sea are alone
+sufficient, if the characteristic of Moslem snobbishness is taken
+into account, to account for such traditions regarding their home.
+It is unnecessary to attribute these stories to the original
+appearance of the Libyans proper in Africa even if their cradle is
+to be looked for in the East. This may be inherently probable, but
+must be placed at so remote a date as to ensure that traditions
+connected therewith were certainly by now forgotten.</p>
+<p>Ibn Khaldun divides the families of Branes and Madghis
+respectively into ten and four divisions. Four of the ten Beranes
+people, the Lemta, Sanhaja, Ketama and Auriga, are called the
+Muleththemin, or People of the Veil.<a id=
+"FNanchor_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323" class=
+"fnanchor">[323]</a> The descendants of Madghis, with whom we are
+not concerned, include the Louata or Levata. The hypothesis
+previously brought forward for their non-Tuareg origin gains
+support from the fact that in Ibn Khaldun’s classification they are
+not placed in the same family as the People of the Veil.</p>
+<p>We now come to Ibn Khaldun’s views regarding the origin of the
+Muleththemin. The four divisions of Lemta, Sanhaja,<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span> Ketama and Auriga, though in
+the Beranes group, he regarded as of a different origin to the
+other six sections. The inconsistency of the patriarchal
+classification is apparent. He states that certain traditions which
+he is inclined to accept as true connect the Sanhaja and the Ketama
+with the Yemen.<a id="FNanchor_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324"
+class="fnanchor">[324]</a> They were Himyarite tribes which came
+from the east coast of the Red Sea to Africa under the leadership
+of Ifrikos, the hero who gave his name to Ifrikiya, which is now
+called Tunisia. In examining the organisation and history of the
+Aulimmiden Tuareg who live between the Air mountains and the Niger
+bend, Barth<a id="FNanchor_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325" class=
+"fnanchor">[325]</a> found that they also claimed to be descended
+from Himyer. Now the Aulimmiden in name and history are a part of
+the Lemta who migrated from the area in North Africa where the rest
+of the section still lives under the name of Azger, and where we
+are first able to identify them from our records. What is true in
+this respect of a part is true of the whole, and three out of the
+four divisions of the Muleththemin thus seem to be racially
+different from the other six Beranes divisions, the fourth section
+in question being the Auriga people, who are also called Hawara.
+The latter present one of the most difficult problems in the early
+history of North Africa. Suffice it here to state that in the
+course of the early Arab invasions many of them lost so much of
+their individuality that we must rely largely on Ibn Khaldun’s
+classification of them among the four divisions of the Tuareg for
+their early identity.</p>
+<p>There are then, according to Ibn Khaldun, two separate families
+of Libyans, and in one of these is a group apparently different
+racially from the remainder of the two families.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map08"><a href="images/map08.jpg"><img src=
+'images/map08.jpg' alt='[Illustration]'></a></figure>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span>It is a
+complicated classification which attempts to establish some sort of
+unity among all the Libyans, and at the same time indicates without
+room for doubt that the learned historian felt he was dealing with
+a mixed population. His difficulties are clear. His statements
+support the view that the Tuareg are separate from the rest of the
+people called Libyans, who are themselves composed of at least two
+stocks, though more than this regarding the origin of the Tuareg I
+should not yet feel entitled to deduce from his account.</p>
+<p>At a later stage, when the origins of the People of Air come to
+be examined, another reference will be found, in the writings of an
+authority in the Sudan, to the migration of a people from the east
+coast of the Red Sea into Africa. This Himyaritic invasion is so
+much insisted upon in various works that the presumption of a
+migration from that direction, with which the Tuareg were
+associated, is tempting, though it is not clear whether the
+Sudanese authority was merely copying Ibn Khaldun’s statements or
+whether he was working on independent information. I have mentioned
+the theory because it is one of the more usually accepted
+explanations of the origin of the Tuareg, but I do not think the
+problem can be so easily resolved. My own view is that the Tuareg
+are not Himyarites, but that the memory of an invasion from that
+quarter which undoubtedly did contribute to the population of
+Central Africa was adopted by their own traditional historians and
+accepted by Ibn Khaldun to establish a connection for the People of
+the Veil with the land of the Prophet. The migrations across the
+Red Sea are far more likely to have accounted for the early Semitic
+influence in Africa, especially in the Nilotic Sudan before the
+rise of Islam, and in Abyssinia, than for the origin of the Tuareg,
+who, I am convinced, were already in the continent at a far earlier
+date.</p>
+<p>Ibn Khaldun now introduces a further classification which again
+emphasises the separateness or individuality of the Tuareg. He
+states that among the Beranes were certain divisions collectively
+known as the Children of Tiski. Among<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_343">[343]</span> these were the Hawara, Heskura, Sanhaja,
+Lemta, and Gezula. The Hawara we know were the same as the Auriga;
+the Sanhaja and Lemta have already been mentioned. The Heskura and
+Gezula may therefore be subdivisions of the Ketama, and the
+Children of Tiski, therefore, probably a collective term for all
+the Muleththemin as a whole.</p>
+<p>Ibn Khaldun’s writings are voluminous and have a baffling
+tendency to jump about from subject to subject. Having given us
+these explanations, which though complicated are comprehensible, he
+suddenly brings in a host of new names, and proceeds to inform us
+that the Muleththemin are descended from the “Sanhaja of the second
+race” and to consist of the Jedala or Gedala, Lemtuna, Utzila,
+Targa, Zegawa and Lemta divisions. It is not within the scope of
+this work to examine all the Tuareg groups in Africa in detail. To
+investigate the Zanziga of Leo’s second area or the Utzila or
+Jedala of Ibn Khaldun would only serve to complicate the issue
+which deals with the Tuareg of Air. But the Sanhaja, although they
+lived in the furthest west of the Sahara, played such an important
+part in the history of all the Tuareg that they must be briefly
+mentioned in passing.</p>
+<p>At one period nearly all the People of the Veil were united in a
+sort of desert confederation under the dominion of the Sanhaja. The
+era terminated with the death of Ibn Ghania in about <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> 1233, some 150 years before Ibn Khaldun wrote,
+even by which time, however, the inner parts of Africa had hardly
+recovered. The memory of the Sanhaja empire, which extended from
+the Senegal River to Fez and eastwards perhaps as far as Tibesti,
+survived in the additional classifications of Ibn Khaldun and in
+the stories about the Tuareg collected by his contemporaries. It is
+possible to suppose that the first ethnological systems he gives
+refer to the state of the Muleththemin before or during the Sanhaja
+confederacy, but that when he gives the list of names of six
+divisions descended from the “second race of Sanhaja” he is
+referring to the People of the Veil after the death of Ibn Ghania.
+At that time the name of the dominant group in<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_344">[344]</span> the confederation had been given by the
+other inhabitants of North Africa generally to all the Tuareg. In
+the process of disintegration of the empire several truly Sanhaja
+tribes were absorbed by other Tuareg groups. It is difficult to
+accept the alternative view that the Sanhaja of the second race are
+a different people from the earlier Sanhaja, for such a conclusion
+would imply that the Muleththemin were made up of more than one
+racial stock, whereas their most obvious characteristic is unity of
+type and habit.</p>
+<p>The Sanhaja division of Ibn Khaldun’s first grouping are
+obviously the same as the people of Leo’s first area on the western
+side of the great desert which extends between Beni Abbes and
+Timbuctoo. After their period of fame they came on evil days, and
+were reduced to the position of tributaries when they lost many of
+their Tuareg characteristics. Their remnants are the Mesufa and
+Lemtuna tribes. The relationship of the Sanhaja and Lemta noted by
+Barth either means nothing more than that they were both
+Muleththemin, or dates from their association with each other
+during the Sanhaja empire; for they were ever separate ethnic
+divisions of the People of the Veil.</p>
+<p>Much trouble has been occasioned by the confusion of the names
+Lemta and Lemtuna. The apparent derivation of the latter from the
+former may also have been due to the association of the two main
+divisions: it is important only to emphasise that while the one is
+a subdivision of the Sanhaja now living in the north-west corner of
+the Sahara near Morocco, the other is a branch of the Tuareg race
+co-equal with the latter. It is in this confusion of names that the
+explanation is to be found of the statement so often heard and
+repeated by Barth, that the Lemta were the neighbours of the
+Moorish Walad Delim of Southern Morocco. The position of the
+Lemtuna makes this statement true of them, but not of the Lemta,
+whose home, both on the authority of Leo and on other evidence, was
+far removed from Mauretania, and, to wit, in the Fezzan. The
+erroneous association of the Lemta with the Walad Delim is largely
+responsible for the wrong account of the migrations of various
+sections<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> of the
+southern and south-eastern Tuareg given by Barth and his
+successors.<a id="FNanchor_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326" class=
+"fnanchor">[326]</a></p>
+<p>But let us return to the people who were the ancestors of the
+Air Tuareg. The Hawara, according to Ibn Khaldun, El Bekri and El
+Masa’udi, inhabited Tripolitania, the deserts of Ifrikiya, and even
+parts of Barca. They lived, in part at least, side by side with the
+Lemta, Wearers of the Veil, who were “near,” or “as far as”
+Gawgawa. It has been assumed that this Gawgawa was the Kaukau of
+Ibn Batutah’s travels, and consequently Gao or Gaogao or Gogo or
+Gagho on the Niger. But it is more reasonably identified with Kuka
+on Lake Chad, and if this is so, the Lemta according to Ibn Khaldun
+extended precisely as far as the place referred to by Leo, in
+speaking of his fourth area.<a id="FNanchor_327"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> It is clear that Ibn
+Khaldun meant “as far as” and not “near,” for in referring to the
+Hawarid origin of a part of the Lemta people he says that they may
+be so recognised “by their name, which is an altered form of the
+word Hawara: for having changed the و (<em>w</em>) into a sort of
+<em>k</em> which is intermediary between the soft <em>g</em> and
+the hard <em>q</em>, they have formed “Haggar.” The latter are, of
+course, the Ahaggaren, who then, as now, lived in mountains called
+by the same name a very long way from Kuka on Lake Chad; even so
+they were coterminous with the Lemta, a point which coincides with
+the evidence of Leo and others. Further indications of the
+extension of the Lemta as far as Lake Chad will be dealt with in
+the next chapter; they are confirmed both by the sequence of events
+in Air and by the occupation of Tademekka by the Aulimmiden-Lemta,
+culminating in <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1640 when the former
+inhabitants of that area were driven towards the west.<a id=
+"FNanchor_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328" class=
+"fnanchor">[328]</a> All this would be incomprehensible if Gawgawa
+were identified with Gao on the Niger, or if Ibn Khaldun’s “near”
+were not interpreted as “towards” or “as far as.”</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span>It may appear
+strange to find Ibn Khaldun referring to the Hawarid origin of the
+Lemta when they are repeatedly given elsewhere by him as separate
+and co-equal divisions of the Muleththemin. It is possible that
+originally “Hawara” or “Auriga” may have been the national name of
+all the Tuareg, and that on the analogy of what we know happens in
+the case of tribes which have split up, one group may have retained
+the name of the parent stock. But if this ever did take place it
+must have happened long before the Moslem invasion, by which time
+the Tuareg had already become established in the divisions which we
+know; such an occurrence would have no practical bearing on
+conditions prevailing to-day. It is therefore easier to assume that
+all he meant to convey was the existence of a certain rather close
+connection between the Hawara and Lemta. We know in fact that,
+though not identical, the two groups have interchanged tribes, some
+of each division being found in the other one. This connection
+would account for the suspicious etymology of the word “Haggar,”
+which sounds uncommonly like an attempt on his part to prove
+philologically what is known traditionally to be the case.</p>
+<p>The Hawara as we know them to-day are not all Tuareg or even
+Libyans, although they were included among the Beranes families
+under the name of Auriga, and were specifically numbered among the
+People of the Veil. They were described as an element of great
+importance among the pre-Arab Libyans and reckoned co-equal with
+the Sanhaja. Ibn Khaldun does, however, add that at the time of the
+Arab conquest of North Africa they had assimilated a number of
+other tribes of different stock, which probably explains the rapid
+“Arabisation” of a part of them. It was the non-Tuareg part which
+became readily proselytised and so passed under the influence of
+the new rulers of North Africa. The Hawara were much to the fore in
+the occupation of Spain and generally in the Arab doings of the
+Fatimite era. Some of them in common with other Libyans supported
+the Kharejite schism in Islam; yet another part which
+had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span> become
+“Arabised” established itself under the name of the Beni Khattab in
+the Fezzan, with their capital at Zuila. But those of them who most
+retained their Tuareg characteristics represent the original stock.
+In referring to certain Libyans by the name of Hawara, Ibn Khaldun
+is obviously not speaking of Tuareg people; one may therefore
+conclude that he means the strangers whom they assimilated.<a id=
+"FNanchor_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329" class=
+"fnanchor">[329]</a> Consequently I prefer to use the name “Hawara”
+for the whole group, but when the section which preserves its
+Tuareg characteristics is indicated the name “Auriga” is more
+applicable.</p>
+<p>It may be conceived that a people of such importance left some
+trace of their name among the Tuareg of to-day, in addition to the
+name “Haggar,” where Ibn Khaldun’s etymology seems suspicious. The
+name can be recognised in the form “Oraghen” or “Auraghen,” or in
+an older spelling “Iuraghen,” a tribe in the Azger group. The root
+also occurs in the name “Auraghiye” given to the Air dialect of the
+Tuareg language. These instances are valuable evidence.</p>
+<p>Duveyrier<a id="FNanchor_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330" class=
+"fnanchor">[330]</a> records of the Oraghen tribe that “according
+to tradition they originally came from the neighbourhood of
+Sokna.<a id="FNanchor_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331" class=
+"fnanchor">[331]</a> Before establishing themselves where they are
+now located, the tribe inhabited in succession the Fezzan, the
+country of Ghat, and Ahawagh, a territory situate on the left bank
+of the Niger, east of Timbuctoo. It was in this locality that the
+tribe divided; one part, the one under review, returned to the
+environs of Ghat, the other more numerous part remained in the
+Ahawagh. . . .” The Ahawagh or Azawagh is some way east of
+Timbuctoo, it is, in point of fact, as Barth rightly points out,
+the area south of Air. He says:<a id="FNanchor_332"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> “Their original abode
+was said to be at a place called Asawa (Azawagh)<a id=
+"FNanchor_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333" class=
+"fnanchor">[333]</a> to the south of Iralghawen
+(Eghalgawen)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> in
+Southern Air.” While the exact sequence of movements thus recorded
+may not be accurate, the indications are of importance in
+considering the origin of the people of Air as they refer to a
+southward migration through Air and a partial return north. But
+whereas in the Azger country the Auraghen are a noble tribe, in the
+Southland they are a servile tribe of the Aulimmiden.<a id=
+"FNanchor_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334" class=
+"fnanchor">[334]</a> This fact is very significant and seems to
+provide an explanation of the ancestry of the Tademekkat and of
+some of the People of Air,<a id="FNanchor_335"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> who are in part of
+Hawarid origin. The date of the expulsion of the Tademekkat people
+towards the west and north by the Aulimmiden prior and up to about
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1640 coincides with the legend
+recorded by Duveyrier of a party of southern Auraghen who came to
+the assistance of their cousins among the Azger and helped to break
+the domination of the Imanen kings of the Azger. Those Auraghen who
+remained behind in the Tademekka country were eventually reduced to
+a state of vassalage and pushed westward during the general
+movement which took place in that direction.</p>
+<p>But in spite of the occurrence of a tribe with this name among
+the Azger, it is not the latter group but the Ahaggaren who were
+originally Auriga, even as the Azger were in essence Lemta,
+notwithstanding the considerable exchange of tribes which has taken
+place between the two groups.</p>
+<p>In another place I have had occasion to doubt whether the
+usually accepted derivation of the word “Tuareg” applied, as it now
+is, to all the People of the Veil was entirely satisfactory. The
+derivation seemed founded on the fallacy of “post hoc, ergo propter
+hoc.” The name Targa in Leo and Ibn Khaldun appears to be the same
+word as Tuareg, in a slightly modified form; but in these authors
+it is not used of all but only of a part of the Muleththemin. It is
+a proper name like Sanhaja, or Lemta, and the group
+which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span> bears it is
+as important as the other main divisions. Now in one place Leo
+names the divisions of the Muleththemin as the Sanhaja, Zanziga,
+Targa, Lemta and Jadala; in another as the Sanhaja, Targa, Jedala,
+Lemta and Lemtuna, of which we can eliminate the last named as a
+subdivision of the Sanhaja. Elsewhere again he calls them the
+Sanhaja, Zanziga, Guenziga, Targa and Lemta. Further, in Ibn
+Khaldun we learn that the Sanhaja, Hawara, Lemta, Gezula and
+Heskura are in one group as the Children of Tiski, and again he
+divides the race into four divisions only, the Sanhaja, Auriga,
+Ketama and Lemta. Of these we can eliminate the Lemtuna as a part
+of the Sanhaja. Leo’s Zanziga and Guenziga are modifications of the
+latter name and were given to the Tuareg immediately east of them,
+probably during their desert confederation; Ibn Khaldun’s Heskura
+and Gezula seem to be two names for one division which possibly was
+the Ketama. Now if the remaining names are considered, it is
+noteworthy that in no one of the lists do the two names Targa and
+Hawara or Auriga occur. They are therefore quite likely to be
+different names for the same group. Furthermore, in Leo’s third
+area the veiled inhabitants of the Air and Ahaggar mountains are
+both called Targa, and the latter and a large part of the former
+are known to be Hawara. The conclusion is that “Targa,” so far from
+being merely a descriptive or abusive term, is another name for
+Hawara-Auriga. The fact that the dialect spoken in Air is called
+Auraghiye alone would justify Leo classifying the inhabitants both
+of Air as well as of Ahaggar under one term, namely, Targa, if, as
+is highly probable, the name is an alternative for Auriga or
+Hawara, or for at least a large part of them.</p>
+<p>Having suggested this equivalent we must return to the question,
+already foreshadowed, namely, whether, from an examination of the
+present tribes of the Ahaggaren and Azger groups of Tuareg, any
+conclusion can be drawn showing that at one and the same time a
+connection between the two divisions and a separate ancestry
+existed. It is necessary to postulate for the moment, as has
+already been done, that<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_350">[350]</span> the Azger were the old Lemta, for the
+evidence can only be considered in detail a little later. It might
+have seemed more rational to deal with it now, especially as their
+history is of greater importance to Air than that of the Ahaggaren,
+but for various reasons which will become apparent it will be found
+more convenient to examine the latter first.</p>
+<p>In Air and in the south generally the two divisions are referred
+to collectively by the name of Ahaggaren. The reason is that the
+Azger are now so reduced in numbers that the world has tended to
+forget their name for that of their more powerful and prosperous
+western neighbours; the Ahaggaren on account of their trading and
+caravan traffic have also come more into contact with the outside
+world. The Azger, on the other hand, instead of becoming better
+known, as a result of the French penetration of the Sahara have
+migrated eastwards further and further away from Europeans into the
+recondite places of the Fezzan mountains, which they now only leave
+to raid Air or Kawar in company with rascals like the northern Tebu
+and the more irreconcilable Ahaggaren, who have refused to submit
+to French administration. Although in Air “Ahaggaren” has come to
+mean just Northern Tuareg, it has no strict ethnic
+signification.</p>
+<p>Many travellers in the Ahaggar country have heard the tradition
+current among the population that the Ahaggaren are considered
+originally to have formed part of the Azger division.
+Duveyrier<a id="FNanchor_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336" class=
+"fnanchor">[336]</a> records that the Ahaggaren and cognate Tuareg
+to the north-west are divided into fourteen principal noble
+tribes:</p>
+<ul class="simple1">
+<li>Tegehe<a id="FNanchor_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337" class=
+"fnanchor">[337]</a> Mellen,</li>
+<li>Tegehe n’es Sidi,</li>
+<li>En Nitra,</li>
+<li>Taitoq,</li>
+<li>Tegehe n’Aggali,<a id="FNanchor_338"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a></li>
+<li>Inemba Kel Emoghi,</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span>Inemba Kel
+Tahat,</li>
+<li>Kel<a id="FNanchor_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339" class=
+"fnanchor">[339]</a> Ghela,</li>
+<li>Ireshshumen,</li>
+<li>Kel Ahamellen,</li>
+<li>Ibogelan,</li>
+<li>Tegehe n’Essakkal,</li>
+<li>Ikadeen,</li>
+<li>Ikerremoïn.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Bissuel,<a id="FNanchor_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340" class=
+"fnanchor">[340]</a> however, declares that the Taitoq, Tegehe n’es
+Sidi and Ireshshumen form a separate group of people living in the
+Adrar Ahnet, who are sometimes called collectively the Taitoq, but
+should more correctly be described as the Ar’rerf Ahnet. The noble
+tribes of this confederation, the Taitoq proper and the Tegehe n’es
+Sidi, claim to be of independent origin and not related either to
+the Ahaggaren or the Azger. The Ireshshumen are said to be a mixed
+tribe composed of the descendants of Taitoq men, and women of their
+Imghad, the Kel Ahnet. There are also four Imghad tribes: the Kel
+Ahnet and Ikerremoin, who depend from the Taitoq, and the Tegehe
+n’Efis (probably n’Afis) and the Issokenaten, who depend from the
+Tegehe n’es Sidi. These Imghad live in Ahnet, but in 1888 were as
+far afield as the Talak plain west of Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341" class=
+"fnanchor">[341]</a> The Ikerremoin of the Ahnet mountains—though
+probably of the same stock as the noble tribe of the same name in
+Ahaggar—are a distinct unit; they were probably a part of the
+latter until conquered in war by the Taitoq. The Tuareg nobles of
+Ahnet may be considered a separate branch of the race, possibly
+descended from the Ketama. They are neither Auriga nor Lemta and
+probably not Sanhaja either. The Taitoq tribes must therefore be
+omitted from Duveyrier’s record.</p>
+<p>He states that a split occurred between the Azger and Ahaggaren.
+About fifty years before he was writing, or,<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_352">[352]</span> in other words, about a century ago, the
+Kel Ahamellen, like other Tuareg tribes in the area, were under the
+rule of the Imanen kings of Azger. The latter rulers are described
+as of the same stock as the Auraghen and as “strangers” among the
+Azger. Such a description is logical if they were, as we may
+suppose, an Auriga stock living among the Lemta or Azger. The Kel
+Ahamellen were settled on the extreme west of the country held by
+the latter division, and according to the story became so numerous
+that they divided up into the sub-tribes whose names occur in this
+list, and so broke away from the allegiance of the Imanen kings.
+But if in Duveyrier’s day the Kel Ahamellen had only broken away
+from the Azger confederation as recently as fifty years previously,
+and were, as he also says, in a state of internal anarchy, it is
+out of the question for one clan to have increased sufficiently
+rapidly to form fourteen large noble sub-tribes covering an area
+reaching from Ghat to the Ahnet massif. The supposition is that the
+Kel Ahamellen did in fact break away from the Azger about then, for
+tradition is strong on this point, but that instead of being alone
+to form the new division they joined a group of other tribes
+already in existence, namely, the descendants of the original
+Auriga-Ahaggaren stock. It is immaterial whether the latter were
+also under the domination of the Azger Imanen kings a century or so
+before, though it may be remembered that this reigning clan was
+itself from Ahaggar.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 46</p>
+<div class="figfloat">
+<figure class="iw12 float-left" id="i46a"><a href=
+"images/i46a.jpg"><img src='images/i46a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">FUGDA (R.), CHIEF OF TIMIA AND HIS WAKIL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figfloat pb">
+<figure class="iw12 float-right" id="i46b"><a href=
+"images/i46b.jpg"><img src='images/i46b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">ATAGOOM</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="clear"></p>
+<p class="space-above15">Kel Ahamellen, or the “White People,” is a
+descriptive and not a proper name, a circumstance which points to
+the view that such was not their original appellation. In the
+course of time the unit became divided into three tribes, the Kel
+Ahamellen proper, the Tegehe Aggali (dag Rali) and the Tegehe
+n’Esakkal. The “I name” of the original stock was lost, and so the
+group collectively bore the same label as the smaller Kel Ahamellen
+tribe. By the beginning of this century, when the French advance
+took place, the Ahaggaren were already organised under their own
+king Ahitagel. When their country was finally occupied,
+Musa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span> Ag Mastan was
+reigning over them and contributed largely to the pacification. He
+continued as Amenokal of Ahaggar until his death in December 1916.
+Of the fourteen Ahaggar tribes, therefore, the three Kel Ahamellen
+are closely related to each other, and appear to constitute the
+Azger nucleus among them. There may, of course, be other Azger
+among the remaining eleven Ahaggaren tribes who are the Auriga
+element, but no other information seems at the moment available.
+The traditional connection of these two Tuareg divisions is so
+strongly associated with the three Kel Ahamellen that it is they
+who must be regarded as the most recent and perhaps as the primary
+or principal offshoot of the Azger among the Ahaggar people.</p>
+<p>The presence of the Kel Ahamellen in the west would account for
+the traditional common origin of the Ahaggaren and Azger. The
+warlike qualities of the latter would inevitably tempt a vain
+people even though of different stock to associate themselves with
+so famous a division. The fact that both Ahaggar and the Azger were
+at one time under the domination of the Azger Imanen kings would,
+moreover, have the same effect. That some explanation of the sort
+which I have given is correct seems to be clear from the two
+different forms in which the traditional connection is recorded.
+Ibn Khaldun postulated the Hawarid origin of the Lemta, and adduced
+as proof the etymology of the name “Haggar.” Duveyrier, on the
+other hand, declared that his researches led him to believe that
+the Ahaggaren were originally Azger.<a id=
+"FNanchor_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342" class=
+"fnanchor">[342]</a></p>
+<p>The Azger, whom all are agreed to-day in regarding as a distinct
+group of Tuareg for all that they are connected with the Ahaggaren
+and the people of Air, range over the country between the eastern
+slopes of the Ahaggar mountains and Murzuk in the Fezzan. Whereas
+the Ahaggaren control the caravan roads between Algeria or Tuat and
+Ahaggar, and share with the Tuareg of Air the western tracks
+between their respective mountains, the Azger consider the
+roads<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> from Ghat to
+the north and to the east as their own property. They share with
+the people of Air the main caravan track by way of Asiu or In Azawa
+to the latter country.</p>
+<p>It is very difficult to say much of the present state of the
+Azger. Their movement away from contact with Europeans and their
+intractable characteristics have kept them from becoming known.
+This is all the more regrettable, since, owing to their association
+with the Fezzan, a knowledge of their history and peculiarities
+might throw light on the puzzling problem of the Garamantian and
+Tuareg civilisations. They seem also, in spite of their very
+reduced numbers, to be the purest of all the Tuareg.
+Duveyrier’s<a id="FNanchor_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343" class=
+"fnanchor">[343]</a> account of them is the best one which exists.
+They have always enjoyed a most remarkable reputation for courage
+and even foolhardiness. It is said that it takes two Azger to raid
+a village out of which twenty Ahaggaren would be chased.</p>
+<p>The Azger count six noble tribes, the Imanen, Auraghen,
+Imettrilalen, Kel Ishaban, Ihadanaren, Imanghassaten. The
+last-named tribe is of Arab origin descended from a Bedawi stock of
+the Wadi el Shati in the Fezzan. Its members are the fighting
+troops of the Imanen and have come to be regarded as Noble Tuareg.
+Though the People of the Veil recognise nobility or servility of
+other races, I know of no other instance where a foreign stock has
+achieved complete recognition among these people as Imajegh or
+Noble. In all other cases foreign stocks, even of noble caste
+according to the standards of the Tuareg, technically become
+servile when conquered or absorbed. In the case of the
+Imanghassaten, their assimilation to the nobility must have been
+due to the fact that they lived side by side with the Azger and
+were never conquered by them. In other instances of Arabs
+associated with Tuareg the racial distinction remains clear and is
+recognised. Among the Taitoq of Ahnet the Arab Mazil and Sokakna
+tribes supply the camels for the caravans crossing the desert to
+Timbuctoo, where the Arab Meshagra, who dress like the Tuareg, used
+to be associated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span>
+with the veiled Kunta tribe until they were evicted by the Igdalen
+Tuareg from their homes and took refuge with the Aulimmiden.<a id=
+"FNanchor_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344" class=
+"fnanchor">[344]</a> But though associated with them, none of these
+three Arab tribes have ever been counted as Tuareg nobles.</p>
+<p>Parallel to the Azger Kel Ahamellen among the Ahaggaren are the
+Auraghen and Imanen in the Azger group, for they belong to the
+Auriga family. Other Azger tribes may also have been Auriga, but
+there are no records on the subject.</p>
+<p>Nearly all the Azger tribes have dependent servile tribes in
+addition to slaves, but there are two classes in the confederation
+described as neither noble nor servile but mixed in caste. These
+are the Kel T’inalkum<a id="FNanchor_345"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> (the Tinylkum of Barth)
+and the Ilemtin tribes, and two tribes of Inisilman or Holy Men,
+the Ifoghas and the Ihehawen. These are accorded the privileges of
+nobles.<a id="FNanchor_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346" class=
+"fnanchor">[346]</a></p>
+<p>The name of the “Ilemtin” is interesting. It is another form of
+“Aulimmiden,” the Tuareg who live in the steppe west of Air, and
+is, of course, identical with “Lemta.” Moreover, the Ilemtin are in
+the very area where Leo had placed the northern part of the Lemta
+division. With their kindred the Kel T’inalkum, who also are
+neither noble nor servile, and perhaps with the Ihehawen, they
+represent the old parent stock of the Azger-Lemta. Their very
+antiquity, together with their tradition of nobility among the
+other tribes in the confederation, may be held to account by
+progressive deterioration for their curious caste. The Ifoghas and
+the Kel Ishaban are said to have been of the Kel el Suk or
+Tademekkat Tuareg: in the case of the former, at least, I do not
+think that this is so. They are a very widespread tribe in the
+Sahara, but indications will be given later showing that they too
+are probably Lemta. Their association<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_356">[356]</span> with Tademekka is doubtless due to a part
+of them being found in a region to which they presumably migrated
+when the other Lemta people invaded Air from the south-east and
+also formed the Aulimmiden group.<a id="FNanchor_347"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a></p>
+<p>In late classical times the northern part of the Lemta area of
+Leo was occupied by the Garamantian kingdom and by the nomadic
+Ausuriani, Mazices and Ifuraces.<a id="FNanchor_348"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> The Ausuriani and
+Mazices were people of considerable importance and behaved like
+true Tuareg, raiding in company with one another into Cyrenaica and
+Egypt. The Maxyes, Mazices, etc., people with names of the MZGh
+root, seem to be the Meshwesh of Egyptian records. They are
+probably some of the ancestors of the Tuareg, and may be assumed to
+have been related to the Ausuriani, with whom they were always
+associated. The latter, who are also called Austuriani, are
+described by Synesius as one of the native people of Libya, in
+contrast with other Libyans whom he knew to have arrived at a later
+date.<a id="FNanchor_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349" class=
+"fnanchor">[349]</a> Bates<a id="FNanchor_350"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> thinks that the
+Ausuriani may be the Arzuges of Orosius. Now the form of the name
+Arzuges, and more remotely that of Ausuriani or Austuriani, points
+to an identification with the Azger. But that is not all. The
+position of the Ausuriani in late classical times agrees well with
+that given by Ammianus for the home of the Astacures, who are also
+mentioned by Ptolemy.<a id="FNanchor_351"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> This name is
+intermediate between “Ausuriani” and “Arzuges,” and again is
+similar to “Azger.” Duveyrier<a id="FNanchor_352"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> has come to the
+independent conclusion that these people under various but similar
+names must be identified with the Azger, who therefore for the last
+fourteen centuries appear to have occupied the same area in part
+that they do now. Their northern limit, it is true, has been driven
+south as a result of the Arab and other invasions of the
+Mediterranean littoral, and their southern territory has been lost
+to them, but in the main their zone has hardly changed.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span>One may,
+however, adduce further evidence. Among the Lemta-Azger are the
+Ifoghas, a tribe of Holy Men. There is little doubt that these
+people are the Ifuraces of Corippus and others, whose position east
+of the Ausuriani is only a little north of where their descendants
+still live.<a id="FNanchor_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353" class=
+"fnanchor">[353]</a> Incidentally both the area in which they live
+and the area in which they were reported in classical times may be
+held to be well within the boundaries of Leo’s Lemta zone. Last of
+all, there arises the question of the Ilaguantan or Laguatan of
+Corippus, who are not, I think, to be identified with the Levata or
+Louata, but are the people who gave the name to the country now
+called Elakkos, or Alagwas, or Elakwas, to the east of Damergu and
+south-east of Air, at the southern end of the Lemta area of Leo. In
+view of the course taken by the migration of the Lemta southwards
+there is nothing inherently improbable in the people, who in late
+classical times appear in the north, having migrated to a new
+habitat near the Sudan.</p>
+<p>The migration of the Lemta is intimately connected with the
+history of the Tuareg of Air, and accounts for the position of the
+Aulimmiden west of the latter country. In commenting on the
+organisation of the south-western division of the Tuareg,
+Barth<a id="FNanchor_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354" class=
+"fnanchor">[354]</a> says that the whole group is designated by the
+name of Awelimmid, Welimmid or Aulimmiden (as they are known in
+Air), from the dominating tribe whose supremacy is recognised in
+some form or other by the remainder, “and in that respect even (the
+Tademmekat or) Tademekkat are included among the Aulimmiden;<a id=
+"FNanchor_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355" class=
+"fnanchor">[355]</a> but the real stock of Aulimmiden is very
+small.” He goes on to make the statement, which is obviously
+correct, and which my deductions absolutely confirm, that “the
+original group of the Aulimmiden (Ulmdn is the way the name is
+expressed in T’ifinagh) are identical with the Lemta,” the
+name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span> probably
+signifying literally “the Children of Lemta, or rather ‘Limmid,’ or
+the name may originally have been an adjective.” As already stated,
+I do not agree with him that the Lemta, who became the Aulimmiden,
+descended from the Igidi in the north and drove out the Tademekkat,
+for I believe that the people in the north were the Lemtuna, living
+near the Walad Delim or Morocco, and that they were therefore a
+Sanhaja and not a Lemta tribe. If the Lemta had been in the area
+where Barth would have them, as opposed to where Leo placed them,
+it means that the latter’s account is fundamentally wrong. Nor
+would there be any adequate explanation of several phenomena just
+now indicated such as the westward movements of the Tademekkat and
+the presence of the Ilemtin in the Azger country.</p>
+<p>The vicissitudes of the Lemta and Auriga in the history of Air
+may be summarised as follows:—The Azger represent the old Lemta
+stock in the northern part of the area which Leo allocated to them.
+They are identical with the Ausuriani, Asturiani, Arzuges or
+Astacuri, and included the Ifoghas (Ifuraces) and Elakkos people
+(Ilaguantan). The Mazices are probably also in the same Lemta-Azger
+group, but I can find only circumstantial evidence for this
+supposition. The southern end of the Lemta area, which reached the
+Sudan between Lake Chad and Damergu, was lost to the Tuareg under
+pressure from the east. They were driven out of Bornu, where we
+shall see the Central African histories placed them in the early
+days. This part, as well as the Kawar road down which they came
+from the north, and the steppe north of Chad, was cleared of Tuareg
+by the Kanuri and Tebu from the east. In Elakkos, the country named
+by the tribe which in classical times was in Tripolitania, is the
+boundary to-day between Tebu and Tuareg. Progressive ethnic
+pressure from the east drove the eastern boundary of the Tuareg
+westwards, but it also forced the Lemta to find room in the west
+for their expansion. Some of the latter, as we shall see, entered
+Air from the south; others went on to occupy Tademekka and drove
+the inhabitants westward.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_359">[359]</span> The Lemta movement was of long duration and
+directly involved the first invasion of Air by the Tuareg: it took
+place south and then west, not, as Barth and others would have it,
+south-eastwards from North-west Africa. Before these movements took
+place Ahaggar was held by a Hawara stock which later received an
+admixture of Azger by the Kel Ahamellen who had split off from the
+latter. Air, which had first been occupied by a group of Lemta from
+the south-east, was then invaded by another wave of Tuareg from the
+north. They were almost certainly a Hawarid stock. By the time Leo
+wrote Air was therefore in a large measure occupied by the same
+race and group as Ahaggar, and like the latter was therefore
+rightly described as held by the “Targa popolo.”</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc11">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297"><span class=
+"label">[297]</span></a>The works of Leo Africanus were published
+by the Hakluyt Society in three volumes in 1896.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298"><span class=
+"label">[298]</span></a>Leo, III. p. 820.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299"><span class=
+"label">[299]</span></a>The learned editor of the Hakluyt Society
+calls one of these nations the Tuareg. In my view all five nations
+were Tuareg, which term I have throughout used as equivalent to
+Muleththemin. Of these five nations, one apparently had Targa as a
+proper name.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300"><span class=
+"label">[300]</span></a>Leo, III. p. 797.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301"><span class=
+"label">[301]</span></a>In the Western Sahara north of the road
+from Arguin to Wadan, and probably near Sabha Jail.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302"><span class=
+"label">[302]</span></a>North-west of Timbuctoo on the road to
+Wadan.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303"><span class=
+"label">[303]</span></a>Also spelt Gago, near the north-west corner
+of the great Niger Bend. I have called it Gao throughout, as in the
+ancient and uncertain spellings it was often confused with Kuka on
+Lake Chad.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304"><span class=
+"label">[304]</span></a>Leo, III. p. 799.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305"><span class=
+"label">[305]</span></a>About Lat. 17° N., not to be confused with
+the town of Agades in Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306"><span class=
+"label">[306]</span></a>Leo: on pages 798 and 799.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307"><span class=
+"label">[307]</span></a>“Igidi” is more a term for a type of desert
+country than a true proper name. There are other Igidis in North
+Africa.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308"><span class=
+"label">[308]</span></a>Compare also a name of similar type, the
+place called Siggedim, in about Lat. 20° on the road between Kawar
+and the Fezzan.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309"><span class=
+"label">[309]</span></a>Compare Barth’s corruption of the name
+Gamram in Damergu to Gumrek. Cf. <a href="#c02">Chap. II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310"><span class=
+"label">[310]</span></a>The map on <a href="#map07">p. 331</a>
+gives a more accurate idea than the one in the first volume of the
+Hakluyt Society’s publication.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311"><span class=
+"label">[311]</span></a><em>Vide infra</em>, <a href="#c12">Chap.
+XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312"><span class=
+"label">[312]</span></a>Cf. Kanem-bu = the people of Kanem.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313"><span class=
+"label">[313]</span></a>Keane: <em>Man, Past and Present</em> (new
+edition), p. 473.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314"><span class=
+"label">[314]</span></a>Ptolemy, IV., sec. 3, 6. An emendation
+making the word read “the people of Cidamus” (Ghadames) is more
+tempting. Cf. Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315"><span class=
+"label">[315]</span></a>Leo, <em>op. cit.</em>, III. 801.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316"><span class=
+"label">[316]</span></a>Minutilli, <em>Tripolitania</em>, p. 413,
+and in El Bekri <em>passim.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317"><span class=
+"label">[317]</span></a>Leo, <em>loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318"><span class=
+"label">[318]</span></a>In Byzantine times B and V were often
+interchanged. Cf. Βάνδιλοι for Vandal, <em>apud</em> Justinian.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319"><span class=
+"label">[319]</span></a>Ibn Khaldun, Book I. p. 234.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320"><span class=
+"label">[320]</span></a>Unity, that is, in so far as all the
+non-Arab Libyans have been called Berbers and speak the same
+language.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321"><span class=
+"label">[321]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#app5">Appendix V.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322"><span class=
+"label">[322]</span></a>Cf. Boule: <em>Fossil Man</em>, p. 316.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323"><span class=
+"label">[323]</span></a>Ibn Khaldun, <em>op. cit.</em>, I. 273.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324"><span class=
+"label">[324]</span></a>Ibn Khaldun, <em>op. cit.</em>, I. 184
+sq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325"><span class=
+"label">[325]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. V. p.
+553.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326"><span class=
+"label">[326]</span></a><em>Infra</em> in this chapter and in
+<a href="#c12">Chap. XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327"><span class=
+"label">[327]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328"><span class=
+"label">[328]</span></a>This could only follow upon an invasion
+from the east or south-east, and not from the north or north-west,
+as Barth thought in consequence of his assumption that the Lemta
+were the Lemtuna near the Walad Delim. See Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>
+Vol. IV. p. 626.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329"><span class=
+"label">[329]</span></a>An instance of the assimilation of an Arab
+tribe by the Tuareg will be found on examining the Azger group
+(<em>infra</em> in this chapter).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330"><span class=
+"label">[330]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 347.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331"><span class=
+"label">[331]</span></a>In the Fezzan.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332"><span class=
+"label">[332]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333"><span class=
+"label">[333]</span></a>This Azawagh must not be confused with the
+Azawagh (Azawad) or Jauf, the belly of the desert north-west of
+Timbuctoo, though the two words are derived from the same root.
+<em>Supra</em>, <a href="#c02">Chap. II.</a> See also Notes in Leo,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334"><span class=
+"label">[334]</span></a>Barth, Vol. V. p. 557.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335"><span class=
+"label">[335]</span></a>Namely, the Kel Geres. <em>Infra</em>,
+<a href="#c12">Chap. XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336"><span class=
+"label">[336]</span></a><em>Op. cit.</em>, p. 330.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337"><span class=
+"label">[337]</span></a>“Tegehe” appears to mean “descendants” or
+“family” in the female line.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338"><span class=
+"label">[338]</span></a>“Ag Ali” = son of ’Ali. The <em>’ain</em>
+in Arabic when transliterated by the Tuareg becomes <em>gh</em>,
+and ’Ali, ’Osman, ’Adullah, etc., become Ghali, Ghosman,
+Ghabdullah, etc. The <em>gh</em> in Temajegh is so strongly
+<em>grasseyé</em> (as the French term the sound), as to be very
+nearly an R. It is consequently very often transliterated with this
+letter instead of <em>’ain</em>. The Ag ’Ali tribe is therefore
+very often referred to as the Dag Rali or Dag Ghali, the prefixed D
+being grammatical.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339"><span class=
+"label">[339]</span></a>Sometimes written Kel Rela (cf. <a href=
+"#Footnote_338">note 3</a>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340"><span class=
+"label">[340]</span></a>Bissuel, <em>Les Touareg de l’Ouest</em>,
+Alger, 1888, p. 13 sq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341"><span class=
+"label">[341]</span></a>Bissuel, <em>loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342"><span class=
+"label">[342]</span></a>Cf. diagram showing the migration of the
+Air Tuareg on <a href="#map09">page 388.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343"><span class=
+"label">[343]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 330.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344"><span class=
+"label">[344]</span></a>See von Bary, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 181
+and 190.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345"><span class=
+"label">[345]</span></a>A descriptive geographical name, and
+perhaps originally a branch of the Ilemtin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346"><span class=
+"label">[346]</span></a>Schirmer perhaps rightly considers that the
+Ifoghas are less holy than Duveyrier imagined. They are as ready to
+fight as other tribes, and those in the south have not even the
+reputation of sanctity.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347"><span class=
+"label">[347]</span></a>See <a href="#c12">Chap. XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348"><span class=
+"label">[348]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, Map X, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349"><span class=
+"label">[349]</span></a>Cf. conclusions at the beginning of this
+chapter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350"><span class=
+"label">[350]</span></a><em>Op. cit.</em>, p. 68, note 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351"><span class=
+"label">[351]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352"><span class=
+"label">[352]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 467.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353"><span class=
+"label">[353]</span></a>The presence of some Ifoghas west of Air
+will later be shown to be connected with the Tuareg migrations into
+Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354"><span class=
+"label">[354]</span></a><em>Op. cit.</em>, Vol. IV. App. III. p.
+552 sq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355"><span class=
+"label">[355]</span></a>Doubtless because they were conquered by
+the Aulimmiden.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span><a id=
+"c12"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE HISTORY OF AIR</p>
+<p class="sch2">Part I</p>
+<p class="sch3">The Migrations of the Tuareg to Air</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> history of Air is inextricably mixed
+up with the problems of Tuareg ethnology. It is best to treat the
+various questions which arise as a whole. Information for all the
+earlier events is scanty. As has already become apparent in
+previous chapters, much must be based on deduction, since no early
+written evidence of the Air people exists but that contained in
+their rock inscriptions. In later years the practice arose of
+keeping book records or tribal histories in Arabic; they were
+designed to establish the nobility of origin of the various clans,
+a subject of continual dispute among the Tuareg; but most of these
+precious books, which used to be kept in the mosques or houses of
+the learned men, were lost when the whole of Air north of the
+Central massifs was cleared by French Camel patrols after the 1917
+rebellion.</p>
+<p>For long the avowed policy of the French authorities was to
+remove the population of the mountains of Air lock, stock and
+barrel, and settle them in the lands of Damergu and the Sudan. The
+Tuareg, as may be imagined, took unkindly to living in the plains
+away from the mountains and desert to which they were used. They
+cannot be persuaded to settle on the land as agriculturists except
+after generations of contact with tillers of the soil, and even
+then they only adopt the new mode of life in a half-hearted fashion
+or as a result of intermarriage, and as a consequence<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span> lose their individuality.
+Besides embittering relations to an extent which may prove
+irremediable, the French policy was otherwise disastrous from a
+local point of view. After being driven out of their homes in the
+mountains, these people were not content to live in the half-way
+house of the Damergu plains or in Damagarim. Many of them moved out
+of French territory altogether into Nigeria, where they had no
+quarrel with the authorities and where existence was even easier
+than in the belt between the Sahara and the Sudan. As many as
+30,000 Veiled People left Air; most of them settled in the Emirates
+of Kano and Katsina.</p>
+<p>Depopulation in Air allowed the desert to encroach. Wells fell
+in, gardens went out of tillage, and the live-stock of the country,
+more especially the camel herds, were reduced to a fraction of what
+they had been. These factors in turn contributed to make it harder
+than ever to reopen the old caravan roads, after they had been
+closed during the Great War. From the economic standpoint the
+possibility of obtaining any return from the military occupation of
+this part of the Sahara became more than ever problematical.
+Finally, the cruel evacuation of Air, for which there was no
+administrative excuse save that of short-sighted expediency, made
+it infinitely more difficult to obtain information regarding the
+origin and habits of a people who are in any case probably doomed
+to disappear before the advance of civilisation. The records in
+their mosques were abandoned to be rained on and gradually
+destroyed. Tradition is being lost among a younger generation in a
+new environment. In 1922 the policy of the French was reversed and
+the population was being encouraged to return to their homes, but
+one is inclined to wonder whether it was not already too late.</p>
+<p>In the course of my stay in Air I heard of two books on tribal
+lore and history. The one which appeared the most important had
+belonged to the family of Ahodu, chief of Auderas village, and had
+long been in the possession of his forefathers. In 1917, when the
+northern villages were cleared, the book was left in a
+hiding-place, but all my<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_362">[362]</span> efforts and those of Ahodu to trace it were
+in vain. Later I heard of another similar work at Agades, but only
+after I had left the town. It is kept by a woman called Taburgula,
+and is quoted by the Kel Geres as their authority for the nobility,
+etc. of the tribes of the south.<a id="FNanchor_356"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></p>
+<p>Certain extracts from a Chronicle of Air have been collected and
+translated by H. R. Palmer, Lieut.-Governor of Northern Nigeria.
+The information was contained in the notes of a Hausa scribe, who
+seems to have compiled them on the authority of a manuscript which
+is probably still extant in Air. The compilation is not necessarily
+accurate, but ranks as good material, and has already been referred
+to in previous chapters as the Agades Chronicle.<a id=
+"FNanchor_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357" class=
+"fnanchor">[357]</a></p>
+<p>Finally, there is the record of Sultan Bello, Emir of Sokoto,
+when Denham and Clapperton reached the Sudan in 1824. Bello was a
+great historian, and probably the most enlightened ruler in Africa
+of his day. He has left for us a history without which we should
+find it difficult to piece together the story of Air and the
+neighbouring countries.<a id="FNanchor_358"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a></p>
+<p>Such information as it was possible to obtain to supplement
+these authorities and Jean and Barth was derived from numerous
+conversations with the older men whom I met in Air. By repetition
+and sifting it acquired sufficient consistency probably to
+represent, somewhat approximately, the truth. Apart from an
+inadequate knowledge of the language, I encountered another great
+difficulty in research. The years 1917 and 1918 were so calamitous
+for the Tuareg that circumstances obliged them to change many of
+their habits of life and scattered their traditions. There was
+always a danger of being misled by assuming that present practices
+represented historical customs, or that deductions<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span> made in 1922 were necessarily
+as accurate as if the observations had been made in 1850.</p>
+<p>The early history of Air may be resolved into the answers to the
+three problems: When did the Tuareg reach Air? Where did they come
+from? And, whom did they meet on arrival? We shall deal with the
+last first, piecing together such scanty evidence as is at our
+disposal.</p>
+<p>The existence at an early date in North Africa of negroid people
+much further north than their present limit of permanent habitation
+is generally admitted. It is logical to suppose that Air, which is
+an eminently habitable land, was therefore originally occupied by a
+negroid race. In support of this supposition there is the testimony
+of Muhammad el Bakeir,<a id="FNanchor_359"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> son of Sultan Muhammad
+el Addal, to the effect that the Goberawa originally possessed Air,
+under the leadership of “Kipti” or Copts. Bello adds that the
+Goberawa were a free people and that they were the noblest of the
+Hausa-speaking races. It is not clear what the mention of Kipti can
+mean, except that the influence of the Egyptian Coptic church was
+spread as far afield as Air;<a id="FNanchor_360"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> and this is possible,
+for traces of Christianity from the Nile Valley can probably be
+found in the Chad area. It may, on the other hand, merely mean that
+there was a North African element in the racial composition of the
+Goberawa; and this is certainly true, for the Hausa people are not
+pure Negroes. Gober was the most northern Hausa state, and later
+the home of Othman dan Fodio, the founder of the Fulani
+empire.<a id="FNanchor_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361" class=
+"fnanchor">[361]</a> The Agades Chronicle states that the people of
+Daura, who are regarded as the purest of the Hausa, whatever this
+people or race may eventually be proved to be, first ruled in Air;
+but they grew weak and were conquered by the Kanuri, who in their
+turn gave place to the Goberawa.</p>
+<p>Asben is the name by which Air is still known in the Southland,
+and the word is probably of the same root as<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_364">[364]</span> “Abyssinia” and the Arabic “Habesh.” It
+may also perhaps be found in the name Agisymba Regio, but no
+significance need be attached to this, for the name seems to have
+been applied very widely in Africa to countries inhabited by
+negroid people.<a id="FNanchor_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362"
+class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p>
+<p>The exact ethnic origin of the first negroid inhabitants of Air
+or their order does not signify very much, once their racial
+character is established. Although at first sight the presence of
+negroids might seem to account for the peculiar aspect of the city
+of Agades, its true explanation, as we have seen, must be sought
+elsewhere.<a id="FNanchor_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363" class=
+"fnanchor">[363]</a> The date of the foundation of Agades is
+considerably later than the displacement of the early inhabitants
+of Air by the advent of the first Tuareg.</p>
+<p>In addition to the negroid people of Air, the first Tuareg are
+said by Bello to have found some Sanhaja in the country, by which
+term he presumably means some Western Muleththemin, who lived in
+the first or second of Leo’s zones. This is to some extent
+confirmed by Ibn Batutah’s accounts of the tribes which he
+encountered in these parts, but I have been unable to trace their
+descendants with any degree of certainty. Some of their descendants
+may probably be found in Azawagh and Damergu;<a id=
+"FNanchor_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364" class=
+"fnanchor">[364]</a> the Mesufa of Ibn Batutah are also quite
+likely to have been Sanhaja. Another tribe of the same name and
+origin occurs in North-west Morocco.</p>
+<p>The Goberawa capital at this time was T’in Shaman, like the
+later Agades lying at the southern borders of the country, a site
+naturally likely to be selected by a people of equatorial origin
+with homes further south. T’in Shaman or Ansaman is stated by Barth
+to have been some twenty miles from Agades on the road to Auderas;
+but I conceive this may be a slip. I was only able to find the name
+applied in Air to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span>
+the wells of T’in Shaman, which lie in the direction given, but
+scarcely two miles from the city, near the site of the present
+French fort. Although the name appears to be a Libyan form it does
+not follow that the town was of Tuareg origin or was inhabited by
+them in early Goberawa days. Record of it has come to us from
+Tuareg sources, referable to a period when Tuareg and Goberawa were
+living side by side in Air, but we do not know the Goberawa form of
+the name. These two folk were both in the area before the first
+Tuareg immigration, when Libyan influence was already strong in
+Air, and also after the first immigration, but before the second
+brought in a sufficient number of Tuareg to effect the expulsion of
+the Goberawa.<a id="FNanchor_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365"
+class="fnanchor">[365]</a> A certain degree of civilisation must
+have existed in Air even in these early days, for several learned
+men, inhabitants of T’in Shaman, are mentioned by the historians of
+Negroland.<a id="FNanchor_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366" class=
+"fnanchor">[366]</a> That it was not a Tuareg town is further shown
+by the information recorded, that when Agades was eventually
+founded in the fifteenth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>, it
+was from Ir n’Allem and not from T’in Shaman: Ir n’Allem may be
+doubtfully identified with a site north of Agades well within the
+defending hills near Solom Solom.<a id="FNanchor_367"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> Of greater interest
+perhaps is the close analogy between the names of T’in Shaman or
+Ansaman and Nasamones, that great tribe of travellers on the Great
+Syrtis described by Herodotus. There is no doubt that with such
+caravaneers as we know lived in the north, the influence of the
+Tuareg in Air and the South generally must have been great for a
+long time before they settled there.</p>
+<p>Into Air, inhabited by negroids and Sanhaja, came the modern
+Tuareg of Air. What happened to the Goberawa in the process of time
+as a consequence of this movement can easily be assumed. Whatever
+may have been the terms of a peaceful settlement, the negroid
+people were either driven back into Central Africa here as
+elsewhere, or they became the serfs<a id=
+"FNanchor_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368" class=
+"fnanchor">[368]</a> of the conquerors, and were
+incorporated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span> into
+the race as Imghad tribes. The darker element among them must
+certainly in part be accounted for in this manner.</p>
+<p>The modern Tuareg immigrants can broadly be divided into the
+three categories, of which the exact significance has already
+become apparent. They are the Kel Owi tribes who came into the
+country quite recently, the Kel Geres tribes and those septs
+collectively known as the People of the King. Of these, the Kel
+Geres, as well as a once separate but now associated tribe, the
+Itesan, are no longer in Air, but live in an area north of Sokoto,
+whither they migrated in comparatively recent times. It requires to
+be established whether the people who came to Air before the Kel
+Owi, all arrived at much the same time, or in different waves, when
+the respective movements took place, and who in each case were the
+immigrants.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 47</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw5">
+<figure id="i47"><a href="images/i47.jpg"><img src='images/i47.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">SIDI</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<h3><span class="sc">The First Immigration</span></h3>
+<p>Before attacking these problems, it will be necessary, because
+relevant to their solution, to consider the direction from which
+the invasion took place. Tuareg traditions without any exception
+ascribe a northern home to the race. They maintain that they
+reached Air from that direction in different waves at different
+times and by different routes. Ask any Tuareg of the older tribes
+about the history of his people and he will say, for instance: “My
+people, the Kel Tadek, have been in the country since the beginning
+of the world,” but he will add in the same breath: “But we are a
+people from the north, from far away, not like the niggers of the
+south.” They have a story to the effect that the Sultan of Stambul,
+seeing how North Africa was over-populated,<a id=
+"FNanchor_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369" class=
+"fnanchor">[369]</a> ordered the tribes which had taken refuge on
+the borders of the Libyan desert in the region of Aujila and the
+Eastern Fezzan to migrate and spread the true religion far afield.
+The Tuareg, with the Itesan leading, thereupon came into Air. Now,
+whatever else they were,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_367">[367]</span> the Libyans at the time of these early
+movements were, of course, not Moslems, nor is it likely that any
+Khalif or Emperor at Constantinople intervened in the way
+suggested. There is not even any reason to suppose that the
+migration occurred in the Moslem era, though we are not as yet
+concerned with dates. Such details as these are picturesque
+embellishments added in the course of time to popular tradition. I
+can agree that the Tuareg came <em>from</em> the north; but I am
+less than certain that they came <em>by</em> the north.</p>
+<p>North of Air, about half-way between the wells of Asiu and the
+Valley of T’iyut, there is a small hill called Maket n’Ikelan,
+which means in Temajegh, “The Mecca (or shrine) of the
+Slaves.”<a id="FNanchor_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370" class=
+"fnanchor">[370]</a> This is said to have been the northernmost
+boundary of the old kingdom of Gober. At Maket n’Ikelan the custom
+was preserved among passing Tuareg caravans of allowing the slaves
+to make merry and dance and levy a small tribute from their
+masters. The hill was probably a pagan place of worship, but is
+important from the historical point of view, because tradition
+represents, somewhat erroneously as regards details, that there,
+“when the Kel Owi took possession of old Gober with its capital at
+T’in Shaman, a compromise was entered into between the Red
+conquerors and the Black natives, that the latter should not be
+destroyed and that the principal chief of the Kel Owi should be
+allowed to marry a black woman.” The story is interesting, though
+there has evidently been a slight confusion of thought, because
+there was already a large Tuareg population in Air before the Kel
+Owi came comparatively late in history; and it is not they who were
+the first Tuareg in the plateau. The marriage of the red chief with
+a black slave woman may be an allusion, and perhaps a direct one,
+to the practice associated with the Sultan of Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371" class=
+"fnanchor">[371]</a></p>
+<p>With the old frontier of Gober at Maket n’Ikelan one<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> might from this story have
+supposed that the first Tuareg invaders met the original
+inhabitants of the country there and came to an agreement regarding
+an occupation of the northern mountains, whence they eventually
+overran the whole plateau. Although such a conclusion would seem to
+be borne out by such traditions as I have quoted of a descent from
+the north, the weight of evidence indicates the south-east as the
+direction from which the first Tuareg actually came. But this will
+be seen to be not incompatible with a northern home for the race.
+The view is only in conflict with the Maket n’Ikelan tradition if
+the latter is interpreted literally. The terms of the settlement of
+treaty need only be associated with a point in Northern Air,
+inasmuch as the site in question marked the frontier of the old
+kingdom of Gober, which the Tuareg eventually took over in its
+entirety from its ancient possessors. It need not be supposed that
+the Treaty was made <em>at</em> Maket n’Ikelan. I regard this old
+frontier point as merely symbolic of the event.</p>
+<p>The testimony of Sultan Bello regarding the first migration of
+the People of the Veil is most helpful.<a id=
+"FNanchor_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372" class=
+"fnanchor">[372]</a> “Adjoining Bornu, on the south side, is the
+province of Air (<em>i.e.</em> on the south side of Air). It is
+inhabited by the Tuareg and by some remnants of the Sanhaja and the
+Sudanese. This province was formerly in the hands of the Sudanese
+inhabitants of Gober, but five tribes of the Tuareg, called
+Amakeetan, Tamkak, Sendal, Agdalar, and Ajaraneen, came out of
+Aowjal<a id="FNanchor_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373" class=
+"fnanchor">[373]</a> and conquered it. They nominated a prince for
+themselves from the family of Ansatfen, but they quarrelled among
+themselves and dismissed him.” Bello thereupon goes on to describe
+the Arabian origin of the Tuareg people.</p>
+<p>I agree with Barth<a id="FNanchor_374"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> that these five tribes
+probably did not come from Aujila oasis itself, but his remark that
+one of the five tribes was “the Aujila tribe” is surely a
+mistake.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span> Bello
+distinctly speaks of the five tribes by name as having come
+<em>from</em> Aowjal. Aujila seems never to have been the name of a
+people. As far back as Herodotus<a id="FNanchor_375"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> it is already a place
+name. As for Bello’s reference to the selection of a ruler from a
+slave family, it is probably an allusion to the practice we have
+already examined,<a id="FNanchor_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376"
+class="fnanchor">[376]</a> for Ansatfen, <em>i.e.</em> n’Sattafan,
+means “of the black ones,” from the word “sattaf” = “black.” The
+fact that according to the Agades Chronicle the ninth Sultan was
+called Muhammad Sottofé (the Black), who ruled from <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> 1486-93, and is referred to in Sudanese records,
+in some measure confirms the accuracy of Bello’s history.</p>
+<p>The story that the first Tuareg came from Aujila is nothing more
+than a reflection of their own tradition that they came from a far
+country in the north-east, where one of the most important and
+well-known points was this oasis, whence people had long been in
+the habit of trading as far afield as Kawar and even Gao. Aujila
+was a northern caravan terminus. The trade between Aujila and
+Kawar, as early as the twelfth century, is referred to by
+Idrisi,<a id="FNanchor_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377" class=
+"fnanchor">[377]</a> and this reference is the more interesting as
+it indicates, though at a later period than that of the first
+Tuareg invasion of Air, a steady stream of traffic organised by the
+North-eastern Tuareg down the Chad road to Bornu and Kanem. This is
+most significant; it had probably been going on since the days
+perhaps of the Nasamonian merchant adventurers.</p>
+<p>The Agades Chronicle, on the authority of the learned Ibn
+Assafarani, says that the first Tuareg who came to Air were the Kel
+Innek, under a ruler called the Agumbulum; and that other Tuareg
+followed them. Now, Kel Innek means literally “The People of the
+East”; it is primarily a generic or descriptive term, and not a
+tribal proper name. Ibn Assafarani wrote from Asben, where the
+eastern country always and necessarily means the area around Lake
+Chad. Bello further mentions that when the Kanuri entered
+Kanem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> they settled
+there as strangers under the government of the Amakeetan, one of
+the five tribes previously mentioned as the first to enter Air. He
+also refers to the latter by the general name of Kel Innek. Again,
+one of the two tribes in Elakkos, between Air and Lake Chad, are
+the Immikitan, while we know from Leo that the Lemta Tuareg
+occupied an area extending from the north-eastern Fezzan to Kuka on
+Lake Chad.<a id="FNanchor_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378" class=
+"fnanchor">[378]</a> This evidence, therefore, leads one to the
+conclusion that the first Tuareg, or at any rate some of the first
+Tuareg, to enter Air were not migrants from the north, that is to
+say, from Ghat or Ahaggar, but from Kanem and from Bornu in the
+south-east, which parts are racially connected with the Fezzan and
+not with the former areas. In the course of these movements a group
+of Immikitan remained in Elakkos, which, we have seen on the quite
+distinct evidence of the Ilagwas, was in any case connected with
+the Lemta country of the north.</p>
+<p>There exists to-day a sub-tribe of the Itesan bearing the name
+of Kel Innek. On the analogy of what occurred among the Kel
+Ahamellen, among the Ahaggaren, and in recent years in Air also
+among the Kel Tafidet, it is almost certain that we have an example
+here of a name originally applied to a sub-tribe and the whole
+group simultaneously but now used to differentiate a sub-tribe
+only. The Itesan of to-day, in spite of their connection with the
+Kel Geres, were, as will be explained later on, among the original
+invaders of Air, a fact which might in any case have been deduced
+from the survival among them, and not among other confederations,
+of the name Kel Innek.</p>
+<p>It appears unnecessary when such an easy interpretation of the
+available evidence is forthcoming, and above all when some of the
+names accurately recorded by Bello are still traceable in Air, to
+assume that they are erroneous. I cannot follow Barth at all when
+he is dealing with these early tribes. He seems to have created
+difficulties where they do not exist. It is not necessary to
+suppose that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span>
+five tribes came into Air to form an entrepôt for their trade
+between Negroland and Aujila or the north-east generally; the
+suggestion is so far-fetched that even Barth admitted that the
+whole affair was peculiar.<a id="FNanchor_379"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p>
+<p>If an invasion of Air from the south-east took place, what
+provoked it? In order to establish even an approximate date, which
+Jean puts at about <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 800, without,
+however, giving his reasons, a digression into the story of Bornu
+is necessary.</p>
+<p>Bello, referring to the people east of Lake Chad, mentions an
+early invasion from the Yemen as far as Bornu. He calls the
+invaders “Barbars,”<a id="FNanchor_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380"
+class="fnanchor">[380]</a> which name, however, he seems later to
+transfer to the Tuareg, finally, however, reserving it for the
+Kanuri. Europeans nowadays, adding considerably to the confusion,
+have called the Libyans “Berbers” and the Kanuri “Beriberi.” The
+invasion from the Yemen is reported to have taken place under
+Himyer, but on the showing of El Masa’udi’s history, probably the
+most valuable for so mythical a period, Himyer has been confused
+with another hero, Ifrikos. There are other references to an
+invasion from Arabia across Africa in various authorities,
+including Ibn Khaldun. Whether the invaders were the Kanuri, as the
+name “Barbar” given to them by Bello seems to imply, or whether
+they displaced the Kanuri, causing the latter to move into Kanem
+and settle as strangers under the rule of the Immikitan, then
+resident in that region, or whether, in fine, the Kanuri are not a
+race but a congeries of people, it is both difficult and irrelevant
+here to determine. In the first case there are no difficulties
+about the application of the name Barbar to the Kanuri; in the
+second, the participation of the Kanuri in a movement connected
+with a people from Arabia might easily lead Bello to a confusion
+resulting in his identification of the Kanuri with, and his
+application of Barbar to, the latter. After the settlement of the
+Kanuri in Kanem and Bornu<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_372">[372]</span> under the Tuareg, the name Barbar,
+originally that of the subject people, came to be applied to the
+inhabitants of the country as a whole, thus including the Tuareg.
+The persistence of the name is the more easily accounted for by the
+predominance later on of the people to whom it originally belonged,
+in spite of their situation in the beginning, for, as we shall see
+later, the Tuareg, their masters in the early days, were gradually
+displaced in Kanem and Bornu at a period which might coincide with
+their invasion of Air.</p>
+<p>The history of Kanem and Bornu, at first under a single
+government, is recorded in a chronicle collected by Barth.<a id=
+"FNanchor_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381" class=
+"fnanchor">[381]</a> It is, of course, not entirely trustworthy,
+but the salient facts are reasonably correct. The first king of
+Kanem, Sef, doubtfully referred to about <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> 850, founded a dynasty and reigned over
+Berbers,<a id="FNanchor_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382" class=
+"fnanchor">[382]</a> Tebu, and people of Kanem. This dynasty,
+called Duguwa, after the name of the grandson of Sef, continued
+until the end of the reign of Abd el Jelil or Selma I, who was
+succeeded in 1086 by Hume, the first king of the Beni Hume dynasty.
+Hume was reputed to be the son of Selma I, and the change of name
+in the ruling dynasty is attributed to the fact that the former was
+the first Moslem ruler,<a id="FNanchor_383"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> whereas his predecessors
+were not. The chronology is confirmed by El Bekri’s
+statement,<a id="FNanchor_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384" class=
+"fnanchor">[384]</a> written towards the end of the Beni Dugu
+dynasty, that Arki, the ante-penultimate king of the line in 1067,
+was a pagan. The dynastic change of name is even more important
+when the ethnic relation of the kings of the Beni Dugu and the Beni
+Hume are examined. During the period of the Beni Dugu, Bornu,
+according to Sultan Bello, was under the rule of the Tuareg. In the
+Chronicle two of the Duguwa kings are stated to have had mothers of
+the Temagheri tribe, while another was descended from a woman of
+the Beni Ghalgha bearing the Libyan name of Tumayu. The
+name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span> Beni Ghalgha
+reminds one perhaps only fortuitously of the Kel Ghela,<a id=
+"FNanchor_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385" class=
+"fnanchor">[385]</a> while Temagheri may simply be a variant for
+Temajegh, which of course is the female form in the Air dialect of
+Imajegh, meaning a Tuareg noble, though I am told this etymology is
+unlikely. The importance of the women in the ancestry of these
+kings, as among all the Tuareg, is emphasised by the mention of
+their names. With the Beni Hume, on the other hand, the alliances
+seem to have been contracted, no longer with Tuareg women, but from
+Hume’s successor, Dunama I, till the reign of Abd el Jelil or Selma
+II, with Tebu women. In any event there are good reasons to believe
+that the change in the name of the dynasty at the end of Selma I’s
+reign in 1086 means more than a mere change in religion; it marks
+the passing of the power of the Tuareg in Bornu.<a id=
+"FNanchor_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386" class=
+"fnanchor">[386]</a></p>
+<p>The year 1086 may therefore also mark approximately the first
+wave of the Tuareg migration into Air. The immigration was probably
+gradual, since tradition records no single event or cataclysm to
+account for the changes which took place, which have, on the
+contrary, to be deduced from stories like that of Maket n’Ikelan
+and the change in the name of a dynasty. But 1086 is probably the
+latest date of the migration into Air and it may have been earlier.
+The invaders were the five tribes already mentioned, together with
+or including others which it would be difficult to trace by name,
+though one of them was probably the Itesan. All the tribes
+concerned can be traced among the People of the King, most of them
+in Air, though the Igdalen are on the south-eastern fringe of the
+plateau. The Itesan, whose dominant position in Air involved them
+in the vicissitudes of the Kel Geres, shared in their expulsion
+from the mountains.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span>
+But the others belong to the Amenokal, and none of them to that
+later personage, the Añastafidet.</p>
+<p>The Beni Hume dynasty in Bornu may be regarded as a Tebu dynasty
+or a negroid dynasty with Tebu alliances. The Chronicle makes this
+line continue until its expulsion from Kanem by the Bulala, a
+negroid people from east of Lake Chad, early in the fourteenth
+century, and its final extinction with the Bulala conquest of Bornu
+itself in the fifteenth century. The Beni Hume line seems in
+reality to have terminated in 1177, when Abdallah, or Dala, came to
+the throne. His half-brother, Selma II, is described as the first
+black king of Bornu, his predecessors having been fair-skinned like
+the Arabs. It is this reign which really seems to mark the advent
+to power of the negroid Kanuri, to which Bello makes allusion, even
+if it is not to be looked for earlier with the rise of the Beni
+Hume themselves. Bello describes the occurrence in the following
+terms:<a id="FNanchor_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387" class=
+"fnanchor">[387]</a> “They came to Kanem and settled there as
+strangers under the government of the Tawarek . . . but they soon
+rebelled against them and usurped the country.” But I am
+nevertheless not disposed to consider the Beni Hume negroid Kanuri,
+so much as a Tebu or similar stock,<a id=
+"FNanchor_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388" class=
+"fnanchor">[388]</a> for, in the reign of Dunama II, the son of
+Selma II, we find, after a series of marriages with Tebu women, an
+apparently definite change of policy. No more Tebu women are
+recorded as the mothers of kings, and instead the great Dunama II,
+who ruled from 1221 to 1259, waged a war which lasted seven years,
+seven months and seven days against these people. As the result of
+this campaign he extended the jurisdiction of the empire of Kanem
+over the Fezzan, which remained within its borders for over a
+century.<a id="FNanchor_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389" class=
+"fnanchor">[389]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span>The fall of the
+Duguwa in Bornu at the end of the eleventh century was, then, the
+ultimate reason for the first Tuareg invasion of Air. We should
+thus have a fairly satisfactory date were it not probably to be
+regarded only as the latest limiting date, since the overthrow of
+the Tuareg dynasty probably only marked the culmination in Bornu of
+a steadily growing ethnic pressure from the east and north. An
+additional reason for assuming a late date for the invasion of Air
+is the detail recorded by Bello, that when the Kel Innek arrived
+they found some Sanhaja tribes already there. Now the true Sanhaja
+confederation was not brought into being until the beginning of the
+eleventh century, the most probable period for tribes of this
+division to have wandered as far afield as Air. It follows that the
+invasion of the Kel Innek should be placed later than that or
+towards the end of the century.</p>
+<p>There is scarcely any evidence regarding the earliest period at
+which it might have taken place. It may be possible to arrive at an
+estimate, when the results of further researches into the history
+of Bornu have been made public. It would be most interesting to
+learn, for instance, when the first Tuareg reached Bornu and Kanem.
+Is their presence there as a ruling caste to be ascribed to the
+very early days, or are they to be considered as having come in at
+a comparatively late epoch? It is difficult to reconcile their
+presence there in the earliest times with their failure to fuse to
+a greater extent with the local negroid population and their
+consequent retention of the individuality which they still
+possessed when they entered Air.</p>
+<p>In the four centuries preceding <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+850, when the first Beni Dugu king ascended the throne, there are
+no recorded events in North Africa very likely to have caused
+extensive emigration of the Tuareg of the Fezzan to Equatoria,
+other than the Arab conquest; the only other invasion, that of
+Chosroes with the Persians in <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 616,
+does not seem to have had a far-reaching effect, or to have been
+accompanied by foreign immigration on a large scale. The first
+invasion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span> of the
+Arabs in the seventh century was only small and at first did not
+cause widespread ethnic disturbances.<a id=
+"FNanchor_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390" class=
+"fnanchor">[390]</a> Okba invaded the Fezzan in <span class=
+"sc2">A.H.</span> 46 with only a small expeditionary force; the
+previous expedition of <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 26 was
+probably not larger. Arab pressure only began to become intense in
+the eighth century, when the conquest of Spain after Tariq’s
+exploits in <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 710 had become an
+accomplished fact. And then there followed another pause until the
+Hillalian invasion in the eleventh century took place.</p>
+<p>On the other hand, the presence of Tuareg in the earliest days
+in the lands east of Lake Chad would find some justification in the
+position recorded of the Temahu in the southern part of the Libyan
+desert by Egyptian records. They might also explain the mysterious
+Blemmyes and the Men with Eyes in their Stomachs referred to by the
+classical authors.</p>
+<p>On the whole I prefer not to speculate too much along these
+lines for fear of plunging into deep waters connected with the
+people of the upper Nile basin. I shall simply regard the Tuareg of
+Bornu as a part of the Lemta of the Fezzan, which we may assume
+from various sources they were. In consequence, however slender the
+evidence, it becomes difficult to avoid the conclusion that the
+Tuareg reached Bornu from the north along the Bilma road in the
+course of the Arab invasions of the eighth century. They remained
+as rulers of the country until they were driven from there also, in
+consequence of increasing Arab pressure in the Fezzan and in
+Equatoria itself, for in the middle of the eleventh century the
+Hillal and Soleim Arabs are found extending their conquests as far
+as Central Africa. Their fighting under Abu Zeid el Hillali against
+the Alamt (Lemta) Tuareg in the Fezzan is still remembered in the
+traditions of the Equatorial Arab tribes.</p>
+<p>All we can say with any degree of certainty is that somewhere
+between the eighth and eleventh centuries the Lemta Tuareg
+eventually emigrated from the Chad countries.<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_377">[377]</span> In due course the first five tribes
+reached Air, with Elakkos and Damergu behind them already occupied.
+But in Air they only peopled the whole land later on. Some of the
+Tuareg of this emigration never entered Air at all or stayed in
+Damergu, but moved still further west to form with other groups
+from the north the Tademekkat and Kel el Suk, as well as some of
+the communities of Tuareg on the Niger. Subsequent historical
+events isolated the Air tribes, and when other waves of Tuareg
+joined them, their original relationship with the western Tuareg
+and the Aulimmiden had been forgotten. The origin of the latter is
+to be explained in this wise, and not by supposing that they
+arrived from Mauretania, as Barth would have it.<a id=
+"FNanchor_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391" class=
+"fnanchor">[391]</a> The further westward movement of the Tuareg
+from Lake Chad is borne out by a reference in Ibn Khaldun’s works
+to some Itesan<a id="FNanchor_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392"
+class="fnanchor">[392]</a> under the name of Beni Itisan among the
+Sanhaja.</p>
+<p>Tradition represents that the oldest people in Air are those
+known to-day as the People of the King and the Itesan to whom the
+most evolved handiwork in the plateau, including the deep wells, is
+attributed. With the Itesan are associated all the older and more
+remarkable houses in Air. The form and construction of these
+buildings evidently had a great influence on the subsequent
+inhabitants, but as they are all found in an already evolved type,
+it is clear that the tradition and experience necessary for
+building them must have been brought from elsewhere. In accepting
+the view that these houses are the work of the Itesan and not of
+the later immigrants I can only follow the unanimous opinion of the
+natives to-day, who are, if anything, too prone to attribute
+anything remarkable to them. It may, of course, be discovered later
+that the Itesan had nothing to do with any of these works, and it
+is all the more curious that in their present habitat north of
+Sokoto they should have shown no similar architectural
+propensities. It is also strange<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_378">[378]</span> that most of the “Kel names” among the
+Itesan are derived from places west of the Central massifs, while
+most of the large settlements containing the best so-called
+“Itesan” houses are on the east side. But the houses and wells in
+Air do not seem to be associated with the Kel Geres, with whom the
+Itesan now live, and there seems to be no doubt whatever in the
+minds of the natives that they are the works of the latter and not
+of other immigrants.</p>
+<p>The architectural technique shows that the race was in process
+of cultural decay when it reached Air, and that under the influence
+of new environment the memory and tradition of this civilisation
+were lost with remarkable rapidity. The succession of events and
+the causes culminating in the migration of the Chad Tuareg are not
+inconsistent with such a decline of culture, but only a thorough
+investigation of the Fezzan will probably throw any light upon its
+derivation.</p>
+<p>The popular view of the origin of these stone buildings bears
+out the separate identity of the Itesan and the Kel Geres. It is
+obvious that the two divisions must have entered Air at different
+times; and since the Itesan were therefore among the first
+invaders, the Kel Geres must have come in later. This traditional
+version is further consistent with facts already noticed, in that
+among the People of the King in Air and among the Itesan it is
+possible to trace the names of the first recorded tribes to enter
+Air, whereas their names do not occur among the Kel Geres. Apart
+from proving the separate origin of the Itesan and the Kel Geres,
+these facts leave little room for doubt that the Itesan formed part
+of the group that was the first to invade the plateau.</p>
+<p>The names of the five tribes, mentioned by Bello in his history,
+were, as we have seen above, the Immikitan, the Igdalen, the
+Ijaranen, the Tamgak, and the Sendal. Of these the Immikitan are
+found with the Igdalen among the People of the King in Air to-day,
+while the Ijaranen survive among the Itesan tribes who now live in
+the south. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span>
+Sendal and the Tamgak are mentioned as late as 1850 in the Agades
+Chronicle, when there is no doubt that they were a people of the
+king, since they are referred to as the allies of the Sultan Abd el
+Qader in a war against the Kel Geres.</p>
+<p>The first Tuareg lived in Air as a minority and as foreigners.
+It is possible they represented only a fraction of the Tuareg who
+were moving and that the greater part went on into the west. The
+Agades Chronicle, describing the advent of the Itesan, records that
+they “. . . . said to the Goberawa, ‘We want a place in your town
+to settle.’ The Goberawa refused at first to give them a place, but
+in the end agreed. The Itesan refused the place as a gift, but
+bought a house for 1000 dinars. Into this house they led their
+chief, and from there he ruled the Tuareg of the desert. War,
+however, soon ensued between the Goberawa, supported by the
+Abalkoran, and the Itesan. The result of this war was that the
+Goberawa went back into Hausaland, while the Abalkoran went west
+into the land of the Aulimmiden.” The Abalkoran had just before in
+the Chronicle been described as a priestly caste associated with
+the Goberawa, but among the Air Tuareg the name Iberkoran or
+Abalkoran is the name of the Aulimmiden themselves. The record has
+suffered chronological compression, but clearly implies that the
+Goberawa were still in South Air at a time when the Aulimmiden had
+already reached their habitat west of the mountains. The latter is
+an event which some authorities consider fairly recent, but my
+view, already put forward elsewhere, is that the Aulimmiden are not
+a group of Hawara people who left the Fezzan some time between 1200
+and 1300, as Ibn Khaldun suggests, nor yet people from Mauretania;
+I prefer to believe that they are Lemta who originally migrated to
+their present habitat from the Chad regions at much the same time
+as the first Tuareg invasion of Air took place.</p>
+<p>The statement that the Abalkoran left Air to join the Aulimmiden
+tends to support the view that this Air invasion was only part of a
+general westerly movement.</p>
+<h3><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span><span class=
+"sc">The Second Immigration</span></h3>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> second wave of immigration was that
+of the Kel Geres. Jean believed that the Kel Geres were among the
+first arrivals because he wrongly assumed that they were identical
+with the Itesan. An examination of the names of the various
+groups<a id="FNanchor_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393" class=
+"fnanchor">[393]</a> discloses the fact that whereas many Itesan
+tribes have “Kel names” derived from known localities in Central
+Air, for the most part in the Auderas neighbourhood, of the Kel
+Geres tribes only the Kel Garet, Kel Anigara and the Kel Agellal
+have names similarly derived.<a id="FNanchor_394"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> Traditionally the Kel
+Geres reached Air by way of the north. They also are associated
+with the story of over-population in the Mediterranean lands. They
+arrived, according to Jean, in considerable numbers, and settled in
+the part of Air which is west of the road from Iferuan to Agades by
+way of Assode and Auderas.<a id="FNanchor_395"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> East of this line in
+later days lived the Kel Owi, and presumably, at this early period,
+the original five tribes. The assumption is confirmed by certain
+evidence, for although the Itesan tribe names refer to an area
+lying across this line, the only territorial Kel Geres tribe names
+refer to an area west of it; the country, on the other hand, known
+to have been occupied by some of the first immigrants is, as would
+be expected, to the east. With the exception of the Igdalen, who
+moved in recent years, most of the older People of the King were
+also east of this line, before the Kel Owi scattered them.</p>
+<p>The present Itesan-Kel Geres group in the Southland is said to
+number forty-seven tribes divided as follows:<a id=
+"FNanchor_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396" class=
+"fnanchor">[396]</a></p>
+<table class="padded2" id="t381">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_381">[381]</span>Itesan</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">6</td>
+<td class="tdl-top">tribes of the</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Itesan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top">Kel Geres</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">12</td>
+<td class="tdc-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+<span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tetmokarak.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr-top">6</td>
+<td class="tdc-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+<span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Unnar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr-top">5</td>
+<td class="tdc-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+<span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Anigara.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr-top">6</td>
+<td class="tdc-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+<span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Garet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr-top">12</td>
+<td class="tdc-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+<span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tadadawa and Kel Tatenei.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The principal tribal names of the Itesan which retain the more
+familiar place names of Air are the Kel Mafinet, Kel T’sidderak,
+Kel Dogam and Kel Bagezan or Maghzen, all of them derived from
+places in the neighbourhood of Auderas.<a id=
+"FNanchor_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397" class=
+"fnanchor">[397]</a> Among the Kel Geres the name of the Kel Garet
+records a habitat somewhat further north, the Kel Agellal of the
+Kel Unnar probably came from Agellal, and the Kel Anigara from an
+area still further north.</p>
+<p>It is difficult to accept the view that the first Tuareg to
+enter Air arrived in the eighth century, even if it is only for the
+reason that the surviving “Itesan” houses could not for so long a
+time have remained in the state of preservation in which some of
+them are now found. I am personally not disposed to regard the
+first immigration as having taken place much before the latest date
+previously suggested as a limit, namely, the end of the eleventh
+century.</p>
+<p>The invasion of the first tribes left the mountains with a mixed
+population of Tuareg and Goberawa; the disappearance of the latter
+as a separate race was only accomplished when the second or Kel
+Geres invasion took place. The Kel Geres so added to the Tuareg
+population in Air that henceforward the country must be regarded as
+essentially Tuareg, and this probably accounts for the tradition
+that the Kel Geres conquered the country, and as they came in both
+from the north and by the north, it doubtless gave rise to legends
+such as that of Maket n’Ikelan.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span>Failing more
+definite evidence than we now possess, I regard the Kel Geres
+movement as a part of a Hawara-Auriga emigration from the north to
+which Ibn Khaldun alludes. This does not exclude the possibility of
+some nuclei of Hawara having gone west of Air to join either the
+Aulimmiden or the Tademekkat or both groups. In fact, such a course
+of events would explain the distant affinity with, yet independence
+of, the Aulimmiden which is insisted upon by many authorities. We
+know that by the time Leo was writing he regarded both Ahaggar and
+Air as inhabited by Targa, while the Fezzan and the Chad road were
+inhabited by Lemta. The Ahaggaren I have previously tried to show
+were, in the main, Hawara. Now the advent in Air of a large mass
+from this division under the name of Kel Geres would warrant his
+grouping of both plateaux under one ethnic heading. The Hawara
+movement from the Western Fezzan and between Ghat and Ahaggar may
+be placed in the twelfth century, and therefore not so very far
+removed from the first immigration into Air from the south-east. It
+can also be accounted for by similar causes, namely, the growing
+pressure of the Arabs, perhaps as a sequel to the Hillalian
+invasion.</p>
+<p>Following the two initial migrations, it may be assumed that
+small nuclei of Tuareg continued to reach Air. These would to-day
+be represented by such of the People of the King as are not to be
+connected with either the first five tribes or with the Kel
+Geres.</p>
+<h3><span class="sc">The Third Immigration</span></h3>
+<p>The third wave was that of the Kel Owi. On Barth and Hornemann’s
+authority they arrived in modern times, while according to Jean
+they arrived in the ninth century. Barth’s researches, which in all
+cases are more reliable than those of Jean, who appears usually to
+have accepted native dates without hesitation, led him to believe
+that the Kel Owi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span>
+entered, in fact conquered Air, about <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+1740. They are not mentioned by Leo or any other writers before the
+time of Hornemann (<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1800), who
+obtained such good information about them that his commentator,
+Major Rennell, also assumed their arrival to be recent.<a id=
+"FNanchor_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398" class=
+"fnanchor">[398]</a> By the end of the nineteenth century the Kel
+Owi had already achieved such fame that of all Tuareg known to him,
+Hornemann only mentions them. He adds in his account that Gober was
+at this time tributary to Air, a detail consistent with other
+records. Barth’s very late date<a id="FNanchor_399"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> for the arrival of the
+Kel Owi nevertheless presents certain difficulties. It is clear on
+the one hand that it could not have been the Kel Owi who made the
+arrangement of Maket n’Ikelan, and that it must therefore have been
+the Kel Geres or their predecessors, but it is further difficult to
+see how a people could have entered Air in such numbers as to
+become the preponderant group within barely one hundred years and
+to have evicted the firmly rooted Kel Geres tribes so soon. That
+the Kel Owi should have appropriated the historical credit for the
+settlement of Maket n’Ikelan is easy to understand, for it was they
+who held the trade route to the north out of the country, but the
+early expulsion of the Kel Geres indicates a numerical superiority
+which, unfortunately, native tradition does not bear out.</p>
+<p>It is noteworthy that no Kel Owi tribe is represented in the
+election of the king, which supports the view that they had not yet
+reached Air when the local system of government from Agades was
+devised.</p>
+<p>“The vulgar account of the origin of the Kel Owi from the female
+slave of a Tinylcum who came to Asben where she gave birth to a boy
+who was the progenitor of the Kel Owi . . . is obviously nothing
+but a popular tale. . . .”<a id="FNanchor_400"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p>
+<p>The story collected by Jean, which purports to
+explain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span> the two
+categories of tribes in Air to-day, the Kel Owi confederation and
+the People of the King, is not more authentic.<a id=
+"FNanchor_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401" class=
+"fnanchor">[401]</a> He tells how, after the arrival of the Sultan
+in Air, the Kel Geres kept away from his presence, while the Kel
+Owi ingratiated themselves and secured their own administration
+under the Añastafidet. The Sultan, however, wishing to create his
+own tribal group, divided the Kel Owi amongst themselves, and this
+is the origin of the People of the Añastafidet and the People of
+the King. In their efforts to ingratiate themselves, the Kel Owi of
+Bagezan which, as we have seen, was Itesan country at the time,
+sent as a present to the Sultan a woman named T’iugas with her six
+daughters of the Imanen tribe of the north; these women had been
+sent from the north to cement good relations between Air and
+Azger.<a id="FNanchor_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402" class=
+"fnanchor">[402]</a> The six sisters nominated the eldest as their
+speaker and the Sultan gave her authority over the rest. She was
+followed by the next two sisters, and these three are the mothers
+of the three senior tribes of the Kel Owi, namely, the Kel Owi
+proper, the Kel Tafidet and the Kel Azañieres.<a id=
+"FNanchor_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403" class=
+"fnanchor">[403]</a> The other three women refused to accept the
+leadership of the eldest sister and placed themselves under the
+authority of the Sultan direct; and they were the mothers of the
+Kel Tadek, Imezegzil and Kel Zilalet.<a id=
+"FNanchor_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404" class=
+"fnanchor">[404]</a> The details of the story are obviously a Kel
+Owi invention. They are designed to establish nobility and equality
+of ancestry with the older and more respected tribes. The legend,
+however, probably also contains certain indications of truth,
+notably in the allusion to the Imanen women from the north, since
+there does exist an affinity<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_385">[385]</span> between that tribe and the Itesan, though
+it must, of course, be understood that the Kel Bagezan of the story
+were an Itesan sub-tribe, and not the later Kel Bagezan of the Kel
+Owi group. With these conditions the story becomes intelligible as
+a legendary or traditional account. It is not meant to be taken as
+literally true, and is not even a very widely accepted version of
+the origin of the present social structure in Air, but it is
+amusing, for it shows how on this as on every other occasion the
+Kel Owi have attempted to claim antiquity of descent equal to that
+of the tribes they found on their arrival.</p>
+<p>Two other traditions which I collected are best summarised by
+quoting the following extract from my diary, written while at
+T’imia, a Kel Owi village in the Bagezan mountains. One of the big
+men in the village was the “’alim” ’Umbellu, a fine figure of a
+man, old and bald but still powerful and vigorous, with the heavy
+noble features of a Roman emperor. He used to be the keeper of the
+old mosque, and is said to be one of the most learned men in the
+country. I had examined the ruined sanctuary, in which he had not
+set foot since it was desecrated by the French troops after the
+Kaossen revolt, and found some fragments of holy books, which I
+restored to ’Umbellu in the present mosque at T’imia, a shelter of
+reeds and matting. From him I received the same sort of confused
+account which others besides myself had heard. “. . . He says that
+the Kel Owi are not pure Tuareg, but that some Arabs <em>or</em>
+(<em>sic</em>) Tuareg of the north came down to Northern Air and
+mixed with the local population, which stock became the Kel Owi
+Confederation; but whether these people came as raiders or settlers
+he could not say. He was, however, quite clear that they had come
+from the Arab country.<a id="FNanchor_405"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> Then in almost the same
+breath he told me that the Kel Owi are descended from a woman who
+came from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span> north
+and lived in Tamgak, where she mated with one of the local
+inhabitants and became the mother of all these tribes. He added
+that she was a Moslem at a time when the Kel Ferwan (a non-Kel Owi
+tribe, or People of the King, then living in Iferuan) were heathen,
+but whether Christians or pagan he could not say.”</p>
+<p>The second story is analogous to that which Barth heard.</p>
+<p>Generally speaking traditions give the two separate versions,
+which are rather puzzling. If the account of the woman who settled
+in Tamgak is taken as a legendary record of the indigenous growth
+of the Kel Owi tribes, it must be supposed that their forefathers
+were in Air for much more than two hundred years, and Jean’s date
+would consequently not be out of the question. Against this must be
+set the other version, that they arrived quite recently, a view
+which is supported unanimously by all the other Tuareg. It was, we
+have seen, confirmed by Barth’s researches and deduced by Rennell
+from information collected by Hornemann. The compact organisation
+and the definite division which exists between them and the other
+tribes in Air would also point to their having a separate origin
+and being comparatively recent arrivals; they are still organised
+in an administrative system which has not yet had time to break
+down and merge into the régime of the other tribes. Furthermore, no
+mention is made of the Kel Owi by any of the earlier authors,
+which, if negative evidence, is nevertheless significant in the
+works of an authority like Leo, especially as, apart from the
+ethnic distinction which might have been overlooked, the dual
+government of the King and the Añastafidet is too remarkable a
+feature to have escaped his discernment. The balance of testimony
+is therefore in favour of attributing a fairly recent date to their
+arrival, though perhaps not so late as Barth would have us believe.
+I myself make no doubt that they were late arrivals: I only differ
+with the learned traveller in a small matter of the exact date.</p>
+<p>But what impelled them to migrate it is difficult to
+say.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span> Barth thought
+that they could be traced to an earlier habitat in the north-west,
+and that the nobler portion of them once belonged to the Auraghen
+tribe, whence their dialect was called Auraghiye. I have no
+evidence on this point except that of Ahodu, who gave me to
+understand that the language of the Kel Owi was not different from
+that of any other Tuareg tribe in the plateau, and he added that he
+had not heard the name Auraghiye employed to describe it, though he
+knew that it was applied to the dialect spoken in Ahaggar. Barth’s
+testimony, otherwise, is acceptable.</p>
+<p>Jean is of the impression that they are essentially of the same
+race as the Kel Geres, who were probably Hawara. If this deduction
+is true, three possibilities require to be considered. The Kel Owi
+may have been an Auraghen tribe living to the north or north-east
+of Air among the Azger; or, they may have been among the older
+Auraghen people, to use this term in its wider sense, namely, of
+the Auriga-Hawara, represented by the Ahaggaren, to whom, of
+course, the Azger Auraghen of to-day belong; or, lastly, they may
+be descended from the Auraghen of the west, from the Tademekkat
+country. The last is the soundest view in the present state of our
+knowledge, though the second is also quite probable.</p>
+<p>The Tademekkat people, we know, were driven from their homes in
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1640 by the Aulimmiden. While some of
+them were driven out to the west, some at least found their way
+back into the Azger country.<a id="FNanchor_406"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> It is no less probable
+that others may have gone to Air by a roundabout route. In that
+case Barth’s date for the arrival of the Kel Owi in Air seems to be
+at least fifty years too late. During the last half of the
+sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries they would have been
+finding their way into Northern Air in small groups. This is not
+inconsistent with the appearance at Agades of an Amenokal with a
+Kel Owi mother, if the admittedly tentative date of 1629 given in
+the Agades Chronicle is placed a decade or so later.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span>I am inclined to
+regard the arrival of the Kel Owi in Air as having taken place in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. According to the Agades
+Chronicle they were already fighting the Kel Geres at Abattul, west
+of the Central massif, in 1728, some time before Barth’s date; and
+this obviously implies an earlier arrival in the north of the
+plateau, for their entry must have taken place from that direction
+and not from the south. But a recent date, taken in conjunction
+with the dominant position which the Kel Owi occupied and their
+separate political organisation, further implies that they came in
+considerable numbers, a conclusion which is at variance with one
+set of native traditions. They could not otherwise in two hundred
+years have achieved so much as they did by the beginning of the
+century.</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw13">
+<figure id="map09">
+<p class="cpm">THE MIGRATIONS OF THE AIR TUAREG</p>
+<a href="images/map09.jpg"><img src='images/map09.jpg' alt=
+''></a></figure>
+</div>
+<p>We know that their coming was followed by an economic
+disturbance of far-reaching importance. They first occupied
+North-eastern and Northern Air; the later phase of
+their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span> penetration
+is recorded in the statement that the Kel Owi and the Kel Geres
+lived side by side, west and east of the Iferuan-Auderas-Agades
+road. The eastern plains of Air, according to Ahodu of Auderas and
+’Umbellu of T’imia, had by this time been evacuated by the Itesan
+and the early settlers, but the invasion of the Kel Owi must have
+led also to the expulsion of the early settlers from the northern
+marches. The removal of the Kel Ferwan from the Iferuan area, and
+of the Kel Tadek from their territories north of Tamgak to the west
+and the south, probably took place in this period. The Kel Owi
+movement, though accompanied by frequent disturbances, was gradual.
+At T’imia, where the original inhabitants, according to ’Umbellu,
+were Kel Geres, they were only displaced in the time of his own
+grandparents by a mixed band of settlers from various Kel Owi
+tribes then living in the Ighazar in Northern Air. ’Umbellu is a
+man of about sixty now, so this event may have been one hundred
+years ago, at a time, in fact, when we should still expect the
+southward movement of the Kel Owi to be in progress.</p>
+<p>More recently still the south-eastern part of the country was
+distributed among certain of their clans. The large Itesan
+settlements like those near Tabello had already been abandoned and
+were never again permanently inhabited; some dwellings were built
+later by the Kel Owi, but never on so large a scale as in the
+previous epoch. The extant houses and ruins are mostly of the first
+period; a few only show a transitional phase to the later Kel Owi
+type. Sometimes a compact block of contiguous buildings is to be
+found, possessing the character of a fortified settlement. It would
+seem that this defensible type of habitation had been evolved
+during the period after the Itesan were known to have been driven
+out by Tebu raiding and before the Kel Owi arrived. These dwellings
+betray certain features alien to the Tuareg, which may be explained
+by supposing that they were used by the serfs of the Itesan when
+their lords had retreated west of the Bagezan massif.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span>With the
+occupation of the eastern part of Air by the Kel Owi, the ancient
+caravan road which has run from time immemorial by T’intaghoda,
+Unankara, Mari, Beughqot and Tergulawen fell into their hands. It
+is the easiest road across the Air plateau, and perhaps for this
+reason, but more probably because they always had propensities of
+this sort, they developed such commercial ability that they rapidly
+made for themselves a dominant place in all trade and transport
+enterprises between Ghat and the Sudan. But although their
+efficiency in organisation gave them the control of the road, they
+certainly did not create it. But they did create a monopoly which
+deprived the Kel Geres of their legitimate profit.</p>
+<p>The hostilities which soon broke out between the Kel Owi and the
+Kel Geres could lead to only one of two possible solutions, the
+expulsion or extermination of one of the rivals. Such economic
+problems are, of course, not always realised at the time when they
+are most urgently felt, and the current record of events to which
+they give rise is therefore often slightly distorted. Here,
+however, even the popular version shows that the real cause of the
+disturbances was an economic one. The Kel Owi began by
+appropriating the half of a country in which they were new-comers.
+They proceeded to demand the serfs and slaves whom the Kel Geres
+had possessed since their subjugation of the negroid peoples of
+Air. This impossible demand gave rise to considerable strife and
+was referred for arbitration to the reigning Sultan of Agades. The
+Hausa elements were supported by the Kel Owi for political reasons
+and as far as possible abandoned their former masters. The Sultan
+seems to have maintained the neutrality for which he stood, and
+even to have prevented the tribes which owed allegiance to him
+directly and belonged to neither party from taking sides in the
+dispute.<a id="FNanchor_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407" class=
+"fnanchor">[407]</a> He was nevertheless unsuccessful, and after
+years of desultory fighting the Kel Geres abandoned Air for Adar
+and Gober to the west of Damergu and to the<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_391">[391]</span> north of Sokoto. They retained their
+rights in the election of the Amenokal, to whom they continued to
+owe nominal allegiance through their chiefs, and were allowed to
+continue to use certain Air place-names in their tribal
+nomenclature. In the last century they repeatedly interfered in
+choice of the Sultan, and they still consider themselves to this
+day a part of the Air Tuareg, although their hostility against the
+Kel Owi never died. They evacuated the country with all the slaves
+and serfs whom they succeeded in retaining. It is possible that a
+few of the older non-Kel Owi tribes of Air and Damergu went with
+them.</p>
+<p>If Barth’s date for the arrival of the Kel Owi were accepted,
+this migration should have occurred in the end of the eighteenth
+century. But as a matter of fact the movement took place earlier.
+Jean states that an arrangement for the evacuation was reached in
+the reign of the Sultan Almoubari or El Mubarak, who ruled
+thirty-four years, from <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1653 to 1687.
+If the agreement was made at the end of his reign, the date for the
+immigration of the Kel Owi in accordance with previous information
+falls in the neighbourhood of 1640, to which epoch the reign of
+Sultan Muhammad Attafriya, who was deposed two years after his
+accession by the Itesan, can be assigned. The Kel Geres did not,
+however, leave the country directly the arrangement was made, and
+in the meanwhile continued the struggle. In 1728 the Kel Owi and
+the Itesan were still fighting in Air, the latter being defeated at
+Abattul, near Auderas. Halfway through this century the Itesan were
+fighting in the Southland and attacked Katsina in company with the
+Zamfarawa. It is at this time that the Kel Geres seem to have
+obtained a footing in the lands of Adar and Sokoto, though the
+Itesan still refused to settle there. In 1759 there is recorded a
+war between the Kel Geres and the Kel Tegama at the cliffs of
+Tiggedi, in which the latter were defeated. This war was followed
+by another in 1761 between the Kel Geres and the Aulimmiden, where,
+however, the former suffered. In the same year the Kel
+Owi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span> and the Kel
+Geres fought each other at Agades. In this period the Amenokal
+Muhammad Hammad, who had come to the throne in 1735, changed places
+twice with Muhammad Guma, according as the Kel Owi or the Kel Geres
+faction prevailed. The former, restored to the throne in 1763,
+undertook an expedition with the men of Air against the King of
+Gober, and was severely defeated in 1767. In order to avenge the
+defeat, a truce between the warring Tuareg was finally concluded
+after a century of fighting. The combined men of Air then marched
+on, and defeated Dan Gudde and cut off his head. This event may be
+held to mark the final settlement of the Itesan and Kel Geres in
+the Southland. Their success accounts for Hornemann’s report that
+at the end of the nineteenth century the Tuareg were masters of
+Gober. Internecine hostilities continued, but henceforth the Itesan
+and the Kel Geres are no longer described as fighting the Kel Owi
+but the men of Air, as in 1780 and again in 1788, when they made
+their nominee, Muhammad Dani, Sultan at Agades. In 1835 the
+Amenokal, Guma, was captured in Damergu by the Kel Geres after a
+massacre of the Kel Owi. It was only in about 1860 that
+hostilities, which were in full progress in Barth’s day, finally
+ceased.</p>
+<p>Why, it may be asked, did the Itesan and not all the rest of the
+pre-Kel Geres people of Air leave in consequence of the Kel Owi
+invasion? The question is not easy to answer, but the surmise is
+that, as the largest and most important group, they became most
+involved in the struggle. With their departure and that of the Kel
+Geres the remaining people became leaderless: having no
+confederation of their own they clustered around the person of the
+Sultan, and so came to be known as the People of the King. Yet, on
+account of their ancestry and nobility, the Kel Owi sought to
+attack them and arrogate to themselves the principal rôles in
+history, like the story of the peace of Maket n’Ikelan and that of
+the Imanen women. These claims are consistent with the
+characteristic which is felt to-day in<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_393">[393]</span> relations with them—the arrogance of the
+parvenu. The ascendancy of the noble Itesan has continued in the
+Southland as it existed in Air. They lead the Kel Geres division,
+with whom fate had made them throw in their lot. They remain
+primarily responsible for the choice of the Sultan even to-day.</p>
+<p>Enough—too much perhaps—has been said of the three migrations of
+the Tuareg people into Air. It would be tedious to continue on that
+narrow subject. The complexity of the tribal organisation of the
+Air Tuareg has also been made patent in the earlier attempts to
+discover their social life. It is unfortunately impossible, even if
+space were available, to allocate the various clans of whose
+existence report has reached us to the larger groups or waves of
+immigration which have been examined. Lists of the tribes which
+have survived are given in <a href="#app2">Appendix II</a> to this
+work: they have been arranged in such system as was feasible, using
+the information collected by Barth, and Jean, and by myself. But
+the classification is unsatisfactory, since there is, in many
+instances, but little evidence. The organisation of the Kel Owi is,
+of course, the easiest to ascertain and it was briefly outlined in
+<a href="#c10">Chapter X,</a> but the People of the King are really
+more interesting both because they were the earliest arrivals and
+because of their association with the Itesan culture of the old
+houses and deep wells. Among the People of the King the most
+valuable anthropological data are to be collected. They brought
+such civilisation as Nigeria possessed in the Middle Ages from the
+Mediterranean, having absorbed and forgotten much of it on the way
+and since those epochs.</p>
+<h3><span class="sc">Identification of Extant Tribes</span></h3>
+<p>Before passing on to a brief summary of Central African history
+as a frame into which to fit the Air migrations, I would like to
+leave on record for some future student to use such conclusions as
+I have been able to reach regarding the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_394">[394]</span> descendants of the first invaders of Air
+recorded by Sultan Bello.</p>
+<p>The geographical areas of the Kel Owi and People of the King
+respectively had almost ceased to be distinguishable even before
+the 1917 revolution added to the prevailing confusion. In so far as
+it is at all possible to lay down broad definitions, Central and
+West-central Air belonged to the People of the King, Northern,
+North-eastern and Eastern Air to the Kel Owi, or People of the
+Añastafidet, and Southern Air, or, as it is more properly called,
+Tegama, to the servile tribes. The Talak plain was diversely
+populated.</p>
+<p>The first immigrants, the Immikitan, Sendal, Tamgak, Igdalen,
+Ijaranen and probably Itesan, have for the most part survived in
+some distinguishable form in or around Air. The survivors are all,
+of course, as is to be expected, People of the King. The only
+exceptions are certain nuclei which are known to have been absorbed
+by the Añastafidet and his people.</p>
+<p>In addition to the survivors in Air there are some Igdalen north
+of Tahua, while others are Imghad of the Tarat Mellet<a id=
+"FNanchor_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408" class=
+"fnanchor">[408]</a> tribe of the Ifoghas of the west. These Imghad
+may have been a part of the Air group of Igdalen captured in war,
+or may represent a westward emigration of a part of the stock which
+came on evil days in Damergu. Generally, I regard the presence of
+these Igdalen in the west as confirming Bello’s account of their
+early arrival in the Air area from the east; it may also be taken
+to substantiate my view that the first wave of Tuareg to the El Suk
+country came from the south-east and not from the north.<a id=
+"FNanchor_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409" class=
+"fnanchor">[409]</a></p>
+<p>How far can the tribes which are known to exist to-day or whose
+names have been recorded by modern travellers be associated with
+these groups of early immigrants? A critical examination<a id=
+"FNanchor_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410" class=
+"fnanchor">[410]</a> of the tribes reveals at least six
+main<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> tribal groups
+of the People of the King in Air itself, that is to say, six groups
+in which the respective tribes either acknowledge themselves to be,
+or can be shown to possess, certain affinities pointing to a
+descent from single stocks; but not all of these can with certainty
+be identified with Bello’s named clans. These six extant groups are
+the Kel Ferwan, Kel Tadek, Immikitan, Imezegzil, Imaqoaran and
+Ifadeyen.</p>
+<p>Two of them, in some ways the most important, have no proper
+names of their own at all: both the Kel Ferwan and Kel Tadek are
+named after places, respectively Iferuan in the Ighazar of Northern
+Air, and the Tadek valley. Neither of these groups, which have the
+reputation of great antiquity and nobility, can be affiliated to
+any of the other four groups; they are indubitably separate clans
+which in the course of ages have lost their old “I names.”
+Returning to the five old tribes of Bello we nevertheless find
+certain points of contact between records and actual conditions, as
+well as certain differences:</p>
+<table id="t395">
+<tr>
+<th><em>Bello’s tribes.</em></th>
+<th></th>
+<th colspan="2"><em>Modern groups.</em></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2">Immikitan</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td>
+<td rowspan="2">⎰<br>
+⎱</td>
+<td>Immikitan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Imezegzil.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Igdalen</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Igdalen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ijaranen</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Ijanarnen (of the Itesan).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sendal</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tamgak</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Kel Ferwan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Kel Tadek.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Imaqoaran.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">?</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Ifadeyen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>(Itesan)</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Itesan.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>In discussing tribal origins in Air and comparing my results
+with those of Jean, I found the greatest difficulty in sorting out
+the tribes of the Immikitan and Imezegzil groups: so much so that I
+am inclined to think that both<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_396">[396]</span> clans represent the old Immikitan stock
+which split into two main branches some time ago. The widespread
+use of the name Immikitan for Tuareg makes it possible that the
+original stock of the People of the King was Immikitan in the first
+instance; in that event, on the analogy of other Tuareg tribes,
+when one clan grew unmanageable in size, new groups were formed,
+only one of which retained the original nomenclature as a proper or
+individual name—a process which no doubt occurred before any
+migration out of the Chad area took place. But that is too far back
+to consider.</p>
+<p>Leaving the Ifadeyen out of account for the moment we are left
+with the Kel Ferwan, the Kel Tadek and the Imaqoaran to compete for
+the right of descent from the Tamgak and Sendal. A remote ancestry
+is indicated by their undoubted nobility and antiquity. The
+original home of the Kel Tadek in a valley flowing out of Tamgak
+and the association of the Tamgak tribe with the Tamgak massif
+suggest that these groups may be identified, in which case the
+Sendal might be the ancestors of the Kel Ferwan. Nevertheless there
+is also a possibility that the descendants of the Sendal are the
+old tribes of Damergu. That the descendants of the Sendal are to be
+sought for south of, rather than in Air proper, is further
+indicated by the record of a war between the People of Air against
+the Sendal in Elakkos as late as 1727.<a id=
+"FNanchor_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411" class=
+"fnanchor">[411]</a> The Kel Ferwan, would, thus, be descended from
+the Damergu-Elakkos Tuareg directly, and from the Sendal therefore
+only indirectly, if their origin indeed is to be sought in this
+early wave of immigration at all.</p>
+<p>The selection of the Sultan of Agades being in the hands of the
+tribes who traditionally sent the deputation to Constantinople
+after the arrival of the Kel Geres in Air, and the object of the
+mission being to settle a dispute as to who should be king, it
+would be natural to find all the contestant groups represented on
+the delegation. The Kel Owi would,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_397">[397]</span> of course, not figure among them, for they
+had not at that time reached Air. Now the names of tribes charged
+with sending the delegation is given by Jean, and I accept his
+version because all the information which I procured on the subject
+was very contradictory; and the list is most interesting. It is
+given as: the Itesan and the Dzianara of the modern Itesan-Kel
+Geres group, and the Izagaran, Ifadalen, Imaqoaran and Immikitan of
+the other Tuareg. The Itesan we know about; the Dzianara were a
+noble part of the Kel Geres but are now extinct: it is natural that
+both these should be represented. The Izagaran and Ifadalen survive
+as names of noble Damergu tribes, while the Immikitan and Imaqoaran
+represent the older clans of Air proper, all four, of course, owing
+allegiance to the King. From their “I names” these tribes all seem
+to be old; we have no reason from any other evidence to believe
+that any recent arrivals are represented in the list. The very
+choice of representatives from each of three groups may
+consequently be taken to indicate that these tribes were regarded
+as the oldest or most important units in each division. It is
+tempting, therefore, to suppose that the Izagaran and Ifadalen are
+the descendants of one of the tribes in the first wave of Tuareg
+which came from the south-east, and therefore perhaps of Bello’s
+Sendal.</p>
+<p>Another version of the method adopted to select the first
+Amenokal is recorded in the Agades Chronicle, which states that the
+persons responsible for the task were the Agoalla<a id=
+"FNanchor_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412" class=
+"fnanchor">[412]</a> T’Sidderak, Agoalla Mafinet and Agoalla Kel
+Tagei. The story relates how the Agumbulum, the title of the ruler
+of the first Tuareg to enter Air, namely the Kel Innek, desired to
+settle the differences which had arisen in regard to the
+government, but was unable to find anyone to send to Stambul until
+an old woman called Tagirit offered to send her grandsons, who were
+the chieftains in question. The story emphasises what will have
+been noticed on the subject of the origin of the Kel Owi, namely,
+that the tribes of Air<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_398">[398]</span> generally claim a woman either as
+ancestress or as a prominent head. The first two names are those of
+certain Itesan sub-tribes who, from residence in these mountain
+areas, which still bear the same names in Central Air, had adopted
+geographical Kel names, and conserve them to this day in their
+modern habitats in the Southland. The Kel Tagei is another
+subdivision of the Itesan, and, though a servile tribe of this name
+exists in the Imarsutan section of the Kel Owi, it is probably a
+portion of the former enslaved during the later civil wars of
+Air.<a id="FNanchor_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413" class=
+"fnanchor">[413]</a></p>
+<p>This alternative story is not necessarily contradictory to the
+first version of the deputation to Stambul, even though it does not
+allow the remaining tribes of the People of the King to have a
+share in the election. Since, however, the Itesan were certainly
+the dominant tribe in Air until the arrival of the Kel Owi, the
+omission is comprehensible; it is a statement of a part for the
+whole. If it has any significance it tends to support the view that
+the Itesan were, in fact, a tribe of the Kel Innek from the Chad
+lands, as I have supposed, and not a part of the Kel Geres
+group.</p>
+<p>The Imaqoaran and Kel Ferwan, however, remain a difficult
+problem. The latter are in many ways peculiar and seem to differ in
+many ways so much from their other friends in the division of the
+People of the King, that although I have no direct evidence on the
+subject, I half suspect them of having come to Air from some other
+part than the south-east and at a later period than the first wave.
+Certain it is that they specialised in raiding westward, where they
+obtained their numerous dependent Imghad. Furthermore, in Cortier’s
+account of the history of the Ifoghas n’Adghar there are stories of
+the formation of this western group of Tuareg tending to show that
+while a part of the division probably came from the north, the bulk
+of the immigration was from the east. He says that after the
+Kel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span> el Suk reached
+the southern parts of the Sahara, they divided into two groups. The
+two groups fought, and one section, which had apparently settled in
+Air, was victorious, whereupon a part migrated into the Adghar,
+where the other section had already established itself and had
+founded the town of Tademekka. In the fighting, which continued,
+there seems to have been considerable movement between the two
+mountain groups; the Kel Ferwan portion of the People of the King
+in Air may therefore be more nearly related to the western group
+than to the other Air folk.</p>
+<p>The Ifadeyen are associated with Fadé, which is the northernmost
+part of the Air plateau. To-day they are very friendly with the Kel
+Tadek, and some people have even suggested that they were of the
+same stock. There is, however, another tribe, the Kel Fadé, the
+similarity of whose name suggests, quite erroneously, an
+identification. The Ifadeyen are known to be a very old tribe,
+while the Kel Fadé are known to have been formed at about the time
+of the arrival of the Kel Owi in Air and to have lived in the Fadé
+mountains, whence the Ifadeyen were already moving south. Barth
+speaks of the Kel Fadé as a collection of brigands and vagabonds,
+and implies that they were mainly outlaws of mixed parentage. A
+part of them is certainly Kel Owi and composed of those elements
+which went on living in the northern mountains when the main body
+entered Air, while another part is almost certainly Ifadeyen; as a
+whole they remained outside the Kel Owi Confederation as People of
+the King. Until about thirty years ago the Kel Fadé used to
+maintain that the Ifadeyen were their serfs; after many disputes
+the matter was referred to the paramount chief of the Kel Owi, who,
+after consulting various authorities, decided that the Ifadeyen
+were noble and free. Their chief, Matali, nevertheless preferred to
+evacuate the northern mountains completely in favour of the Kel
+Fadé in order to avoid further friction, and since then, a full
+generation ago, they have been gradually moving south to the
+Azawagh, where they pasture in the winter,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_400">[400]</span> withdrawing to Damergu in the dry season.
+Their original history might have been easier to ascertain had it
+not been for the fact that despite its “I form” their name is a
+placename, though it is possible that they gave their name to Fadé
+and did not take it from their habitat. The presence of the
+Ifadeyen in an area west and north of country which we know the Kel
+Tadek held, and their association with the latter, render it likely
+that we are, in fact, dealing with one and the same stock, namely,
+the descendants of the Tamgak.</p>
+<p>The Ifadeyen are renowned all over Air for their pure nomadism,
+and above all for the fact that they are almost the last of the
+Tuareg in the Southern Sahara to retain the current use of the
+T’ifingh script with a knowledge of reading and writing it. This
+learning, as is usual among Imajeghan tribes, reposes with the
+women-folk, one of whose principal functions is to educate the
+children; it is consistent with their supposed origin as one of the
+oldest and purest of all the tribes in Air.</p>
+<p>As a result of the foregoing argument the following suggestions
+for the main tribes of the People of the King hitherto mentioned
+can be made:</p>
+<table class="tless bd-collapse" id="t400">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="5"><em>Tribes of the King</em> (<em>Division
+I</em>).<a id="FNanchor_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414" class=
+"fnanchor">[414]</a></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="11" class="width12 hang1">Bello’s five tribes
+generically called <em>Kel Innek</em>, originally from the Fezzan,
+where the <em>Imanen</em> are also found.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td rowspan="2">Immikitan</td>
+<td rowspan="2">⎰<br>
+⎱</td>
+<td>Immikitan,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="blt width05"></td>
+<td>Imezegzil.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Igdalen</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Igdalen (Damergu: Division IV).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tamgak</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Represented by the Kel Tadek and ?
+Ifadeyen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ijaranen</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Representing the Itesan, which
+includes:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Itesan)</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">Ijaranen,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2"><em>Kel Innek</em>,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2"><em>Kel Manen (Imanen)</em>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sendal</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Represented by the Damergu and Elakkos
+Tuareg, who include:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="linel"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">Izagaran,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="blb"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">Ifadalen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">?</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Imaqoaran.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">?Western Tuareg</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Ferwan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Mixed</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Fadé.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 48</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i48a"><a href="images/i48a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i48a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">EGHALGAWEN POOL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i48b"><a href="images/i48b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i48b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TIZRAET POOL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc12">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356"><span class=
+"label">[356]</span></a>Letter to the author from G. W. Webster,
+Resident at Sokoto, dated 20/6/1923.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357"><span class=
+"label">[357]</span></a><em>Journal of the African Society</em>,
+No. XXXVI. Vol. IX. July 1910. Further references in this chapter
+will be omitted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358"><span class=
+"label">[358]</span></a>Denham and Clapperton: <em>Account of the
+First Expedition</em> (Murray), 1826. Vol. II. p. 38 seq.; App.
+XII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359"><span class=
+"label">[359]</span></a>As reported by Bello, Denham and
+Clapperton, <em>loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360"><span class=
+"label">[360]</span></a>It is to these doubtless that Jean is
+referring when he speaks of Egyptian influence in Air. Jean,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361"><span class=
+"label">[361]</span></a>Cf. Leo, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. III. p.
+828.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362"><span class=
+"label">[362]</span></a>Cf. also Asbytæ and Esbet with references
+in Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, passim. The root is probably, if a
+generalisation is at all permitted, applicable to the earliest
+negroid, or Grimaldi race survivors, in North Africa.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363"><span class=
+"label">[363]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c03">Chap.
+III.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364"><span class=
+"label">[364]</span></a>Cf. <em>supra</em>, <a href="#c02">Chap.
+II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365"><span class=
+"label">[365]</span></a>Cf. <em>infra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366"><span class=
+"label">[366]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+337.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367"><span class=
+"label">[367]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c04">Chap.
+IV.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368"><span class=
+"label">[368]</span></a>But not necessarily the slaves.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369"><span class=
+"label">[369]</span></a>As was the case, for instance, in the days
+of the Eighth and Ninth Dynasties of Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370"><span class=
+"label">[370]</span></a>“Akel” (plu. <em>ikelan</em>) primarily
+means “negro,” and from that “a slave.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371"><span class=
+"label">[371]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c03">Chap.
+III.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372"><span class=
+"label">[372]</span></a>Denham and Clapperton, <em>loc.
+cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373"><span class=
+"label">[373]</span></a><em>I.e.</em> Aujila.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374"><span class=
+"label">[374]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+460.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375"><span class=
+"label">[375]</span></a>Herodotus, IV. 172.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376"><span class=
+"label">[376]</span></a>In <a href="#c03">Chap. III.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377"><span class=
+"label">[377]</span></a>Idrisi: ed. Jaubert, Vol. I. p. 238.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378"><span class=
+"label">[378]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c10">Chap. X.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379"><span class=
+"label">[379]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+460.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380"><span class=
+"label">[380]</span></a>To adopt Clapperton’s spelling.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381"><span class=
+"label">[381]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. IV. App. IX
+and Vol. II.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382"><span class=
+"label">[382]</span></a><em>I.e.</em> Libyans, and not, at this
+period or in this context, Kanuri.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383"><span class=
+"label">[383]</span></a>According to Maqrizi <em>apud</em> Barth,
+Vol. II. pp. 635 and 265.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384"><span class=
+"label">[384]</span></a>El Bekri, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 456.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385"><span class=
+"label">[385]</span></a>A tribe of the Ahaggaren.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386"><span class=
+"label">[386]</span></a>In a communication to the author, Mr. H. R.
+Palmer, Resident in Bornu, writes: “After hearing probably all the
+extant tradition on the subject of the early rulers of Kanem, my
+belief is that the so-called Dugawa were Tuareg of some kind, and
+that the appellation Beri-beri applied originally to them and not
+to the Teda element which later on preponderated and gave the
+resulting Kanemi empire its language, <em>i.e.</em> Kanuri.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387"><span class=
+"label">[387]</span></a>Denham and Clapperton, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. II. p. 396.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388"><span class=
+"label">[388]</span></a>Though the Tebu are probably themselves a
+Kanuri stock, a distinction may be drawn between them and the more
+negroid Kanuri of Bornu and the Chad lands.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389"><span class=
+"label">[389]</span></a>See Abul Fida (French ed.), pp. 127-8 and
+245; El Idrisi (ed. Jaubert), p. 288. At the time of El Maqrizi the
+empire of Kanem extended from Zella (Sella), south of the Great
+Syrtis, to Gogo (Gao) on the Niger. El Maqrizi lived from 1365 to
+1442: Abul Fida died in 1331 writing his history, which was
+finished down to the year <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1329.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390"><span class=
+"label">[390]</span></a>Other than a wholesale emigration of Franks
+and Byzantines to Europe.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391"><span class=
+"label">[391]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a>
+<em>supra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392"><span class=
+"label">[392]</span></a>See <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a> and
+elsewhere in this chapter, also Ibn Khaldun, <em>op. cit.</em>,
+Vol. II. p. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393"><span class=
+"label">[393]</span></a>In <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394"><span class=
+"label">[394]</span></a>Consider the proportion of such names in
+the Itesan group, and in the forty-six Kel Geres tribes,
+respectively. Cf. <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395"><span class=
+"label">[395]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396"><span class=
+"label">[396]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 113, and Barth,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 356, also <a href="#app2">Appendix
+II.</a> to this volume.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397"><span class=
+"label">[397]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a> Tribes
+having the same place names now in Air are not related to these
+clans; their history is independently established.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398"><span class=
+"label">[398]</span></a>Hornemann’s <em>Journal</em>, French ed. p.
+102 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399"><span class=
+"label">[399]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+339.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400"><span class=
+"label">[400]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p. 343.
+The Tinylcum (T’inalkum) is an Azger Imghad tribe: cf. <a href=
+"#c11">Chap. XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401"><span class=
+"label">[401]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 90-1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402"><span class=
+"label">[402]</span></a>Jean calls them Ahaggaren, but only because
+all the northern Tuareg are in Air called Ahaggaren irrespective of
+whether they come from the Azger, Ahaggar or Ahnet divisions. In
+addition to these Imanen among the Azger and Itesan, there are also
+some on the Niger who are probably the product of the same early
+migrations which took the five tribes, including the Itesan, into
+Air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403"><span class=
+"label">[403]</span></a>Compare the grouping in <a href=
+"#app2">Appendix II.</a> and the comments in <a href="#c10">Chap
+X.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404"><span class=
+"label">[404]</span></a>See <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a> All
+these three tribes are People of the King, though the Kel Zilalet
+are rather mixed, being sedentaries.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405"><span class=
+"label">[405]</span></a>This in Air means the west or north-west.
+The reference may be to the Hawara, regarding whom this type of
+confusion has always obtained: cf. Arab-Tuareg elements in Hawara
+group, <em>vide</em> <a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406"><span class=
+"label">[406]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c11">Chap. XI.</a> with
+reference to Duveyrier’s information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407"><span class=
+"label">[407]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 92-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408"><span class=
+"label">[408]</span></a>Meaning “The White Goat.” Perhaps a
+survival of Totemism.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409"><span class=
+"label">[409]</span></a><em>Vide supra</em>, <a href="#c11">Chap.
+XI.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410"><span class=
+"label">[410]</span></a>See <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a>
+Division I. for details of People of the King in Air, and Division
+IV. for the Damergu Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411"><span class=
+"label">[411]</span></a>Agades Chronicle.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412"><span class=
+"label">[412]</span></a><em>I.e.</em> chief of a tribal group.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413"><span class=
+"label">[413]</span></a>The Imarsutan Kel Tagei may also have
+merely fortuitously acquired this name, which only means the People
+of the Dûm Palm, and is therefore not very individual.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414"><span class=
+"label">[414]</span></a>In <a href="#app2">Appendix II.</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span><a id=
+"c13"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE HISTORY OF AIR (<em>continued</em>)</p>
+<p class="sch2">Part II</p>
+<p class="sch3">The Vicissitudes of the Tuareg in Air</p>
+<p><span class="sc">As</span> a division of Tuareg the people of
+Air cannot be said to have achieved great deeds in the history of
+the world as did the Sanhaja; but as a part of the race they can
+justly claim to share in its glory. That they brought culture and
+the amenities of civilisation from the Mediterranean to Central
+Africa has been mentioned several times. This progress in the past
+was responsible for the prosperity of Nigeria to-day.</p>
+<p>The People of Air are a small and insignificant group of human
+beings considered by themselves alone. It may only be when that
+characteristic of the Englishman displays itself and he seeks to
+extol the virtues, charm and history of some obscure race, that
+such a people assumes, in his eyes at least, an importance which to
+the rest of the world may seem unjustified. There is probably no
+race so vile, so dull or so unimpressive but that some Briton will
+arise as its defender, and aver that if properly treated it is the
+salt of the earth. I am not unconscious of the dangers of this
+frame of mind, but being acutely aware of the mentality, I trust
+that this characteristic will not have led me over-much to conceal
+the unpleasant or unfavourable.</p>
+<p>A chapter which attempts to deal summarily with the history of
+the Air Tuareg<a id="FNanchor_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415"
+class="fnanchor">[415]</a> set in its appropriate frame of Central
+African history must inevitably seem in some measure a
+justification for the trouble taken to piece together<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span> an obscure and complex
+collection of facts relating to the country and its people. But the
+darkness surrounding the arguments contained in the preceding
+account of the migrations of the Air tribes has seemed so
+impenetrable that instead of closing the book at this point, I have
+felt moved to give the reader some rather less indigestible matter
+with which to conclude.</p>
+<p>To obviate the accusation of attaching unwarrantable importance
+to the People of Air, it may be well to state that the population
+of the country is small. It was never very large. Perhaps 50,000 to
+60,000 souls, including the Kel Geres and the other clans in the
+Southland, would have been a conservative estimate in 1904. At that
+time Jean, numbering only the People of Air and some of the Tuareg
+of Elakkos and Damergu, arrived at a tentative figure of 25-27,000
+inhabitants, but he was certainly misled by his local informants
+into thinking that the tribes were smaller than they really were.
+Nor did he take all the septs of Air and the Southland into
+account. His estimate included somewhat over 8000 People of the
+King, rather more than 8500 People of the Añastafidet, 4-5000
+Irawellan, 2000 slaves and 2500-3000 mixed sedentaries in Agades
+and In Gall.<a id="FNanchor_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416" class=
+"fnanchor">[416]</a> At the time of the prosperity of Agades the
+population of these countries, not including detached sedentaries
+and other groups lying far afield, may have attained a maximum of
+100,000.</p>
+<p>It is impossible to estimate the total numbers of Tuareg in
+North Africa with any accuracy. It would be interesting to make a
+serious study of the numbers and general state even of those in
+French territories.</p>
+<p>The internecine struggles of the Air Tuareg are hardly
+interesting, and have only been mentioned where relevant to the
+origin and movements of the three immigrations. The wars between
+the different divisions, like the Ahaggaren and the Azger, are not
+really more valuable in a general survey. But even to summarise the
+principal events in Air<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_403">[403]</span> in the broad outlines is easier than to
+describe in a few words the events which took place in the Central
+Sahara and the Central Sudan during the 1000 years of history which
+have elapsed since first, in my view at least, the Tuareg reached
+these mountains from their more ancient northern home.</p>
+<p>In early times the Tuareg were already in North Africa. They can
+be distinguished probably as early as the Fifth, and certainly as
+early as the Twelfth, Dynasty in Egypt. We can follow much of what
+they were doing and trace where they were living in Roman times,
+but it is less easy to discern the groups which composed the
+immigrant waves of humanity into Air until about the time when the
+first of them came to the south, and even then the picture is
+obscure.</p>
+<p>When Air was first invaded by the Tuareg it was called Asben and
+was part of the kingdom of Gober, a country of negroid people who
+lived both in the mountains and to the south. But before the first
+invasion took place there was already Libyan influence in the
+country, both due to the northern trade which had gone on since the
+earliest times conceivable, and also on account of the Sanhaja
+Tuareg, whose power and glory had extended thus far eastwards.</p>
+<p>The first invasion consisted of tribes who had formed part of a
+mass of Tuareg of the Lemta division originally from, and now still
+settled in, the Fezzan and Ghat areas. These people had descended
+the Kawar road to Lake Chad. They had occupied Bornu, perhaps in
+the early ninth century <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>, or even
+before. The Goberawa of Air or Asben seem to have received a slight
+admixture of Libyan blood derived from the northerners who
+travelled down the caravan road to the Sudan; the people of Bornu
+were more purely negroid, and more so than their northern
+neighbours and probably kinsfolk, the Tebu of Tibesti. The Tuareg
+who were settled in Bornu were subjected to pressure from the east
+and north, at the hands of the Kanuri from east of Lake Chad, and
+of the Arabs. In due course, after being kings<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_404">[404]</span> of Bornu for many generations the Tuareg
+began to move westwards. Some of them reached Air, leaving
+settlers, or having previously settled the regions of Elakkos and
+Damergu. The date of this movement cannot be fixed with any
+accuracy; it is probably not as early at the eighth century, but is
+certainly anterior to the great Kanuri expansion of the thirteenth
+century. An early date is suggested by Barth and accepted by Jean,
+probably merely on account of the incidence of the first Arab
+invasion of North Africa, though as a matter of fact the forces of
+Islam for the sixty years which elapsed after the conquest of Egypt
+were not really sufficiently numerous to occasion great ethnic
+movements. The six centuries between <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>
+700 and <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1300 are very obscure; but if
+any reason must be assigned for the first invasion of Air by the
+Bornu Tuareg, it was probably due to the Hillalian invasion of
+Africa. For this and other reasons it may, therefore, be placed in
+the eleventh century.</p>
+<p>With the opening of the Muhammadan era we find a kingdom at
+Ghana in Western Negroland with a ruling family of “white people”
+and the Libyan dynasty of Za Alayamin (Za el Yemani) installed at
+Kukia.<a id="FNanchor_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417" class=
+"fnanchor">[417]</a> Gao, on the Niger, was already an important
+commercial centre at the southern end of the trade road from
+Algeria. In <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 837 we read of the death
+of Tilutan, a Tuareg of the Lemtuna,<a id=
+"FNanchor_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418" class=
+"fnanchor">[418]</a> who was very powerful in the Sahara; he was
+succeeded by Ilettan, who died in 900; the latter was followed by
+T’in Yerutan as lord of the Western Sahara. He was established at
+Audaghost,<a id="FNanchor_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419" class=
+"fnanchor">[419]</a> an outpost of the Sanhaja, who appear at this
+time to have dominated Western Negroland, including<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span> even the great city of
+Ghana,<a id="FNanchor_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420" class=
+"fnanchor">[420]</a> and to have carried on active intercourse
+between the Southland and Sijilmasa in Morocco. This and the
+succeeding century are notable for the influence of the Libyan
+tribes, in the first instance through the Libyan kings of
+Audaghost, and later, at the beginning of the eleventh century, by
+the desert confederation which Abu Abdallah, called Naresht, the
+son of Tifaut, had brought into being. It was at this time that the
+preacher and reformer, Abdallah ibn Yasin, arose and collected in
+the Sahara his band of Holy Men called the “Merabtin,” who were
+destined to play such a large rôle in the history of the world
+under the name of Almoravid in Morocco and in Spain. Throughout the
+latter part of the eleventh century and in the whole of the
+twelfth, the really important element in all the Western Sahara and
+Sudan was the Sanhaja division of the Tuareg of the west, and
+though nothing is heard of the effects of their rule on Air, they
+must nevertheless have been considerable. The Mesufa branch of the
+Sanhaja were, according to Ibn Batutah, established in Gober, south
+of Air; the influence of the Sanhaja in Air itself as well as in
+Damergu is also recorded. West of Air was the city of Tademekka,
+nine days northwards from Gao. We also hear of the Libyan towns of
+Tirekka, between the Tademekka and Walata, and Tautek six days
+beyond Tirekka; all these appear to have sprung up under the
+Sanhaja dominion as commercial centres in the same way as the later
+city of Timbuctoo. Agades, at this time, had not yet been
+founded.</p>
+<p>At the beginning of the thirteenth or end of the twelfth century
+the second invasion of Air took place. Until now the Tuareg
+immigrants had lived side by side with the Goberawa despite the
+assistance which the former must have derived from the Sanhaja
+influence in the land. The new invaders were the Kel Geres, and
+their advent led to the expulsion or absorption of the negroid
+people. Together with the former inhabitants and under the
+leadership of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span>
+dominant Itesan tribe, the Tuareg consolidated their independence
+in Air. This might never have been achieved had it not been for the
+Sanhaja empire in the west; there is no doubt that the success of
+the latter contributed directly to the Bornu and Air movements.</p>
+<p>By the time Ibn Batutah made his journey through Negroland in
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1353, Tekadda, some days south of the
+mountains, as well as Air itself were wholly Tuareg.</p>
+<p>Between Gao and Tekadda he had journeyed through the land of the
+“Bardamah, a nomad Berber tribe,”<a id="FNanchor_421"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> whose tents and dietary
+are described in a manner which makes it clear that we are dealing
+with typical nomadic Tuareg. The Bardamah women, incidentally, are
+said to have been very beautiful and to have been endowed with that
+particular fatness which so struck Barth. At Tekadda the Sultan was
+a “Berber” (Libyan) called Izar.<a id="FNanchor_422"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> There was also another
+prince of the same race called “the Tekerkeri,” though further on
+Ibn Batutah refers to him somewhat differently, saying, “We arrived
+in Kahir, which is part of the domains of the Sultan Kerkeri.” From
+this Barth deduces that the name of the ruler’s kingdom, which
+included Air but apparently not Tekadda, was “Kerker,” but we have
+seen that the chief minister of the Sultan of the Tuareg is called
+the Kokoi Geregeri, and it is to this title that I think Ibn
+Batutah is referring. Nevertheless, as a branch of the Aulimmiden
+in the west is also called Takarkari, this may signify that the
+plateau was at this period under the influence of those western
+Tuareg who have in history often exerted a preponderating part in
+the history of Southern Air.</p>
+<p>The expansion of Bornu under Dunama II in the thirteenth century
+had, in the course of the conquest of the Fezzan, brought about the
+occupation of Kawar and other points on the Murzuk-Chad road. This
+could not but have had a serious effect on the economics of Air on
+account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span> of the
+Bilma salt trade, and there is a tradition of a war with Bornu in
+about <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1300. Raiding on a large scale
+across the desert no doubt also took place. By the middle of the
+fourteenth century, however, the greatness of Bornu had commenced
+to decline; the reigning dynasty was suffering severely at the
+hands of the “Sô people,” who were the original pagan inhabitants
+of the country. They had succeeded in defeating and killing four
+successive Kanuri rulers, and only twenty years after Ibn Batutah’s
+journey there were sown in the reign of Daud the germs of that
+internal strife which led to the complete expulsion of the Bornu
+dynasty from Kanem and continuous warfare between these two
+countries.</p>
+<p>In the west, on the other hand, the power of the empire of Melle
+was still, if not quite at its height, at least unmenaced by any
+serious rival. With the death of Ibn Ghania in <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> 1233 the Sanhaja Confederation had come to an
+end. There then arose on the Upper Niger a leader called Mari Jatah
+I. After making himself master of two of the greatest negroid
+peoples of the west, he was succeeded by Mansa Musa, the founder of
+the empire of Melle. Mansa Musa, or, as he was also called, Mansa
+Kunkur Musa, after adding to his dominions all the famous countries
+of Western Sudan, turned eastwards and conquered Gao, on the Middle
+Niger. He also subjected Timbuctoo, which had been founded about
+the year <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1000 by the Tuareg of the
+Idenan and Immedideren tribes during the Sanhaja period, but its
+conquest only served to increase its prosperity as a trading
+centre. It was visited and inhabited by merchants from all over
+North Africa.</p>
+<p>It is interesting, in considering the history of Melle, to
+observe an attempt which was made at this early period, in a
+country so long considered by Europeans as savage and barbarous, to
+solve a problem of government on more rational lines than has ever
+been tried in modern Europe. A dual system of administration was
+organised to deal with races foreign to the authority of the
+central government.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span>
+There was a national and a territorial bureaucracy: the feature of
+the government was that Melle was divided territorially into two
+provinces, or vice-royalties, concurrently with which there were
+three separate ethnic or national administrations. It almost goes
+without saying that the military administration was kept strictly
+apart from the civil.</p>
+<p>With the death of Mansa Musa and the succession of his son Mansa
+Magha, in 1331, the fabric of the empire began to fall in pieces.
+Timbuctoo had been successfully attacked in 1329 by the King of
+Mosi, who expelled the Melle garrison. A little later the prince,
+Ali Killun, son of Za Yasebi, of the original Songhai dynasty of
+Gao, escaped with his brother from the court of Mansa Magha, where
+they had been living as political prisoners in the guise of pages.
+They acquired some measure of independence and, though again
+subjected by the succeeding king of Melle, Mansa Suleiman, in about
+1336 commenced to lay the foundations of the later Songhai empire
+on the Middle Niger. Mansa Suleiman recaptured Timbuctoo, which at
+this time, inhabited by the Mesufa, had begun to take the place of
+the older Tuareg centre, Tademekka, further east. The Mesufa, whom
+we last saw south of Air, were doubtless being pushed back west
+again by the pressure of the Aulimmiden and migrants from the
+East.</p>
+<p>In 1373 the Vizier of Melle, another Mari Jatah, usurped the
+power from the grandson of Mansa Magha and reconquered Tekadda, but
+it was the last flicker of life in the old empire. The opening
+years of the fourteenth century saw a succession of weak kings and
+powerful governors who were not strong enough to resist the
+incursions of the Tuareg from the desert. Timbuctoo was conquered
+in 1433 from the Mesufa by some other Tuareg, probably from the
+west or north-west, under Akil (Ag Malwal), who declined to abandon
+his nomadic life and installed as governor Muhammad Nasr el Senhaji
+from Shingit in Mauretania. The Tuareg at this time were everywhere
+victorious but destructive.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_409">[409]</span> They never succeeded in consolidating their
+power into an empire. In this era of their ascendancy Agades was
+founded in about the year 1460, just as Sunni Ali, the son of Sunni
+Muhammad Dau, ascended the throne of Gao and changed the whole
+political map of North Africa by prostrating the small surviving
+kingdom of Melle and finally setting up in its place the Songhai
+empire.</p>
+<p>The incessant bickering and local feuds had driven the Tuareg of
+Air to come to some arrangement by which, nominally at least, they
+could consolidate themselves against the powers of the Sudan. They
+had agreed to have a Sultan, and he was installed, and not long
+afterwards the Amenokalate was set up in Agades, at a most eventful
+period in Central African history. The empire of Songhai on the
+Niger seemed invincible. By 1468 Timbuctoo had been overwhelmed and
+the governor driven out; Akil, the Tuareg, was forced to flee
+westwards. The city was plundered and the occupation of Western
+Negroland commenced. In the meanwhile the Portuguese had planted
+the factory of Elmina on the Guinea coast, and Alfonso V was
+succeeded by João II, who sent an embassy to Sunni Ali.</p>
+<p>Sunni Ali met his death by drowning in 1492, and was followed by
+his son Abu Bakr Dau, and at a short interval by Muhammad ben Abu
+Bakr, called Muhammad Askia, the greatest of all the kings of the
+Sudan, and one of the greatest monarchs in the world of the
+fifteenth century. He appears to have ruled with great wisdom,
+depending on careful administration rather than on force to
+maintain his prestige. In addition to Melle itself and Jenne, which
+had already fallen, Ghana and Mosi in the far west were added to
+Songhai. After a pilgrimage of great pomp across Africa and through
+Egypt, Haj Muhammad Askia turned his attentions to the east.
+Katsina was occupied in 1513 as well as the whole of Gober and the
+rest of Hausaland. It was inevitable, to stop the Tuareg raiding
+down in the settled country, that Air should be added to his
+dominion as well.</p>
+<p>In 1515 Askia marched against Al Adalet, or Adil,
+one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> of the twin
+co-Sultans of Agades, and drove out the Tuareg tribes living in the
+town,<a id="FNanchor_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423" class=
+"fnanchor">[423]</a> replacing them with his own Songhai people, a
+colonisation from which the city has not recovered to this day. He
+remained in occupation a year, and was called the “Cursed.” The
+conquest is unfortunately not mentioned by Leo,<a id=
+"FNanchor_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424" class=
+"fnanchor">[424]</a> who only refers to the expedition against Kano
+and Katsina; and this is all the more unpardonable, for he had
+accompanied his uncle on an official visit to Askia himself. Leo
+clearly regards Agades at the time he was writing as a negro
+settlement. According to traditions current in the city, numbers of
+Tuareg were massacred by Askia’s men, but however many Songhai may
+have been planted there, and however many Tuareg expelled, there is
+no doubt that considerable numbers remained behind to mix with the
+southerners and form the present Emagadesi people. The town must
+have been in a very flourishing state at that time: “the greatest
+part of the citizens are forren merchants” who paid “. . . large
+custom to the king . . . on their merchandise out of other places.”
+But apart from the yearly tribute of 150,000 ducats due to the King
+of Gao, the conquest of Air does not seem to have affected the
+independence of the Tuareg, as no mention is made of a Songhai
+governor, while the King of Agades, already within a few years of
+the time of Leo’s journey, is reported to have kept a military
+force of his own.</p>
+<p>The contemporaries of Askia in Kanem and Bornu were Ali, the son
+of another Dunama, and later, Ali’s son, Idris, both kings of such
+renown that their country appears on European maps as early as
+1489. Not to be outdone by the Songhai kings, whose emissaries had
+reached Portugal, Idris sent an embassy to Tripoli in 1512. Under
+the son of Idris, Muhammad, who ruled from 1526 to 1545, the
+kingdom of Bornu reached the summit of its greatness. This
+remarkable century in Central Africa deserves examination in
+greater detail, but lack of space makes it impossible.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span>Agades was
+perhaps at the height of its prosperity before and immediately
+after the conquest of Muhammad Askia. The scale of life in which
+Air shared is shown by the description of Muhammad Askia’s
+pilgrimage in 1495. He was accompanied by 1000 men on foot and 500
+on horseback, and in the course of which he spent 300,100 mithkal
+of gold. The prosperity of Agades continued until the commencement
+of the nineteenth century, but in a form far different from what it
+must have been in the sixteenth century, when it served as an
+advanced trading-post or entrepôt for Gao, at that time the centre
+of the gold trade of the Sudan and probably the most flourishing
+commercial city in Central Africa. The gradual desertion of Agades,
+almost complete by 1790, when the bulk of the population migrated
+to Katsina, Tasawa, Maradi and Kano, commenced in 1591, at which
+date Gao, the parent city from the commercial point of view, had
+fallen to be a province of the Moroccan empire.</p>
+<p>The heritage of Muhammad Askia was beyond the power of his
+successors to maintain. Intestine wars and intrigues broke down the
+authority of the central government. Revolts took place in Melle,
+and the covetous eyes of Mulai Ahmed, the Sultan of Morocco, in
+1549, were turned towards Negroland. He demanded the cession of the
+Tegaza salt-mines, and though this insult was avenged by an army of
+2000 Tuareg invading Morocco in 1586, Tegaza was captured by the
+Moors soon afterwards and the deposits of Taodenit, north of
+Timbuctoo, were opened instead. The final blow fell three years
+later, when Gao was entered by Basha Jodar, the eunuch-general of
+Mulai Hamed, with a Moroccan army. The final struggles of Ishak
+Askia in 1591 were unavailing. Henceforth Moroccan governors
+reigned over the Western Sudan with garrisons in Jenne, Timbuctoo,
+Gao and elsewhere. In 1603 Mulai Hamed el Mansur of Morocco died,
+with the whole of Western Africa under his rule.</p>
+<p>Power in the west thus passed once more from the
+negroid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span> to the
+northern people, but traditions of empire persisted in the centre.
+In 1571 there came to the throne of Bornu, Idris Ansami, known more
+usually from the place of his burial as Idris Alawoma. His mother
+seems from her name—’Aisha-Kel Eghrarmar—to have been a Tuareg; she
+had the reputation of great beauty. After consolidating his empire
+to the east, Idris conquered Hausaland as far west as and including
+Kano, where he must have come into contact with the Songhai empire,
+just then in process of passing under the rule of Morocco. So Idris
+Alawoma<a id="FNanchor_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425" class=
+"fnanchor">[425]</a> turned his attention to the north-west, and
+undertook three expeditions against the Tuareg, the last one of
+which was against Air itself, the first two presumably being
+against more southern tribes. The chronicle of Idris’ expeditions
+is not clear enough to identify the exact areas of his operations.
+The first one was described as a raid, and the second, an
+expedition against a tribe. The operations against Air started from
+Atrebisa and passed Ghamarama, doubtfully identified with Gamram in
+Northern Damergu, after which a host of Tuareg was overtaken in the
+open desert between the town, Tadsa, and Air, and many were
+slaughtered. Idris returned to Munio by way of Zibduwa and
+Susubaki. At an earlier date than these expeditions his vizier had
+fought a battle with the Tuareg, who had come with a numerous host
+of Tildhin (?)<a id="FNanchor_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426"
+class="fnanchor">[426]</a> and others to attack him at Aghalwen,
+which is Eghalgawen in Southern Air, on the road to the
+Southland.</p>
+<p>Having broken the power of the Air Tuareg, Idris Alawoma ordered
+the Kel Yiti, or Kel Wati, who were living in his dominions, to
+raid north and north-west in order to keep the tribes in a properly
+chastened frame of mind, until they were obliged to sue for peace
+and acknowledge their allegiance to the kingdom of Bornu. Barth
+thinks the Kel Wati are to be identified with the Kel Eti, or
+Jokto,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span> a mixed Tebu
+and Tuareg people in the parts near Lake Chad. This is probably the
+period of raids in South-eastern Air, previously referred to, which
+obliged the Itesan to abandon their eastern settlements and move
+west into the heart of the mountains. The supposition is borne out
+by the record of Idris’ expedition against the Tebu of Dirki and
+Agram, or Fashi, which was followed by a long stay at Bilma and the
+opening up of relations with the north. All these events fall into
+the first twelve years of Idris Alawoma’s reign: of the last
+twenty-one we know little.</p>
+<p>In 1601 at Agades, Muhammad ben Mubarak ibn el Guddala, or
+Ghodala, deposed the Amenokal Yussif ben el Haj Ahmed ibn el Haj
+Abeshan, and reigned in his stead for four months. Yussif
+recaptured the power and ben Mubarak fled to Katsina and Kano, but
+returning to Air entered Agades with a body of men from Bornu. He
+went on to Assode, and then retired within a short time to Gamram
+in Damergu. Yussif in the meanwhile had collected men in the
+Southland of Kebbi and returned to the charge. Ben Mubarak again
+fled to Bornu, but was later captured, and died in prison. This
+period of hostility between Air and Bornu led Idris Alawoma’s
+grandson Ali ben el Haj Omar ben Idris to wage several wars against
+the Sultan of Agades, though he was once himself besieged in his
+own capital by the Tuareg and their allies. To the wars in this
+reign, lasting from 1645 to 1684 or 1685, belong the events which
+Jean has recorded incorrectly as occurring in 1300,<a id=
+"FNanchor_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427" class=
+"fnanchor">[427]</a> in the reign of the eighth Sultan before
+Lamini.<a id="FNanchor_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428" class=
+"fnanchor">[428]</a> The latter is, of course, the famous Muhammad
+el Amin el Kanemi of Denham and Clapperton’s expedition, who was,
+in fact, the eighth Sultan before Ali ben Idris.</p>
+<p>Tradition in Air and the Agades Chronicle at this point agree
+tolerably well with the Bornu Chronicle. The Bornu king laid siege
+to Agades, where Muhammad Mubaraki (1653-87) was reigning, and
+defeated the Tuareg, who,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_414">[414]</span> after a number of engagements in the Telwa
+valley, retired to the fastness of Bagezan. Their resources enabled
+them to hold out for three years against the Bornuwi forces, who
+were starving in the lowlands. The war of 1685 is called in the
+Agades Chronicle the War of Famine. The people of Bornu eventually
+withdrew eastwards over the desert, hotly pursued by the Tuareg all
+the way to the well of Ashegur, north of Fashi, which, as will be
+remembered, had previously been occupied by Idris Alawoma. Deserted
+by their Sultan, the Bornuwi were surprised, and left 300-400
+prisoners in the hands of the Tuareg, who, from now on to the
+present day, have exercised a paramount influence over these oases,
+where they developed the salt trade with the Sudan<a id=
+"FNanchor_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429" class=
+"fnanchor">[429]</a> through Air. The gold trade of Songhai, at one
+time so important in Agades that it had its own standard weight for
+the metal, which long after its disappearance continued to regulate
+the circulating medium of exchange, was replaced by the salt
+traffic as an asset of much value.<a id="FNanchor_430"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p>
+<p>The campaigns of Idris Alawoma and of Ali repeated the effects
+of the earlier Kanuri pressure on the west. Evidence of the
+tendency of the southern Tuareg to move west has been noticed on
+several occasions. The effect of the Bornu campaigns was to exert
+pressure on the Aulimmiden, which culminated in their attacks on
+the Tademekkat people and eventually in the Kel Owi immigration
+into Air. The sequence of events in Air has already been related;
+the successes of the Aulimmiden contributed directly and indirectly
+to the decline of Agades as a commercial centre. By 1770 they had
+captured Gao. Under Kawa, in 1780, they established a dominion over
+the north bank of the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_415">[415]</span> Niger at Ausa; these were doubtless some
+factors which influenced the Kel Geres in their decision to abandon
+Air as a result of the arrival of the Kel Owi. The westward move of
+the Aulimmiden before the Kanuri of Bornu, who were suffering from
+the reaction which follows greatness, had left an area
+correspondingly free for the Kel Geres to occupy. The middle of the
+century had been taken up in desultory fighting between Air and the
+south. The next notable event had been in 1761—an attack on Kano by
+the Kel Owi and the defeat of the Kel Geres by the Aulimmiden in
+the same year. The inroads of the Fulani into Hausaland had
+commenced, but as yet Othman dan Fodio had not established himself
+in Sokoto, or the ruling families of Fulani in all the large towns
+of the Central Sudan.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 49</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i49"><a href="images/i49.jpg"><img src='images/i49.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">EGHALGAWEN AND THE LAST HILLS OF AIR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The protection of the salt trade led to continual struggles
+between Air and Bornu. An expedition by the Sultan of Agades, in
+about 1760,<a id="FNanchor_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431" class=
+"fnanchor">[431]</a> to Kuka on Lake Chad is probably part of the
+war of Bilma in 1759 referred to in the Agades Chronicle as having
+been made by Muhammad Guma, the son of Mubarak. The Sultan was
+accompanied by the Kel Ferwan, and returned with a war indemnity of
+2000 head of cattle and a promise that trade would not be subjected
+to interference.</p>
+<p>The occupation of part of Damergu by the Kel Owi Tuareg is of
+course recent, though it had been seized by the earlier immigrants
+at the same time as Air, with this difference, that the negroid
+inhabitants were never driven out or absorbed as in the mountains.
+The Kel Owi interference and immigration took the form of
+successful raiding or warfare to keep open the caravan road into
+the south. The fate of Damergu in all this long period of history
+was to be squeezed between the Tuareg on two sides and the Sudan
+empires on the other two.<a id="FNanchor_432"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span>The modern
+period commences with the passage through Air of the Foureau-Lamy
+Mission. Beyond what has already been said, it is impossible to
+discuss this phase, as it is still too recent, but the French
+version is contained in Lieut. Jean’s admirable review of French
+colonial policy in the <em>Territoires du Niger</em>.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftc13">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415"><span class=
+"label">[415]</span></a>Some notes on the early history and the
+origins of the Tuareg race will be found in a paper by the author
+in the Journal of the R.G.S. for Jan. 1926.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416"><span class=
+"label">[416]</span></a>Jean: <em>op. cit.</em>, Chap. XIII; and
+Chudeau: <em>Le Sahara Soudanais</em>, p. 72.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417"><span class=
+"label">[417]</span></a>Fifteen days east of Ghana in the Upper
+Niger country. Not to be confused with Kuka on Lake Chad, or with
+Gao (Gago) on the Middle Niger. Kukia is called Kugha in el Bekri
+and Cochia by Ca’ da Mosto (Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. IV., pp.
+583-4).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418"><span class=
+"label">[418]</span></a>As we have seen, a section of the Sanhaja,
+and nothing to do with the Lemta.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419"><span class=
+"label">[419]</span></a>Audaghost was for long confused by European
+geographers with Agades, or, as soon as the first news of Air was
+received, with Auderas. Audaghost was in Mauretania between Tegaza
+and Walata.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420"><span class=
+"label">[420]</span></a>South-west of Walata and west of Timbuctoo:
+for all these places see Map I in Vol. I. of the Hakluyt Soc.,
+edition of Leo Africanus.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421"><span class=
+"label">[421]</span></a>Ibn Batutah, French ed., IV. p. 437.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422"><span class=
+"label">[422]</span></a>Variant, Iraz, French ed., IV. pp. 442,
+445.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423"><span class=
+"label">[423]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. IV. p. 603;
+Vol. I. p. 461.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424"><span class=
+"label">[424]</span></a>Leo, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. III. pp. 829
+seq. and 846.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425"><span class=
+"label">[425]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. II. p.
+653.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426"><span class=
+"label">[426]</span></a>The word may be a corruption of Kindin, the
+Kanuri name for the Tuareg.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427"><span class=
+"label">[427]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 115.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428"><span class=
+"label">[428]</span></a>Who did not die 400 years, but barely 100
+years, ago, in 1835.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429"><span class=
+"label">[429]</span></a>Jean is, of course, quite unjustified in
+dragging in the Kel Owi. His information, owing to the fact that
+the Kel Owi had always favoured the French expansion both during
+the Foureau-Lamy expedition and when Jean occupied Air, seems to be
+derived largely from this source, which is as prejudiced as the
+accounts given by all parvenus in the world when discussing history
+in which they have not been, but would have liked to have been,
+involved. A parallel unjustified assumption of historical
+responsibility is found in the Maket n’Ikelan story.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430"><span class=
+"label">[430]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+467.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431"><span class=
+"label">[431]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 121.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432"><span class=
+"label">[432]</span></a>I cannot agree with Jean that the first
+occupation of Damergu, Elakkos and Damagarim by the earlier Tuareg
+is at all recent (<em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 121-2). Some of the events
+he records are recent, but not the earlier movements of the
+tribes.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span><a id=
+"c14"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+<p class="sch">VALEDICTORY</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Here</span> my account of the Air Tuareg must
+close. No one can be better aware than myself of the shortcomings
+and discrepancies of my story. The task would have been easier had
+a general survey of an unprejudiced character of the history and
+ethnology of North Africa existed. Where my account has wandered
+from the field of the Tuareg of Air, it has had to build both a
+general and a particular foundation for itself, and I am conscious
+that the result is not as satisfactory as it should be. The
+subjects of script and of language have scarcely been touched upon
+at all; they are too large and specialised matters for this volume.
+If ever there should come a period of leisure for me, they might be
+made the subject of a separate study.</p>
+<p>I cannot conceal the pleasure that writing this account has
+afforded me in the course of my researches, by making the scenes
+which I enjoyed in Air live again before my eyes. Had the time
+available both in Africa and since my return been commensurate with
+my interest in the subject, the result would have been better.
+Intended originally as a book of travel, it has in places become
+complicated, obscure and overladen with some of the fruits of
+inquiry in a vast field, namely, the origin and nature of all the
+peoples of North Africa. I shall feel amply rewarded if another
+student will allow his curiosity to be sufficiently stimulated to
+continue the work.</p>
+<p>As the writer of a book of travel I must complete the tale of
+the journey. I came to an end of my wanderings where I had begun
+them, in Northern Nigeria. My two friends and I had started from
+there on 27th April, 1922; I returned there alone on the 29th
+December of the same<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_418">[418]</span> year. After my tour in Northern Air it
+became apparent that the time at my disposal must prove too short
+to achieve the object of crossing the Sahara to the Mediterranean
+with my companions. At Iferuan I regretfully decided to return home
+by way of Nigeria. At the commencement of December I turned south
+and marched to Agellal, a large village of stone houses under a
+singularly beautiful mountain. From there I went to Tefis to see
+the mosque, and camped at Anu Wisheran, which means “The Old Well.”
+There were small deserted settlements at both places. After another
+camp at Garet I descended into the basin of Central Air, over a
+barren slope intersected by numerous north and south rivulets
+between bare stony ridges. I halted in the Anu Maqaran valley near
+the boulder on which I discovered the chariot drawing. The site of
+my camp had been purely adventitious, but that obscure rock may
+well prove to be the most important observation of my whole
+journey. On the following day, Bila was reached at the spur of the
+Azamkoran mountains, and then we passed by the sugar-loaf hill of
+Sampfotchi into the Arwa Mellen and familiar Assada valleys. After
+a long march from the Tamenzaret wells I came again to Auderas,
+where I rejoined my companions, but only for a day or two, to sort
+our belongings and part company, I to return south, they to go on
+north and after many tedious delays to reach Algiers. The pleasant
+people of Auderas came to say good-bye. My companions walked a mile
+or so along my road, over the valley and hill, till we reached the
+plain sloping down to Taruaji. There they turned back. With me were
+only Sidi my guide, Amadu my servant, and one camel boy. Sidi had
+not been to Nigeria for many years and I was anxious for him to see
+modern Kano. We travelled fast, stopping only one day on the way in
+order to try to save a camel which had caught pneumonia during the
+bitterly cold nights in Azawagh. We went by Inwatza, the pool of
+Tizraet near Turayet, Akaraq, Eghalgawen, Milen, Hannekar and
+Tanut, and then straight into Nigeria without going to Zinder.
+On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span> 29th December,
+the thirty-third day after leaving Iferuan, I reached Kano again
+after a journey of some 550 miles in twenty-nine marches. Even the
+Tuareg admitted that it was fast travelling. The camels arrived
+very fit indeed and were sold. A fortnight later I was embarking at
+Lagos for England.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">PLATE 50</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw3">
+<figure id="i50"><a href="images/i50.jpg"><img src='images/i50.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">MT. BILA AT SUNSET</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>My guide, Sidi, was astonished at the prosperity and development
+of Kano. I gave him some small presents and a few things to take
+back to Ahodu of Auderas. He left Kano before I did, as he had
+found a caravan returning north and did not want to miss the
+opportunity of travelling with friends. He came to see me in the
+morning of the day he was due to leave, and we walked round the
+European quarter of Kano together. I happened to be with a French
+officer at the time. We met Sidi waiting where I had told him to
+be, under a certain tree in front of a well-known merchant’s store
+in the European town of Kano. Sidi got up and greeted me. His hand
+and mine brushed over one another’s, the fingers being withdrawn
+with a closing snap. I gave him the usual greeting: “Ma’-tt-uli,”
+and he replied very solemnly, “El Kheir ’Ras”; which mean, “How do
+you fare?” and “Naught but good.” When Tuareg meet these
+hand-clasps and greetings continue to punctuate their conversation
+for a long time. They are varied with the question, “Iselan?”
+meaning, “What news?” to which the right answer is, “Kalá, kalá,”
+“No, no!” since for them any news must be bad news. Then, as I have
+said, Sidi and I and the Frenchman walked together; the latter
+looked wonderingly at the demeanour of my friend, whom he did not
+know. At last it was time for Sidi to join the camels of his
+caravan. Their number had been increased by one camel which I had
+given to him. He turned to say good-bye, but did not speak at all.
+He took my hand and held it with both of his, and then bowed his
+forehead till his veil touched my fingers. I gave him the thanks of
+the Lord in Arabic, and he murmured something incomprehensible. My
+French friend looked on curiously. And<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_420">[420]</span> then Sidi without glancing at him turned
+quickly and walked away like a Prince of the Earth striding over
+the land. He walked erect and swiftly till I lost him to sight. He
+never turned his head again.</p>
+<p>He was in many ways rather a ruffian, but, like his folk,
+patient, long-suffering and unforgiving. He was a true specimen of
+the Tuareg race.</p>
+<p>These people never become angry or speak loud: I have rarely
+seen them excited, but they have an indomitable spirit and for that
+reason will perhaps survive. They say, “Kiss the hand you cannot
+cut off,” and again, “The path, though it be winding, and the King,
+though he be old.” So they may have patience after all to wait for
+the fulfilment of their fate and not throw themselves fruitlessly
+again on rifles or machine-guns. I remember sitting at Gamram one
+evening on the ruins of the walls of the town where once their
+rulers lived as wardens of the marches of the desert on that great
+Saharan road. In my diary I wrote:</p>
+<p>“Last night I sat on the old walls looking west towards the
+yellow sunset under a blue-black cloud of rain hanging low in the
+sky. A man had lit a fire which smoked very much, and the west wind
+was carrying the smoke away over the wall in a horizontal streak
+between me and the sunset. They have gone, the Tuareg, from history
+like that streak of smoke. Even the Almoravids are only a name. I
+wonder why. They have fought with a losing hand so long. They were
+driven down from the north by the Arabs and by Europe, and harried
+by everyone. They have also harried others well. Finally, the
+French have come and have occupied their country. For long it was
+thought that the Tuareg would be untamable. They fought well and
+hard. The fire of old remained. In Air it broke again into flame in
+1917 with Kaossen’s revolt, but in the end the force of European
+arms prevailed. The French killed many and punished the people of
+Air very hardly, too hardly as some of their own officers think, in
+dealing with a people<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_421">[421]</span> which is already so small and tending to
+die out. But though calm and peaceful to-day like the smoke carried
+away from the fire by the walls of Gamram, the point of flame
+remains. I could see the heart of the fire from which the smoke was
+coming. I wonder if the flame will burst forth again. You have
+fought well, you people. You would not bow your necks, so they have
+been broken, but perhaps your day may come again. It grew dark on
+the walls of Gamram and the sunset of rain faded away; the fire
+continued to burn, but my thoughts turned elsewhere, to my journey,
+to my riding camel (wondering whether it would survive: I gave it
+some millet that night as extra fodder), to England, and to what I
+should have to eat there. I had an omelette which I made myself,
+and some fresh milk for supper that evening. Thence my thoughts
+turned to other things as well. . . .”</p>
+<p>And here it is better that I close. It is on the knees of the
+gods how they achieve their destiny. I hope that the gods will be
+good to them.</p>
+<p>They were my very good friends, and I was very pleased to live
+with them, for they were very agreeable. Perhaps we shall meet
+again and travel together once more. And so their proverb, which
+has seemed to me very true, will be fulfilled for them and for me.
+They say that:</p>
+<p class="center space-above1">“<span class="sc">Living People
+Often Meet</span>.”</p>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span><a id=
+"app1"></a>APPENDIX I</h2>
+<p class="sch">A LIST OF THE ASTRONOMICALLY DETERMINED POINTS IN
+AIR</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> positions given in the following
+table have been collected from the record of the proceedings of the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission, from the list given on the second sheet of
+the “Carte de l’Air” prepared by the Mission Cortier and others on
+a scale of 1/500,000, and from the observations by the author. Two
+positions given in Lieut. Jean’s <em>Les Touareg du Sud-Est</em>
+are also included. The French longitudes have been converted into
+longitudes east of Greenwich by the addition 2° 20′ 14″.</p>
+<p>The author’s observations were carried out with a three-inch
+transit theodolite by Cary and Porter, and were in all cases
+stellar sights. The latitudes were in all cases determined from
+pairs of north and south circum-meridian stars, or from altitudes
+of Polaris and one south star. The longitudes were determined by
+calculations based on local mean time derived from pairs of east
+and west stars, and chronometric differences from points which had
+previously been determined by French travellers. Where the author’s
+longitudes for points previously determined by French observers are
+also given, they are the result of chronometric differences from
+other points previously or successively visited. The author,
+however, has not used his own longitudes for determining
+intermediate points when French observations were available, and
+his co-ordinates in these instances are only reproduced for
+purposes of comparison.</p>
+<p>The data for the Foureau-Lamy observations are described in the
+record of the proceedings of the expedition. The source of the
+positions given on the Cortier map is not stated. The data for
+Colonel Tilho’s positions are in the record of<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_423">[423]</span> the delimitation of the northern
+boundary of Nigeria. The author’s computations are in the records
+of the Royal Geographical Society in London, where are also the
+original route reports and prismatic compass traverses made
+throughout the journey.</p>
+<p>Where possible the author’s chronometric differences were
+checked by opening and closing a series of observations on points
+previously fixed by French observers. In one unfortunate case,
+however, the author’s watches stopped as a result of his camels
+going astray and the series was consequently broken. His watches
+again stopped at Auderas, where, however, he stayed a sufficient
+length of time to re-rate them. At this place a number of local
+mean time observations were taken over a long period.</p>
+<p>The author’s longitude observations were carried out as
+follows:</p>
+<table class="tab-p" id="t423">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series A</td>
+<td>opened at Fanisau camp near Kano from a position supplied by
+the Survey school—closed at Tessawa— Dan Kaba (unreliable),
+intermediate position.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series B</td>
+<td>opened at Tessawa—<em>not</em> closed: Urufan-Gangara-Tanut,
+intermediate positions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series C</td>
+<td><em>not</em> opened—closed at T’in Wana: Termit—Teskar-Guliski,
+intermediate positions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series D</td>
+<td>opened at T’in Wana—closed at Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series E</td>
+<td>opened at Auderas—watches rated—closed at Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series F</td>
+<td>opened at Auderas—closed at Auderas:
+Abarakan-Teginjir-Telia-Teloas, intermediate positions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top no-wrap">Series G</td>
+<td>opened at Auderas—closed at Auderas:
+Aggata-Assode-Afis-Iferuan, intermediate positions.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The author’s meteorological record, which was kept for nine
+months, has not been reproduced. It consists of daily maximum and
+minimum, actual (twice daily), and wet and dry bulb temperatures;
+aneroid readings; wind and rainfall, and sunset and sunrise notes.
+It is at any student’s disposal to consult.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span>The following
+abbreviations are used in the ensuing table:</p>
+<p class="space-above15">F—Foureau; Ch—Chambrun (see Record of
+Foureau-Lamy expedition); R—Rodd; T—Tilho; C—Cortier’s Map of Air;
+J—Jean’s <em>Touareg du Sud-Est</em>.</p>
+<table class="borders" id="t424">
+<tr>
+<th>Place.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Area.</th>
+<th class="width6">Latitude, north.</th>
+<th class="width6">Longitude (east of Greenwich).</th>
+<th>Authority.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc word-spaced03">
+&nbsp;°&nbsp;&nbsp;′&nbsp;&nbsp;″&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdc word-spaced03">
+&nbsp;°&nbsp;&nbsp;′&nbsp;&nbsp;″&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Dan Kaba</span><a id=
+"FNanchor_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433" class=
+"fnanchor">[433]</a></td>
+<td colspan="2">Nigeria</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">13-12-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-44-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tessawa</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tessawa</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot pad1">13-45-20·5</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot pad1">7-59-12·6</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">T</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">13-45-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-59-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Urufan</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tessawa</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">14-04-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-06-25</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Gangara</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Damergu</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">14-36-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-27-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">14-36-42</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">—</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">Ch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">14-36-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-25-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tanut</span><a id=
+"FNanchor_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434" class=
+"fnanchor">[434]</a></td>
+<td colspan="2">Damergu</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">14-58-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-47-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Guliski</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Damergu</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">15-00-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">9-06-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Teshkar</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Elakkos</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">15-07-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">10-35-10</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Termit</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Eastern Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-04-10</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">11-04-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Abellama</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tegama-Azawagh</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-16-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-47-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Marandet</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tegama-Azawagh</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-22-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-24-14</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Ain Irhayen</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tegama-Azawagh</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-26-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-55-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tabzagur</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Tegama-Azawagh</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-36-57</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-08-17</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tin Wana</span>
+(T’in-Nouana)</td>
+<td colspan="2">S. Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-42-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-25-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-42-55</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-25-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">In Gall</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-47-08</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">6-54-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tebehic</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-47-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-21-14</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Eghalgawen</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-48-21</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-31-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Agades</span> (Post)</td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-59-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-57-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+(T’in Shaman<a id="FNanchor_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435" class=
+"fnanchor">[435]</a>)</td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">16-59-02</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">(8-24-18)</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">J</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tin Dawin</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-00-07</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-26-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tin Taboraq</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-01-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-08-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tagidda N’Adrar</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-04-13</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-22-21</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Anu Areran</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-15-27</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-43-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Fagoshia</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-16-01</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">6-57-17</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tafadek</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-23-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-55-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tagidda N’T’isemt</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-25-38</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">6-34-33</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tinien</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-26-54</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-09-02</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-26-24</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">—</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">Ch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Idikel</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-29-42</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-37-23</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Teloas-Tabello</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">E.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-34-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-49-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Egeruen</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">S.W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-35-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-54-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Auderas</span><a id=
+"FNanchor_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436" class=
+"fnanchor">[436]</a></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-37-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-19-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-38-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-18-14</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-37-48</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-19-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_425">[425]</span><span class="sc">Telia</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">E.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-47-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-49-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">In Kakkan</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-49-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-48-23</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">In Abbagarit</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Western Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-53-47</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">5-59-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tamet Tedderet</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Western Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-54-04</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">6-36-18</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Anu n’Ageruf</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-54-46</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-24-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Aureran</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-56-54</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-23-17</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-56-42</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">—</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">Ch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Teginjir</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">17-59-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">—</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Abarakan</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-03-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-39-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Aggata</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-09-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-26-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Ufa Atikin</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-09-26</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-12-21</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">In Allaram</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Western Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-16-12</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">6-15-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Tamadalt Tan
+Ataram</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-16-23</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-49-18</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Afasto</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-17-08</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-17-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Zilalet</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">W.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-23-19</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-51-21</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Assode</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-27-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-26-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Sidawet</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">C.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-30-54</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-02-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Afis</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-37-30</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-35-40</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Agellal</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-43-02</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-07-17</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-43-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-10-02</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-43-00</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-07-14</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">Ch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Faodet</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">18-47-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-34-50</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Iferuan</span><a id=
+"FNanchor_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437" class=
+"fnanchor">[437]</a></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-04-10</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-22-45</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-04-28</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-22-22</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-04-18</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-24-32</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-04-12</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-21-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">Ch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-04-03</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">8-24-24</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">J</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Zurika</span></td>
+<td class="tdr bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td>Air</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-14-35</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-50-15</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Uraren</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Western Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-31-44</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">7-08-17</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">In Gezzam</span></td>
+<td colspan="2">Western Desert</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">19-33-10</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">5-44-20</td>
+<td class="tdc-bot">C</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="thead"><span class="sc">Heights above Sea
+Level</span>.<a id="FNanchor_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438"
+class="fnanchor">[438]</a></p>
+<table class="tless padded4" id="t425">
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Iferuan</span></td>
+<td>681</td>
+<td>metres</td>
+<td>(F)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>673</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Uraren</span></td>
+<td>485</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Sidawet</span></td>
+<td>554</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Agellal</span></td>
+<td>613</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>604</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(F)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Auderas</span></td>
+<td>798</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(F)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Agades</span> (T’in Shaman)</td>
+<td>500</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(F)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">In Gezzam</span></td>
+<td>374</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="sc">Zilalet</span></td>
+<td>557</td>
+<td class="tdc">„</td>
+<td>(C)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="less"><span class="sc">Note</span>.—The exact positions
+of the observations in the same localities are not identical in the
+case of all observers, which accounts for some of the apparent
+discrepancies.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftapp1">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433"><span class=
+"label">[433]</span></a>The Dankaba observation is of somewhat
+doubtful accuracy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434"><span class=
+"label">[434]</span></a>The Tanut longitude depends on only one
+stellar observation for L.M.T.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435"><span class=
+"label">[435]</span></a>Jean’s longitude for T’in Shaman, which is
+the site of the French post and therefore also of the rest-house
+where the Cortier observation was taken, differs so materially from
+the latter that it cannot be accepted. It is described (like the
+position he gives for Iferuan) as “d’après F. Foureau,” but I can
+find no record in the account of the proceedings of the
+Foureau-Lamy Mission to justify this statement.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436"><span class=
+"label">[436]</span></a>My camp at Auderas was situated about 400
+yards east of the camp site which the Foureau-Lamy Mission occupied
+and where, therefore, Foureau’s observation was probably made. This
+difference accounts for the discrepancy in our longitudes. The
+Cortier map shows an astronomically fixed point at Auderas which,
+when measured on the copy in my possession, gives these
+co-ordinates, but they are not recorded in the table on the second
+sheet of the map, as are the other positions in Air. Foureau’s
+latitude is based upon five observations, one of which is
+appreciably smaller than the other four; if this result is omitted
+from the average, the latitude becomes even higher than it is given
+in the table.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437"><span class=
+"label">[437]</span></a>Foureau’s latitude for Iferuan is based
+upon five observations, one of which is appreciably higher than the
+other four; if this result is omitted the average practically
+coincides with my observation, which was taken on the identical
+spot.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438"><span class=
+"label">[438]</span></a>The altitudes obtained by me from
+boiling-point observations and aneroid readings are not given; they
+are numerous but have not been fully worked out.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span><a id=
+"app2"></a>APPENDIX II</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE TRIBAL ORGANISATION OF THE TUAREG OF AIR</p>
+<p class="nind"><a href="#app2s1"><span class="sc">Division</span>
+I.</a> The People of the King.</p>
+<p class="nind"><a href="#app2s2"><span class="sc">Division</span>
+II.</a> The Itesan and Kel Geres.</p>
+<p class="nind"><a href="#app2s3"><span class="sc">Division</span>
+III.</a> The Kel Owi.</p>
+<p class="nind"><a href="#app2s4"><span class="sc">Division</span>
+IV.</a> The Tuareg of Damergu.</p>
+<p class="nind"><a href="#app2s5"><span class="sc">Division</span>
+V.</a> Unidentified tribes, generic names, etc.</p>
+<p class="space-above15">The work of Barth and Jean has been
+incorporated in these tables; further reference to these authors is
+therefore omitted. Alternative name forms from these and other
+sources are given in brackets below the spelling which has been
+adopted to conform as far as possible with the rules of the Royal
+Geographical Society’s Committee on names.</p>
+<p>(N) and (S) respectively signify “noble” and “servile”
+tribes.</p>
+<p>In many cases no territorial identification is given, as tribes
+have changed their areas very greatly since 1917-18, nor have they
+settled down permanently to occupy other ranges since then. When
+Northern Air was cleared by the French patrols, the tribes were
+moved south, and for the most part they are therefore now in the
+neighbourhood of Agades, or in the Azawagh or even further south.
+But they are arranged in a disorderly fashion and are always moving
+from place to place; any attempt to give their present areas would
+be fruitless, since they will probably prove to be only temporary.
+The process of returning north had already commenced in 1922 and
+has presumably continued since then. Such locations as are given in
+the tables refer to periods prior to 1917 unless the contrary is
+stated.</p>
+<p>The left-hand column gives the name of the original tribal stock
+so far as it has been possible to trace one. The next column gives
+the names of the tribes and sub-tribes<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_427">[427]</span> formed by the original group. It is often
+impossible to state for certain whether large tribes are still to
+be described as such, or whether they have become independent
+tribes with subsidiary clans. Thus the whole classification must be
+considered approximate. It is designed to carry one stage further
+the system commenced by Barth, and continued by Jean. Where these
+two authorities are stated to have made mistakes or to have been
+inaccurate, the brevity of such phrases, occasioned as it has been
+by the use of a tabular form of arrangement, does not denote more
+than an expression of different opinion. It is intended to convey
+no disparagement, but merely to obviate circumlocution. The remarks
+in the right-hand column are intended to be read in conjunction
+with the relevant parts of the text of this book to which they are
+supplementary.</p>
+<h3><a id="app2s1"></a><span class="sc">Division I. The People of
+the King</span>.</h3>
+<table class="borders tabw45" id="t427">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col5">
+<col>
+<col class="col4"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th>Group.</th>
+<th>Tribes and sub-tribes.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Notes.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">1.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ferwan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ferwan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">From its present name the group was
+originally in Iferuan (Ighazar) valley, whence probably expelled to
+W. and S. by Kel Owi. Original name unknown. Possibly not
+originally of same stock as others in division, and perhaps
+immigrant from W. Tribes ranged over S.W. Air, N.W. Damergu, and W.
+Tegama, but since 1917 nearly all the nobles have settled in
+Katsina, leaving Imghad in old areas. Great raiders westward. About
+4320 souls according to Jean.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Irawattan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intabisgi (S. Talak plain). The only
+“I name” tribe recorded in the group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Azel</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intabisgi.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tadele</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Large tribe now partially independent of
+Kel Ferwan group. Described by Jean as servile and by others as
+noble; explanation being probably that both castes occur as
+sub-tribes. Apparently originally an Ahaggar tribe which with its
+Imghad came to Air; if this was due to conquest by an Air tribe,
+the confusion of status is comprehensible.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tadele</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="bd-left bdless-right">⎰<br>
+⎱</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Talak-Zurika area. They own
+Zelim and Tuaghet pools in Fadé, a part of which is also theirs.
+Their chief is Rabidin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Tehammam</span>
+(S.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_428">[428]</span><span class="sc">Imuzurak</span> (S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">W. Tegama and S.W. Air. Some nobles of
+this name in Damergu are wrongly described by Jean as Imghad of the
+Ikazkazan. The Imghad Imuzurak were probably captured from the
+noble sept.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imuzuran</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intabisgi. The name is abusive,
+meaning “Donkey droppings.” Reputed very fair skinned.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Iberdianen</span>
+(S.)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Araten.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Berdianen)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Jekarkaren</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Araten.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Igedeyenan</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Azel.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Gedeyenan)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Iguendianna)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Isakarkaran</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intabisgi. Both names
+are wrongly given by Jean as separate units.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Zakarkaran)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ideleyen</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intabisgi.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ikawkan</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Eghbaren</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1 sect075 sect075bot">The last eight servile
+tribes represent nuclei captured in the W. They are of Tuareg, Arab
+and Moroccan origin, but have been assimilated to the People of the
+Veil.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ifoghas</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tafadek area. Said by Jean to be Imghad
+of the Kel Ferwan and to have come from the Kel Antassar stock
+(unidentified) S. of Timbuctoo. They came to Air about 1860 and
+settled under the Amenokal; they were allowed to retain noble
+privileges. Their inclusion in the Kel Ferwan group indicates that
+the latter may be of W. origin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(<span class="sc">Ifadeyen</span>)
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Believed to be noble. Included by Jean
+among the Kel Ferwan Imghad, but for a more probable attribution
+see Div. I. Group 6.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">2.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel <span class="sc">Tadek</span>).</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No original name is traceable, but that
+of “Tamgak” is suggested. They were named from the Tidik (or Tadek)
+valley N. of Tamgak and the Ighazar. One of the oldest tribes in
+Air. They possessed the country from Agalenge to Tezirzak in Fadé
+and N. Air. They had the Kel Fares to E. and Kel Tamat to W., and
+covered area from Temed to just N. of Ighazar. Now scattered all
+over Air. Their chief is Ahodu of Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tadek</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tadek valley and Gissat. Now scattered
+and in small numbers. Their original name is unknown.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Umuzut</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Agades area, and Damergu.
+Practically separate from the other tribes in the division.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kalenuzuk)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tefgun</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Tefgun mosque, Ighazar. A small
+personal tribe of Ahodu’s own family; keepers of the mosque for at
+least five generations.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_429">[429]</span>Kel <span class="sc">Aghimmat</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably a sub-tribe of the Kel
+Tadek.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kelghimmat)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Takermus</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Garet</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Garet plain, C. Air. Not to
+be confused with the Kel Garet of the Kel Geres. From a place S. of
+Agellal pronounced “Anigara.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Garet</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Aniogara</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Anu
+Wisheran</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Anuwisheran</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Anu Wisheran, C. Air. Very nomadic and
+ancient; now in Tegama.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ezelu</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ezelu valley, S. of above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Garet</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A fortuitous collection of Imghad in the
+Garet valley. The existence of two Kel Garet may be compared with
+the two Kel Garet in Div. II. Group 5, with whom there may be some
+connection.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Izirza</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Izumzumaten</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Giga</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Agejir, S. Bagezan. Probably
+assimilated to the Ittegen.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ittegen</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Large Imghad section of the
+Kel Tadek. Their “I name” is the only one in the Kel Tadek group,
+and they are probably dependent on some parent tribe, possibly the
+Kel Giga. They have broken away to form a new tribal group, the
+modern Kel Bagezan (<em>q.v.</em> sub Kel Owi).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Etteguen)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Aggata</span>
+(?N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Have recently joined the Kel Tadek
+(Groups 3 and 4).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">3 and 4.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Immikitan</span> and
+<span class="sc">Imezegzil</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The alternative attribution of many
+tribes to these two groups makes it difficult to distinguish them
+apart. The reason for the confusion is that both groups occur in
+areas predominantly Kel Owi, where they form isolated islands of
+extraneous people dependent upon the Añastafidet. Both groups were
+probably in occupation of N.E. Air when Kel Owi arrived; latter
+proved unable to eliminate them completely, and the remnants
+consequently fell under their influence and were thus variously
+described as belonging to one or other division. The two groups
+perhaps represent a single stock with the <span class=
+"sc">Immikitan</span> predominant, but in later times certainly
+acquired, as here shown, co-equal status. Immikitan are known to
+have been among first Tuareg in Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Immikitan</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Amakeetan)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Immikitan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Also called <span class=
+"sc">Elmiki</span>. Originally, after immigration, in N. Central
+Air. Now isolated nuclei of this division live among people of Div.
+II. There are also Immikitan in Div. IV. Jean has rightly not
+accepted popular account that they are Kel Owi owing to recent
+association.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_430">[430]</span>Kel <span class="sc">Tegir</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Tegir near Assatartar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Kel Teguer)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Assatartar</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A geographical synonym for the
+above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Aggata</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Aggata</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Aggata area. This tribe did not move
+south after the 1917 episode, and thus became affiliated to Kel
+Tadek. Their chief is El Haj Saleh at Agades.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tadenak</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Placed by Barth at Tadenak, E. of
+Agellal, and later by Jean at Intayet on Anu Maqaran valley.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">(<span class="sc">Ikaradan</span>)
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Placed by Jean at Aggata, but the word
+means Tebu in Air Temajegh; the nucleus almost certainly consists
+of Tebu living near their masters and not a separate tribe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Mawen</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Placed by Jean at N’Ouajour,
+which is probably In Wadjud near Taruaji. No information.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Maouen)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Assarara)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Wrongly placed by Jean in this group
+either on account of confusion with Kel Assatartar or perhaps
+because Kel Assarara inhabited Assarara area as Immikitan before
+the arrival of the Kel Owi (see above). The only Kel Assarara
+to-day in existence are Kel Owi (<em>q. v.</em>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imezegzil</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Originally N. of the Immikitan in the
+Agwau-Afis-Faodet area before arrival of Kel Owi. Jean thinks only
+two tribes can be assigned to this group, the Kel Faodet and Kel
+Tagunar, but others seem to belong. The group is surrounded by Kel
+Owi, who are especially strong in the originally most important
+area of the tribe, namely Agwau. They are now all in the Agades
+area.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(<span class="sc">Imezegzil</span>)
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No independent Imezegzil survive, but its
+existence is remembered in the Agwau area. Remnants are probably
+represented by the Kel Afis.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Afis</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Afess)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Afis</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Afis, N. Air. They are called the “big
+men,” the Imezegzil. In the wider geographical term, Kel Afis
+includes some Kel Owi living in the village. Jean rightly calls Kel
+Afis a separate tribe which probably represents the oldest part
+surviving to the Imezegzil.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Azanierken</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Imghad of the above, but living further
+W. at Tanutmolet in Ighazar. Their “I name” indicates antiquity,
+and the fact that the Kel Afis possessed such an old tribe
+indicates that the latter were the parent stock of group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tanutmolet</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Izarza</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A group of serfs living among Kel Owi at
+this village, whose population has come to be called Kel
+Tanutmolet, which is also used as a variant for the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> Azanierken. I have a note that
+these Kel Tanutmolet serfs are also called Izarza, which may be a
+corrupt form for Azanierken. They are now only two or three
+families.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Faodet</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Faodet in the upper Ighazar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tagunar</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Tagunet in the upper Ighazar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">5.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imaqoaran</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Originally in W. Central Air. Although
+belonging to a category of the People of the King, they were never
+much under his authority.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imaqoaran</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">In the Agellal area. Very
+small, only five families are said to survive. See Kel Wadigi.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Immakkorhan)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel <span class=
+"sc">Agellal</span>)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Are probably in great part Imaqoaran,
+especially when Kel Agellal is used in a general or geographical
+sense (cf. Kel Agellal, Div. III. Group 4).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Wadigi</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Wadigi</span>
+(N,).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In Wadigi valley, E. of Agellal. Small
+unimportant group of recent origin, consisting of Kel Agellal
+Imaqoaran, Kel Agellal Ikazkazan, and people from Ighazar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tefis</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Tefis.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Areitun</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Imghad of above in Areitun village, W. of
+Anu Wisheran (not the Areitun N. of Agellal).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Sidawet</span> (N.
+and S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">At Sidawet village. A
+sedentary group of mixed parentage and doubtful origin. Also
+ascribed to Izeyyakan, but on account of the established origin of
+the Kel Agellal Imaqoaran and Kel Zilalet, whose villages are in
+same area as Sidawet, they are all probably of the same
+parentage.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Sadaouet)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Zilalet</span> (N.
+and S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Zilalet village. Wrongly described as an
+independent tribe by Jean.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">6.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Both the last are mixed village groups of
+people of all castes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ifadeyen</span> and Kel
+<span class="sc">Fadé</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No more information is available than
+that given in the preceding chapters (see pp. <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a> and <a href="#Page_400">400</a>).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h3><span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span><a id=
+"app2s2"></a><span class="sc">Division II. The Itesan and Kel
+Geres</span>.</h3>
+<p class="center less">Note: All these tribes are in the Southland,
+and their present areas are not, therefore, specified.</p>
+<table class="borders tabw45" id="t432">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col5">
+<col class="col4"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th>Group.</th>
+<th>Tribes and sub-tribes.</th>
+<th>Notes.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">1.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Itesan</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably one of the original tribes of
+the Kel Innek who invaded Air from the Chad direction. Being the
+preponderant tribe in Air, the Itesan were driven from the country
+by the Kel Owi when the latter arrived. Though now in the
+Southland, the Itesan still play a prominent rôle in electing the
+Amenokal of Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel) <span class=
+"sc">T’Sidderak</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Named from a group of hills N. of
+Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tagei</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">“The People of the
+Dûm Palm,” possibly a totemic name or else derived from name of a
+valley so-called. There are many such in Air, in particular one N.
+of Auderas is probably responsible for the name. Not to be confused
+with the people in Div. III. Group I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Tagay)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(? also Tagayes)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Bagezan</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">Originally inhabiting
+the mountains so called. Not to be confused with other later Kel
+Bagezan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Maghzen- Kel Bagezan)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Allaghan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">“The People of the Spears.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Alaren)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(<span class=
+"sc">Emallarhsen</span>).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably a misreading for “Im” or “In
+Allaghan” (where the prefix takes the place of “Kel”), and
+therefore identical with above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(<span class=
+"sc">Itziarrame</span>).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably a corrupt name, perhaps a
+mistake for the above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel) <span class=
+"sc">Telamse</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">The second is
+probably the right form, and is derived from the name of a village
+and hills near Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel T’ilimsawin)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Mafinet</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Named after a valley tributary to the
+Auderas valley.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Duga</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">The second is
+probably the right form, and is derived from Mount Dogam, N. of
+Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Dogam).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Uye</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Wadigi, from a valley E. of Agellal,
+has been suggested as a more correct version. In this case the
+tribe would more probably belong to the Kel Agellal of the Kel
+Unnar in Group 3, but the derivation is doubtful.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Manen</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Given by Barth as a tribe of the
+Itesan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imanen</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">With the two following tribes they seem
+to represent the oldest stock of people who invaded Air from the E.
+These Imanen are obviously of the same stock as the Imanen of the
+Azger Lemta division of Tuareg in the N.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Innek</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Are given by Barth as a part of the
+Itesan. While the name may have survived as a tribal name, it is
+more properly applicable to all the people who came from the E.
+when Air was invaded. The existence of such a tribe name among the
+Itesan, whose original name it may have been, is, however, proof of
+the accuracy of Bello’s statement.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_433">[433]</span><span class="sc">Ijanarnen</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">This tribe is given
+by Bello as one of those who originally invaded Air from the E. The
+occurrence of such a tribe in the Itesan group, according to Barth,
+substantiates the supposition made above and in the body of the
+book.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Ijaranen)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">2.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tetmokarak</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tetmokarak</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Tedmukkeren)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Teghzeren</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel Teghzeren may be a corruption of “Kel
+Intirzawen” derived from the name of the Asclepias Gigantica. The
+Kel Teghzeren appear to be the principal tribe of the Tetmokarak,
+and are possibly the parent group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Azar</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Perhaps derived from a place of that name
+in the upper Anu Maqaran valley, C. Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel) <span class="sc">Ungwa</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">The origin of the
+name is doubtful, for “ungwa” seems in Kanuri to mean “village.”
+The name may be a form of Kel Unnar (see below), another Kel Geres
+group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Oung Oua)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Ungwar)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tashel</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Taschell)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Tashil)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Isherifan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Of which the Isherifan in Damergu were
+probably a part.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Atan</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tegama</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">See also the People of Tegama in the
+Damergu group. The two septs are probably of the same stock; they
+are more fully discussed in the body of the book.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Kerfeitei</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">The second version is
+perhaps more correct.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(? Kel Feitei)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel) <span class=
+"sc">Ighelaf</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">From a group of wells
+in E. Damergu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Ighlab)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Escherha</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Inardaf</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Zerumini</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">3.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Unnar</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Kel Ungwa may be the same people, but
+there is no information.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Unnar</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tarenkat</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Alwalitan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A patronymic, from the common personal
+name among the Tuareg, Al Wali.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Gurfautan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably also a patronymic.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Agellal</span>.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">From Agellal in C.
+Air, and not to be confused with the present Kel Agellal (Div. I.
+Group 5).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Aghellal)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Taiagaia</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">?, unless a corruption in the manuscripts
+of European authors of Kel Agellal.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">4.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Anigara</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel) <span class=
+"sc">Anigara</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">There are two places called Anigara
+(Aniogara) near Agellal, and this group might be named from either
+of them. The present Kel Aniogara are a sub-tribe of the Kel Garet
+(in Div. I. Group 2).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_434">[434]</span><span class="sc">Tafarzas</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No information.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Zurbatan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Izenan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tanzar</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">5.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Garet</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Doubtless originally from the Garet Mts.
+and plain in C. Air, and not to be confused with the Kel Garet of
+Div. I., of whom, however, these people may have been a part which
+moved S. when the Itesan also went.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Garet</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The people originally inhabiting the
+plain of that name.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Garet
+N’Dutsi</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><em>I.e.</em> the “Kel Garet of the
+Mountain,” who lived in the mountains in the same area.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Aiawan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No information.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tiakkar</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Irkairawan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1 sect1"><span class="sc">Tadadawa</span>,
+Kel <span class="sc">Tamei</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1 sect1">These are grouped together, largely
+perhaps because not enough is known to separate their various
+tribes. Their tribes are given without comment, as there is little
+available on record.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tadadawa</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">? the Tadara of Barth.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tamel</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Amarkos</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Intadeini</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably from a place Intadeini on the
+Anu Maqaran, C. Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ufugum</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Tegibbut</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Tgibbu)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Iburuban</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Iabrubat)</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Toiyamama</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Irmakaraza</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Perhaps connected with the name Anu
+Maqaran.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="less"><span class="sc">Note</span>.—Barth also gives the
+following unidentified names of Kel Geres tribes: <em>Kel
+n’Sattafan</em> (the Black People), which is also the name of the
+family of the Amenokal according to Bello: this tribe, if it is a
+tribe at all, may be attributed to the Itesan group;
+<em>Tilkatine</em>; <em>Taginna</em>; <em>Riaina</em>, and
+<em>Alhassan</em>.</p>
+<p class="less">The caste of these tribes is not specified, but all
+the principal units, at any rate, may be assumed noble. The tribes
+have simply been enumerated here for purposes of record and
+comparison. They are not adduced as ethnological material
+comparable with that provided by the lists of tribes in Divisions
+I. and III.</p>
+<h3><span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span><a id=
+"app2s3"></a><span class="sc">Division III. The People of the
+Añastafidet or Kel Owi</span></h3>
+<table class="borders tabw45" id="t435">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col5">
+<col>
+<col class="col4"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th>Group.</th>
+<th>Tribes and sub-tribes.</th>
+<th colspan="2">Notes.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">1.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imaslagha</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Kel Azañieres, and therefore the
+Imaslagha, with the Izeyyakan and Igururan, are said to be the
+oldest of the Kel Owi division.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imaslagha</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Azañieres</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Azañieres (N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In the Azañieres mountains.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Intirzawen (S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">West of the southern Kel Nugguru in the
+Intirzawen and T’ilisdak valley, S. of Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Taghmeurt</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">In the Taghmeurt Mts. It has
+certain unspecified servile tribes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Tagmart)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Assarara</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In the Assarara and Agwau area, N.E. Air,
+at the places mentioned. Their chief in Barth’s day was Annur,
+paramount chief of Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Assarara (N.).</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="bdless-right bd-left">⎫<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎬<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎭</td>
+<td rowspan="6" class="tdl hang1">Along the great valley of N.E.
+Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Agwau (N.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Igululof (N.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Oborassan (S.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Anu Samed (S.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel T’intellust (S.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The last is wrongly placed by Jean in
+Group 2 with the Kel Tafidet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Igururan</span>
+(Igururan) (N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Apparently now extinct in name.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Fares</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Fares N. of Agwau; now near Agades.
+Their position is confirmed by Barth, but the place is called
+Tinteyyat. Their original name was probably Igururan, but since the
+extinction of the parent stock they rank as connected with the
+Imaslagha group. The “I name” Igururan may have been a group name
+in the first place.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Zegedan</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Name recorded by Barth but not now
+traceable. May be connected with Kel Bagezan, whose position might
+be described as 1½ days from T’intellust.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Izeyyakan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">By some described as People of the King,
+but placed by Jean, probably rightly, in this group. Formerly a
+noble portion of the inhabitants of Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imarsutan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The same considerations as above apply.
+Wrongly placed at Auderas. Said to have come from unidentified
+place called Arsu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Imarsutan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A comparatively modern tribe said to have
+been formed from remnants of the old tribe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tagei</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Perhaps a totemic name, but
+readily derived from any place abounding in “dûm palms.” Perhaps
+but not necessarily a conquered part of Itesan Kel Tagei (cf. Div.
+II Group 1).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Kel Teget)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(? Kel Tintagete)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_436">[436]</span>Kel <span class="sc">Erarar</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Name means “People of the Plain,” and
+probably refers to plain N. of T’intellust, near which Barth also
+places them. Name may therefore be generic and applicable to
+various sections in group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">2.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Igermaden</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The name is radically connected with
+Jerma or Garama in the Fezzan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Igermaden</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Igermaden</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Ajiru, E. of Bagezan. The people of
+Belkho, paramount chief of Air after Annur.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Ajiru</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Perhaps an alternative name for above,
+for the sedentary element among them.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Assatartar</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The name of the inhabitants of Assatartar
+other than the Immikitan element there (see Div. I Groups 3 and
+4).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">(<span class="sc">Immikitan</span>
+(N.)).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Of Assatartar; have become to be
+considered connected with Igermaden owing to propinquity and
+gradual absorption.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">(Kel <span class="sc">Tagermat</span>
+(N.)).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Perhaps a confusion for Kel Taghmeurt in
+Group 1; placed by Barth at unidentified place, Azuraiden, E.N.E.
+of T’intellust, corresponding roughly with Taghmeurt
+mountains.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Igademawen</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Wrongly placed by Jean in
+Imaslagha group.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Ikademawen)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Igademawen</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Afasas and Beughqot areas E.
+of Bagezan. The name suggests analogies to Kel Mawen of Immikitan
+in Div. I. Groups 3 and 4. Perhaps a part of group was here
+absorbed as in case of Kel Assartartar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Kel Mawen?)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Nabaro</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Nabaro villages near Tabello, E. of
+Bagezan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tafidet</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Also given, but wrongly I
+think, as an independent tribe in this group. Lived in the Tafidet
+Mts. with unspecified servile tribes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Tafidet.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">Kel Anfissac.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Anfissac well E. of T’imia massif.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Intirzawen</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A part of the same tribe which is also
+servile to Kel Azañieres in Group 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Agalak</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Placed by Jean in this group. The name is
+well known but tribe was not identified by me.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Jean also places some Ifadeyen, some
+Ikazkazan of Garazu in Damergu, and some people with generic name
+of Kel Ighazar in this group; but he is, I think, mistaken in doing
+so.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">3.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Imasrodang</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">In the Ighazar, whence they
+have acquired the generic name of Kel Ighazar. The latter are
+placed by Jean in Group 2, but they are certainly a separate stock,
+namely, the Imasrodang, who are co-equal with Igermaden.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">Kel <span class="sc">Ighazar</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The headman of the group is Abdulkerim,
+now living at Azzal near Agades, but formerly settled at
+T’intaghoda.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_437">[437]</span>Kel <span class="sc">T’intaghoda</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’intaghoda. Reputed to be Holy
+Men.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tamgak</span> or
+<span class="sc">Imedideran</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Some serfs and some free wild men living
+in Tamgak, historically belonging to, but never subjected by, Kel
+T’intaghoda. Their status is undefined, for their inherent nobility
+is recognised.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Elar</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="bd-left bdless-right">⎫<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎬<br>
+⎪<br>
+⎭</td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="tdl hang1">All at various points in the
+Ighazar between Iferuan and Iberkom.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Iberkom</span>
+(N.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Abirkom)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Aberkan)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Seliufet</span>
+(N.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Iferuan</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Not to be confused with Kel Ferwan in
+Div. I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tedekel</span>
+(?).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Now believed to be extinct.
+Originally also in Ighazar, but said to have become merged with
+other clans.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Kel Fedekel)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang2">(Fedala)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">4.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ikazkazan</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The tribe as such of this name has
+disappeared in the various large groups into which it has become
+divided. It is considered the junior group of the Kel Owi
+Confederation, the others being called from their chief constituent
+parts the Kel Tafidet and Kel Azañieres. The use of these
+territorial names corresponds in the Ikazkazan to the use of the
+names of the big subgroups, the Kel Tamat, Kel Ulli, etc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tamat</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A sub-group named from the Tamat acacia
+tree. It is the great northern sub-group of the Ikazkazan,
+corresponding with the Kel Ulli in the south. It would include all
+the northern Ikazkazan had some tribes not broken off to virtual
+independent status.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tamat</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In part near Agellal, where it has
+contributed to form Kel Agellal. Also at Ben Guten in W. Air. There
+is also a section in Damergu under the Kel Ulli grouping.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tubuzzat</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">W. Air. In some respects almost
+independent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Agellal</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Agellal village. The local tribe of this
+name is composed of Kel Tamat, or Kel Tubuzzat and of certain
+People of the King (see Div. I. Group 5).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">(Kel Wadigi)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Formed of certain composite Kel Agellal
+and other People of the King (see Div. I. Group 5).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Ibanderan</span> (?
+S.)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sakafat in W. Air, and also in S.W.
+Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Lazaret</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">As above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Kel Azaret)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Igerzawen</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Alburdatan</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Ifagarwal</span> (?
+S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">At Issakanan in S.W.
+Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang4">(Afaguruel)</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Adamber</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At T’in Wafara, which is
+unidentified.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Azenata</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">No information.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Takrizat</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">At Takrizat in N. Air. Having unspecified
+servile tribes, including perhaps some of the above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_438">[438]</span>Kel <span class="sc">Tagei</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Distinct from Kel Tagei (S.) in Group 1.
+Possibly, but not necessarily, connected with Itesan Kel Tagei (cf.
+Div. II. Group 1), W. Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Gharus</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Gharus</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gharus valley, Lower Ighazar. Very
+nomadic and perhaps the largest tribe in Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Ahaggaren</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Talak plain. Serfs of Kel Gharus but,
+having had a noble origin in the north in Ahaggar, are considered
+quasi-noble in status.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tattus</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Unidentified.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ulli</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Meaning the “People of the Goats.”
+Collective name for all the Ikazkazan in S. Air and Damergu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Ulli</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tegama and Damergu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Imuzurak</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Probably a part of older Imuzurak (N.) in
+Div. IV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">(<span class="sc">Isherifan</span>
+(N.)).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Holy Men. Gamram area (cf. Div. II. Group
+2 and Division IV.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3"><span class="sc">Ifadalen</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Damergu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Tamat</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do. (Cf. above.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Kel Ulli group, though nominally
+Ikazkazan and probably including other tribes than those given
+above, seem to have absorbed a number of early Tuareg in Damergu.
+Their presence in this group has led to the suspicion that the
+latter, instead of being absorbed by an extraneous group of Tuareg,
+namely, the Kel Owi, really represent the true Ikazkazan stock,
+which was not in truth a Kel Owi family or clan at all, but a mass
+of people who joined forces with the latter at an early period of
+their sojourn in Air.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc">5.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Independent tribes.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Among the Kel Owi there are a number of
+independent tribes of servile status. Their existence is not
+paralleled in the other divisions. They owe allegiance, not to any
+particular noble tribe, but directly to the Añastafidet. They are
+consequently more emancipated than most Imghad, a phenomenon which
+confirms the greater cultural development of the Kel Owi.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Nugguru</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Divided into two parts. That of the north
+called the Toshit (part) N’Yussuf in the Assada valley is actually
+under Ahodu of Auderas. The southern part between Bagezan and
+Taruaji Mts. is under Khodi, who claims to be headman of
+Auderas.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel Idakka.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A part of, or synonymous with, one of
+above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel Taferaut.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Bagezan</span>
+(S.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">In Bagezan under Mineru or El
+Minir. A recent composite tribe, not to be confused with Kel
+Bagezan in Div. I.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span>
+Group 1. Made up of Ittegen of Kel Tadek (Div. I. Group 2) and
+several other elements.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel Bazezan.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Ittegen.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang3">Kel <span class="sc">Towar</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A sedentary group, principally of serfs,
+at Towar, S. Bagezan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">T’imia</span>
+(N.).</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Nobles of various, but all Kel Owi,
+tribal origins living at T’imia village under Fugda.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Taranet</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Unidentified.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Tafasas</span>.</td>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Unidentified, unless the inhabitants of
+the villages along the Afasas valley, E. of Bagezan.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h3><a id="app2s4"></a><span class="sc">Division IV. The Tuareg of
+Damergu</span></h3>
+<p class="center less">A. People of the King.</p>
+<p class="center less">B. People of the Añastafidet.</p>
+<table class="borders tabw45" id="t439">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col3"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">Tribe and sub-tribe.</th>
+<th>Notes.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc">A. People of the King.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The oldest tribes in Damergu, as might be
+expected, are all of the People of the King. They do not belong to
+any of the Air tribes of this category; like most of the latter,
+they probably represent the oldest stock of Tuareg in these
+regions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">It has not been possible to identify the
+names of the stock or stocks to which the tribes belonged, so no
+larger grouping has been attempted.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"sc">Ifoghas</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Ifoghas certainly represent a stock
+as well as a tribe, but it has not been ascertained whether among
+the Damergu Ifoghas several tribal divisions are recognised, nor
+whether the under-mentioned tribes were originally of the Ifoghas
+group. Though very poor and fallen on evil days, they are
+considered Holy Men, and would be more readily recognised as noble
+were their state of destitution less severe. They are the Ifuraces
+of the classics and have related groups in other parts of the
+Sahara.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class=
+"sc">Tamizgidda</span> (N.).</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 bd-left">Meaning the People of
+the Mosque, Holy Men. Farak area. (See further note below.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang2">(Misgiddan)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang2">(? Mosgu)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"sc">Isherifan</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In Damergu since the earliest time. The
+name is equivalent to “Ashraf,” or Descendants of the Prophet.
+Gamram area. (See further note below.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">“<span class=
+"sc">Mallamei</span>.”</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A name given by Jean. It appears to be a
+Hausa equivalent of one of the above names, indicating that the
+tribe is holy.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The last three names (probably only two
+names are really involved) are not really proper names. They are
+descriptive names connected with the attribution of sanctity to the
+men of these clans. In view of the well-known application of such a
+description to the Ifoghas wherever this tribe appears, it is quite
+justifiable to suppose that these clans, which incidentally are
+known to have inhabited Damergu from remote times, are really
+tribes of the Ifoghas stock.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_440">[440]</span><span class="sc">Izagaran</span>.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang2">(Izagharan) (? N).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">In Damergu from earliest times.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"sc">Izarzaran</span> (? N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Name recorded by Jean.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"sc">Igdalen</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A stock known to have entered these parts
+with the very first Tuareg to arrive. Subdivisions of this stock
+are not known unless some of the other Damergu tribes and Air clans
+previously mentioned must so be classed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">S. of Agades, W. Tegama and N. Damergu.
+Holy Men. Very fair. Said not to carry arms.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel Tadek). Kel <span class=
+"sc">Umuzut</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A semi-independent tribe of the Kel Tadek
+stock (see Div. I. No. 2). N. Damergu.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"sc">Ifadeyen</span> (N.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Now live in Azawagh and Damergu (see Div.
+I. No. 6).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1">B. People of the
+Añastafidet.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1 bdless-right"><span class=
+"sc">Ikazkazan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top">Kel <span class="sc">Ulli</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Including various unspecified sub-tribes
+(N.) and (S.).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bdless-right"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top"><span class="sc">Ifadalen</span> (S.).</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Wrongly placed by Jean as an independent
+tribe in Damergu. They are Holy Men and probably were of the same
+stock as tribes in category A (above), but at one time were
+subjected by the Ikazkazan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Isherifan are wrongly given by Jean
+as a People of the Añastafidet, probably on the grounds that they
+were at one time conquered by Belkho, chief of the Igermaden (see
+Div. III. No. 2).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Ikazkazan and Immikitan of Elakkos
+are specifically referred to at length in the text of the
+book.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h3><a id="app2s5"></a><span class="sc">Division V</span></h3>
+<p class="less">Various unlocated and unidentified tribes; generic
+tribal names; more important village groups of mixed origins owing
+to breakdown of tribal organisation under sedentary conditions.</p>
+<table class="tless tabw50" id="t440">
+<colgroup>
+<col class="col6">
+<col class="col2"></colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Agellal</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">See Div. I. Group 5 and Div. III. Group
+4. Originally an Imaqoaran area, but these, with Ikazkazan of
+various tribes and people from Ighazar, formed the present Kel
+Agellal. Principally noble, but also some Imghad. Agellal
+village.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Zilalet</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">See Div. I. Group 5. Zilalet
+village.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Sidawet</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Do. Sidawet village.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Auderas</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Principally Kel Aggata (<em>q.v.</em>
+Div. I. Groups 2 and 4) and Kel <span class="sc">Nugguru</span>
+(<em>q.v.</em> Div. III. Group 5). All Imghad except three or four
+families of Kel Aggata and Ahodu’s own dependents from Kel Tadek
+who came when he was given the chieftainship of the village by the
+French at the time of the Foureau-Lamy expedition. Auderas
+village.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">T’imia</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">All noble Kel Owi, but derived from many
+different tribes. Present inhabitants occupied village after the
+Kel T’imia of the Kel Geres went out. T’imia valley. See Div. III.
+Group 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Towar</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Mixed Imghad of Kel Owi with one or two
+nobles from Kel Bagezan and Imasrodang. Towar village.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Agades</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Not a strict term: only used in a
+geographical sense. The real inhabitants of Agades are called
+Emagadezi (<em>vide</em> <a href="#c03">Chap. III</a>). Songhai
+colony left in the sixteenth century, and people from all other
+tribes make up population, which is principally Imghad. Since 1917,
+when they lost their camels, many of the Tuareg from N. Air settled
+in Agades, or in the neighbourhood.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_441">[441]</span>Kel <span class="sc">In Gall</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Population composed of Songhai, Igdalen
+and some Aulimmiden in addition to Kel Ferwan and Ikazkazan. There
+are probably some Ifoghas both here and also at the three Tagiddas.
+In Gall area.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Ikaradan</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Temajegh name for the Tebu, of which
+there are probably several groups in Air captured on raids; notably
+one group, a part of the Kel Aggata.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Izeran</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Given by Barth as a tribal name, but as
+the word (in the correct form, Izghan) means “Kanuri” in Temajegh,
+the same considerations apply as in the case of the Ikaradan. Many
+Kanuri groups are known to have been captured on raids.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ighazar</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A generic term for all the tribes living
+in the Ighazar. They are principally Imasrodang Kel Owi.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Aghil</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Given by Barth as Kel Aril. A generic
+term meaning the “People of the South,” and applied especially to
+the Kel Geres.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Ataram</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Meaning the “People of the West,” applied
+especially to the Tuareg and Moors of Timbuctoo, and the Aulimmiden
+and Tuareg of the Mountain, in the Western Desert.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Innek</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Given by Barth as a tribal name. But it
+means the “People of the East,” and is similar to the above
+names.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">T’isemt</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">(Kel Tecoum) Meaning the “People of the
+Salt.” According to Jean it is applied to a tribe in the Telwa
+valley, but appears to be in the nature of a nickname given to
+people who made the collecting of Agha a trade. It is given to the
+southern Kel Nugguru generally (<em>q.v.</em> Div. III. Group 5)
+and to the people of the Tagiddas and the Ifoghas of Damergu. The
+People of the Tagiddas in any case are probably of the Ifoghas, so
+that Kel T’isemt may have been the name of a large division of the
+latter on the analogy of the “Kel Ulli” division of the
+Ikazkazan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="sc">Idemkiun</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Seems to be the tribal name of which
+Tademekka is the feminine form. According to Cortier (Appendix to
+<em>D’une Rive à l’Autre du Sahara</em>) this tribe survives in
+Air, but I have been unable to trace the name. They are probably a
+part of the Tuareg who settled in Air and further west during the
+very first migrations which took place.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Kel <span class="sc">Talak</span>.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A generic name for all the tribes which
+roam about the Talak plain.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span><a id=
+"app3"></a>APPENDIX III</h2>
+<p class="sch">ELAKKOS AND TERMIT<a id="FNanchor_439"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p>
+<p><span class="sc">North</span> of Gure the hills terminate
+suddenly in a cliff, and the area called Elakkos begins to the
+north of them. It has an individuality of its very own. A maze of
+small, closed depressions, that become ponds and lakes after the
+rainy season, break up the plain into sharp unsystematic
+undulations, which appear originally to have been sand dunes. They
+have now become fixed with grass and scanty scrub, but in most
+cases retain their characteristic shape. Here and there, rising
+several hundred feet above the plain, are a number of flat-topped
+hills of red sandstone. They stand alone like islands off a
+rock-bound coast. The edges of the hills are sheer cliffs, but the
+lower parts are covered with fallen detritus, which has formed
+steep slopes above the plain, and the wind has washed the sand up
+against their sides.</p>
+<p>The plain of Elakkos is like a sea floor from which the water
+has only recently run off. An irregular sand-strewn bottom has been
+left, churned up by immense waves that, in a succession of cyclonic
+storms, washed the sand up against the sides of the islands before
+retreating. When the blinding glare of midday has passed, deep blue
+shadows in the hills appear, and the country looks very beautiful.
+The great table-topped hills are blood-red and blue, in an expanse
+of yellow sea. Little villages are dotted about in the plain with a
+few trees and some deep green vegetation in the hollows.</p>
+<div class="plate">
+<p class="ipubr">[ADDITIONAL PLATE]</p>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i51a"><a href="images/i51a.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i51a.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TYPICAL TEBU</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter iw8">
+<figure id="i51b"><a href="images/i51b.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i51b.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp1">TERMIT PEAK AND WELL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Lying between the desert and the Sudan, Elakkos has suffered
+greatly. It has been a field of battle where the Tuareg of Air, the
+Tebu from the north-east and the people<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_443">[443]</span> of Bornu have met one another in order to
+do battle. Until the advent of the French it was considered the
+legitimate playground for the only international sport known in the
+desert, the gentle occupation of raid and counter-raid. The
+flat-topped hills, with scarcely a path worthy of the name to
+ascend the cliffs, were the citadels of the villages which nestle
+under their slopes. The huts in the villages are built of straw
+with conical roofs: neither mud buildings nor walled settlements
+exist. The inhabitants are Kanuri, sedentary Tuareg, and both
+nomadic and settled Tebu.</p>
+<p>While the Tuareg and Tebu live side by side with the Kanuri, the
+first two are such uncompromising enemies that they never adventure
+themselves into each other’s territory. The dividing line between
+them in Elakkos is sharp and clearly defined; it runs just west of
+the village group of Bultum, which is the last permanent settlement
+on the caravan road from Damagarim to Kawar by the wells of Termit,
+where twice a year pass caravans to fetch salt in the east. They
+leave at the same seasons when the people of Air, whom they join at
+Fashi, also cross the desert.</p>
+<p>The Tuareg of Elakkos to-day are sedentary, but their tribal
+names, Ikazkazan and Immikitan, belong to noble Air clans of
+confirmed nomadic habits. As in Damergu, they are the ruling class.
+Barth,<a id="FNanchor_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440" class=
+"fnanchor">[440]</a> basing himself on hearsay information sixty
+years earlier than Jean, stated that they were akin to the Tegama
+people.<a id="FNanchor_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441" class=
+"fnanchor">[441]</a> The Ikazkazan of Garazu in Elakkos, however,
+according to tradition, are late arrivals, certainly later than the
+Immikitan, who live rather further east. The latter seem to have
+come when the first Tuareg arrived from the east and installed
+themselves in Air. It is not clear which of the two tribal groups
+Barth proposed to classify as akin to the Tegama, but presumably he
+meant the Immikitan.</p>
+<p>The Ikazkazan of Garazu are grouped by Jean<a id=
+"FNanchor_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442" class=
+"fnanchor">[442]</a> as a sub-tribe of the Kel Tafidet, probably
+the, if not actually<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_444">[444]</span> the, principal tribe of the Kel Owi
+Confederation. While I had no opportunity during my only too short
+sojourn in Elakkos, in the course of a rapid march to Termit, to
+collect information on the ethnology of the Tuareg in this area, my
+experience in Air leads me to doubt the accuracy of Jean’s
+attribution. It is very improbable that a section of so important a
+tribe as the Ikazkazan could in any circumstances have come under
+the control of another tribe within the same Kel Owi Confederation,
+like the Kel Tafidet, least of all when it had moved so far afield
+as Elakkos.</p>
+<p>Both from Barth’s description of the “Principality of Elakkos,”
+that “sequestered haunt of robbers and freebooters,” as well as
+from other indications, there seem to have been more People of the
+Veil in this area in former days than now. The decrease may be
+accounted for by a general movement westwards, as a consequence of
+the encroachments of the Kanuri from Bornu, who were themselves
+constantly being driven onwards by pressure from the east, by the
+advent in the Chad area of the Arab tribes from the north, and by
+raids of the Tebu from Tibesti.<a id="FNanchor_443"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p>
+<p>Barth records that Elakkos was celebrated among the hungry
+people of the desert on account of its grain. The same reputation
+and source of wealth continue to the present time. More millet is
+grown in a limited area on the sandy plains of this country than in
+almost any other part of the belt which marks the transition
+between the Desert and the Sown. But Elakkos is especially
+celebrated among the Tuareg all over North Africa for the shields
+which are used by the People of the Veil and are made in this
+country. The hide of the white oryx, which with much other game
+lives in the bush along the border of the desert, is used for their
+manufacture. Their reputation in Temajegh speech and poetry points
+to the country of Elakkos having long been essentially Tuareg, for
+the traditional shape and technique are not found among the
+neighbouring peoples.</p>
+<p>The strong circumstantial evidence regarding the
+essentially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span> Tuareg
+character of the country, is further borne out by a reference in
+Leo to the Lemta Tuareg. This people, we are told, extended over
+all that part of North Africa which lay immediately east of the
+Targa people, from the Fezzan as far as Kawkaw. The latter, for
+reasons which have been discussed, was not Gao or Gago on the
+Niger, but Kuka on Lake Chad.<a id="FNanchor_444"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> But there is more than
+this, Elakkos is alternatively spelt Alakkos, Alakwas, and Ilagwas,
+which cannot be denied to bear a marked resemblance to the name of
+the Ilasgwas people of Corippus, who in Byzantine times were
+fighting in the Fezzan, or in other words in an area, according to
+Leo, occupied by the Lemta Tuareg. One would in any case have been
+inclined to accept the tradition that the early Tuareg in Elakkos
+were formerly more numerous than now, but in the light of this
+additional evidence I am satisfied that they are identical with the
+very Ilasgwas who came from the north, and therefore of the same
+stock as the Tuareg in the Fezzan. It follows that they were of the
+old Aulimmiden-Lemta stock and that they were a part of the latter
+group which entered the Chad area from the north and then moved
+westwards. I further believe that the Ilasgwas gave their name to
+Elakkos, where some of them stayed while the rest of the Lemta
+tribes went on, some of them into Air and some of them further
+west. The origin both of the Immikitan in Elakkos and in Air is due
+to this movement.</p>
+<p>Elakkos is well supplied with water at all times of the year.
+Tropical summer rains fall in abundance, leaving pools in the
+depressions, to which most of the inhabitants of the villages
+migrate for the few weeks which elapse between sowing and reaping
+the millet, during and directly after the annual break of the
+weather. As the pools dry up, leaving a luxuriant Sudanese
+vegetation around the edges, recourse again becomes necessary to
+the numerous village wells. They are all of considerable depth, and
+surrounded by large spoil heaps, but the output is not very
+copious, or rather not sufficiently large to supply numerous
+thirsty camels in hot<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_446">[446]</span> weather, when each animal may drink ten
+gallons or more. I travelled through Elakkos in June 1922 with a
+section of French Camel Corps, and we found watering a very tedious
+operation. The wells we used were 150 to 220 feet deep, and in
+order that the fastidious animals should drink copiously, the water
+had to be drawn at noon in a “shade temperature” ranging from 105°
+to 110° Fahr. in places where invariably there was no real shade to
+be seen.</p>
+<p>After leaving the Bultum group of three Kanuri and Tebu hamlets,
+the road from Damagarim to Kawar crosses a low scarp and plunges
+into the belt of thick green bush which merges imperceptibly into
+small thorn scrub and divides the Southland from the desert. The
+vegetation in this zone ranges from small thorns to largish trees.
+It is part of the same belt of bush which surrounds Damergu, with
+this difference, that the latter immediately south of Air extends
+considerably further north and forms a salient of vegetation into
+the desert. The Elakkos bush is luxuriant even in the dry season,
+and abounds in game. If a few more wells were made available it
+would soon be thickly inhabited by pastoral tribes, now that
+immunity from the northern raiding parties has more or less been
+assured. It is a sanctuary for large herds of various species of
+gazelle, for the white oryx and addax antelope, as well as for
+numerous ostriches and some giraffes. There are excellent pastures
+for cattle, goats and camels, but although some of the Damergu
+Tuareg use the western part for their flocks and a few Tebu use the
+eastern side, there are few inhabitants in the country at any time
+of year. The surface of old fixed dunes is undulating, and in the
+occasional deep hollows are a few wells like those of Tasr<a id=
+"FNanchor_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445" class=
+"fnanchor">[445]</a> and Teshkar<a id="FNanchor_446"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> on the Termit road, and
+Bullum Babá and others to the west. The wells belong to the Tebu,
+who visit them with their cattle in the summer. Immediately around
+them the vegetation has been eaten bare and the whitish downs under
+which they lie show up some distance away. The three wells at Tasr
+are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span> twenty-seven
+feet deep; they are the last water before the Termit wells are
+reached, forty hours’ fast marching further on into the desert. The
+road, it is true, passes by Teshkar, but the output of the single
+well there, forty-five feet deep, is insufficient for more than a
+few animals at a time.</p>
+<p>For more than ten hours’ marching N.N.E. of Teshkar, which is in
+Lat. 15° 07′ 40″ N., Long. 10° 35′ 10″E.,<a id=
+"FNanchor_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447" class=
+"fnanchor">[447]</a> the country gradually gets more barren, but
+the character of the bush is maintained by small trees and shrubs
+on a reddish ground. Then suddenly the track descends into a hollow
+between bare snow-white dunes. A succession of depressions between
+them is followed, the path crossing the intervening sand-hills
+diagonally to their general direction. The sand dunes themselves
+are loose and shifting, but the hollows curiously enough are
+permanent and contain small groups of vivid green acacias. When we
+first entered the dunes there was a thick white mist on all the
+land and the green trees and white sand looked very mysterious and
+beautiful in the early dawn. This belt of dunes marks the edge of
+the desert itself. The long, buff-coloured, whale-back dunes of the
+latter are covered with very scanty salt grass and scrub; they are
+typical of the Saharan steppe desert. The surface is fairly good;
+the form of the dunes is fixed, for the sand is heavy. The
+occasional small tree is a landmark for miles around. At one point
+we passed a depression with some larger acacias, but otherwise
+there were no recognisable marks to guide a caravan to Termit and
+the north-east.</p>
+<p>The heat of the June weather obliged us to travel largely by
+night, and in the course of one march which commenced at 3 a.m. it
+soon became apparent that the guide had lost his way. He had
+mistaken a star to the west of the Southern Cross for the one to
+the east of Polaris, and was marching S.W. instead of N.N.E. We
+decided to halt until dawn, but not before many precious hours had
+been wasted and the prospect of reaching Termit on the third day
+after leaving Teshkar had completely vanished, the normal distance
+from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span> there to the
+wells of Termit being twenty-eight hours’ fast marching, or about
+thirty-five by caravan.</p>
+<p>Under ordinary conditions the mountains of Termit are visible
+for some time before they are reached; in point of fact on our way
+south we saw the Centre Peak at a distance of no less than fourteen
+hours’ marching. Approaching it, however, the intense heat and wind
+had obscured everything in a dense mist which limited the maximum
+visibility to under two miles. On this day in camp the thermometer
+registered 113·9° F. in the shade at 2 p.m. The heat usually
+appeared to last without appreciable change from 11 a.m. till 3
+p.m. Owing to the misadventure of the previous night we were not
+very sure of our position, and dependent on seeing the mountains to
+find our next water, which we sorely needed as the supply was
+rather short. Then suddenly as evening came on the atmosphere
+cleared and an imposing chain of dark, jagged peaks, with no
+appreciable foot-hills, appeared suddenly in the east. The range
+faded out of sight to the north and south beneath the sand of the
+desert. An isolated group of blue mountains in a sea of yellow sand
+at evening is one of those unforgettable sights which reward the
+traveller in the desert. Their beauty is never equalled by any
+snowy peaks or waterfalls in a more favoured land.</p>
+<p>After crossing a narrow belt of shifting sand we camped the next
+morning in a valley at the foot of the Centre Peak of Termit, near
+the famous well which is reputed to have been made by Divine
+agency. The water lies in Lat. 16° 04′ 10″ N., Long. 11° 04′ 50″
+E.,<a id="FNanchor_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448" class=
+"fnanchor">[448]</a> forty feet below ground. The bottom of the
+well has become vaulted owing to the continual collapse of the
+sides. In the course of a week’s stay another well was dug a few
+yards from the old one, in spite of the pessimism of the
+well-diggers, who considered it useless as well as very tiring to
+emulate the Almighty. But about forty feet down through the packed
+sand of the valley-bottom water filtering through a bed of loose
+gravel was duly reached. Some 1½ miles west in a continuation of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> valley where it
+turns towards the north, is another group of several wells. They
+are almost surrounded by sand dunes, and have latterly in part
+become silted up. Some of them are likely to be covered entirely in
+a few years’ time by an encroaching dune. We cleared two of these
+wells, but they proved very saline in contrast with the excellent
+water of the main wells; nevertheless they were sufficiently good
+for camels.</p>
+<p>Termit is within the area of the summer rains, which form a pool
+lasting for about two months to the north of the western group of
+wells. I marched seven miles north with some Tebu who were based on
+Termit for their hunting season without reaching anywhere near the
+end of the range. The vegetation got scantier and the loose sand of
+the outer desert had been washed higher and higher up the eastern
+sides of the hills, which here extended in a single chain of no
+great depth in a north-easterly direction. But I never reached the
+end of the chain.</p>
+<p>The foot-hills around the main peak, where the laterite rock in
+places is in process of disintegration, carry a certain amount of
+vegetation, principally of the shrub known as “Abisgi” (<i>Capparis
+sodata</i>), together with several grasses and small acacias. We
+found many gazelle and antelope were pasturing there. Behind the
+rugged <em>contreforts</em> rises the steep wall of the main range
+to a height of over 2000 feet at the main peak, which appears to be
+about 2300 feet above the sea. To the east, behind the principal
+chain and some 300 feet higher than the valley where the wells are
+and surrounding desert, is a small plateau which extends for a
+distance of some four to five miles as far as a secondary and lower
+Eastern Chain which divides it from the desert beyond. This narrow
+plateau tapers away to the north, where the two chains join one
+another. It is well covered with small trees and scrub and contains
+several small groups of hillocks. The passes on to this plateau
+from the west run steeply up to its level; they are, in fact, the
+ravines formed by the water draining off the plain, which, when we
+looked down on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span> it
+from the centre peak, appeared to be the playground of several
+enormous flocks of antelope and gazelle. The mountain sheep of Air
+was also found and shot here—the furthest south where this animal
+has yet been reported.</p>
+<p>The rocky slopes of the range are incredibly rough. They are
+entirely covered with loose pebbles, stones and boulders of all
+sizes. In some places the black laterite rock has assumed the
+strangest shapes. At one point on the centre peak the entire slope
+was apparently covered with stone drain-pipes, whole and broken,
+including perfectly shaped specimens with ½ in. walls, 15 in. long
+and 5 in. to 2 in. in internal diameter. In addition to these,
+plates, bowls, cylinders, small balls and tiles of all shapes were
+to be seen.</p>
+<p>Although capable of supporting the flocks of a limited number of
+people, there are no traces of inhabitants. Termit never seems to
+have been anything but a <em>point de passage</em>. It was for long
+a favourite haunt of Tebu raiders from the N.E. and E., for the
+road from the south branches here both to Fashi and to Bilma. There
+is also a track to the Chad country by Ido well, and one to Agadem
+on the Kawar-Chad road. There were traditions of a direct caravan
+road from Air to Lake Chad, which I was anxious to investigate, but
+the condition of my camels made it impossible. I am glad to say
+that connection between the Elakkos Camel Patrol and Air was
+successfully established in the course of the summer of 1922 by the
+unit I had accompanied to Termit, and thanks to the courtesy of my
+friend, its Commanding Officer, than whom I have never met a more
+perfect travelling companion, I was supplied with full details
+which I reproduce in his own words, translated into English:</p>
+<p>“From Talras (an old well near T’igefen) we marched together
+(two sections of Camel Corps) to the north for about 80 km. There
+we were lucky enough in the middle of a truly desert area to chance
+on a patch of trees, perhaps some 700 to 800 in number, where we
+parted company. I marched east for thirty-seven hours and made the
+peak overhanging the walls of Termit with great accuracy. Lieut.
+X.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[451]</span> (with the other
+section of Camel Corps), after marching thirty-six hours
+approximately north-west and following a valley bed, arrived at
+Eghalgawen (in South Air). I made him come back by Tanut. . . .
+When I return I shall have a well dug where we separated, and the
+Agades-Termit road will be possible for going direct to Chad, as I
+know there is a well between Termit and the lake.”</p>
+<p>In improving the water supply at Termit we had accomplished our
+work. I was obliged to give up my idea of going straight to Air,
+and consequently returned with the Camel Corps to Teshkar, marching
+twenty-seven hours in three comfortable stages of seven, nine and
+eleven hours. There we parted company. I proceeded due west with
+four camels to rejoin my own caravan, marching to the wells of
+Bullum Babá (two wells forty feet deep), and thence through
+impenetrable bush without landmarks or visibility until I crossed
+the Diom-Talras track, along which I passed in a north-west
+direction. I had intended to water at T’igefen just south of
+Talras, but found the wells there as well as those at Fonfoni had
+been filled in. Like those of Adermellen and Tamatut, they were
+destroyed in 1917 during the revolt in Air to prevent raiding
+towards the south. Water was eventually obtained in shallow wells
+at Ighelaf, though a violent and drenching thunderstorm at
+T’igefen, the first one of the season, would have provided drinking
+water had I been really short; as it was, it merely made my men and
+myself very wet and cold and miserable during the ensuing night. I
+reached the first village of Damergu at Guliski on the fifth day
+from Teshkar.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftapp3">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439"><span class=
+"label">[439]</span></a>See also Plates <a href="#i03">3</a> and
+<a href="#i04a">4.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440"><span class=
+"label">[440]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+549-50.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441"><span class=
+"label">[441]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c02">Chap. II.</a>
+<em>supra</em>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442"><span class=
+"label">[442]</span></a>Jean, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 102 and
+109.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443"><span class=
+"label">[443]</span></a>Cf. Chaps. <a href="#c12">XII.</a> and
+<a href="#c13">XIII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444"><span class=
+"label">[444]</span></a>See <a href="#map07">map,</a> page 331, and
+Chaps. <a href="#c11">XI.</a> and <a href="#c12">XII.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445"><span class=
+"label">[445]</span></a>Also pronounced Tars. See <a href=
+"#map03">map,</a> facing page 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446"><span class=
+"label">[446]</span></a>Spelt Tashkeur on the French maps.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447"><span class=
+"label">[447]</span></a>See <a href="#app1">Appendix I.</a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448"><span class=
+"label">[448]</span></a>See <a href="#app1">Appendix I.</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[452]</span><a id=
+"app4"></a>APPENDIX IV</h2>
+<p class="sch">IBN BATUTAH’S JOURNEY</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ibn Abdallah Muhammad</span>, better known as
+Ibn Batutah, seems to have returned to the north by way of Air from
+a visit to the Sudan which he made after his better known travels
+in the East. He left Fez in <span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1351 for
+the countries of the Upper Niger by way of Sijilmasa<a id=
+"FNanchor_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449" class=
+"fnanchor">[449]</a> and Tegaza,<a id="FNanchor_450"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> and returned to Morocco
+in 1354. His account<a id="FNanchor_451"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> of Air and the
+neighbouring parts is brief but very well worth examining, as it
+raises several interesting historical points.</p>
+<p>After visiting all the Western Sudan as far as Kawkaw (Gao or
+Gago or Gaogao) on the Niger he went to Bardama, where the
+inhabitants protect caravans and the women are chaste and
+beautiful, and “next arrived at Nakda, which is handsome and built
+of red stone.”<a id="FNanchor_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452"
+class="fnanchor">[452]</a> The variants of this name are spelt
+<span class="ar">نَكْدَا</span>, Nakda; <span class=
+"ar">ثُكْذَا</span>, Thukdha; <span class="ar">تَكْدَا</span>,
+Tukda, and by the learned Kosegarten in his version <span class=
+"ar">تَكَدَّا</span>, Takadda. The latter, with a somewhat corrupt
+text, reads: “<em>Takadda scorpiis abundat. Segetes ibi raræ.
+Scorpii morsu repentinum infantibus adferunt mortem, cui remedio
+occurritur nullo: viros tamen raro perimunt. Urbis incolæ sola
+mercatura versantur. Ægyptum adeunt, indique vestes pretiosas
+afferunt; de servorum et mancipiorum multudine inter se
+gloriunt.</em>” Lee’s translation, after describing the arrival at
+Tekadda, proceeds:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[453]</span>
+“Its water runs over copper mines, which changes its colour and
+taste. The inhabitants are neither artisans nor merchants. The
+copper mine is without Nakda (Tekadda), and in this slaves are
+employed, who melt the ore and make it into bars. The merchants
+then take it to the infidel and other parts of the Sudan. The
+Sultan of Nakda is a Berber. I met him and was treated as his
+guest, and was also provided by him with the necessaries for my
+journey. I was often visited by the Commander of the Faithful in
+Nakda, who ordered me to wait on him, which I did, and then
+prepared for my journey. I then left this place in the month of
+Sha’aban in the year 54 (<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1353), and
+travelled till I came to the territories of Hakar (<span class=
+"ar">هكاَر</span>), the inhabitants of which are a tribe of the
+Berbers, but a worthless people. I next came to Sijilmasa and
+thence to Fez.” Kosegarten’s version, however, differs somewhat,
+reading, “. . . and left Tekadda with a band of travellers making
+for Tuat. It is seventy stages from there, for which travellers
+take their provisions with them, as nothing is to be found on the
+road. We reached Kahor, which is the country of the Sultan of
+Kerker, with much pasture. Leaving there we journeyed for three
+days through a desert without inhabitants and lacking water; thence
+for fifteen days we journeyed through desert not lacking water but
+without inhabitants. Then we came to a place of two roads where the
+road that goes to Egypt leaves the road which leads to Tuat. Here
+is a well whose water flows over iron: if anyone washes clothes
+with these waters they become black. Thence after completing ten
+days we came to Dehkar<a id="FNanchor_453"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> (<span class=
+"ar">دَهْكاَر</span>). Through these lands, where grasses are
+scarce, we made our way, reaching Buda, which is the largest of the
+towns of Tuat.”</p>
+<p>Such are the accounts given by the first intelligent traveller
+in Air, and they are all too brief. The two versions are not
+contradictory, but in a sense supplementary to one another, and are
+probably excerpts made by different persons from a<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_454">[454]</span> longer original work. The
+discrepancy between “Tekadda” and “Nakda,” and between “Hakar” and
+“Dehkar” are not difficult to account for in Arabic script. The
+first in each case seems to be correct. Ibn Batutah says the people
+of Hakar wore the veil; and “Hakar” is of course Haggar or Ahaggar,
+the mountains by which it is necessary to pass on the way from Air
+to Tuat; the Tuareg in Arab eyes are all worthless, as their name
+implies.</p>
+<p>“Kahor” is a variant for “Kahir,” used indiscriminately by Arab
+writers with “Ahir” for Air. Barth’s<a id=
+"FNanchor_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454" class=
+"fnanchor">[454]</a> explanation of the insertion of an “h” in
+“Ahir” (<span class="ar">اهير</span>), is interesting but
+unnecessary if, as is clear, it is derived from “Kahir”
+(<span class="ar">كاهير</span>). These variants seem all to be
+merely Arabic attempts to spell “Air,” which the Tuaregs write in
+their own script ⵔⵉⴰ (R Y A).</p>
+<p>Tekadda has been assumed by Barth<a id=
+"FNanchor_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455" class=
+"fnanchor">[455]</a> and others to be one, or a group, of three
+localities, Tagidda n’Adrar, Tagidda n’Tagei, Tagidda
+n’T’isemt,<a id="FNanchor_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456" class=
+"fnanchor">[456]</a> lying some 40, 50 and 100 miles respectively
+W. or W.N.W. of Agades.<a id="FNanchor_457"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> But there are good
+reasons for not accepting this identification. In the first place,
+though salt deposits are worked at Tagidda n’T’isemt, there are no
+signs of copper mines at this point, or indeed anywhere in Air. In
+the second place, it is very unlikely that the ruler of a locality
+so close as any of the Tagiddas to the important communities in
+Air, in any one of which the Sultan of that country might have had
+his throne,<a id="FNanchor_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458" class=
+"fnanchor">[458]</a> should have equalled the latter in importance;
+but Ibn Batutah’s Sultan of Tekadda seems to have been at
+least<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[455]</span> as important
+a personage as the Sultan of Air, whom he calls the Sultan of
+Kerker, Ruler of Kahor.</p>
+<p>The problem presented by “Kerker” is not easy, but the existence
+of a district still called Gerigeri, some fifty miles east of the
+Air mountains, and about forty miles north of Tagidda n’T’isemt,
+inclines one to regard this Sultan, who was also ruler of Kahor, as
+one of the Aulimmiden chiefs who are known at various times to have
+dominated the mountains. If this view is correct the Sultan of
+Tekadda must certainly have had his being some way further south
+than the Tagiddas, since two rulers of such an importance as Ibn
+Batutah makes them out to be would certainly not have lived only
+forty miles apart.</p>
+<p>Lastly, the traveller speaks of seventy stages between Tekadda
+and Tuat, which is in fact only forty-five stages from
+Agades,<a id="FNanchor_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459" class=
+"fnanchor">[459]</a> and therefore the same or perhaps rather less
+from the Tagiddas, which are in the latitude or even somewhat north
+of the city. Now forty-five marching stages are equivalent to some
+sixty caravan days, including halts, while seventy stages
+correspond to about one hundred days’ journeying. As it is clear
+that he did not delay on the road, the disproportion between the
+normal time taken to travel from the Tagiddas to Tuat and the time
+he did take from Tekadda to Tuat makes it impossible not to look
+for Ibn Batutah’s point of departure at some considerable distance
+south of Agades.</p>
+<p>An examination of the times assigned to the various stages of
+the journey makes it apparent that in the first part he actually
+marched rather faster than an ordinary commercial caravan.
+Considering the actual times he employed, we find that he took one
+month crossing Ahaggar to Tuat; the usual time for this section on
+the Agades In Salah road is twenty marching days, and Ibn Batutah
+probably took about that time, making thirty days with halts. We
+next find that it took ten days from Hakar (Ahaggar) to the place
+where the roads to Egypt and Tuat divided. This point is at the
+wells of In Azawa or Asiu, which are close together on the northern
+boundary of Air; the distance between them and Ahaggar is in fact
+ten days’ marching. It is reasonable to<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_456">[456]</span> assume that Ibn Batutah’s point where the
+roads divide is, in fact, In Azawa or Asiu, and has therefore
+remained unchanged for over four centuries. South of these wells he
+had spent fifteen days in a country which was barren but had
+numerous watering-points—a good description of Air by a traveller
+who was used to the fertile and populous Sudan; the period of
+fifteen days corresponds accurately with the number of stages
+between In Azawa and Agades by any of the routes through Air.<a id=
+"FNanchor_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460" class=
+"fnanchor">[460]</a> As Agades was probably not founded at this
+date, Ibn Batutah in coming from the Niger would have no reason to
+travel as far as the site of the city and probably therefore kept
+west of the Central massifs and counted this stage from some point
+west of Agades like In Gall, though the exact locality is
+immaterial. South of this stage he crossed a desert where there is
+no water for three days: this is clearly the sterile tract
+separating Air from the Southland. The total of these times is
+fifty-eight days, even counting thirty days in Ahaggar instead of
+twenty; this, at a generous estimate, may be called sixty, from the
+northern edge of the Southland across Air and Ahaggar to Tuat, and
+this reckoning coincides with the usual forty-five caravan marching
+stages to which previous reference has been made. There are,
+therefore, still at least ten days to be accounted for, and they
+are referred to in the passage in which he simply states that he
+left Tekadda and marched for an indefinite time, making no mention
+of the number of days employed till he reached the domains of the
+Sultan of Kerker. I would be inclined to look for Tekadda not at
+any of the Tagiddas, which are rather north of the River of Agades
+and consequently north of the three days’ desert travelling, but at
+some point in the direction of Gao, thirteen days’ journey from the
+southernmost part of Air, or ten days from the northern fringe of
+the Southland below the desert belt. I have unfortunately no
+knowledge of the country west of Damergu to suggest an
+identification, but am convinced that no place in or just west of
+Air is intended by the description of Tekadda.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftapp4">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449"><span class=
+"label">[449]</span></a>Sijilmasa (Sigilmasiyah) was the capital of
+the Tafilelt area in Morocco south of the Atlas. Its ruins in the
+Wadi Ifli are now called Medinet el ’Amira.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450"><span class=
+"label">[450]</span></a>The salt mines of Tegaza were referred to
+in <a href="#c12">Chap. XII.</a> They were abandoned in
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1586, and those of Taodenit, where
+caravans still go from Timbuctoo to fetch salt for the Upper Niger,
+were opened instead. Vide Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. V. p. 612,
+and Map No. 14 (Western Sheet) in Vol. V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451"><span class=
+"label">[451]</span></a><em>Ibn Batutah</em>: by Lee in the
+Oriental Translations Fund, 1829, pp. 241-2, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452"><span class=
+"label">[452]</span></a><em>Scilicet</em>, red mud.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453"><span class=
+"label">[453]</span></a>Probably another version of Hakar
+(<span class="ar">هَكاَر</span>).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454"><span class=
+"label">[454]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+336.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455"><span class=
+"label">[455]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+335.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456"><span class=
+"label">[456]</span></a>Tagidda (Cortier, Map of Air—Teguidda)
+means a small hollow or basin where water collects (De Foucauld, I.
+276). The names of the three places therefore mean “Basin of the
+Mountain,” “Basin of the Dûm palm,” and “Basin of Salt.” Tagidda =
+basin, is not to be confused with Tiggedi = cliff (as the Cliff S.
+of Agades), from the root <em>egged</em>, “to jump.” De Foucauld,
+<em>op. cit.</em>, I. 273, and Motylinski, <em>Dictionnaire</em>,
+etc., 1908.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457"><span class=
+"label">[457]</span></a>Not three days south-west, as Barth
+says.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458"><span class=
+"label">[458]</span></a>Agades was probably not founded in Ibn
+Batutah’s day, or he would certainly have referred to it; there
+were, however, other large settlements in Air already in existence
+at this time, such as Assode (see Chap. XVII).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459"><span class=
+"label">[459]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I., App.,
+and others; also my information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460"><span class=
+"label">[460]</span></a>Cf. <a href="#c03">Chap. III.</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[457]</span><a id=
+"app5"></a>APPENDIX V</h2>
+<p class="sch4"><span class="med">ON THE ROOT</span> “MZGh”
+<span class="med">IN VARIOUS LIBYAN NAMES</span></p>
+<p><span class="sc">Many</span> authors have assumed that the word
+“Imajegh” was a generic or even a national name applicable to the
+whole of the Tuareg race, and perhaps even to most of the Libyans
+in North Africa. The “MZGh” root of this word, which properly
+denotes the noble caste of the Tuareg, does indeed appear in the
+classical names of many tribes or groups of people in North Africa.
+Among these may be cited the Meshwesh of early Egyptian records and
+the Macae of Greek historians, the latter being apparently a racial
+and not a tribal name. The root reappears in several such forms as
+Mazices, Maxitani, Mazaces, etc., all belonging to a people found
+principally in the Great Syrtis, in Southern Cyrenaica, and in
+Tripolitania, both on the coast and in the interior:<a id=
+"FNanchor_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461" class=
+"fnanchor">[461]</a> a more isolated group with radically the same
+name, the Maxyes, is placed by Herodotus as far west as
+Tunisia.<a id="FNanchor_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462" class=
+"fnanchor">[462]</a></p>
+<p>In the Air dialect of the Temajegh language the name for the
+nobles of the Tuareg takes the form of “Imajeghan” with the
+singular “Imajegh.” In other dialects the word displays some
+variations including the forms Amazigh, Imazir, Imohagh, Imohaq,
+Imoshag, etc., according to the local pronunciation. The word is
+derived according to an informant of Duveyrier<a id=
+"FNanchor_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463" class=
+"fnanchor">[463]</a> from the verb “ahegh,” meaning “to raid” or,
+by extension of the meaning, “to be free,” or “independent.” De
+Foucauld, however, gives the form of the word as “Amahar,” a proper
+name having as its root<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_458">[458]</span> ⵗⵂ (Gh H), like “Ahegh,” but not
+necessarily derived from the latter.<a id=
+"FNanchor_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464" class=
+"fnanchor">[464]</a></p>
+<p>As has already been noted, the name does not cover the totality
+of the race, for it does not include the servile clans, which,
+whatever their origin, are considered even by the nobles to belong,
+like themselves, to the Tuareg people. The word “Imajegh” is a
+caste and not a racial appellation.</p>
+<p>I am doubtful if Sergi is justified in using a statement made by
+Père de Foucauld in 1888,<a id="FNanchor_465"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> to the effect that the
+“Berbers” of North Africa generally, and those of the north-west in
+particular, who are known to the Arabs under various names, used
+the MZGh root as a name for themselves in such a manner as to
+indicate that it was a national appellation or the name of a racial
+stock of wide extension. It would be interesting to know how far de
+Foucauld, after a long period of residence as a hermit among the
+Tuareg of Ahaggar, modified the views he expressed in 1888. Subject
+to correction by any authority having had access to his notes, I
+take it he would rather have meant that the MZGh root was used in a
+quasi-national sense in a number of Berber dialects or by a number
+of Berber-speaking people when talking of themselves, but not in
+referring generally to the population of North Africa.</p>
+<p>Stuhlmann<a id="FNanchor_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466" class=
+"fnanchor">[466]</a> went so far as to talk of “Die Mazigh Völker,”
+and stated that all the “Berbers” from Tripoli to Western Morocco
+call themselves Mazigh: this, however, is not the case. As Lenz,
+supporting the theory of a dual origin for the Libyans, points out,
+the “Berbers”<a id="FNanchor_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467"
+class="fnanchor">[467]</a> even of Morocco are divided into two
+families, to which he gives the names of Amazigh and
+Shellakh.<a id="FNanchor_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468" class=
+"fnanchor">[468]</a></p>
+<p>Hanoteau, on the other hand, seeking at least a unity of
+language, says<a id="FNanchor_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469"
+class="fnanchor">[469]</a> that “plusieurs de ces peuples . . .
+ont<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[459]</span> oublié leur nom
+national. Mais partout où les populations berbères ont été à l’abri
+du contact et de l’influence arabe, elles ont conservé des noms
+appartenant à leur idiome,” and he goes on to mention the various
+dialectical forms of the MZGh root which he has found in different
+localities. He concludes, “toutes ces dénominations ne sont en
+realité que des variantes de prononciation d’un même nom.” This
+certainly is so, but that he is justified in assuming it to be a
+national name is more doubtful. He next tries to establish that the
+signification which “some people” have given to the word Imajegh
+and its derivatives is not substantiated, and that when a Tuareg
+wishes to refer to a noble or to a free man he calls them “ilelli”
+or “amunan” and not “imajeghan.” This, however, is not correct. The
+first two words may indeed signify an abstract quality, but when
+the nobles are mentioned, “Imajegh” is invariably used. Hanoteau’s
+statement is misleading. In addition to the use of the term
+“imajeghan” to denote the Tuareg nobles, with no reference to their
+characters or qualities, the Tuareg say “imajegh” to qualify any
+individual, as “imajegh” to denote someone of a certain class
+either in their own or in another race. They speak of the
+“Imajeghan n’Arab,” meaning the upper class Arabs as opposed to the
+slaves and under-dogs of the Arab countries. They describe the
+British, I am glad to say, as Imajeghan, or the White Nobles, even
+in every-day conversation among themselves. It is always a class
+distinction, and not a compliment, an epithet of virtue or a
+national name. The dictionaries and grammars of Motylinski, de
+Foucauld,<a id="FNanchor_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470" class=
+"fnanchor">[470]</a> Masquerey and even of Hanoteau himself on the
+Tuareg language bear out this point.</p>
+<p>One of the principal reasons for using the foreign word “Tuareg”
+to describe this people is that they do not possess a national
+name. Barth,<a id="FNanchor_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471" class=
+"fnanchor">[471]</a> who is a meticulous observer, makes this very
+clear: “as Amóshagh (in the plural form I’móshagh)<a id=
+"FNanchor_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472" class=
+"fnanchor">[472]</a> designates rather in the present state
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[460]</span> Tawárek society
+the free and noble man in opposition to A’mghi (plural, Imghad),
+the whole of these free and degraded tribes together are better
+designated by the general term ‘the Red People,’ ‘I’dinet
+n’sheggarnén,’ for which there is still another form, viz.
+‘Tishorén.’” I myself did not hear these two terms used in Air, so
+prefer to adopt the circumlocution Kel Tagilmus, or People of the
+Veil, which is used and understood by all Tuareg.</p>
+<p>Many of the Imghad, or servile people, are themselves of noble
+origin, but have become the serfs of other noble clans by conquest.
+It is clear that the former could not use as a national name what
+is primarily a caste name to which they had lost their right.</p>
+<p>The confusion which has arisen around the word “imajegh” and
+hasty generalisations such as those of Stuhlmann are nevertheless
+easy to understand, for a superficial observer talking to nobles of
+the Tuareg race would so readily be impressed by the recurrence and
+common use of the term as to assume that it really had some
+national sense. But Sergi<a id="FNanchor_473"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> in this connection is
+misleading in citing the authority of Barth when he writes, with a
+footnote referring to the great explorer and implying that he is
+quoting him almost textually, “il nome di questi Berberi è quello
+di Tuareg, plurale di Tarki o Targi. Ma, osserva lo stesso Barth,
+questo non è il loro nome nazionale. . . . Il vero nome che essi si
+danno è quel medesimo che già si dava ad alcune tribù del
+settentrionale d’Africa, conosciuto dai Greci e dai Romani, cioè di
+Mazi o Macii, Maxitani è dato loro anche dagli scrittori Arabi.
+Oggi si adopera la forma di Amosciarg al singolare. . . . Questo
+sembra essere applicato a tutte le frazioni della tribù mentre quel
+di Tuareg probabilmente deriva dagli Arabi.” Barth, we have seen,
+does not do so, and Sergi is making the same error as Stuhlmann. It
+is true that at one point, in discussing the use of the name
+“Tuareg,” Barth<a id="FNanchor_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474"
+class="fnanchor">[474]</a> goes so far as to say, “This (the MZGh
+root) is the native name by which the so-called Tawarek<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_461">[461]</span> designate their whole nation,
+which is divided into several families,” but from the context and
+from the passage generally, as well as from the other passages
+already quoted, it is manifest that he was referring only to the
+noble part of the race and not to the Imghad as well, who, he had
+not then realised, as he later understood, are a part of the
+nation.<a id="FNanchor_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475" class=
+"fnanchor">[475]</a> The context of the passage just quoted from
+Barth is one in which he is showing that the Tuareg are not a
+tribe, but a nation, as has already been pointed out: He corrects
+his predecessors, saying:<a id="FNanchor_476"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> “This name (Terga,
+Targa, Tarki, etc.), which has been given to the Berber inhabitants
+of the desert, and which Hodgson <em>erroneously supposed to mean
+‘Tribe,’</em> is quite foreign to them. . . .” Richardson,<a id=
+"FNanchor_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477" class=
+"fnanchor">[477]</a> in a previous trip to the Central Sahara
+before travelling to Air and the Sudan with Barth, had already made
+the same point clear. It is therefore with no shadow of
+justification that Sergi<a id="FNanchor_478"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> states: “Barth non fa
+distinzione alcuna delle popolazioni dando il nome etnico di Tuareg
+o Imosciarg, e le considera tutte come una grande tribù.” He does
+nothing of the sort.</p>
+<p>Bates<a id="FNanchor_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479" class=
+"fnanchor">[479]</a> goes into the question of the MZGh names very
+fully. He thinks that it is evidence “of an ethnic substratum of
+‘autochthones’ of a single race.” He notes the obviously close
+connection between the MZGh root used by the Tuareg nobles and the
+names in the Atlas mountains on the one hand, and the root of the
+Mazices, Mazaces, Macae, etc., names whose affinity with the
+Meshwesh of the invasions of Egypt is also obvious on the other
+hand. He draws the inference that a racial rather than a tribal
+name is involved.<a id="FNanchor_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480"
+class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p>
+<p>Nevertheless, some explanation must be sought for the appearance
+of the root both in a Tuareg caste name in the<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_462">[462]</span> names of certain Atlas tribes and in
+classical geographical lists of North African people. Much as one
+might be tempted, however, to believe with Barth in the existence
+of a substratum of a single race, there is no real justification
+for assuming that all the people using the root in one form or
+another were even closely related. Its adoption may well have
+become widespread among various peoples by the use of a common
+language. If in its primary sense it had implied nobility or
+freedom or some such attribute, it is more than likely that the
+innate snobbishness of one race in contact with, or at one time
+subjected to, another race using the root in this sense, would
+rapidly lead them to adopt it and misuse it as their own national
+appellation. I am not inclined to consider the use of this root as
+evidence for anything but community of language. With the mixed
+origins which we know the Libyans possessed, any other conclusion
+would be dangerous. It must be remembered that there is plenty of
+evidence to show that in spite of the diversity of races involved,
+they had by the time of the Arab conquest all come to speak a
+common language or a series of dialects linguistically of the same
+origin. It is only at an early period, when the use of a single
+language in North Africa was probably not widespread, that the
+common root in the “Meshwesh” and “Macae” names can be assumed as
+an indication of the affinity or identification of these peoples
+with the later Tuareg. And at that time the names are found in the
+centre of North Africa only and not in the west or even in Algeria.
+The same considerations apply to the “Temahu”<a id=
+"FNanchor_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481" class=
+"fnanchor">[481]</a> of Egyptian records. The feminine form of
+Imajegh or Amoshagh, etc., is, of course, Temajegh or Tamahek,
+etc., which is the name given to the language which the Tuareg
+speak, though were it not for the physical likeness of the Temahu
+in Egyptian paintings to the Tuareg the similarity of the names
+alone would probably be insufficient to draw a conclusion to which,
+however, nearly all evidence also points.</p>
+<div class="footnotes" id="ftapp5">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461"><span class=
+"label">[461]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, Maps III to
+X.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462"><span class=
+"label">[462]</span></a>Herodotus, IV. 191.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463"><span class=
+"label">[463]</span></a>Duveyrier, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 318.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464"><span class=
+"label">[464]</span></a>De Foucauld: <em>Dict.
+Touareg-Fraçais</em>, Alger, Vol. I. p. 451.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465"><span class=
+"label">[465]</span></a>De Foucauld: <em>Reconnaissance du
+Maroc</em>, Paris, 1888, p. 10 <em>seq.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466"><span class=
+"label">[466]</span></a>F. Stuhlmann: <em>Die Mazighvölker</em>,
+Kolonial Institut, Band 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467"><span class=
+"label">[467]</span></a><em>I.e.</em> Libyans.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468"><span class=
+"label">[468]</span></a>Lenz: <em>Timbuktu: Reise durch
+Marokko</em>, etc., Leipzig, 1884.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469"><span class=
+"label">[469]</span></a>Hanoteau: <em>Grammaire Kabyle</em>, p.
+ix.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470"><span class=
+"label">[470]</span></a>De Foucauld: <em>Dict.</em>, Vol. I. p.
+452, <em>sub</em> “Amajer.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471"><span class=
+"label">[471]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. V. App.
+III.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472"><span class=
+"label">[472]</span></a>Or in Air “Imajeghan.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473"><span class=
+"label">[473]</span></a>Sergi: <em>Africa</em>, etc., pp.
+342-3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474"><span class=
+"label">[474]</span></a>Barth, <em>op. cit.</em>, Vol. I. pp.
+222-6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475"><span class=
+"label">[475]</span></a>Where Barth is in apparent contradiction in
+Volume I with other statements, and especially in Volume V, on this
+question of the MZGh root as a national name, the explanation, I
+think, is that he did not apparently consider the Northern Imghad,
+of whom he was speaking in the first volume, as pertaining to the
+Tuareg nation. Later on, when this became clear, he corrected
+himself.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476"><span class=
+"label">[476]</span></a><em>Loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477"><span class=
+"label">[477]</span></a>Richardson: <em>Travels in the Great Desert
+of Sahara</em>, Vol. II. p. 140.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478"><span class=
+"label">[478]</span></a><em>Loc. cit.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479"><span class=
+"label">[479]</span></a>Bates, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 42
+<em>seq.</em></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480"><span class=
+"label">[480]</span></a><em>Ibid.</em>, p. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481"><span class=
+"label">[481]</span></a>And therefore of the Tehenu.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[463]</span><a id=
+"app6"></a>APPENDIX VI</h2>
+<p class="sch">THE KINGS OF THE TUAREG OF AIR</p>
+<p><span class="sc">The</span> following list of the kings of
+Agades was collected by Mr. H. R. Palmer, now Lieutenant-Governor
+of Northern Nigeria, in a record which has been referred to in the
+body of this work as the Agades Chronicle. The information was
+supplied by a learned Hausa scribe and is derived from Tuareg
+sources, probably in part MSS. The record ranks as “good oral
+testimony.” It was published in an English translation prepared by
+Mr. Palmer and printed in the <em>Journal of the African
+Society</em>, Vol. IX. No. XXXVI., July 1910. I am indebted to Mr.
+H. R. Palmer and to Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., the publishers
+of the <em>Journal</em>, for permission to reproduce the
+information <em>in extenso</em>.</p>
+<p>In the following pages little more is given than the bare list
+of kings with the dates, but much of the other information
+contained in the Chronicle has been incorporated in the text of the
+third, eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth chapters of this book. The
+spelling of some of the proper names in the list and in the text
+has been slightly modified to accord with the system of
+transliteration adopted.</p>
+<p>The genealogical table following the list of kings has been
+compiled from the information contained in the Chronicle.</p>
+<table class="borders" id="t463">
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="2"></th>
+<th colspan="2">Date.</th>
+<th rowspan="2" class="bd-left">Name.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Period of reign.</th>
+<th rowspan="2">Remarks.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th><span class="less">A.D.</span></th>
+<th><span class="less">A.H.</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">I</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1406</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">809</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yunis, son of Tahanazeta</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">20 yrs.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">II</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1425</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">829</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Akasani</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">6 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of the sister of Yunis.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">III</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1429</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">833</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Haj Aliso</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">20 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">He was killed by his people.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">IV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1449</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">853</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Amati</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">?4 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brother of the above: he also was killed
+and the dynasty ended.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_464">[464]</span>V</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">?</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ibn Takoha</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">4 yrs. 2 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">A new dynasty.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1453</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">857</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ibrahim ben Hailas</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">9 yrs.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VII</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yusif ben Gashta</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">16 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brother of the above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">VIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1477</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">882</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad the Great</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">10 „</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">IX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1486</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">892</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Sottofe</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Date confirmed approximately from
+Nigerian records. He was a contemporary of M. Rimfa of Kano,
+1463-99, and Ibrahim of Katsina, 1493-6.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">X</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1493</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">899</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad ben Abdurahman el Mekkaniyi</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">9 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of sister of above: he was
+killed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1502</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">908</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">The twins Adil and Muhammad Hammat</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Known as the children of Fatimallat. They
+reigned together. Their date is confirmed by the advent of Askia to
+Air in their reign in 1515.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1516</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">922</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad bin Talazar</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">2 yrs.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1518</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">924</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ibrahim</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">24-5 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of M. Sottofe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XIV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1553</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">961</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad el Guddala</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">39-40 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brother of above (name also given as
+Ghodala and Alghoddala).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1591</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1000</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Akampaiya</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">2½ „</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XVI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1594?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yusif</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">8 & 28 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of sister of above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XVII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1601?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad bin Mubaraki ibn el Guddala</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of younger brother of Yusif’s father,
+and presumably grandson of No. XIV; deposed Yusif and was shortly
+after himself deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XVIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1629?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Attafrija</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">2 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of Yusif: his mother was daughter of
+No. XIV. Deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XIX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1631?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Aukar ibn Talyat</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">1 mth.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1631</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Attafriya</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">? 31 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">For the second time.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1653</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1064</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Mubaraki</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">34 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">? Son of father of above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1687</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1098</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Agabba</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">33-4 yrs.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1720</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1132</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad el Amin</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">9 mths.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXIV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1720</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1133</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Wali</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">1 yr. 2 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brother of above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1721</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1134</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Mumuni Muhammad</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">9 mths.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXVI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1722?</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Agagesha</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of No. XXII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXVII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1735</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1147</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Hammad</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">5 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of No. XXI. Deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXVIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1739</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1152</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Guwa</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">4 yrs. 7 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">? Son or grandson of No. XVII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_465">[465]</span>XXIX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1744</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1742</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Hammad</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">For the second time.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1759</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Guwa</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">4 yrs. 6 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top pad2">Do.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1763</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1176</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Hammad</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">5 yrs. 6 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">For the third time.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1768</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1181</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Guddala</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">25 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Son of above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1797</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Dani</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">5 yrs. 7 mths.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Deposed in <span class="sc2">A.H.</span>
+1212.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdc-top">Interregnum</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">7 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Government of chief learned men.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXIV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1797</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1212</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Bekri [El Bakeri]</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">19-20 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Succeeded in 1797, but was not installed
+till later.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1815</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1231</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Muhammad Gumma</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">5 yrs. 1 mth.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXVI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1826</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ibrahim Waffa</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">7 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXVII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1835</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Guma</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">7 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Killed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXVIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">18--</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">—</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Abdul Qader</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">22-3 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Deposed in 1857.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XXXIX</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1857</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1274</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ahmed Rufaiyi</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">12 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Twice deposed, finally in 1869.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XL</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">about 1869</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1286</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sofo el Bekri</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">? 32 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Four times deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XLI</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">about 1900</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1318</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Osman Mikitan</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">4 yrs. 5 mths.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XLII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1904</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1322</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ibrahim Da Sugi</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">4 yrs.</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Three times deposed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XLIII</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1908</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1336</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tegama</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">11 „</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Died in prison.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">XLIV</td>
+<td class="tdc-top">1919</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Omar</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Reigning</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="map10"><a href="images/map10.jpg"><img src=
+'images/map10.jpg' alt='[Illustration]'></a></figure>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[466]</span><a id=
+"app7"></a>APPENDIX VII</h2>
+<p class="sch">SOME BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL USED IN THIS BOOK</p>
+<p><span class="sc">A great</span> student was showing a friend
+over his library, and it happened to the friend to ask the obvious
+question that has occurred to nearly everyone in the same
+circumstances. The learned man in reply remarked wearily, that
+neither had he read all the books which adorned his shelves, nor
+yet were those all the books which he had read. I would say much
+the same of the lists which are given below. Many as are the works
+mentioned, those dealing with Air in any detail are very few.</p>
+<p>A fuller bibliography of the people and places in the Central
+Sahara generally will be found in Gsell’s first volume of his
+<em>Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord</em> and in Oric Bates’
+<em>Eastern Libyans</em>.</p>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1">Maps</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>Carte de l’Air: Mission Cortier, Service Géographique des
+Colonies. Two sheets. 1912. 1/500,000. With a table of astronomical
+positions.</li>
+<li>Territoires Militaires du Chad: Édition Meunier. 1921.
+1/4,000,000.</li>
+<li>Afrique Occidentale Française: Service Géographique des
+Colonies. Sheet 3. 1/2,000,000.</li>
+<li>Carte du Sahara: Delingette and others, Société d’Éditions
+Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales. 1/4,000,000.</li>
+<li>Afrique: Service Géographique de l’Armée. Sheet 19. 1896.
+1/2,000,000 with neighbouring parts on other sheets.</li>
+<li>Africa settentrionale (Edizione provvisoria). 1917. Ministero
+delle Colonie. 1/4,000,000.</li>
+<li>A geological map and diagrammatic section of Air, in Chudeau’s
+thesis (see Bibliography).</li>
+<li>Map of Air and neighbouring parts, compiled from data collected
+by the author. <em>R.G.S. Journal</em>, Vol. LXII., August 2, 1923.
+1/2,000,000.</li>
+<li>Original sketch maps and topographical data in the works of
+Barth, Foureau-Lamy, Jean, Chudeau and Buchanan enumerated in the
+Bibliography.</li>
+<li>The Anglo-French frontier was delimited by the Mission Tilho.
+There are various sheets covering the frontier from Lake Chad to
+the Niger, on a scale of 1/500,000, but they do not extend far into
+Damergu.</li>
+<li>General maps of the Sahara are not enumerated. They are
+many.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1"><span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_467">[467]</span>General Books about the Central
+Sahara</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>Duveyrier, H.: <em>Exploration du Sahara. (Les Touareg du
+Nord.)</em> Two volumes. Paris. 1864.</li>
+<li><em>Duveyrier</em>, H.: Biographical sketch by Manoir and
+Schirmer, 1905.</li>
+<li>Carette: “Recherches sur l’Origine et les Migrations des
+principales tribus de l’Afrique septentrionale.” In <em>Exploration
+scientifique de l’Algérie</em>. Paris, 1853. Vol. III.</li>
+<li>Schirmer, H.: <em>Le Sahara</em>. 1893.</li>
+<li>Gautier, E. F.: <em>La Conquête du Sahara</em>. Paris,
+1922.</li>
+<li>Boissier, G.: <em>L’Afrique Romaine</em>. Paris, 1901.</li>
+<li>Marmol-Caravajal: <em>History of Africa</em>. Three volumes.
+1667.</li>
+<li>Tissot, C. J.: <em>Géographie comparée de la province romaine
+de l’Afrique</em>. Two volumes and atlas. 1884-8.</li>
+<li>Bates, O.: <em>The Eastern Libyans</em>. London: Macmillan,
+1914.</li>
+<li>Gsell, S.: <em>Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord</em>. In course of
+publication. Four volumes have appeared. Paris, 1921, etc.</li>
+<li>Richardson, J.: <em>Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara</em>.
+London, 1847. Two volumes.</li>
+<li>Minutilli, F.: <em>La Tripolitania</em>. Rome, 1912.</li>
+<li>de Agostini, E.: <em>Le Popolazioni della Tripolitania</em>.
+Tripoli, 1917.</li>
+<li>Denham and Clapperton: <em>Travels and Discoveries in Central
+Africa</em>. London: Murray, 1826. Two volumes.</li>
+<li>Lyon, G. F.: <em>Travels in Northern Africa</em>. London:
+Murray, 1921.</li>
+<li>Bazin, R.: <em>Life of Charles de Foucauld</em>. London,
+1923.</li>
+<li>Hornemann: <em>Travels in the Interior of Africa</em>.
+Commentary by Major Rennell. French edition. Dentu: Paris,
+1803.</li>
+<li>Rennell’s miscellaneous works and addresses to the African
+Society, and his Commentary on Herodotus.</li>
+<li>Largeau, V.: <em>Le Sahara</em>. Paris, 1877.</li>
+<li>Desplagnes, L.: <em>Le Plateau Central Nigérien</em>. Paris,
+1907.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1">Linguistic and
+Grammatical</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>The contributions of Halévy, Letourneux, Hanoteau, etc. in
+various periodicals.</li>
+<li>Hanoteau, A.: <em>Grammaire de la Langue Tamachek</em>.
+Algiers, 1896.</li>
+<li>Masquerey, E.: <em>Dictionnaire Français-Touareg</em>. Paris,
+1898.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Essai de Grammaire Touareg</em>. Paris, 1896.</li>
+<li>de Foucauld, C.: <em>Dictionnaire abrégé Touareg-Français</em>.
+Two volumes. Algiers, 1918, etc.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Notes pour servir à un Essai de Grammaire
+Touaregue</em>. Algiers, 1920.</li>
+<li>Freeman, H. Stanhope: <em>A Grammatical Sketch of the Temahuq
+Language</em>. London: Harrison, 1862.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1">Books dealing
+with the Tuareg and the Anthropology of the Sahara generally</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>Ripley, W.: <em>The Races of Europe</em>. 1900.</li>
+<li>Sergi, G.: <em>The Mediterranean Race</em>. London, 1901.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Arii ed Italici</em>. 1898.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Africa, La stirpe camitica</em>. Turin, 1897.</li>
+<li>Keane, A. H.: <em>Man, Past and Present</em>. Cambridge,
+1920.</li>
+<li>Boule, M.: <em>Fossil Man</em>. Edinburgh, 1923.</li>
+<li>Duveyrier, H.: <em>Les Touareg du Nord</em> (Volume I of the
+work already cited).</li>
+<li>Cortier, M.: <em>D’une Rive à l’autre du Sahara</em>. Paris,
+1908.</li>
+<li>Bissuel: <em>Les Touareg de l’Ouest</em>.</li>
+<li>Aymard, Capt.: <em>Les Touareg</em>. Paris, 1911.</li>
+<li>Foureau, F.: <em>Mission chez les Touareg</em>. 1895.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Une Mission au Tadamayt</em>. 1890.</li>
+<li>King, H.: <em>A Search for the Masked Tawareks</em>. London,
+1908.</li>
+<li>Rinn, L.: <em>Origines Berbères</em>. 1889.</li>
+<li>Schirmer, H.: <em>De nomine et genere populorum qui Berberi . .
+. dicuntur</em>. 1892.</li>
+<li>Buchanan, A.: <em>Sahara</em>. Murray, 1926.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[468]</span>Stuhlmann, F.:
+<em>Die Mazighvölker</em>. Kolonial Institut. Band 27.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Ein Ausflug im Aures</em>. Kolonial Institut. Band
+10.</li>
+<li>—— <em>Handwerk und Industrie in Ost-Afrika</em>. Kolonial
+Institut. Band 1.</li>
+<li>Newberry, Percy: <em>Beni Hassan</em>. 1893.</li>
+<li>Rosellini, I.: <em>I Monumenti dell’ Egitto e della Nubia</em>.
+1832-44.</li>
+<li>Elliot Smith, G.: <em>The Ancient Egyptians</em>. 1923.</li>
+<li>Maspero, G.: <em>L’Histoire ancienne des peuples de
+l’orient</em>. 1909.</li>
+<li>Meyer, E.: <em>Geschichte des Altertums</em>.</li>
+<li>Rodd, F.: A paper on the Origins of the Tuareg, <em>R.G.S.
+Journal</em>, Vol. LXVII. No. 1. Jan. 1926.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1">Classical and
+Arabic Authors</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>Pliny’s <em>Natural History</em>. Various editions.</li>
+<li>Strabo’s <em>Geography</em>. Various editions.</li>
+<li>Herodotus’ <em>Geography</em>. Various editions.</li>
+<li>Hanno’s <em>Periplus</em> (London, 1797), and <em>Geographi
+Græci Minores</em> (Editio Mueller).</li>
+<li>Sallustius: <em>De bello Jugurthino</em>. Various
+editions.</li>
+<li>Ptolemy’s <em>Geography</em> and <em>Marinus of Tyre</em>.</li>
+<li>The Works of Diodorus Siculus.</li>
+<li>Corippus: <em>Libri qui supersunt</em>. Berlin, 1879.</li>
+<li>The Works of Aulus Gellius.</li>
+<li>Silius Italicus: <em>Œuvres complètes</em>. 1850.</li>
+<li>Leo Africanus: <em>History and Description of Africa</em>.
+Hakluyt Society. London, 1896. Three volumes.</li>
+<li>Ibn Batutah’s <em>Travels</em>. Translation of Defrémery and
+Sanguinetti. Paris: Société Asiatique. 1893. Four volumes.</li>
+<li>—— Lee’s edition in the Oriental Translations Fund, with
+references to Kosegarten’s edition, 1929.</li>
+<li>Ibn Khaldun’s <em>History of the Berbers</em>. Translation by
+Slane. Algiers, 1852-4. Four books.</li>
+<li>Abderrahman Ibn Abd el Hakim’s <em>History of the Conquest of
+Egypt</em>. In the above edition of Ibn Khaldun.</li>
+<li>El Noweiri: Extracts in the above edition of Ibn Khaldun.</li>
+<li>Abdallah abu Obeid Ibn Abd el Aziz el Bekri: <em>A Description
+of North Africa</em>. Edition Slane. Algiers, 1913.</li>
+<li>—— Wüstenfels <em>Das Geographische Wörterbuch des Abu Obeid el
+Bekri</em>. 1876.</li>
+<li>Abu el Hassan Ali Mas’udi: <em>The Meadows of Gold</em>.
+Oriental Translations Fund, 1841.</li>
+<li>Sultan Bello’s History. See Denham and Clapperton’s
+journey.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="less sc center space-above15 space-below1">Works dealing
+more particularly with Air</p>
+<ul class="simple2">
+<li>Barth, H.: <em>Travels in Central Africa</em>. Five volumes.
+London, 1857. (For Air, see principally Vol. I. Historical and
+ethnological references to the Tuareg are contained in all the
+volumes.)</li>
+<li>Jean, C.: <em>Les Touareg du Sud-Est; L’Air</em>. Paris,
+1909.</li>
+<li><em>Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Foureau-Lamy</em>.
+Paris.</li>
+<li>Buchanan, A.: <em>Out of the World North of Nigeria</em>.
+London: Murray, 1921.</li>
+<li><em>Novitates Zoologicæ</em>, the Journal of the Tring Museum,
+Vol. XXVIII. pp. 1-13, 75-77. 1921.</li>
+<li>Rodd, F.: A paper (with map) on Air, <em>R.G.S. Journal</em>,
+Vol. LXIII. 2, August, 1923.</li>
+<li>von Bary, E.: his Diary edited by Schirmer. Paris
+(Fischbacher), 1898.</li>
+<li>Chudeau, R., and Gautier, E. F.: <em>Missions au Sahara et au
+Soudan</em>. Two volumes (especially Vol. II.). Paris, 1908.</li>
+<li>Palmer, H. R.: “Some Asben Records.” (The Agades Chronicle),
+<em>Journal of the African Society</em>, No. XXXVI. Vol. IX.,
+1910.</li>
+</ul>
+<hr class="chap">
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[469]</span><a id=
+"ind"></a>INDEX</h2>
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="indx">“A” names, tribal, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“A type” of Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>-6, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; ornamentation of,
+<a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“A’ada” (right of passage), <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abadarjan, Ridge of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>,
+<a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abalkoran, the, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Abandoned of God,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abarakan, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abattul, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; Itesan defeated
+at, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; mosque of, <a href=
+"#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abattul, Mount, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abd el Jelil (Selma I), <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abd el Qader, Sultan, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>-9, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abd el Rahman, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abdallah, King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abdallah, Abu, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abdallah ibn Yasin, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abderrahman Ibn Abd el Hakim, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abdominal strain of camel riding, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abdulkerim, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abellama, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aberkan, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Abesagh” acacia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abeshan, Sultan, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abirkom, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Abisgi” bush, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a>; leaf as condiment, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ablutions, Tuareg remiss in, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Aborak” tree, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;
+articles made from wood of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abscess, native treatment of, <a href=
+"#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Absen (Air), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Absenawa (people of Air), <a href=
+"#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abu Abdallah, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abu Bakr Dau, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abu Muhammad, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Abyssinia, Semitic influence in, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Acacia, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Acacia trees, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>; eaten by camels,
+<a href="#Page_199">199</a>; a defence from insects, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>; thorns of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
+<a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adalet, Al, Sultan of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>-10</li>
+<li class="indx">Adamber, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adar, Kel Geres move to, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adaudu, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Addal, Muhammad el, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Addax antelopes, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aderbissinat, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70; fort,
+<a href="#Page_70">70</a>; well, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adermellen well, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adesnu, spirits of, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Adghar,” <a href="#Page_18">18</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adghar n’Ifoghas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adil, Sultan, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-10,
+<a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adjeur, <em>see</em> Azger.</li>
+<li class="indx">Adoral valley, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adrar Ahnet, tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adultery not common among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Adze, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aerwan wan Tidrak, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Æthiopia; matriarchate in, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_144" class=
+"fnanchor">[144]</a>; Romans in, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afaguruel (Ifagarwal), the, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afasas, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; valley, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_200" class=
+"fnanchor">[200]</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afasas-Tebernit groups, houses in, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afasto, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afaza grass, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afis, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a>; inscription on grave at, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afis mountains, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
+<a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Afis, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Africa, partition of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; problem of
+introduction of camel into, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Africa, North, <em>see</em> North Africa.</li>
+<li class="indx">“Africa Minor,” <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ag Ali” (son of Ali), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ag Malwal, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ag Mastan, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aga (salt), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agadem, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a>; road to, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; well,
+<a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agades, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; Air administered from, <a href=
+"#Page_115">115</a>-16, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>; decline of,
+<a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;
+foundation of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>; population of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+<a href="#Page_402">402</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>; prosperity of,
+former, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>; quarters of, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>; races and languages of, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; revolt of 1917
+and, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>-90; sanitary system of, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>; site of, peculiar, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
+<a href="#Page_112">112</a>-16, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;
+Songhai colonisation of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; Songhai element in people of, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>; Sudanese in aspect, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
+<a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Amenokal of, <em>see</em> Amenokal; Añastafidet’s
+residence at, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; Barth’s journey
+to, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; battle at, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>; blacksmith-jewellers of, <a href=
+"#Page_229">229</a>-30; earth from, daubed on women’s faces,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>; exchange rates at, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>; French occupation
+of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; French
+post at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
+<a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; gaol of,
+<a href="#Page_107">107</a>; Hole of Bayazid at, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a>; Holy Men of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+House of Kaossen at, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-3; houses
+of,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[470]</span> <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_246">246</a>; King of, <em>see</em> Amenokal; Kings of, list
+of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>-5; leather-working at, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a>; markets at, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;
+merchants of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; minaret of, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>; measures of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+mithkal of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-2; Mosque, Great, of,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>-4, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>; pots made near, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+<a href="#Page_161">161</a>; prostitution in, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a>; sandals made in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#Page_165">165</a>; Sultan of, <em>see</em> Amenokal;
+tribal history kept at, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; weights of,
+<a href="#Page_221">221</a>-2; wells at, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;
+wireless station at, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; women of,
+<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agades Chronicle, the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+<a href="#Page_93">93</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_81" class=
+"fnanchor">[81]</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; list of
+kings of Air compiled from, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>-5; on
+selection of first Amenokal, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Agades Cross, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agades, Kel, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agades, River of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; plain of,
+<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Agades-Tabello road, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Agades-Taberghit road, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agades-Tanut road, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>-70</li>
+<li class="indx">Agades-Termit road made practicable, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agajida, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agalak mountains, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agalak well, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agalak, Kel, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agalenge, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agamgam, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; pool, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agaragar, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agate, ornaments made of, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agdalar, the, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agejir, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>; houses in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+<a href="#Page_252">252</a>; mosque of, <a href=
+"#Page_255">255</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agellal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; houses in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+<a href="#Page_254">254</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agellal, Kel: of the Kel Unnar, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>; Ikazkazan,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a>; Imaqoaran, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>; present, mixed, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agerzan valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agewas, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aggata mountain, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>; spirit drums of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aggata well, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aggata, Kel, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Agha” (salt), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aghalwen, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Aghelam,” <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aghelashem wells, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Aghil” (measure of length), <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aghil, Kel, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aghimmat, Kel, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aghmat well, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Agilman” (pool) of Taghazit, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agisymba Regio, attempt to identify with Air,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; derivation and
+application of name, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Agoalla,” <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agoalla Kel Tagei, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agoalla Mafinet, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agoalla T’Sidderak, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agoras, the, of Assode, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agram (Fashi), <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agriculture: in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>-4, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; despised by
+noble Tuareg, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agumbulum, the, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
+<a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Agwalla,” <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agwau, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Agwau, Kel, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahaggar, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
+<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>, forms of the name, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amenokal of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>-3; camels of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; De
+Foucauld in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>-12, <a href=
+"#Page_13">13</a>; Hawara occupy, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>; Ibn
+Batutah in, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; language of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_387">387</a>; mountains, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
+<a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahaggar, Kel, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>; <em>see</em> Ahaggaren.</li>
+<li class="indx">Ahaggaren (Imghad of Kel Gharus), <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahaggaren (Tuareg of Ahaggar), <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_402">402</a>; works on, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Originally Auriga, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>; Azger and, their origin and connection,
+<a href="#Page_349">349</a>-53; caravan roads controlled by,
+<a href="#Page_353">353</a>; dialect of, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>; French occupation resisted by, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>-3; polytheistic traces among, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a>; as raiders, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,
+<a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; tribal
+divisions of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-51</li>
+<li class="indx">Ahamellen, Kel, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
+<a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahawagh, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ahel” and “Kel,” <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahir (Air), <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahitagel, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahmadu, of the Kel Tagei, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahmadu ag Musa, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahmed Rufaiyi, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahnet mountains, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
+<a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahnet, Kel, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ahodu, chief of the Kel Tadek, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; disputed headship of Auderas, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>-3; female descent exemplified in family of,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a>; French assisted by, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>; on the Kel Owi, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
+<a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; on Queen
+Kahena, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+raiding reminiscences of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-3; his son,
+<a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_165">165</a>; his sword, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>; tribal
+history in possession of family of, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-2;
+on the Veil, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; his wife, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aiawan, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ain Irhayen, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-19, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>; as a geographical term, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>; attempted identification with Agisymba Regio,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>; origin of name
+of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; original inhabitants of, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a>-6; not penetrated by Romans, Arabs or Turks,
+<a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_471">[471]</span>Air, accounts of, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>-19, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; agriculture in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
+<a href="#Page_131">131</a>-4; Askia’s conquest of, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>-10, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>; astronomically
+determined points in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>-5; Azger and,
+women sent to ensure friendship between, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a>; Bornu and, war between, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>-7, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>; boundaries of,
+<a href="#Page_28">28</a>-33; camels of, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-7; caste system
+of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-8,
+<em>see</em> Nobles and serfs; civilisation of, pre-Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_365">365</a>; climate of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
+<a href="#Page_123">123</a>; cotton of, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>; Damergu economically part of, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>; disease in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a>-80; dialect of, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>; distribution of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;
+drainage system of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>-31, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-15, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a>; economics of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>-20; European penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>-14, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-27; evacuation of,
+1918, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>; exploration
+of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_27">27</a>; fair tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_162">162</a>; fauna and flora of, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>-8, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>; French occupation and annexation of, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>; revolt against,
+<em>see below</em> revolt in, 1917; geology of, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>-5, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-2; Goberawa in,
+<a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>; graves
+and tombs of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-63; history of, <a href=
+"#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-416; Holy Men of,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; holy
+tribes of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-91, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>; houses and huts of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
+<a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-55; infant
+mortality high in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; Lemta invasion of,
+<a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>; Libyan influence in, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>; lions in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
+<a href="#Page_120">120</a>; live-stock of, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>; mosques of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-8;
+mountains of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
+<a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>-4, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; negroid original
+inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a>-6; oases of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+population of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; raids from, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>-91; raids on, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-14,
+<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>-21, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-4; revolt in,
+1917, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
+<a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>; roads of,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>-4; rock drawings and
+inscriptions in, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; rocks of,
+<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; Roman campaigns
+near, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
+<a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-6; Sanhaja
+in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
+<a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a>; scale of life in, former, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; Senussiya in, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+spirits of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-81; tribal names in,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; tribal
+warfare in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; Sultan of, <em>see</em>
+Amenokal.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg of, <em>see</em> Tuareg of Air; invasion
+of Air by, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>-93, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-6; its date,
+<a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>; their vicissitudes in, <a href=
+"#Page_401">401</a>-16; Tuareg symbol for name of, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, Central, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
+<a href="#Page_418">418</a>; belonged to People of the King,
+<a href="#Page_394">394</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;
+tribal names derived from, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>; view over,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, Eastern, Kel Owi in, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, North-eastern: houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; unnamed valley
+of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, Northern, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-329;
+ancient monuments in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; evacuation of,
+1918, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-11, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>; Kel Owi tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>-8, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; palm groves of,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a>; roads traversing, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>-22; salt caravan route from, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Air, Southern: Goberawa in, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; graves in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;
+servile tribes in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; <em>see</em>
+Tegama.</li>
+<li class="indx">’Aisha-Kel Eghrarmar, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ajaraneen, the, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ajiru, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_117" class=
+"fnanchor">[117]</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ajiru, Kel, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akaraq, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; valley, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>-8, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akasani, Sultan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Akel,” meaning of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akil, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akir (Air), <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akri, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Akritan hills, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alagwas, Alakkos, Alakwas (Elakkos), <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alali, Bir, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alamt (Lemta) Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alaren (Allaghan), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alarsas, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Albes, well of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alburdatan, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alfalehle plant, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alfalehle river, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Algeria, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; Christianity
+in, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; the Circumcelliones, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a>; French expedition from, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-7; French occupation
+of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; funerary monuments in, <a href=
+"#Page_261">261</a>; rock drawings in, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Algeria, Southern, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a>; French operations in, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>; native Camel Corps in, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Algeria-Ahaggar caravan road, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Algiers, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Alguechet,” <a href="#Page_6">6</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alhassan, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>
+<em>n.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Ali, King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ali ben el Haj Omar ben Idris, King of Bornu,
+<a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ali ibn Tama el Ghati, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_154">154</a>-5, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
+<a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ali Killun, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aliso, El Haj, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Alkarhat,” game of, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Allagh” (spear), <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Allaghan, Kel, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Allelthrap” (ghosts), <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alliances, tribal, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Alluvial soil, Air, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+plain of River of Agades, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Almoravids, the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
+<a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Almoubari, Sultan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alms-houses, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Almubari (El Mubaraki), <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_91" class=
+"fnanchor">[91]</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alphabet, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
+<a href="#Page_267">267</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Alwali, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>-10, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Alwalitan, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Alwat” plant, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amadu, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_472">[472]</span>Amahar (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Amakeetan (Immikitan), the, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Amán” (peace), <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amarkos, Kel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amati, Sultan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
+<a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amazigh (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amazigh, the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amazons, suggested explanation of story of,
+<a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ameluli, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amenokal, the (Sultan of Agades), <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_97">97</a>-100, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>; deputation sent
+to Constantinople for the first, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_396">396</a>-7; list of his successors, <a href=
+"#Page_463">463</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub1">election of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; family of,
+foreign appearance of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; family name of,
+<a href="#Page_434">434</a> <em>n.</em>; female descent of,
+<a href="#Page_151">151</a>; first, possibly a Byzantine prince,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; legend of
+Imanen women sent to, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>; installation of,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>-100, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>-7, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; Itesan and
+election of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; judicial functions of, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>; Kel Geres and
+election of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>; Kel Owi and
+election of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>-7; officials and courtiers of, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>-7; palace of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
+<a href="#Page_100">100</a>; People of, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <em>see</em>
+People of the King; position of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>-5, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_109">109</a>-10, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
+<a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>; precarious tenure
+of office, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
+<a href="#Page_392">392</a>; revenue of, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>; second, Agades mosque presented to, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amenokal of Ahaggar, the, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amenokal, Kel, <em>see</em> People of the
+King.</li>
+<li class="indx">Amezegzil, the, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Amghid” (singular of “Imghad”), <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a> Amidera valley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amin, Muhammad el, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Amitral” (measure of length), <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amjid, wells of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ammianus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amon, Egyptian deity, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amosciarg (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amóshagh (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a>-60, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amulet cases, leather, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Amulets, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+<a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Amunan,” <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Amzad” (mandoline), <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anai (S.W. of Murzuk), <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anai (Kawar), <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Añastafidet, the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>; origin of
+authority of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>; election of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+freed slaves of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; house of, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>; position and
+duties of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Añastafidet, people of the, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>; numbers of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;
+tribes and subtribes of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anfissak valley, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+well, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anfissak, Kel, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Angels, Tuareg belief in, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anglo-French boundary, Northern Nigeria, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anglo-German Convention, 1890, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anigara, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anigara, Kel, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
+<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Animals, domestic, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>-6; rock drawings of, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Animistic view of nature, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aniogara, Kel, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
+<a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ankh, the Agades Cross and the, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Annur, chief of the Kel Owi, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>-5, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ansaman (T’in Shaman), <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Ansatfen, family of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
+<a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ant-bear secured by Buchanan, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Antassar, Kel, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Antelopes, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Antimony, women’s eyes darkened with, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Areran, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Maqaran, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>; rock drawing,
+<a href="#Page_321">321</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Anu n’Ageruf, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu n’Banka, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Samed valley, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;
+houses in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Samed, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Wisheran, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+<a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Anu Wisheran, Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aouror well, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aowjal, <em>see</em> Aujila, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ara” (salt), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_115"
+class="fnanchor">[115]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ara valley, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arab authors: the Veil first mentioned by,
+<a href="#Page_328">328</a>-9; works by, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arab country, meaning of term in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_405" class=
+"fnanchor">[405]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arab element among Imghad, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arab geographers and historians, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; <em>see</em> Bekri,
+Ibn Khaldun, etc.</li>
+<li class="indx">Arab merchants, Agades, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_106">106</a>; caravan raided by Ahodu, <a href=
+"#Page_192">192</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Arab raiders, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arabia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; question of
+introduction of camels from, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>; invasions
+from, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arabian origin of Tuareg, Bello on, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arabic: Temajegh and, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;
+used by Tuareg, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arabs: Air not invaded by, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>; head-cloths worn by, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>; Kaossen believed killed by, <a href=
+"#Page_98">98</a>; North Africa conquered by, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>-4, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>-6, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; patriarchal
+system of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; raids by, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; robes of, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_253" class=
+"fnanchor">[253]</a>; Southland invaded by, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; Spain conquered by, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg (Muleththemin, <em>q.v.</em>) and,
+<a href="#Page_14">14</a>-15, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; Arab influence
+on, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>-5; Arab opinion of, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a>; connection with Arabs claimed in order to
+establish descent from the Prophet, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>,
+<a href="#Page_342">342</a>; Arab tribes assimilated by, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_329" class=
+"fnanchor">[329]</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; Arabs considered
+newcomers by, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; Arabs called<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_473">[473]</span> “white” by, <a href=
+"#Page_162">162</a>; upper-class Arabs considered nobles by,
+<a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arakieta, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Araruf,” <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Araten valley, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Archean rocks, Air, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Architecture, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-59;
+ascribed to the Itesan, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Areg,” <a href="#Page_274">274</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Areitun, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Areitun, Kel, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Argem” (funerary monuments), <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-62, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arguin, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arharkhar valley, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aril, Kel, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arki, King of Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arm daggers, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arm rings, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
+<a href="#Page_285">285</a>-6, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Armes blanches, Tuareg allegiance to, <a href=
+"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ar’rerf Ahnet, the, <a href=
+"#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arrow-heads, conventionalised, as ornaments,
+<a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arrows, poisoned, used by bush folk, <a href=
+"#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arsu, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Art, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Arwa, Mount, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arwa Mellen, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Aryan,” the word, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Arzuges, the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asaki, the, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asawa, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asben (Air), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>-4, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>; derivation of, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Asben horses, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asbenawa (people of Air), <a href=
+"#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asbytæ, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asclepias, use of juice of, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asclepias, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ashanti, matriarchal survivals in, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; religious feasts,
+<a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ashegur well, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ashraf (descendants of the Prophet), <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asiu, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Askar, <em>see</em> Azger.</li>
+<li class="indx">Askia, Ishak, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Askia Ismael, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Askia, Muhammad el Haj, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-10; conquests of,
+<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>-10; pilgrimage of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>,
+<a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Asnagho, peak, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assa, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assada valley, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>-15, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assadoragan, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assarara, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assarara mountains, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assarara, Kel, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assatartar, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assatartar, Kel (Igermaden), <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assatartar, Kel (Immikitan), <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assawas swamp, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assingerma, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Assode, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>-303, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a>;
+first real capital of Air, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; houses of,
+<a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>; mosque of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
+<a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-2;
+position of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Astacures, the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Astronomically determined points in Air, list of,
+<a href="#Page_422">422</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Atagoom, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>; amulets worn by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;
+cases of possession in family of, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>-80</li>
+<li class="indx">Atan, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Atara, the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ataram” (west), varying sense of, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ataram, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Atkaki, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Atlas languages, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Atlas mountains, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; MZGh
+names in, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Atrebisa, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Attafriya, Muhammad, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Audaghost, Libyan kings of, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Auderas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_418" class=
+"fnanchor">[418]</a>; author’s stay at, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>-5, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>-62, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>-80, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a>;
+basin of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+<a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; cemetery
+at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; headship of, disputed, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>-3; houses of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+<a href="#Page_248">248</a>; Itesan “Kel names” derived from,
+<a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>; Kel
+Ataram of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>; lion killed near,
+<a href="#Page_119">119</a>-20; measures of, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a>; plough seen at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a>; possession, case of, at, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>-80; rainy season at, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>-4; village organisation in, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Auderas, Kel, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Augela (Aujila), <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Augila, people of, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aujila, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; story of
+compulsory migration from, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; trade with Kawar,
+<a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aulimmiden, the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; the Abalkoran
+and, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; Amenokal and, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>; El Baghdadi attacked by, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>; horses of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; Ibn
+Batutah’s possible reference to, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;
+Ilemtin a form of the name, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>; Kel Geres
+defeated by, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>; identical with the Lemta, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>-8, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; matriarchal inheritance system disliked by,
+<a href="#Page_152">152</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_149"
+class="fnanchor">[149]</a>; origin of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
+<a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; position
+of, explained, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>-8; raids on, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; Tademekka
+occupied by, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aulus Gellius, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Auraghen, the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>; noble in Azger,
+servile in Southland, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; noble Kel Owi
+once belonged to, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Auraghiye dialect, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+<a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a> Aureran well, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aures, people of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Aures, Queen of the (Kahena), <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Auriga, the, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; Auriga-Hawara
+represented by Ahaggaren, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_474">[474]</span>Ausa, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Austria, “talhakim” made in, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Austuriani (or Ausuriani), the, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Autochthonous significance of MZGh root, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Awa, tomb of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Awelimmid (Aulimmiden), the, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Axe, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Azalai,” the, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azamkoram mountains, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azañieres mountains, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azañieres, Kel, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>; legend of the
+mother of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azañierken, the, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>,
+<a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azanzara valley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azar valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azar, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azaret, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azawad, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azawagh (Asawa), <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azawagh, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_426">426</a>; cold encountered in, <a href=
+"#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; deserted sites in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;
+millet cultivation in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Ifadeyen move
+into, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;
+population decreasing in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; Sanhaja in,
+<a href="#Page_364">364</a>; Tegama of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;
+valleys of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-2, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_66">66</a>-7, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>; wells of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-5; wind
+prevalent in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azawagh, Kel, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>; name disappears,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azawak, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azbin (Air), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azel, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azel, Kel, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azelik valley, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azenata, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azger country, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>; Aulimmiden return to, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>; Auraghen noble in, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>; Ifoghas of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azger Tassili, the, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+<a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azger Tuareg, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a>; Ahaggaren and, origin and connection of,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-53,
+<a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; Ausuriani
+identified with, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>; camel brands of, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>-2; caravan roads controlled by, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>; courage of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;
+divination by women of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; European
+contact with, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;
+fort built to watch, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; French penetration
+and, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; Imanen of,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_385"
+class="fnanchor">[385]</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; Imanen
+kings of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;
+inheritance, system of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; Kaossen
+sheltered by, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; Kel Ahamellen break from,
+<a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>; old Lemta
+stock represented by, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>-9, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; migrations of,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; purity of
+stock of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;
+raids by, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;
+tribes of, noble and mixed caste, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>-5;
+warlikeness of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>; women sent by, to first Sultan of Air,
+<a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azger-Auraghen, the, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
+<a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azjer Tuareg, <em>see</em> Azger, <a href=
+"#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azuraiden, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Azzal, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">“B type” of Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_246">246</a>-8, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_310">310</a>-11, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Bab Ras el Hammada,” <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Babies, Tuareg method of carrying, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bacos valley, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Badge of office, Añastafidet’s, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bagai, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bagezan horses, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bagezan mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>-40, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; an unknown area,
+<a href="#Page_238">238</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-41; limes found
+in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; lions
+in, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; name of, connected with Agisymba,
+<a href="#Page_324">324</a>; Tuareg stronghold against Bornuwi,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bagezan, Kel; Itesan sub-tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; Kel Owi group, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>; present, composite, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Baghdadi, El, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Baghzen, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bagirmi, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bahr Bela Ma, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bairam, feast of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bakeir, Muhammad el, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bakiri, Sultan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+<em>see</em> Bekri.</li>
+<li class="indx">Bandages, abdominal, worn by Tuareg riders,
+<a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bangles, women’s, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">“Barbars,” the term, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
+<a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Barca, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; food taboos
+in, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; the Hawara in, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bardai, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bardamah, the, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>; women
+of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bardetus mountain, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Barkasho, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-70</li>
+<li class="indx">Barth, Dr. Heinrich, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
+<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_22">22</a>-3, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_31">31</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_36" class=
+"fnanchor">[36]</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_115" class=
+"fnanchor">[115]</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>; <em>Travels and Discoveries in Central
+Africa</em> by, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_247" class=
+"fnanchor">[247]</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_412">412</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_425"
+class="fnanchor">[425]</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_455">455</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_459"
+class="fnanchor">[459]</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; expeditions of,
+<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a>; attempts on his life, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">account of Air by, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_28">28</a>; origin of name of, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Tuareg invasion of,
+<a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>-71, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">on Abd el Qader, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+<a href="#Page_117">117</a>; on site of Afasas, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>; his journey to Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_75" class=
+"fnanchor">[75]</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; at Agades,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>; on date of foundation of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a>; on the Amenokal and Añastafidet, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_146">146</a>; Annur and, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>-5, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a>; on Assode, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>; at
+Auderas, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>; in
+the Azawagh, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_75" class=
+"fnanchor">[75]</a>; on Bardamah women, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; on El Maghili, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-2;
+on Elakkos, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>; on exchange rates,
+<a href="#Page_222">222</a>; on Gamram, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_309"
+class="fnanchor">[309]</a>; on<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_475">[475]</span> Ibn Batutah’s journey, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_455">455</a>; Kanem and Bornu chronicle collected by,
+<a href="#Page_372">372</a>-3; lion’s prints seen by, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>; on population of Murzuk, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>; on the MZGh root in North African names,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a>-61, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; as an
+ox-rider, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>; rock drawings discovered by,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Roman
+remains discovered by, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; on site of T’in
+Shaman, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; at T’intellust, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>-13; his quarters
+there still known as the House of the Christians, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a>-13</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the Tuareg: etymology of word, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>-4; absence of national name, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a>-60; Air invaded by, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>-71, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>-7; date of invasion, <a href=
+"#Page_382">382</a>-3, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; the Aulimmiden,
+origin of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>-8, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>; the Auraghen
+(Oraghen), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>; Azger tribes, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;
+Damergu tribes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>; Elakkos tribes, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;
+female descent system, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-3; Imghad and
+slaves, mistakes regarding, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_133" class=
+"fnanchor">[133]</a>; the Kel Fadé, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;
+the Kel Owi, their arrival in Air, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>; their earlier habitat, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>; their language, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+the Kel Wati, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>; Lemta migrations,
+mistakes regarding, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>; tribal names, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_130">130</a>; tribal organisation, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_396" class=
+"fnanchor">[396]</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>; women, fatness
+of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bary, Erwin von, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a>; Air explored by, <a href=
+"#Page_24">24</a>-5; boundary fixed by, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+detained at Ajiru, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>-4; on disease among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; on the Imajeghan,
+<a href="#Page_139">139</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_128"
+class="fnanchor">[128]</a>; on laws of succession among Kel Owi,
+<a href="#Page_151">151</a>; on lions in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>; on rains in Air, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>; on
+social distinctions lost among Kel Owi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>;
+prevented from entering Sudan, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>; on tribal names, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Basalt boulders, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
+<a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Basalt flows, Air, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Basin formations, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Basket, grain measures in, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Basset, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bates, Oric: <em>Eastern Libyans</em> by, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_3" class=
+"fnanchor">[3]</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_166">166</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_160" class=
+"fnanchor">[160]</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_267">267</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_236" class=
+"fnanchor">[236]</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_336">336</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_314"
+class="fnanchor">[314]</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;
+references to, on: the Ausuriani, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;
+cross symbol among Tuareg, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>; cross-belts, Libyan, <a href=
+"#Page_194">194</a>; eating of dogs, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;
+female descent, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; funerary monuments,
+<a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; Imghad
+and Imajeghan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>; Lebu and word Libyan,
+<a href="#Page_337">337</a>; MZGh root of Libyan names, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_461" class=
+"fnanchor">[461]</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; the
+“penistasche,” <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>; religious beliefs,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a>; sun worship, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Battles, Saharan, small numbers involved, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bayazid, the Hole of, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bazin, R.: <em>Life of Charles de Foucauld</em>,
+<a href="#Page_12">12</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_9" class=
+"fnanchor">[9]</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beds, nomads’, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beduaram, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bekri, El, Sultan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>,
+<a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_316" class=
+"fnanchor">[316]</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Bela,” <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Belkho, paramount chief of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>; defeat of the Isherifan by, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bello, Emir of Sokoto, <a href=
+"#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>; on “Barbar”
+invasion of Air, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>; on Goberawa Copts,
+<a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; on rise
+of Kanuri in Kanem, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>-70, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>; on Sultan of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">on Tuareg invasion of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>-70; the original five tribes, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a>; their modern representatives, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>-5, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bells, camel, the Prophet’s ban on, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Belly of the Desert, the, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Belts, Libyan, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>; Tuareg, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+<a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ben Guten, the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ben Hazera, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ben Mubarak, Muhammad, <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Benghazi, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Abbes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_344">344</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Dugu dynasty, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
+<a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Ghalgha, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Hume dynasty, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
+<a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Itisan, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beni Khattab, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;
+conquest of Zuila by, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Benue, the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beranes Libyans, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>,
+<a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Berber, linguistic sense of word, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Berber languages, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>; camel names in, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>; MZGh root in, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Berbers”: confused use of term, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>-2; applied to Libyans and Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a>; Jewish tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Berbers of North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_16">16</a>; arrival in N. Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>; Arab invasion resisted by, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>; former Christianity of, suggested, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>; funerary monuments of, <a href=
+"#Page_261">261</a>; Ibn Batutah on, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;
+Ibn Khaldun’s <em>History</em> of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
+<a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;
+matriarchal inheritance system of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-3;
+MZGh root, significance of, among, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;
+origins of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; robes of, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_253" class=
+"fnanchor">[253]</a>; sun worship by, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;
+Tuareg and, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; element of, in
+Tuareg Imghad, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Berdeoa, country of the, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Berdianen, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Beriberi,” applied to Kanuri, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bettina plant, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beughqot, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Beurmann, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bianu, feast of, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Bibliographical material, list of, <a href=
+"#Page_466">466</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Bight of Benin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
+<a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bila, Mount, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bilalen, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bilasicat valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_476">[476]</span>Bilet, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bilma, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>; French fort at,
+<a href="#Page_320">320</a>; wireless station at, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">salt caravan, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>-20, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>; Amenokal’s
+revenue from, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; number of camels in,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>; French escort for, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>; Minister accompanying, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>; raids on, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; route of,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">salt trade, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-20; struggles
+between Air and Bornu for, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">war of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bir Alali, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bir Gharama, disaster to French at, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>-10, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Birds, taboo on, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Birjintoro, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Births, among Tuareg, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+<a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bishoprics, North African, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bissuel: <em>Les Touareg de l’Ouest</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_7" class=
+"fnanchor">[7]</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Black” and “White” Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">Blacksmith, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
+<a href="#Page_228">228</a>-9, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
+<a href="#Page_283">283</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Blanket carried by some Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_166">166</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bleeding, remedy for donkey disease, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Blemmyes, the, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Blood in the head,” camel and donkey disease,
+<a href="#Page_200">200</a>-201, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Blue,” negroes spoken of as, <a href=
+"#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Blue-eyed Tuareg, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boghel valley, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bomba, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Books, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; lost
+during revolt, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>-2; fragments of, discovered, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Booz, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Borgu, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Borku, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bornu, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; on early maps,
+<a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Beni Hume dynasty in, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>; Bulala conquest
+of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>; Christian influence in, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>; history of, chronicle of, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>-3, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Empire of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a>; decline of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>; war
+with Air, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>,
+<a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Kanuri in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg arrival in, problem of, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>-6; their ascendancy in, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>-4, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; expulsion of, from, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-4; migration into
+Air from, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
+<a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>-7, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-4; Tuareg
+besiege, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bornu Chronicle, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bornuwi, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bororoji Fulani, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Borrow pits, Sudanese, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boucle du Niger, La, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boulders, basalt, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
+<a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boule, M.: <em>Fossil Man</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_322" class=
+"fnanchor">[322]</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boundaries of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>-33</li>
+<li class="indx">Bourgou, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bouthel, Sergeant, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>-51</li>
+<li class="indx">Bows and arrows used by Kanuri, <a href=
+"#Page_55">55</a>; not used by Tuareg, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Boys, Tuareg, circumcision of, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>; dress of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+upbringing of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Bracelets, women’s, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Brahim, Sultan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Brands, tribal, on camels, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Branes, Libyan family of, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Brass, decorative work in, <a href=
+"#Page_310">310</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Braun, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bridle, camel, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
+<a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bridle stand, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Brigands, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li class="indx">British described as White Nobles, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">British part in exploration of Central Sahara,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; in
+penetration of West Africa and Sudan, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">British tendency to belaud obscure races, <a href=
+"#Page_401">401</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Broking centres for desert traffic, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Buchanan, Captain Angus, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>; fauna of Air collected by, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>; <em>Out of the World North of Nigeria</em>,
+<a href="#Page_27">27</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_31" class=
+"fnanchor">[31]</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Buda, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Buddei valley, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Buddei-Telwa drainage system, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Bugadie,” <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Building methods: Sudan and Northern Nigeria,
+<a href="#Page_88">88</a>-9; Tuareg, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
+<a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-50, <a href=
+"#Page_251">251</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Bulala, the, conquest of Bornu by, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bulls, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bullum Babá well, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>,
+<a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bullum village group, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>,
+<a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bundai hills, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Burials, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Burin, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Burr grass, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a>-9, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; seeds ground and
+eaten, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+<a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bush, Central African, discomforts of travel in,
+<a href="#Page_45">45</a>-6; Damergu, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_446">446</a>; Elakkos, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>,
+<a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; the
+Southland, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bush folk, poisoned arrows used by, <a href=
+"#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bushman drawings, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Bustard, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Butter, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Buzu,” <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>-6, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Byzantine origin of first Sultan of Air discussed,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Byzantines: emigration from North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_390" class=
+"fnanchor">[390]</a>; encounters with Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">“C type” Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Ca’da Mosto, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cæsar, camels captured by, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caillé, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cairns, memorial, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Cairo, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; Arab rottl in,
+<a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cairo-Timbuctoo road, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Calabashes, rare in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>; as grain measures, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a>; as drums, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_477">[477]</span>Camel bells, the Prophet’s ban on, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Camel Corps, French, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
+<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>; camels stolen from, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>; rate of travel of, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Camel skeletons, palæolithic, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Camel-borne trade, decline of, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Camel-riding, abdominal strain of, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; position for,
+<a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Camels, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>; their arrival in Africa, problem of, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>-8; breeds of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-7;
+delicacy of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; diseases of, <a href=
+"#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>-201; equipment of,
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>-4, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7; fodder of,
+<a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a>; herding of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_141">141</a>-2; a popular investment, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>; loading and unloading, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>-5; numbers of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_361">361</a>; prices of, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>; raids for, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; rock
+drawings of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; saddles of, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>-4, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7; salt needed
+by, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; with salt caravans, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>; sores of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>; technique of
+travel with, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>-9; Temajegh names for, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>; thirst of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>-9, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>-6; tribal marks
+on, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-2; rarely trotted, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Canaan, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caravan roads, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a>-7, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a>; abandoned owing to destruction of wells,
+<a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61; closed during war, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>; controlled by Azger and Ahaggaren, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>-4; controlled by Kel Owi, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <em>see</em> Kel Owi road; evacuation policy
+and, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; the “Garamantian way,” <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>-20; junction at Iferuan, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>; Roman garrisons on, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>; and sites of cities, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caravan trade: Añastafidet’s position and,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>; breakdown of, during war, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caravan wells, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_80">80</a>; rights over, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caravans: large, formed for safety’s sake,
+<a href="#Page_11">11</a>; camels for, supplied by Arabs, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>; raids on, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>-3, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; salt,
+<em>see</em> under Bilma.</li>
+<li class="indx">Cardinal points, Temajegh names for, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Carpentry, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Carthaginians, camels not used by, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Casamicciola, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caste, mixed, of some Azger tribes, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Caste system, Air, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>-8; <em>see</em> Noble and servile tribes.</li>
+<li class="indx">Cattle, Air, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>; horns of,
+anointed by Bororoji, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cats, Air, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cave paintings, European, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cemeteries, Nubian, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
+<a href="#Page_259">259</a>-63; urn cemetery, Marandet, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Central Africa: Arab influence in, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>; Arab invasion of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;
+bush of, discomforts of travel in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-6;
+Empires of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (<em>see</em> Bornu, Melle,
+Sokoto, Songhai); French scheme for occupation of, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>-7; history of, in relation to that of Air,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>-16; huts of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
+<a href="#Page_89">89</a>; Mediterranean civilisation brought to,
+<a href="#Page_401">401</a>; trend of migration towards, <a href=
+"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Central Air, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; belonged to People of the King, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>; tribal
+names derived from, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>; view over,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Central Empires, unrest in North Africa fomented
+by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-13, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Central Sahara, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+bibliography of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; British part in
+exploration of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-24; caravan road,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>; drainage system of, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-34; allocated to French,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; guides of,
+<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>; mountain
+groups of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; rains in, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>; Roman penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Central Sudan, caravan route to, <a href=
+"#Page_7">7</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Centre Peak, Termit, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>,
+<a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Cercles,” <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chad, Lake, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>; caravan road, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
+<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; diversion of
+water from, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; French expeditions to,
+<a href="#Page_25">25</a>-6, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51; Lemta
+extend to, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; track from Termit to,
+<a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chad area: Arab invasion of, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; early home of the Lemta, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>; Tuareg migration into Air from, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>-7, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chad road, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chanoine, Lieut., <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chariots, discussion of ancient use of, in Air,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>-19, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
+<a href="#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cheese, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chemical incrustation, line of valley marked by,
+<a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Chickens, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Chief of the Market Place,” <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Chief of the White People,” <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Childbirth among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Children, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a>-9; belong to the mother, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>-9; education of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a>; naming of, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>; suckled late, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Chosroes, invasion of North Africa by, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Christianity: question of its existence in Air,
+<a href="#Page_256">256</a>-7, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; former
+Berber religion, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>; among the Tegama, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+<a href="#Page_54">54</a>; possibly former religion of Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a>-8, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4;
+traces of its influence among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a>-6, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Christians, House of the, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">Chudeau, R., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a>; on Assode, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>;
+<em>Le Sahara Soudanais</em>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_31">31</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_34" class=
+"fnanchor">[34]</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_45" class=
+"fnanchor">[45]</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_89" class=
+"fnanchor">[89]</a><sup>,</sup><a href="#Footnote_91" class=
+"fnanchor">[91]</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_416" class=
+"fnanchor">[416]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Cidamus, the people of,” <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_314" class=
+"fnanchor">[314]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cillaba (Cilliba), <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cillala (Zuila), <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cinerite, Auderas basin, <a href=
+"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Circumcelliones, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_478">[478]</span>Circumcision, practised by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cities, North African, caravan roads and sites of,
+<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cities of the Desert, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>-13, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Citroën Motor Expedition, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_239" class=
+"fnanchor">[239]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Clapperton, Captain H., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; death of,
+<a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <em>Travels and Discoveries in Central
+Africa</em> (Denham and Clapperton), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_368">368</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_372"
+class="fnanchor">[372]</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_374">374</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_387"
+class="fnanchor">[387]</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Classical authors, references in, possibly
+indicate early Tuareg, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; bibliography
+of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Clay amphoræ, grain stored in, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Climate, of Air, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
+<a href="#Page_123">123</a>; of the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Cloth, native, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cochia, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Coins, Air, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Cold weather, encountered in Azawagh, <a href=
+"#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; scantiness of Tuareg dress for, <a href=
+"#Page_166">166</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Colocynth, use of juice of, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Colour, used on houses of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>; not used in Tuareg dress, <a href=
+"#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Colouring of Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>-2, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Concubinage in Air, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a>; the caste system and, <a href=
+"#Page_136">136</a>; impossible for noble women, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Congo, French expedition from, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Congress of Berlin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Constantinople, delegation from Air seeks a Sultan
+from, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-7; list of
+tribes sending the delegation, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cooley, <em>Negroland of the Arabs</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_106" class=
+"fnanchor">[106]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Copper mines, Tekadda, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a>-3, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Coptic Christianity, influence of, in Air,
+<a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Corippus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cornelius Balbus, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>,
+<a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cornish, V., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cortier: <em>D’une Rive à l’autre du Sahara</em>,
+<a href="#Page_209">209</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_198"
+class="fnanchor">[198]</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; history
+of Ifoghas n’Adghar, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-9; Geographical
+Mission, maps of Air, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_156">156</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_152" class=
+"fnanchor">[152]</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_200" class=
+"fnanchor">[200]</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_215">215</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_207"
+class="fnanchor">[207]</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_273" class=
+"fnanchor">[273]</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_456" class=
+"fnanchor">[456]</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cosmetics used by Tuareg women, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cotton cultivation, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cottonest, Lieut., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Counting, Tuareg method of, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Courage of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+<a href="#Page_169">169</a>-70, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
+<a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; of Tuareg
+women, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-70</li>
+<li class="indx">Cow-camels, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cowrie-shell currency discarded, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cows, scarce in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Crescentic type of sand dunes, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>-7, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Criminals, gaol for, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cross, Tuareg use of, as ornament, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>; the Agades Cross, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>; cross-hilted swords, <a href=
+"#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; on pommel of
+saddle, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a>; on shields, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Crows, camels attacked by, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cruciform design, Tuareg use of, <em>see</em>
+Cross.</li>
+<li class="indx">Crusaders, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cubes on women’s bracelets, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Currency, Air, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Currie, Sir J., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Cursed,” the (Muhammad Askia), <a href=
+"#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Curzon, Lord, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cydamus, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Cyrenaica: camels introduced into, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>; the Lebu in, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;
+raids into, in classical times, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;
+steppes and desert of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">“D type” Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dabaga, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Daggers, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dala, King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Damagarim, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>; date of Tuareg occupation of, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_432" class=
+"fnanchor">[432]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dambansa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dambida, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Damergu, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-62, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>; an appanage of
+Air, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; Agades Cross in, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>; Barth in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; bush of,
+<a href="#Page_45">45</a>-6, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>; cattle supplied from, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; cultivation in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; drainage system
+of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; French entry into, and events
+leading to occupation of Air, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52; Fulani
+of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; geology of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; granary
+of Air, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; hills of, <a href=
+"#Page_46">46</a>-7; measures of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+negroid inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; oryx hide
+shields from, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; oxen used in, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; population of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
+<a href="#Page_64">64</a>; raiders in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; revolt,
+1917, in, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; Sanhaja in, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; villages of,
+<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>-3, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>; evacuated from
+Air to, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-61; their predominance in,
+<a href="#Page_54">54</a>-5; their migration into, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; Sendal possibly
+ancestors of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>; Sultans of, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>-8; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_18" class=
+"fnanchor">[18]</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">Dan Gudde, King of Gober, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dan Kaba, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dancing, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+<a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Danda, ruler of the Imuzuraq, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dani, Muhammad, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a></li>
+<li class="indx">D’Anville, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Darfur, Tuareg in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Date-palms: cultivation of, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; disputed
+ownership of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; scarcity of, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dates, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>; date of
+ripening, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; preserved, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>; trade in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+<a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Daud, King of Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Daura, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; people of,
+<a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Daza, the, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">De la Roncière, Charles, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_19" class=
+"fnanchor">[19]</a><sup>,</sup><a href="#Footnote_20" class=
+"fnanchor">[20]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Deformation of body not practised among Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dehkar, mentioned by Ibn Batutah, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Demmili, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_479">[479]</span>Denham, D., Oudney, and Clapperton
+expedition, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+<a href="#Page_21">21</a>; <em>Travels and Discoveries in Central
+Africa</em> (Denham and Clapperton), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_368">368</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_372"
+class="fnanchor">[372]</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_374">374</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_387"
+class="fnanchor">[387]</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Depopulation of Air, results of, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Descent, Tuareg system of, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Desert between Air and Southland, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Desert, steppe and true, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
+<a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Desert vegetation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; hardiness
+of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; rain and, <a href=
+"#Page_124">124</a>; Elakkos and Termit, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Desert warfare: small numbers involved in,
+<a href="#Page_11">11</a>; tactics of, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Desiccation, of the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>; of upper reaches of Niger, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Desplagnes: <em>Le Plateau Central Nigérien</em>,
+<a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Devil, the, Tuareg belief in, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dianous, Captain, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dibbela well, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dickson, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Diffa” (reception), <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Diodorus Siculus, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Diom-Talras track, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dirki, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Disease in Air, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a>-80</li>
+<li class="indx">Diseases of camels, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a>-201</li>
+<li class="indx">Distance, no measure of, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Distances covered by raiders, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-90</li>
+<li class="indx">Divination, methods of, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Divorce among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_176">176</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Doctor, author as, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dogam village, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dogam, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dogam, Mount, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dogs: Air, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>-6; eaten by Eastern Libyans, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Domestic animals, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Donatist heresy, the, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Donkeys: Air, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+<a href="#Page_203">203</a>-4; wild, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Doors of Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>-6, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drainage system of Air, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+<a href="#Page_28">28</a>-31, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-15, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a>; of Sahara, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-33</li>
+<li class="indx">Draughts, game of, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drawings, rock, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; of camel,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>; of ox-drawn vehicles, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2; of shield with cruciform design, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dress, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_163">163</a>-7, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; simplicity of,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>; of women, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drought, former administrative measures against,
+<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drugs, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drum as badge of office, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drums, spirit, legends of, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Drums, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dryness of air in the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dual administration of empire of Melle, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Dubreuil, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Duga, Kel, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dûm Palm, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dûm palms, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; rope made of
+fronds of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; sandals made of fronds of,
+<a href="#Page_165">165</a>; wood used in building, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Duguwa dynasty, the, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
+<a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dunama I, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dunama II, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dunes, sand, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_63">63</a>-4, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Duveyrier, H., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>; explorations and work of, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>-9; <em>Les Touareg du Nord</em> by, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_54" class=
+"fnanchor">[54]</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_467">467</a>; on Ahaggaren and Azger, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>-52, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_356">356</a>; on Bir Gharama disaster, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a>; on dogs of Air, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; on
+food taboos, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; on the “Garamantian way,”
+<a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-19,
+<a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>; on derivation of Imajegh, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>; on marriage system of Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>; on origin of Oraghen, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; on religion of
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;
+on shields of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>; on
+T’ifinagh alphabet, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Dzianara, the, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">“E type” of Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Early Period” rock drawings, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Earthenware, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>-61</li>
+<li class="indx">Eastern Air, Kel Owi in, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eastern Desert, roads across, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eastern origin of camel, theory of, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eastern origin of the Libyans, probability of,
+<a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eastern Sahara, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-3;
+drainage system, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ebesan, El Haj, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Economic issues between Kel Owi and Kel Geres,
+<a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Economics of Air, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>-20</li>
+<li class="indx">Education, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a>-8, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Efaken, Mount, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Efale, the guide, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egeruen, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eghalgawen, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;
+valley, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>;
+watering points, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eghalgawen-T’in Wana massif, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>; fossil trees in, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eghbaren, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egypt: Arab conquest of, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>; invasions of, by Libyans and Sea People,
+<a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;
+matriarchate in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a>; raids into, in
+classical times, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>; weights in, <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Coptic church, influence of, in Air,
+<a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egyptian oases, the, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
+<a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egyptian paintings, of Libyans, <a href=
+"#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; figures like
+Tuareg on, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Egyptian records, possible references to Tuareg
+in, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">El Golea, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">El Suk, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">[480]</span>El
+Suk, Kel, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elakkos, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>-8; as
+battle-ground, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_442">442</a>-3; bush of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; Camel Patrol of,
+<a href="#Page_450">450</a>; grain of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>,
+<a href="#Page_445">445</a>; name of, its origin, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; oryx hide shields
+of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>; plain
+of, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>; rains in, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; wells of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_447">447</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; their migration into, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a>;
+their predominance in, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elakwas (Elakkos), <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elar, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elattu, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elazzas, hut foundations at, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>-3; valley, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elijah, the cave of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elijinen, the, Tuareg tales of, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>-81; amulets against, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elmiki (Immikitan), the, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elmina, Portuguese factory at, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Elnoulli, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Em” names, tribal, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Emagadezi people, the, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Emallarhsen, the, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Emilía, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Emirates of Nigeria, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; French
+administration of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; <em>see</em> Daura,
+Hadeija, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto.</li>
+<li class="indx">Emululi, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="indx">En Nitra, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Enad” (smith), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
+<a href="#Page_228">228</a>-9, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Enclosures: funerary monuments, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-62, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; places of
+worship, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>-3; round Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">“English Hill,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a></li>
+<li class="indx">English tendency to extol obscure races, <a href=
+"#Page_401">401</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ennedi, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Entrepôts of the desert, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Envelopes, leather, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Equatorial Africa, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
+<a href="#Page_21">21</a>; Arab pressure in, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>; French, annexed, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+operations against French in, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; rainfall
+belt of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; Tuareg migration to, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Erarar, Kel, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Erarar n’Dendemu, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Erdi, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Erosion in valleys of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_34">34</a>; of sandstone formations, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ers” (eresan), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ers, Rodd’s,” <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Esbet, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Escherha, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Etaras valley, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
+<a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ethical standards, Tuareg, pre-Moslem source of,
+<a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ethnology of Air, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eti, Kel, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Etteguen, the, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eunuchs, negro, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">European affairs, knowledge of, in Sahara,
+<a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">European penetration, of the Sudan, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>-7, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>-2; of Tuareg country, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-14,
+<a href="#Page_19">19</a>-27</li>
+<li class="indx">European salt competing with Bilma product,
+<a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Europeans, Tuareg hostility to, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>; Holy Men and, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Evacuation of Air during revolt, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Exchange, rates of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+<a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Exorcism of spirits, <a href=
+"#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Exploration of Tuareg country, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>-14, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-27</li>
+<li class="indx">Eye troubles common in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Eyes, Tuareg, colour of, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ezelu valley, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ezelu, Kel, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Faces of Tuareg: man’s, seen without veil,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>; women’s, daubed with earth or ochre,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Factions in Libyan villages, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Fadé, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fadé, Kel, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fadeangh, Barth’s name for Fadé, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_25" class=
+"fnanchor">[25]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fagoshia, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fairness of skin among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>-2; a social distinction, <a href=
+"#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Faji, Tuareg village, <a href=
+"#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Faken, Mount, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Falezlez, Wadi, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Fall, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Family system, Tuareg: authority of heads of
+families, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; female descent, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Famine, the War of, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Faodet, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-16; position of,
+<a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Faodet, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Farak, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a>; disasters at, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; hill
+north of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; water supply at, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fardi, Wadi, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fareg, Wadi, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fares, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fares, Kel, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fasher, El, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fashi, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fashi road, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fatimite era, the, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fatness of Tuareg women, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; a sign of affluence, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fauna of Air, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Feast of the Sheep, Sidi Hamada, <a href=
+"#Page_95">95</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Feast of the Veil, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Feasts, religious, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Fedala, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fedekel, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Feet, insensitive skin of Tuaregs’, <a href=
+"#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Feitei, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Female descent, rule of, among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>; of kings of
+Kanem, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><em>Femmes douairières</em>, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_481">[481]</span>Ferwan, Kel, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; described as
+heathen, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;
+Imghad of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>; numbers of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;
+origin of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_427">427</a>; among original invaders of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_427">427</a>-8; women of, status of, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Festivals, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_274">274</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Fevers, value of quinine against, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fez, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fezzan, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>; Ahaggaren and
+Azger migrate into, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; Arab conquest of,
+<a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; Azger of,
+<a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; British
+geographical work in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>; cattle trade between Air and, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; date palms of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;
+exploration of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; French and
+British factions in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; anti-French and
+-British activities in, during war, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+<a href="#Page_92">92</a>; Hawara of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
+<a href="#Page_379">379</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_255">255</a>; conquered by Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; Kel Innek of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;
+Lemta Tuareg of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; oases of,
+<a href="#Page_6">6</a>; Okba’s invasion of, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>; Oraghen of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;
+racial mixture in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>; raiders of, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>; road from Air to, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>-21; Roman occupation of, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; wheat exported
+from Air to, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fezzan, Eastern, the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+<a href="#Page_335">335</a>; story of compulsory migration from,
+<a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fezzan, Southern, mountains of, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fezzan mountains, unknown area between Air and,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fezzanian branch of Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fida, Abul, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fire-making, nomads’ method of, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Firing, camel diseases treated by, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fish, taboo on, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flagged road (the “Garamantian way”), its
+existence discussed, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-20</li>
+<li class="indx">Flammand: <em>Les Pierres Ecrites</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_232" class=
+"fnanchor">[232]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flat arm-rings, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flatters, Colonel, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+French expedition under, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-10, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flies, a pest, during rains in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>-21, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flora of Air, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Flour, millet, preparation of, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>-60</li>
+<li class="indx">Flowers rare in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fonfoni, wells filled in at, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Food, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-60,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Food taboos, totemic, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Footgear, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Foreign Affairs, Tuareg Minister for, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Foreign origin and servile status, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Foreign races, administration of, by empire of
+Melle, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Fort Laperrine, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fort Motylinski, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fort Pradie, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fortified settlements, buildings of type of,
+<a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fossil trees, specimens of, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>-2, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Foucauld, Charles de, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>-12, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-14; on derivation
+and use of the word Imajegh, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; Tuareg dictionary
+by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_9"
+class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_467">467</a>; on Tuareg religion, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Foureau, F., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Foureau-Lamy Expedition, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_416">416</a>; observations taken from, <a href=
+"#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Franks, emigration from North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_390" class=
+"fnanchor">[390]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Freeman, H. Stanhope, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">French, the: African exploration and expansion by,
+<a href="#Page_9">9</a>-14, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; penetration of Tuareg country by, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>-14, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; occupation and
+annexation of Air by, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">books destroyed by action of, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>; Camel Corps of,
+<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-51; colonial
+policy of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>; evacuation
+policy of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>; forts of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; maps of Air by,
+<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_120" class=
+"fnanchor">[120]</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_206"
+class="fnanchor">[206]</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_208"
+class="fnanchor">[208]</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a>-5, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_466">466</a>; mosque desecrated by, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>; Nigeria indirectly defended by, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>; sedentarism encouraged by, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>; seeds supplied by, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>; slavery abolished by, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_122" class=
+"fnanchor">[122]</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg and, hostilities between, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>-11, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; migration of some
+tribes from, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; pacific counsels
+of others, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a>; the
+1917 revolt against, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>-5, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>-2, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="indx">French works on Air and the Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>. <em>See under
+names of authors mentioned on these pages</em>.</li>
+<li class="indx">Frobenius, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fugda, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fulani, the, of Damergu, <a href=
+"#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; Agades Cross among, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>; Hausa and, feud between, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a>-3; houses of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; language
+of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;
+musical instruments of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; a noble race,
+<a href="#Page_56">56</a>-7; in Punch and Judy show, <a href=
+"#Page_56">56</a>; tradition of return to the East among, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fulani, Bororoji, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Fulani, Rahazawa, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Fulani Empire of Sokoto, the, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Funerals, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Funerary inscriptions, absence of, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Funerary monuments, North African, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-62</li>
+<li class="indx">“Fura,” <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_305">305</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Furniture, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>; household,
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-30</li>
+<li class="ifrst">Gabes, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_482">[482]</span>Gadé, Mount, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><em>Gado</em>, the, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gagho (Gao), <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gago (Gao), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_404">404</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_417"
+class="fnanchor">[417]</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gall, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Game: Auderas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_213">213</a>; Elakkos, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;
+Damergu, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; Termit, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; T’in Wana,
+<a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gamram, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>-50, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; its amenities,
+<a href="#Page_49">49</a>; Belkho’s attack on, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a>; extract from diary written at, <a href=
+"#Page_420">420</a>-21</li>
+<li class="indx">Gangara, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ganziga, the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
+<a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gao, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; Agades as entrepôt for, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; Aulimmiden capture, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a>; centre of gold trade, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; decline of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;
+history of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>; Ibn Batutah in,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; Moors occupy, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gao, King of, tribute from Air to, <a href=
+"#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gaogao, (Gao), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garama, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; the “Garamantian
+way,” <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-20, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>,
+<a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garamantes, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>; ox-drawn chariots of, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; suggested
+descendants of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Garari, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garazu, Ikazkazan of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>,
+<a href="#Page_443">443</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Gardens, cultivation of, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; carried on by
+negro slaves, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garet valley, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>,
+<a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garet, Kel, (of Kel Geres), <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garet, Kel, (of Kel Tadek), <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Garet n’Dutsi, Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gautier, E. F., <a href="#Page_261">261</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a>; <em>La Conquête du Sahara</em>,
+<a href="#Page_10">10</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_8" class=
+"fnanchor">[8]</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; <em>Le
+Sahara</em>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_31">31</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_33" class=
+"fnanchor">[33]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gawgawa, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gazelle, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gedala, the, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gedeyenan, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Geographical tribal names, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Geography, Tuareg knowledge of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Geography of the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Geres, Kel, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a>; Air invaded by, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
+<a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-82,
+<a href="#Page_405">405</a>-6; leave Air for Southland, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-91, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; and Amenokal’s
+installation, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>; Aulimmiden
+defeat, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;
+camels, white, of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; a Hawara people,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_335" class=
+"fnanchor">[335]</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>; houses of,
+<a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>; Islam introduced by, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; Itesan and,
+connection between, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>; Kel Owi defeat and displace, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; tribal record of,
+<a href="#Page_362">362</a>; tribes of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>-3; wars
+of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>,
+<a href="#Page_391">391</a>-2, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; women
+as heads of villages of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gergesenes, Libyans related to, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gerigeri, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Germa,” root of many place names, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a></li>
+<li class="indx">German intrigues in North Africa during the War,
+<a href="#Page_12">12</a>-13, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gezula, the, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gh sound, difficulty of transliterating, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghadames, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_314" class=
+"fnanchor">[314]</a>; population of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+divination by women of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghadamsi dialect, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghamarama, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghana, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>,
+<a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gharama, Bir, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-10, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gharnathi, El, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;
+<em>see</em> Leo Africanus.</li>
+<li class="indx">Gharus, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gharus, Kel, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gharus n’Zurru, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+<a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghat, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>; difficulty of transcribing the word, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>; caravan road to, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>; caravan roads from, controlled by
+Azger, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; cattle trade with, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>; development of, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a>-12, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; Holy Men of,
+<a href="#Page_280">280</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>; Oraghen in, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;
+population of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; race of, original,
+<a href="#Page_155">155</a>; raiders from, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; religion of, recent
+conversion to Islam, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>-8; Romans in,
+<a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a>; spirits at, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg of, female succession among, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a>-2; Lemta, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghati camels, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-6;
+brands of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Ghela, Kel, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gheshwa, Mount, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+volcanic cone, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghodala, El (Guddala), <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a>; ruling family of, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghosts, Tuareg belief in, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>-9, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ghudet, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ghussub” water, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
+<a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gibbon quoted, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gidjigawa, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Giga, Kel, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ginea, Mount, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Giraffes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Girls, Tuareg, freedom of, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Gissat hills, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+<a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Glyphs, rock, <em>see</em> Rock drawings.</li>
+<li class="indx">Goats, Air, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Goats, People of the (Kel Ulli), <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>-8, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Goatskins, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>; decorated, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+<a href="#Page_228">228</a>; for water, <a href=
+"#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gober, Kingdom of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>,
+<a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Air receives
+tribute from, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>; Air at war with,
+<a href="#Page_392">392</a>; chiefs of, Copts, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>; Kel Geres migrate to, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>; Songhai occupy, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Goberawa, the, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>,
+<a href="#Page_403">403</a>; in Air, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>,
+<a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>; driven from Air, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
+<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; the
+Itesan and, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li class="indx">God, Tuareg words for, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Goethe, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Gogdem,” <a href="#Page_333">333</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Gogo (Gao), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389" class=
+"fnanchor">[389]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gold Coast, British penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_483">[483]</span>Gold currency, disappearance of, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gold trade in Sudan, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gorset, Mount, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gourara, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gourds, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; rare in Air,
+<a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Government of the Air Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>-8; of the tribal units, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Grain: from Damergu exported, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>; dishes made from, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-8;
+of Elakkos, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>; grinding of, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>-160; measures of, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>-21; former reserves of, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Grain pits, Assode, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Granary of Air, Damergu as, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Granite formations, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Grape design” on Tuareg pottery, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Grasses, seeds of, ground and eaten, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Graves, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_259">259</a>-63; peculiar form for a smith, <a href=
+"#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Great Bear, Tuareg name for, <a href=
+"#Page_226">226</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_212" class=
+"fnanchor">[212]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Great Bend, the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Great South Road, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;
+<em>see</em> Kel Owi road and Tarei tan Kel Owi.</li>
+<li class="indx">Green leather and silver, saddles ornamented with,
+<a href="#Page_230">230</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Grimaldi race, survivors of, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_362" class=
+"fnanchor">[362]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gsell: <em>Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord</em>,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_168"
+class="fnanchor">[168]</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guddala, El, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_464">464</a>; ruling family of, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guenziga, the, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guides, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_225">225</a>-6, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>; <em>see</em> Efale, Ishnegga, Kelama, Sattaf,
+Sidi, T’ekhmedin.</li>
+<li class="indx">Guinea coast, Portuguese factory on, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guinea corn, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; cakes of,
+<a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guinea-fowl, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guinea-worm, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gulbi n’Kaba, the, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gulbi n’Maradi, the, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guliski, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a>; rainstorm at, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Guma, Muhammad, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Gumrek,” <a href="#Page_334">334</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gundai hills, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
+<a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gure, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_442">442</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gurfautan, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Gurzil (the sun-god), <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Haardt, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Hád” plant, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Hadanarang” (Ihadanaren), the, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hadeija, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Haggar, French form of Ahaggar, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Ibn Khaldun’s
+etymology of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Hair,” <em>see</em> Air.</li>
+<li class="indx">Hair of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>; of
+children, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; untidiness in, an
+abomination, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Haj Road, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hakar (Ahaggar), Ibn Batutah in, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hakluyt Society reprint of Leo Africanus, editors
+of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Halévy, J., on Libyan script, <a href=
+"#Page_267">267</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Halo, solar, an evil omen, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ham, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hamed el Rufai, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hammad, Muhammad, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hammada el Homra, the, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hamid ibn Yesel, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Handful as unit of capacity, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>-21</li>
+<li class="indx">Hannekar, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; track to Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hanoteau, A.: grammar of Temajegh by, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; on MZGh root,
+<a href="#Page_458">458</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Harris Papyrus, the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hassan ibn Muhammad el Wezaz el Fazi, <a href=
+"#Page_330">330</a>; <em>see</em> Leo Africanus</li>
+<li class="indx">Hassanein Bey, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hatita camel mark, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hats, Kano conical, <a href=
+"#Page_166">166</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Haunted places, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Hausa, the term, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>; called
+“black,” <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; commercial genius of the
+people, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; feud with Fulani, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a>-3; houses of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; not pure
+negroes, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hausa language, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-41, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hausaland, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; conquered
+by Bornu, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>; Fulani ascendancy in,
+<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>; Goberawa withdraw into, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; Songhai occupation of, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Hawar, people of,” <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hawara, the, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_290" class=
+"fnanchor">[290]</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>;
+ancestors of the Ahaggaren tribes, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>; “Arabisation” of,
+<a href="#Page_346">346</a>-7; Auriga the same as, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>; home of, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>; Ibn Khaldun on, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; Kel Geres
+descended from, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>; division of Libyan family, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; Lemta people and,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>; not all Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_346">346</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Hawarid origin of the Lemta, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>-6, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hawk’s head as amulet, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Head-cloths, Arab use of, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Head-piece, camel’s, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Head-ropes, camel’s, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
+<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Head-stones on graves, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Headmen, village, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Heaven, Tuareg belief in, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Height of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hell, Tuareg belief in, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Henna, use of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Herding, live-stock, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Hereditary principle rare among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hernia frequent among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Heskura, the, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
+<a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Hill of the Christians,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hillali, Abu Zeid el, invasion of North and
+Central Africa by, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Himyarite tribes, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;
+invasion of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Himyer, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_484">[484]</span>Historical works, native, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">History, Tuareg knowledge of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Hobble ropes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hoggar, French form of Ahaggar, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hole of Bayazid, the, legend of, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Holy Books, niches in houses for, <a href=
+"#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Holy Men, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; amulets
+manufactured by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; children named by,
+<a href="#Page_181">181</a>; divination by, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a>; as exorcisers, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+raids on Aulimmiden forbidden by, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Holy tribes, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-91,
+<a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hornemann, F. C., expedition of, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-20, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>; on date of arrival of Kel Owi in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>; on the Tegama,
+<a href="#Page_53">53</a>; on Tuareg ascendancy in Gober, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>; work by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Horses, Air, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hospitality, Tuareg laws of, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">House of the Christians, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">House-flies, country infested by, during rains,
+<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Household duties, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Household slaves, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Houses: Central African, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; Northern Nigerian,
+<a href="#Page_87">87</a>-8, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; Sudanese,
+<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>; Tuareg, various types of, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_240">240</a>-41, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-55, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-11, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-16; attributed to
+the Itesan, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>-6, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>; fortified type, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Huart, C.: <em>Arabic Literature</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_256" class=
+"fnanchor">[256]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Human figure, rock drawings of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Hume, King of Kanem, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;
+<em>see</em> Beni Hume.</li>
+<li class="indx">Huts, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; stone
+circles round, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-3; on raised plinths,
+<a href="#Page_262">262</a>-3</li>
+<li class="ifrst">“I names,” tribal, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
+<a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>-4, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a>; lost, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iabrubat (Iburuban), the, <a href=
+"#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ialla (God), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibandeghan, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibanderan, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iberdianen, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iberkom, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iberkom, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iberkoran (Aulimmiden), the, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibn Abd el Hakim, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibn Assafarani, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibn Batutah, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a>; account of Air by, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; Agades not mentioned by, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a>; his journey, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
+<a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-6; on
+female descent, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a>; on the Mesufa, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibn Ghania, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zeid Abd el Rahman, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_141" class=
+"fnanchor">[141]</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_258" class=
+"fnanchor">[258]</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_289" class=
+"fnanchor">[289]</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_337">337</a>-43, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; classification of
+the Libyans by, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-43; on the divisions of
+the Muleththemin, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; on the origin of the Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>-4, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibogelan, the, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim, Sultan, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim Dan Sugi, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibram, Chief of the Tegama, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iburuban, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ibuzahil, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ice in the Sahara, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idakka, Kel, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ideleyen, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idemkiun, the, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idenan, the, founders of Timbuctoo, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idikel, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">I’dinet n’sheggarnén, Barth’s term for Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ido well, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idris, King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idris Alawoma (Ansami), King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Idrisi, El, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Iet,” Tuareg letter, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifadalen, the, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>; Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifadeyen, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; of Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a>; literacy of, <a href=
+"#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>; nomadism of,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a>; origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a>-400; wells attributed to, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifagarwal, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ifarghan, village of,” <a href=
+"#Page_156">156</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_150" class=
+"fnanchor">[150]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iferuan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; French fort at,
+<a href="#Page_316">316</a>; houses at, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>; Kel Ferwan move from, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>; Kel Ferwan named after, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_435"
+class="fnanchor">[435]</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>; rains in,
+<a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; roads
+meeting at, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iferuan, Kel (not Kel Ferwan), <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iferuan-Ghat track, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifli, Wadi, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifoghas, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; of the Azger,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_18" class=
+"fnanchor">[18]</a>; of Damergu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; a holy
+tribe, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
+<a href="#Page_439">439</a>; probably Lemta, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>-6, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifoghas n’Adghar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Ifoghas of the Mountain (Ifoghas n’Adghar),
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Ifrikiya, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>; defended by Queen Kahena against Arabs,
+<a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; the
+Hawara in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifrikos, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ifuraces, the, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>,
+<a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ifurfurzan,” colour of camels, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igademawen, the, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igdalen, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
+<a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; of Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a>; a holy tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>; Imghad among, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;
+their migration into Air, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igedeyenan, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igermaden, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+<a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; chief of,
+<em>see</em> Belkho; massacre of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;
+tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igerzawen, the, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_485">[485]</span>Ighaghar basin, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
+<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighaghrar valley, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighazar basin, the, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_217" class=
+"fnanchor">[217]</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>; evacuated during revolt, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>; Kel Owi occupy, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
+<a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>; measures
+used in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; palm trees of, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; villages of,
+<a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; wheat
+cultivation in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighazar, Kel, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
+<a href="#Page_436">436</a>-7, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighazar n’Agades, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighelablaban, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighelaf wells, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighelaf, Kel, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ighillan” (measure of length), <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighlab (Ighelaf), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ighzan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igidi, desert of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_333">333</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Igidi, the, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iguendianna, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igululof, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-11; houses
+in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igululof, Kel, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+<a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Igururan, the, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+<a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihadanaren, the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
+<a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihagarnen, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ihaggar” (Ahaggar), <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihaggaren, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihehawen, the, a holy tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihrayen spring, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
+<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ihrsan, the spirits of, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ijanarnen, the, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
+<a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ijaranen, the, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
+<a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikadeen, the, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikademawen (Igademawen), the, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikaradan, the, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
+<a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikawkan, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikazkazan, the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>-8, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>-8; in Damergu, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; in Elakkos, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
+<a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>-4; Imghad of, called heathen, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>-8, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikelan, the, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ikerremoïn, the, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilaguantan, the, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilagwas (Elakkos), <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilagwas, the, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilasgwas, the, Elakkos Tuareg identified with,
+<a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilemtin, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ilettan, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Illeli,” <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imajegh: the MZGh root of the word, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>-62; a caste appellation, <a href=
+"#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imajeghan (nobles, <em>q.v.</em>), <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>-5; Ahaggaren,
+<a href="#Page_350">350</a>-51, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; Azger,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>-5; dark
+colouring of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; diminishing numbers of,
+<a href="#Page_150">150</a>; marriage tribute payable to, <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a>; among Kel Owi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>;
+relations of Imghad and, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a>-43</li>
+<li class="indx">Imajeghan n’Arab, the, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imam, the, Agades, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imanen, the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; affinity with the Itesan, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Imanen Kings of Azger, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imanen women, legendary mothers of Kel Owi tribes,
+<a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imanghassaten, the, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imaqoaran, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imarsutan, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>; Kel Tagei
+of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imaslagha, the, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Imasrodang, the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>-7, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Imawal” (part of the Veil), <a href=
+"#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imazir (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imettrilalen, the, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imezegzil, the, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
+<a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imghad (serfs), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+<a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>-8, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_351">351</a>; Barth’s error regarding, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_475" class=
+"fnanchor">[475]</a>; categories of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-9;
+concubinage and, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-9; dark colouring of,
+<a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>; Imajeghan
+and, relations between, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a>-43; among Kel Owi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>;
+lists showing tribes of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-31, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>-40; negroid inhabitants of Air as, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-6; nobles,
+conquered, as, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; origins of,
+<a href="#Page_137">137</a>-8, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
+<a href="#Page_365">365</a>-6, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a>; prosperity of, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>; racial types in,
+<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>; slaves
+rise to be, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; status of, <a href=
+"#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-43, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>; veils, distinguishing, worn by some, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">Imi n’Aghil, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imi n’Ataram, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imi n’Innek, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imi n’Tasalgi, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Immakkorhan (Imaqoaran), the, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Immedideran, the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a>; founders of Timbuctoo, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Immidir, Wadi, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Immikitan, the, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>; of Assatartar, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; of
+Elakkos, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>,
+<a href="#Page_443">443</a>; name used for Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>; one of original five tribes, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>; tribes and
+sub-tribes of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>-30</li>
+<li class="indx">Imohagh (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imohaq (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imóshag (form of Imajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imuzurak, the (Ikazkazan), <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imuzurak, the (Kel Ferwan), <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>; hostilities with French, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Imuzuran, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Abbagarit, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Allaram, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Asamed, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>; filled in, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Azawa, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Bodinam, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Gall, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Gall, Kel, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Gezzam, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Kakkan, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">In Salah, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">[486]</span>In
+Wadjud, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inafagak valley, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inardaf, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Independent tribes, Kel Owi, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Indigo cloth, Tuareg dress made of, <a href=
+"#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a>; the Veil made of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
+<a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Indigo plant, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Indigo-stained skin as protection from sun,
+<a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Industries, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>-6, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>-30, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; in
+women’s hands, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inemba Kel Emoghi, the, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inemba Kel Tahat, the, <a href=
+"#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Infant mortality high among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Infanticide, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inheritance and succession, matriarchal tradition
+in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-3; of women’s property, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inisilman (Holy Men), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+<a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>; Azger tribes of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;
+<em>see</em> Holy Men and Holy tribes.</li>
+<li class="indx">Innek, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>; first Tuareg to enter Air, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>; sub-tribe of the Itesan, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Innek, Kel (unlocated), <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inscriptions: on arm rings, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>; on graves, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; on
+rocks, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+<a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Insect pests during rains in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>-21, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Installation of Amenokal, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>-100, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Intadeini, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Intadeini, Kel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Intayet, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inter-breeding in camels, result of, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Intirza, Kel, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Intirzawen, Kel (Tetmokarak), <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a>; (Kel Owi), <a href="#Page_435">435</a>,
+<a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inwatza, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Inzerak, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ir n’Allem, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iralghawen (Eghalgawen), <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irawattan, the, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irawellan (outdoor slaves), <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_155">155</a>; numbers of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iraz, Sultan, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irejanaten, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ireshshumen, the, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irkairawan, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irmakaraza, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Irolangh,” <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iron in well, alleged effect of, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iron-working, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><em>Irratemat</em> (sandals), <a href=
+"#Page_165">165</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_159" class=
+"fnanchor">[159]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Irrigation, Air, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Isabel (Izubahil), wife of first Sultan of Agades,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Isagelmas valley, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+<a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Isakarkaran, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ischia, lava flows on, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ishaban, Kel, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Isherifan, the (of Gamram), <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; a holy tribe,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>; Belkho’s
+defeat of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Isherifan, the (Tetmokarak), <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ishnegga, the guide, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Islam: introduction of, into Air, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>-8; Maliki sect of, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>-2; matriarchate modified by, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a>; new spirit in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_13">13</a>; Tuareg conversion to, and lax practice
+of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>-5; women’s
+position under, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Issala, wells of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Istambul (Constantinople), <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Italian occupation of Tripolitania, and Tuareg
+movements, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Itesan, the, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>; original invaders
+of Air, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
+<a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; leave Air for
+Southland, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; and the election
+of the Amenokal, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; the Goberawa and, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;
+houses attributed to, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>-6, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>; “Kel” names among, origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>; connection
+between the Kel Geres and, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>; migration westward of, <a href=
+"#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>; among the
+Sanhaja, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of,
+<a href="#Page_380">380</a>-81, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a>-3; wells attributed to, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ittegen, the (Kel Tadek), <a href=
+"#Page_429">429</a>; (independent), <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Itziarrame, the, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iuraghen, the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Iwarwaren, the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izagaran (Izagharan), the, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izagarnen (“the red ones”), name for Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_162">162</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_156"
+class="fnanchor">[156]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izagheran, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izar, Sultan, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izarza, the, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Izarzaran, the, Damergu, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izenan, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izeyyakan, the, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
+<a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Izghan,” <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izirza, Kel, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izubahil (Isabel), wife of first Sultan of Agades,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Izumzumaten, the, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Jackals, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jado oasis, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jaghbub, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jajiduna, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>; French fort at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jalo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Janet, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jauf, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jawan, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jean, Lieut. C., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
+<a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>; <em>Les
+Touareg du Sud-Est</em> by, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_88"
+class="fnanchor">[88]</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_89" class=
+"fnanchor">[89]</a><sup>,</sup><a href="#Footnote_91" class=
+"fnanchor">[91]</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_120">120</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_110"
+class="fnanchor">[110]</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_274">274</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_245"
+class="fnanchor">[245]</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_390">390</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_407"
+class="fnanchor">[407]</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;
+Agades<span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">[487]</span> occupied by,
+<a href="#Page_52">52</a>; on Assode, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;
+astronomical observations made by, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>; on Bornu
+wars with Air, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>; on Egyptian influence
+in Air, <a href="#Page_363">363</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a>; on French colonial
+policy, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>; on the houses of Bagezan,
+<a href="#Page_240">240</a>-41; live-stock census by, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>; on Kel Geres invasion and evacuation of Air,
+<a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; on date
+of arrival of Kel Owi in Air, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>; on date
+of mosques of Air, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>; on polygamy in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-71; on population of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a>; on tribal origins and organisation, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>-4, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>-31, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a>-41, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>-41; tribes
+sending delegation to Constantinople, list given by, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a>; on Tuareg invasion of Air, and its date,
+<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; on Tuareg of
+Damergu and Elakkos, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jedala (Jadala), the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jekarkaren, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jenne, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Jenun” (Jinn), <a href="#Page_278">278</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jerboa considered unclean, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jerma, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jewellers, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jews, “Berber” tribes as, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>; massacre of, in Tuat, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jinns: amulets against, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>; Tuareg tales of, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>-81</li>
+<li class="indx">Joalland, Lieut., <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jodar, Basha, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">John, Byzantine general, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx">John (Yunis), first Sultan of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Jokto, the, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">Juba, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Judaism in North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Justice, system of, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Kadhi, the, Agades, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_107">107</a>; house of, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kaffardá valley, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kahena, Queen, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kahir (Air), <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kahor (Air), <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kaimakam, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kalama, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kalenuzuk, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kallilua, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kanem, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; chronicle of,
+<a href="#Page_372">372</a>-3, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>; Bornu
+dynasty expelled from, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>; Fezzan overrun from, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; Kanuri seize power in, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>-2, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a>; Tuareg as rulers of, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; Tuareg expelled
+by Kanuri from, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; Tuareg invade Air
+from, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>-70, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
+<a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kanem, Empire of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>,
+<a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kano, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>; Agades deserted
+for, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>; annexation of, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>; Bornu conquers, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;
+cloth of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;
+country round, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; Fulani in, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>; houses of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>; industries of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#Page_166">166</a>; Kel Owi attack on, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>; modern prosperity of, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>; railway from
+Lagos to, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; Senussi “zawia” at, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>; slave market in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;
+Songhai attack on, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; Tuareg migrate to,
+<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kano, Emirate of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kanuri, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; Agades Cross
+among, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; as “Barbars” or “Beriberi,”
+<a href="#Page_371">371</a>; Bornu Tuareg overthrown by, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; in Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_56">56</a>; Daura conquered by, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;
+in Elakkos, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>; Goberawa conquer, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;
+hair dress of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; settlement and rise to
+power in Kanem, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>; Kawar conquered
+by, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>; language of, <a href=
+"#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_386" class=
+"fnanchor">[386]</a>; Tuareg migrations caused by, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>-70, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; their name for Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_426" class=
+"fnanchor">[426]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kaossen, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>-3, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_420">420</a>; the House of, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Karawa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Karengia” grass, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_62">62</a>; <em>see</em> Burr grass.</li>
+<li class="indx">Karnuka, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Karruwe (weight), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kashwar n’Tawa, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kaswa n’Rakumi, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Katanga, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Katchena, Kel, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Katsina, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_413">413</a>; Agades deserted for, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; annexation of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; El
+Baghdadi preaches in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>; Fulani in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; Itesan
+attack, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; slave market in, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>; Songhai occupation of, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; Tuareg migrate
+to, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>,
+<a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Katsina, Emir of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kaukau, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kawa, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>-15</li>
+<li class="indx">Kawar, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; caravan road by,
+<a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; Kanuri conquer,
+<a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>; Okba’s
+campaign in, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_292" class=
+"fnanchor">[292]</a>; pastureless, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;
+raids on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kawar road, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kawkaw (Gao), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kawkaw (Kuka), <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Keane: on the Berdeoa and the Garamantes, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Kebbi, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Kel” names, tribal, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>-30, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>-4, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; among the
+Itesan, derivation of, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kel Aberkan, <em>etc.</em>, <em>see under</em>
+Aberkan, Kel, <em>etc.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Kel Owi road, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>-5, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>. <em>See also</em>
+“Tarei tan Kel Owi.”</li>
+<li class="indx">Kelama, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kelghimmat, the, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kerfeitei, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_488">[488]</span>Kerker, Sultan of, Ibn Batutah’s, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a>-5, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Keta valley, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_64">64</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ketama, the, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Khalif (Commander of the Faithful), deputation
+from Air to, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Khans,” <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kharejite schism, the, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Khodi, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Khoms, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kidal, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kidigi, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kindin, Kanuri name for Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_426" class=
+"fnanchor">[426]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">King, <em>see</em> Amenokal.</li>
+<li class="indx">Kings of Agades, list of, <a href=
+"#Page_463">463</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">“Kipti” (Copts) in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Knights-Errant of the Desert Roads,” the,
+<a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Knives, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Kohl” (antimony), use of, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kokoi Geregeri (chief minister), <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Kolouvey” (Kel Owi), the, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Korunka, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kosegarten, J. G. L., version of Ibn Batutah by,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kufara (heathen), <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kufra, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; a Senussi centre,
+<a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kugha, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kuka, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_303" class=
+"fnanchor">[303]</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kukia, Libyan dynasty of, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Kunta, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Kus-kus,” <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Kuttus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Laghuat, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lagos, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_419">419</a>; railway to Kano from, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Laguatan, the, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lake, Gamram, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; rumoured,
+in Bagezan, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lake Chad, <em>see</em> Chad, Lake, <em>and</em>
+Chad area.</li>
+<li class="indx">Lamini, Sultan, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lamy, Commandant, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
+<a href="#Page_36">36</a>; <em>see</em> Foureau-Lamy
+Expedition.</li>
+<li class="indx">Land settled on chief women, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Language, Tuareg (<em>see</em> Temajegh), <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; words associated
+with Christianity in, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Laperrine, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Laperrine, Fort, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Laterite rock, disintegrating, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Latif, Sheikh el, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Latitudes and longitudes of points in Air,
+<a href="#Page_422">422</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Lava flows, Air, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Lazaret, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leather and metal decoration, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leather pouches, amulets in, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leather-working industry, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>-8; in women’s
+hands, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; decorated luggage rests,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>; riding saddles, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lebetae, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lebu, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lee, S., translation of Ibn Batutah, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a>-3, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Legends, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
+<a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lemta, the, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_331">331</a>; Ahaggaren and, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;
+Aulimmiden as part of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; Azger Tuareg as,
+<a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; area occupied by, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; Barth’s error regarding, <a href=
+"#Page_344">344</a>-5, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>; Bornu Tuareg
+as, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; Hawarid origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>; Ibn Khaldun on, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>; Ifoghas as,
+<a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>; Ilemtin
+represent, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>; Lemtuna and, confusion between, <a href=
+"#Page_344">344</a>-5, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>; Leo Africanus
+on, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
+<a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; as a Libyan people, <a href=
+"#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>; migration of,
+south and west, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a>-7, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; original stock of
+first and last migrants into Air, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>; Tuareg invasion
+of Air involved by migration of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lemtuna, the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>; confused with Lemta, <a href=
+"#Page_344">344</a>-5, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Length, measure of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lenz, O.: on the two families of the “Berbers,”
+<a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leo Africanus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_101" class=
+"fnanchor">[101]</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_333" class=
+"fnanchor">[333]</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a>; account of Agades by, <a href=
+"#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>; account of Air by,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>; on the Amenokal, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_101" class=
+"fnanchor">[101]</a>; Kel Owi not mentioned by, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>; on the Lemta,
+<a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; on the divisions of the Muleththemin, <a href=
+"#Page_330">330</a>-31, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>-5, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>; on areas and tribes of the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_330">330</a>-35, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leptis Magna, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
+<a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Leuata,” the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Leucæthiopians, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Levata, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Library, Assode, remains of, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libya, areas and peoples of, Leo Africanus on,
+<a href="#Page_330">330</a>-35, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-7;
+<em>see</em> Libyans.</li>
+<li class="indx">Libyan, origin of word, <a href=
+"#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libyan desert, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>; story of
+compulsory migration from, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>; Tuareg
+possibly originally inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>,
+<a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libyan dynasty, Kukia, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libyan influence in Air and the Southland,
+<a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libyan names, the MZGh root in, and its
+significance, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>-62</li>
+<li class="indx">Libyans, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_158" class=
+"fnanchor">[158]</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; areas and
+peoples of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-35, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>-7, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-43, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>; belts worn by, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>; term used for Berbers, <a href=
+"#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_382" class=
+"fnanchor">[382]</a>; classification of, by Ibn Khaldun, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>-43; descent<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_489">[489]</span> from Prophet claimed by, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; dogs
+ceremonially eaten by, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; Eastern origin
+of, legendary, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; facial characteristics
+of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; Leo Africanus on, <a href=
+"#Page_330">330</a>-35, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-7; marriage
+customs of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; migration of, legendary,
+<a href="#Page_366">366</a>-7; nationalism among, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>-13; origin of, mixed, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; sun worship among, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>-13; Tuareg relationship with, <a href=
+"#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; women, status of, among, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Libyans, Eastern, work on, <em>see</em>
+Bates.</li>
+<li class="indx">Libyans, Meshwesh, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
+<a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lime trees, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lion claws as amulets, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lions still seen in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>-20</li>
+<li class="indx">Literature, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>,
+<a href="#Page_263">263</a>; historical works, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx"><em>Litham</em> (the Veil), <a href=
+"#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Live-stock industry, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>-4, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>-5; evacuation policy and, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>; herding carried on by slaves, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Lizards, taboo on, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Load ropes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Loading and unloading camels, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Lollius, L., <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Louata, the, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Love affairs, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>-5, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lugard, Sir F., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Luggage rests, decorated, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lyon, G. F., work by, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+<a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Lyon expedition, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Ma el Fares, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Macae, the, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">MacGuire, Corporal, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Macii, the, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Madghis, Libyan family of, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mafaras, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mafinet hills, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;
+valley, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mafinet, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a>; Agoalla of, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Magadeza,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Magazawa Hausa women, <a href=
+"#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maghili, El, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maghrabi camels, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maghreb, the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maghzen (Bagezan), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Magic square, rock drawing of, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Magnesia, battle of, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maisumo valley, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; well,
+<a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Makam el Sheikh ben Abd el Kerim,” <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maket n’Ikelan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+tradition of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429" class=
+"fnanchor">[429]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Malabar Indians, laws of inheritance among,
+<a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Malam Chidam, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Malaria, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maliki sect, people of Air belong to, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mallamei, the, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manding origin of leather industry, <a href=
+"#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manen, Kel, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manga, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mange in camels, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manna, Leo Africanus on, <a href=
+"#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mansa Magha, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mansa (Kunkur) Musa, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>,
+<a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mansur, El, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manumission of slaves, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Manuscripts found at Assode, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maouen (Mawen), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maps, Tuareg comprehension of, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maps of Air, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>-7;
+<em>see</em> Cortier.</li>
+<li class="indx">Maqrizi, El, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_374">374</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389"
+class="fnanchor">[389]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maradi, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Marandet, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a>; urn cemetery at, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Marcellinus, Ammianus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mari, Mount, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mari well, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mari Jatah I, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mari Jatah, Vizier, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maria Teresa dollars, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+<a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Marinus of Tyre, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Markets, development of, along caravan roads,
+<a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Marmol, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Marriage, Tuareg system, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-71, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-7; festivals,
+<a href="#Page_181">181</a>; late in life, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; not arranged,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a>; by purchase, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>; wife’s intimate male friends, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Marriage portions, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+Imghad, part payable to Imajeghan, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Masalet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Masa’udi, El, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maspero, G., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Masquerey, E., dictionary and grammar of Temajegh
+by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_211"
+class="fnanchor">[211]</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Masri” blades, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Masson, Captain, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Master of the Interior of the Palace,” <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Matali, chief of the Ifadeyen, <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maternus, Julius, in the Fezzan, <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Matriarchate, the, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Matriarchy among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; and monogamy,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mats, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mauretania, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_419" class=
+"fnanchor">[419]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mawen, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maxitani, the, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Maxyes, the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazaces, the, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
+<a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazi, the, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazices, the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazigh, common ancestor of Libyans, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazigh, the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mazil, the, Arab tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Measures and weights, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>-22</li>
+<li class="indx">Meat, little eaten by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">“Mecca of the Slaves, The,” <a href=
+"#Page_367">367</a>; <em>see</em> Maket n’Ikelan</li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_490">[490]</span>Medicine, native, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
+<a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Medina date palms, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Medinet el ’Amira, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mediterranean, the: civilisation brought
+southwards from, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>; known to Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mela, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Melle, Empire of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a>-8, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>; administration
+of foreign races by, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>-8; revolts in,
+<a href="#Page_411">411</a>; Songhai overthrow, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Melle, Vizier of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Melons, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Men with Eyes in their Stomachs,” possibly
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Menzaffer valley, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Merabtin,” the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Meratha” (Imghad), <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mermeru, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mesche mountain, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Meshagra, the, Arab tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Meshwesh, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
+<a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; probable
+ancestors of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; succession in female line among, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mesi (God), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mesufa, the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a>; status of women of, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Meteorological record kept by author, <a href=
+"#Page_423">423</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Migration from Red Sea, reference to, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Migrations, tribal, <em>see under names of
+tribes</em>.</li>
+<li class="indx">Migrations, Tuareg: into Air, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>-93, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>; date of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>; caused by Kanuri, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>-70,
+<a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>; Lemta movement
+and, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>-9, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>,
+<a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; stages of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-93, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>; into the
+Southland, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
+<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>-91, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mikitan, Osman, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Milen, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; well of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Milk, camel’s, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;
+offering of, Bororoji custom, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Millet cultivation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; dishes made from, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;
+flour, preparation of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-60; stores for,
+in villages, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Millet mortar used as drum, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mimosa, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Minaret, Agades, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
+<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>; Assode, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mineral springs, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Minéru, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Minir, El, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Minister for Foreign Affairs, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mintaka, El, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Minutilli, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mirages, Northern Air, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Misgiddan (Tamisgidda), the, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Misurata, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Mithkal,” <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Mithridates, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mixed caste, Azger tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Mizda-Murzuk road, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>,
+<a href="#Page_323">323</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_285"
+class="fnanchor">[285]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mokhammed, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Monarchy, democratic Tuareg system of, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Mongolian traits in Southland women, <a href=
+"#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Monkeys, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Monogamy, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; more
+frequent in Air than polygamy, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Moorish tribes, raids by, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Moors conquer Western Sudan, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Moroccan road, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>; “Berbers”
+of, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>; Ibn Batutah in, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; Negroland conquered by, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; Okba’s expedition in, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_292" class=
+"fnanchor">[292]</a>; Sanhaja trade with, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a>; Tuareg invasion of, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Morocco, Southern, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosgu (Kel Tamisgidda), the, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosi added to Songhai empire, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosi, King of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Moslem attitude to women, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Moslem faith: introduction of, into Air, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>-8; Maliki sect of, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>-2; new spirit in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_13">13</a>; polygamy permitted by, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>; a form of snobbishness induced by, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; Tuareg
+adoption of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>-8, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>-5. <em>See also</em> Islam.</li>
+<li class="indx">Moslem graves, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosque, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosques, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>-2; Agades, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-4; Assode, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>-2; records kept in, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; T’intaghoda,
+<a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mosquitoes, Air, prevalent during rains, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Motor road between Lake Chad and Niger, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Motylinski, Temajegh dictionary by, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Motylinski, Fort, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mounds of stones as memorials, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Mountain groups of the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mountain sheep of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mountains in the desert, beauty of, <a href=
+"#Page_448">448</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Msid Sidi el Baghdadi,” <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mubaraki, Muhammad, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mud construction, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
+<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_249">249</a>-50, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; Sudan and
+Northern Nigeria, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Muda,” grain measure, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Muhammad (of Towar), <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Muhammad, King of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Muhammad, the Prophet, Moslem desire to claim
+descent from, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mulai Ahmed, Sultan of Morocco, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mulai Hamed el Mansur, Sultan of Morocco, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Muleththemin, the (Arab name for Tuareg), <a href=
+"#Page_14">14</a>-15, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>; Ibn<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_491">[491]</span> Khaldun on origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>-49, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; Leo Africanus on the divisions of, <a href=
+"#Page_330">330</a>-31, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>-5, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Munio, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Murmur, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Murzuk, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>; capital of Fezzan, <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a>; the “Garamantian way” from, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_324">324</a>; population of, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; road to
+Lake Chad by, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; Roman
+remains on road to, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; as trade centre,
+<a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musa, camel-man, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
+<a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musa, chief of the Imuzuraq, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musa, Haj, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musa, Mansa Kunkur, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>,
+<a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musa ag Mastan, Amenokal of Ahaggar, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Muscles of Tuareg not conspicuous, <a href=
+"#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Music, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Musical instruments, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Mzab, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">MZGh root of North African names, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>; its significance,
+<a href="#Page_457">457</a>-62</li>
+<li class="ifrst">Nabaro, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nabaro, Kel, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nabarro, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nachtigal: population of Murzuk, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nakda, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; copper mines
+of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-3; Sultan of, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Names, tribal: North African, MZGh root of,
+<a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>-62; Tuareg, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Naresht, son of Tifaut, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nasamones, the, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+<a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nationalism in North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">“Natron” encrustations seen by Barth, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_115" class=
+"fnanchor">[115]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Natrun, Wadi, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nature, animistic view of, among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Neck ornaments, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Necklaces, women’s, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Needlework, skill of Tuareg men in, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Negro music, influence of, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Negroes: eunuchs purchased, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>; matriarchate among, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a>-3; as slaves, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;
+Tuareg contempt for, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Negroid inhabitants of Air, pre-Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>-4, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; type of Air
+Imghad, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Negroland, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>; historians of, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;
+Ibn Batutah’s journey through, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a>; Roman expedition to, <a href=
+"#Page_326">326</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Negroland, Western, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;
+occupied by Songhai, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Neutral vowel” in Tuareg tribal names, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="indx">New Year, feast of the, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">News, communication of, in Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">N’Gurutawa, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Niches in Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Niger, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>; diversion of Upper
+into Lower, theory of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; drainage basin
+of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-4; Romans said to have reached,
+<a href="#Page_322">322</a>; Tuareg communities on, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Niger,” Pliny’s, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Niger Empires, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>-12;
+<em>see</em> Melle <em>and</em> Songhai.</li>
+<li class="indx">Niger, Territoires du, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>-2, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_416">416</a>; raids in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Niger-Tchad, Colonie du, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nigeria, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>; author returns
+through, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>-19; Anglo-French boundary,
+<a href="#Page_41">41</a>; British penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>-7; French indirectly defend, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>; horses of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;
+Mediterranean civilisation brought to, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>,
+<a href="#Page_401">401</a>; railway development in, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>; rains in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>; totemism
+in, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-41, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>; civilisation brought to, by, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>; transport work
+in, by, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nigeria, Northern, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;
+author’s journey begins and ends in, <a href=
+"#Page_417">417</a>-18; British annexation of, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; houses of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Nigerian Emirates, the, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
+<a href="#Page_37">37</a>; British annexation of, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; <em>see</em> Kano, Katsina, <em>and</em>
+Sokoto.</li>
+<li class="indx">Nile, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nile valley, Libyan invasions of, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nilotic Sudan, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>; Fulani
+settlement in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; Semitic influence in,
+<a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">No, Quarter of, Ghat, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nobility of origin, Tuareg adherence to, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>; records kept to establish, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Noble and servile tribes (<em>see</em> Imghad
+<em>and</em> Imajeghan), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; lists showing,
+<a href="#Page_427">427</a>-31, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">Noble women, high standing of, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nobles: British described as, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a>; conquered, as Imghad, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuareg (Imajeghan), <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,
+<a href="#Page_217">217</a>; appearance of, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>; female descent of, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>-51; Holy Men treated as, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>; Imghad and, relationship between, <a href=
+"#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-43; northern,
+black veil worn by, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; original pure race
+represented by, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nomadic Tuareg, described by Ibn Batutah, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nomadism and sedentarism, difficulties of
+co-ordinating, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nomads, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>; ability to dispense with water, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-10; Ifadeyen
+famous as, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="indx">North and west, confusion of terms, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">North Africa: the term, <a href=
+"#Page_1">1</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Arab conquest of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
+<a href="#Page_375">375</a>-6, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>,
+<a href="#Page_462">462</a>; Arab countries, traditional connection
+with, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; Bishoprics of, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>; British part in exploration of, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>-21; camels, problem of introduction into,
+<a href="#Page_206">206</a>-8, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; caravan
+roads (<em>q.v.</em>) of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a>-7; caravan roads and sites of<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_492">[492]</span> cities of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
+<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>; Central Empires, intrigues of, in, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>-13, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>; fossil camel
+skeletons found in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; French expansion
+in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; funerary
+monuments in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-62; history of, its
+sources, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; Islam, spread of, in,
+<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_325">325</a>; migration from, compulsory, legend of,
+<a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_380">380</a>; migrations into, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+<a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; negroid
+peoples once farther north in, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;
+partition of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;
+Persian invasion of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; population of,
+its superficial unity, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; rock drawing
+in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; tribal names of, and MZGh root,
+<a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_457">457</a>-62; Tuareg in, in early times, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a></li>
+<li class="indx">North-eastern Air; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; unnamed valley
+of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Northern Air, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-329;
+ancient monuments in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; evacuation of,
+1918, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-11, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>; Kel Owi tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>-8, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; palm groves of,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a>; roads traversing, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>-22; salt caravan route from, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nose-piece, camel’s, <a href=
+"#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nose-ring, camel’s, <a href=
+"#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="indx">N’Ouajour, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Noweiri, El, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">N’Sattafan, Kel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>
+<em>n.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Nubian cemeteries, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Nugguru, Kel, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
+<a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Oases, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_3">3</a>; accidental discoveries of, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>; of Air, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; Egyptian,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>; origin of
+the word, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; Saharan, <a href=
+"#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Oborassan, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oborassan, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ochre, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oghum, Rocks of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ogive niches in Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Okba ibn Nafé, campaigns of, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Okluf, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Old Well,” the, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ollelua, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Omar, Sultan, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; horses of,
+<a href="#Page_202">202</a>; refuses to attack French, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Optatus, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oraghen, the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Orfella, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Orientation: of Moslem graves, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; of Tuareg houses,
+<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-7,
+<a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ornament of the Nobles, the, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ornamental work, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_310">310</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ornaments, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Orosius, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oryx, white, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oryx hide shields, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
+<a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Osman Mikitan, Sultan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ostrich feathers, on camel’s nose-piece, <a href=
+"#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ostriches, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Othman dan Fodio, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>,
+<a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oudney, Dr. W. (with Denham and Clapperton),
+<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; death of,
+<a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oung Oua (Ungwa), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Outdoor slaves, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_135">135</a>-6, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
+<a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Outhouses, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Over-population of Mediterranean lands, and
+compulsory migration, story of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>,
+<a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Overweg (with Barth and Richardson), <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4; death of, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Owari, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Owi, Kel, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>-5, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; their arrival in
+Air, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-93, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>,
+<a href="#Page_415">415</a>; cause of migration of, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>-7; date of arrival of, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_382">382</a>-3, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>; and the Amenokal, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>-7; the Añastafidet of, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>; arrogance of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;
+Assode the capital of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>; Auraghen and, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;
+caravan road controlled by, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>-5, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>; claims and
+pretensions of, unjustified, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429"
+class="fnanchor">[429]</a>; commercial ability of, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>; country of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>; in Damergu, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;
+dialect of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_387">387</a>; disease among, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;
+disparaged by other tribes, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; attitude towards
+French of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429"
+class="fnanchor">[429]</a>; in Gober, tradition of arrival of,
+<a href="#Page_367">367</a>-8; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>; Ifadeyen and, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;
+Immikitan and, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>; Itesan driven out by,
+<a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>; Kel Geres displaced by, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; measures of,
+<a href="#Page_221">221</a>; and mosque of T’intaghoda, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>; mothers of, legend of, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a>-5, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>; origin of,
+<a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>-7; sun as mother of, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>; tribal organisation of, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>-8, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>-9; women of, noble, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ox, rock drawing of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ox and cart, drawing of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ox-drawn chariots of the Garamantes, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; rock drawing
+suggestive of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Oxen: as pack animals, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; harnessed to
+carts, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+<a href="#Page_215">215</a>; <em>see</em> Ox-drawn chariots.</li>
+<li class="ifrst">Pack-saddles, camel, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Paint, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Paleolithic camel skeletons discovered, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Palicanus, L. Lollius, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Palm frond mats, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+rope, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; sandals, <a href=
+"#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Palm groves, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Palm trees not destroyed in warfare, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Palmer, H. R., <a href="#Page_362">362</a>,
+<a href="#Page_373">373</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_386"
+class="fnanchor">[386]</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Paper currency disliked by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Partition of Africa, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_493">[493]</span>Pasture wells, Azawagh, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>; rights over, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Patience, Tuareg, philosophic, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Patination of rocks of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_35">35</a>; of rock drawings, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Patriarchal government: Arab, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>; of Tuareg tribal units, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Penistasche,” the, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Acacia (Kel Tamat), <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Añastafidet, <a href=
+"#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; in Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a>; estimated numbers of, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Asclepias (Kel Intirzawen), <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Deep Well (Kel Gharus), <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Dûm Palm (Kel Tagei), <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the East (Kel Innek), <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Goats (Kel Ulli), <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>-8, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the King, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+<a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>; represent earliest arrivals in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>-9; geographical
+area of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; Immikitan possibly original
+stock of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>; interest attaching to,
+<a href="#Page_393">393</a>; Kel Owi and, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>; numbers of, estimated, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a>; origin of, legendary, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>; tribes,
+sub-tribes, and organisation of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
+<a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_427">427</a>-31; in Damergu, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Mosque (Kel Tamisgidda), <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Rock (Tebu), <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Salt (Kel T’Isemt), <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Sand (suggested meaning of Tuareg),
+<a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the South (Kel Aghil), <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Spears (Kel Allaghan), <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">People of the Veil, <em>see</em> Tuareg.</li>
+<li class="indx">People of the West (Kel Ataram), <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Peroz, Colonel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Perry: <em>Children of the Sun</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_146" class=
+"fnanchor">[146]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Persian invasion of North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Petroglyphs, <em>see</em> Rock drawings
+<em>and</em> Rock inscriptions.</li>
+<li class="indx">Philistines, Libyans related to, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Phœnician script and Libyan, <a href=
+"#Page_267">267</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Photographs of unveiled Tuareg not permitted,
+<a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Physical characteristics of Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>-3, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>; deformation not practised, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Pi” dogs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Piebald camels, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pigeons, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pigs, taboo on eating of, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pilgrim road, Timbuctoo-Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pilgrimage, Muhammad Askia’s, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pitchers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-61</li>
+<li class="indx">Plaque, men’s ornament, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pleiades, Tuareg name for, <a href=
+"#Page_226">226</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_212" class=
+"fnanchor">[212]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pleistocene period, discovery of camel-skeletons
+of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; quoted, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Plough seen by Barth, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Plutarch, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Poetry, Tuareg appreciation of, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; women authors of,
+<a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Poison, use of, by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Poisoned arrows used by bush folk, <a href=
+"#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Poisonous plants, deaths of camels due to,
+<a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Police, Agades, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Polygamy infrequent in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-71</li>
+<li class="indx">Polytheism, traces of, among Ahaggaren, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pomel, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pommel of Tuareg saddle, ornamental cross on,
+<a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pompey, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pools, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Population: of Air, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;
+variation of, in desert cities, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Portfolios, leather, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Ports,” trans-desert traffic, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Portuguese and Songhai rulers, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Possession, case of, Auderas, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>-80</li>
+<li class="indx">Pottery, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-61,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pouches, leather, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pradie, Fort, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prayer enclosures, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Pre-Moslem, funerary remains, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-63; place of worship, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>-9, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Precipitation of rain, North Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prime Minister, Tuareg, also Minister for Foreign
+Affairs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; title of, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Property, women’s ownership of, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>-9, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prophet, the, Moslem desire to claim descent from,
+<a href="#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prophet’s Birthday, the, feast of, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prosody, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Prostitution among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Proverbs, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
+<a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pseudo-Ashraf, the, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_283" class=
+"fnanchor">[283]</a><sup>,</sup><a href="#Footnote_287" class=
+"fnanchor">[287]</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; on the
+Kel Tegama, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Pumpkins, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; spirits in
+form of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Punch and Judy show, Tuareg ascendancy symbolised
+in, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">“Pura” water, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Qadria sect, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Qibla, the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Querns, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-60,
+<a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Quinine, value of, in fever cases, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Quran, the, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>; in Tuareg language, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>; verse of, as amulet, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">R and Gh sounds, confusion between, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rabah, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rabidin, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Racks in houses, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rahazawa Fulani, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_494">[494]</span>“Rahla” (riding saddle), <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Raiding, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-14, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-93, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; Ahodu’s reminiscences of, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>-3; the Amenokal and, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>-10; Camel Corps organised to suppress, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; cessation of,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; in
+Damergu, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a>; fear of, still prevalent, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>; legend of raiders
+swallowed up, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; regarded as a sport,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>; technique of,
+<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-93, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>; weather
+conditions supposed to foretell, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>-6;
+wells filled in to prevent, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; by women, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>-70</li>
+<li class="indx">Railway development, its effect on camel-borne
+trade, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rainbow, superstition regarding, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rainfall in the Sahara, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
+<a href="#Page_28">28</a>; ancient, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+geological effects of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; during storms,
+<a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rain-water pools, Azawagh, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Rains, the: in Air, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
+<a href="#Page_123">123</a>-4, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; in
+Elakkos, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>; discomforts of travel during,
+<a href="#Page_120">120</a>-21, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+<a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; raids
+begun after, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ramadhan, Tuareg observance of, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rapsa (Ghat), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>,
+<a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rats eaten by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rattray: <em>Ashanti</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_152">152</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_146" class=
+"fnanchor">[146]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rebu, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Red,” Tuareg spoken of as, <a href=
+"#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red agate “talhakim,” <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red mud, cities and houses constructed of,
+<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red ochre, Tuareg women’s faces daubed with,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red Rock Desert, pass over, <a href=
+"#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red rocks, Air, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Red Sea, migrations of tribes from, into North
+Africa, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
+<a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Reg,” <a href="#Page_274">274</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Reindeer Age, cave paintings of, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rela, Kel, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Religion of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-4;
+earlier, possibly Christianity, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4; traces of Christian influence,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a>-6, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
+<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4; their
+conversion to Islam, and their lax practice, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Rennell, Major, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
+<a href="#Page_386">386</a>; commentary on Hornemann by, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; map by, <a href=
+"#Page_336">336</a>; works by, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
+<a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Revenue, the Amenokal’s, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Revolt against French in Air, 1917, <a href=
+"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_421">421</a>; Agades besieged during, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; camel requisitions a
+cause of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>; evacuation of Air during,
+<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>; Kaossen’s
+leadership of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>-3, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>; Nigeria
+indirectly defended during, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; opening
+tragedy of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; social effects of, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-9; Tegama’s part
+in, 98-9; T’ekhmedin’s part in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-9; wells
+filled in during, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rhymes, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rhyndacus, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Riaina, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>
+<em>n.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Richardson, J.: <em>Travels in the Great Desert of
+Sahara</em> by, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_467">467</a>; death of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;
+expeditions of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>-4, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a>; on houses of Ghat, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ridge of Abadarjan, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>,
+<a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Rigm” (funerary monument), <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_227" class=
+"fnanchor">[227]</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ring of stones marking graves, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rings, agate, as neck ornaments, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rings, arm, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
+<a href="#Page_285">285</a>-6, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rio de Oro, raiding in, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ritchie, death of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">River of Agades, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; plain of,
+<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">River beds of Central Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Rivoli, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Roads, caravan, <em>see</em> Caravan roads; the
+“Garamantian way,” <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-20, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Robe, T’ekhmedin’s, the fate of, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Robes, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_166">166</a>-7, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rock, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rock drawings, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+<a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>; of animals and birds, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>-5; of camels, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>; of human figures, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; of men with
+animal heads, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; modern, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; of ox and cart,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; of shield with
+cruciform design, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rock inscriptions, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+<a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_268">268</a>-9, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; funerary,
+<a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; profusion
+of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rohlfs, F. G., expeditions of, <a href=
+"#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; <em>Kufra</em> by,
+<a href="#Page_6">6</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_4" class=
+"fnanchor">[4]</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Roman remains discovered by Barth, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Romans, the: caravan roads garrisoned by, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>; penetration of the Sahara by, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a>-3, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-7; Tuareg swords
+probably derived from, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Romanus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Roncière, Charles de la, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_20" class=
+"fnanchor">[20]</a><sup>,</sup><a href="#Footnote_21" class=
+"fnanchor">[21]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Roofs of Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rope-making, native, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;
+in leather, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rothschild, Lord, his museum at Tring, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Rottl (Arab weight), <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Royal Geographical Society, author’s computations
+in charge of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Rufai el Ghati, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Sabha Jail, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sacrifices of sheep, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+<a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sadaouet (Sidawet), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saddle-sores on camels, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saddle-stone querns, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>-60, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saddles, camel; Tebu, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;
+Tuareg, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-31,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>-7, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; with
+cross on pommel, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>-7, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sahara, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-6; not once a
+sea-bed, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> author’s companions cross,
+<a href="#Page_418">418</a>;<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_495">[495]</span> British influence in, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>-2; climate of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; European
+affairs well known in, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; French
+occupation of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>; funerary monuments of, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-62; Leo Africanus’ description of, <a href=
+"#Page_331">331</a>-5; mountain groups of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+name of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; oases of, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_5">5</a>-6; population of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+races of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; railway
+across, advocated, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; rainfall in, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; rivers of, <a href=
+"#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; Roman penetration of,
+<a href="#Page_322">322</a>-3, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
+<a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-7; surface
+of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-6; “talhakim” prized in, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>; temperatures in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+transport methods in, early, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8; warfare
+in, small numbers involved, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sahara, Central, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; British geographical work
+in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-21, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Sahara, Eastern, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Sahara, Western, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Saharan Alps, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saharan and Equatorial zones, transitional area
+between, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sahel Zone, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sakafat, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sale, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saleh, El Haj, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salla Laja (Laya), the Feast of the Sheep,
+<a href="#Page_95">95</a>-7, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salla Shawal, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sallust, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt: impregnation of soil with, <a href=
+"#Page_125">125</a>; price of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt caravans, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-20, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class=
+"fnanchor">[450]</a>; Amenokal’s revenue from, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>; French escort for, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; Minister
+accompanying, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; raids on, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; route of,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt mines: Bilma, <em>q.v.</em>; captured by
+Moors, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>; Taodenit, <a href=
+"#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class=
+"fnanchor">[450]</a>; Tegaza, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class=
+"fnanchor">[450]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt-pits, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Salt trade, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-20, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a>; struggles between Air and Bornu for, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Saltpetre, uses of, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sampfotchi hill, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sand: effect on feet, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;
+wind-borne, polishing of rocks by, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+<a href="#Page_79">79</a>; wells silted up by, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sand, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sand-dune formations, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
+<a href="#Page_58">58</a>; characteristic form in Azawagh, <a href=
+"#Page_63">63</a>-4, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; crescentic type,
+<a href="#Page_66">66</a>-7; in Elakkos, <a href=
+"#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>; mobile, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>; valleys formed between, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sand-grouse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sandstone formations: Elakkos, <a href=
+"#Page_442">442</a>; effects of erosion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
+<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sand viper, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sandals, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Sanhaja, the, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
+<a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>; in Air at arrival
+of Tuareg, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Empire of,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>-4, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
+<a href="#Page_404">404</a>-5, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>; Itesan
+among, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>; Mesufa and Lemtuna</li>
+<li class="isub1">sections of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a>; of North-west Morocco, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Santambul (Constantinople), <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sariki n’Kaswa, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sariki n’Turawa, the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sattaf, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Say, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Schirmer, H.: <em>Le Sahara</em> by, <a href=
+"#Page_5">5</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_2" class=
+"fnanchor">[2]</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_293" class=
+"fnanchor">[293]</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; on the Ifoghas,
+<a href="#Page_355">355</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_346"
+class="fnanchor">[346]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Scorpion, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Script, Tuareg, <em>see</em> T’ifinagh.</li>
+<li class="indx">Seats, wooden, for women, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sedentaries: factions among, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a>; numbers of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sedentarism, encouraged by French, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>; nomadism and, difficulties of co-ordinating,
+<a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Seeds, very valuable in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; used for food,
+<a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sef, King of Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Seliufet village, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+<a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Seliufet, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Selma I, King of Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Selma II, first black king of Bornu, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Semitic influence in Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Semitic languages, relationship of Temajegh to,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sendal, the, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>; one of original
+five tribes in Air, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a>; their modern representatives, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Senegal, caravan route to, <a href=
+"#Page_7">7</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Senegal River, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Senegalese troops, French, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; Camel Corps of,
+<a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Senhaji, Muhammad Nasr el, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Senussiya, the: their part in the revolt in Air,
+<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; caravan route opened
+by, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; in Equatorial Africa, operations
+against French, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; Kufra the centre of,
+<a href="#Page_336">336</a>; Tuareg relations with, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>-9, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Septimius Flaccus, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
+<a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Serfs, <em>see</em> Imghad.</li>
+<li class="indx">Sergi, G., <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sert, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Servile tribes, <em>see</em> Imghad.</li>
+<li class="indx">Sfax, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sheath knives, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sheep, Air, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a>; sacrifices of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+<a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Sheikh el Arab,” <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Shellagh, the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Sherrifa,” title of royal family of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Shields, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Shillugh language, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Shingit, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Shott country, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sidawet, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>; houses in,
+<a href="#Page_254">254</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sidawet, Kel, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sidi, the guide, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
+<a href="#Page_234">234</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_214"
+class="fnanchor">[214]</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; description of
+Belkho by, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>; on the House of the Christians, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>-12; leaves the author in Kano, <a href=
+"#Page_419">419</a>-20</li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_496">[496]</span>Sidi Hamada, shrine of, <a href=
+"#Page_94">94</a>-5; Feast of the Sheep at, <a href=
+"#Page_95">95</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Sierra Leone, British penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Siggedim, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sijilmasa, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Silius Italicus, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Silk not in great demand among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Silurian rocks, Air, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Silver, saddles ornamented with, <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Silver bracelets, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Silver coins melted down, <a href=
+"#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Silver currency, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Sinko” (five-franc piece), <a href=
+"#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Siwa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Siwi dialect, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Skin, colour of, in Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>-2, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Slave King of the Tuareg of Air, the, <a href=
+"#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>-5, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Slave markets, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Slave trade, African, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;
+British attempts to abolish, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; former Tuareg,
+<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Slavery legally abolished in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_122" class=
+"fnanchor">[122]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Slaves, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
+<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; raised to
+status of Imghad, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; slave mothers and
+status of children, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; stolen in raids,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>; veil not worn by, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_13" class=
+"fnanchor">[13]</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Slaves, the Mecca of the,” <a href=
+"#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sliding doors in Tuareg houses, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Smiths, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
+<a href="#Page_228">228</a>-9, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;
+jewellery made by, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-4</li>
+<li class="indx">Smoking, not a Tuareg practice, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Snobbishness, Moslem form of, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a>-40, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Snuff, taken by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a>; used as remedy for camel disease, <a href=
+"#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Sô people,” the, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Soap-stone, ornaments of, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Social distinctions, Tuareg, present breakdown in,
+<a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Social effects of revolt of, 1917, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">“Sofo” tower, Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_94">94</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sokakna, the, Arab tribe, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sokna, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sokoto, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; British
+annexation of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; Fulani Empire of,
+<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; Itesan settle
+near, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; Kel Geres settle
+near, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>-91, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>: route to, alternative, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>; slave market in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;
+stone buildings in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>; Tegama expedition
+against, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sokoto, Emir of, influence of, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_100" class=
+"fnanchor">[100]</a> <em>See also</em> Bello.</li>
+<li class="indx">Sokoto-Agades track, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Soleim Arabs invade Central Africa, <a href=
+"#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Solom Solom, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Songhai Empire, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; Agades colonised by, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; gold trade of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a>; Moors overthrow, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>; Portuguese and,
+<a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Songhai language, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
+<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sorbo Hausa, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sores, camels’, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
+<a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sottofé, Muhammad, Sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="indx">South, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Southern Air: Goberawa in, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; graves in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;
+servile tribes in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Southern Algeria, native Camel Corps in, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Southland, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
+<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-79; Air and, political relations of,
+<a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; Barth’s
+expeditions in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61; bush of, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>; houses and huts of, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>; Itesan migration to, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_100" class=
+"fnanchor">[100]</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; Kel Geres
+migration to, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>-91, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>; music of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; Morocco
+and, trade between, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Tuareg of,
+<a href="#Page_17">17</a>-18; Tuareg ascendancy in, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>-6; Tuareg migrations to, <a href=
+"#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-91, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Southward trend of migration in N. Africa,
+<a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Soyuti, El, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spain, Arab conquest of, <a href=
+"#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spear grass, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spears, People of the, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spears, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spirits, Tuareg belief in, and tales of, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>-81, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>; amulets against, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spoons, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Spouts on roofs of Sudanese houses, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stambul, delegation from Air to, <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Stambul, Sultan of, story of migration ordered by,
+<a href="#Page_366">366</a>-7, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stars, Tuareg names for, <a href=
+"#Page_226">226</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_212" class=
+"fnanchor">[212]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Steppe, the Great, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
+<a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Steppe desert, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
+<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>; and true desert, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
+<a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sticks for holding bridles and ropes, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stone, not used in building in Sudan and Northern
+Nigeria, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; used by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stone arm rings, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Stone flags, “Garamantian way” said to be paved
+with, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stone houses, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
+<a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stone ornaments, small, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stone “talhakim,” mystery of origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Stones: circles of, round huts, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>-3; coloured, to indicate tracks, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>; graves marked by, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>-60; hammered, not chiselled, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; mounds of, as
+memorials, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Strabo, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Stuhlmann, F., <a href="#Page_468">468</a>; on
+MZGh root in “Berber” names, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sub-tribes: “Kel names” of, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>-9; lists of, <a href=
+"#Page_427">427</a>-41</li>
+<li class="indx">Succession and inheritance, matriarchal tradition
+in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-3, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Suckling of children, protracted, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_497">[497]</span>Sudan, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; Air and, political relations with, <a href=
+"#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; Barth’s
+expedition in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; British share in opening up, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>; European penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-9; Fulani rise to
+power in, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; funerary monuments in,
+<a href="#Page_261">261</a>; horse saddles of, <a href=
+"#Page_231">231</a>; houses of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>; Ibn Batutah in,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; Islam in,
+<a href="#Page_291">291</a>; Lemta area extends to, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; Mediterranean civilisation in, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>; salt trade with, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;
+Sanhaja power in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; syphilis thought to
+originate in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; taboos originating in,
+<a href="#Page_294">294</a>; “talhakim” prized in, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>; Tuareg driven from, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>; Tuareg evacuated to, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61; wheeled vehicles in, <a href=
+"#Page_322">322</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudan, Nilotic, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>; Fulani
+settlement in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; Semitic influence in,
+<a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudan, Western: French expedition from, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>; added to empire of Melle, <a href=
+"#Page_407">407</a>; Moorish conquest of, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudan Empires, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;
+history of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>-15; <em>see</em>
+Melle <em>and</em> Songhai.</li>
+<li class="indx">Sudanese buildings, <a href=
+"#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudanese historian on migrations from Red Sea,
+<a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sudanese pottery, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a>; clay amphoræ, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Suk, El, country, Tuareg migration to, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Suk, Kel el, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Suleiman, Mansa, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Suliman, El Haj, library of, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sultan of Agades, <em>see</em> Amenokal.</li>
+<li class="indx">Sun, halo round, an evil omen, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sun worship, Libyan, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
+<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; trace of,
+among Tuareg, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sunni Ali, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sunni Muhammad Dau, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sunsets, magnificent, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; superstition
+regarding, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Superstitions of Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; concerning
+weather, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Susubaki, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Switzerland of the Sahara,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Sword dance, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Swords, Tuareg, cross-hilted, <a href=
+"#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Symbolism in Tuareg rock drawings, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Synesius, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Syphilis, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-80</li>
+<li class="indx">Syria, Ibn Khaldun on inhabitants of, <a href=
+"#Page_339">339</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Syrtis, Great, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
+<a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>; people
+of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Syrtis, Little, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Tabello, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; houses at,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; Itesan
+settlements at, abandoned, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>; salt caravan assembles at, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taberghit valley, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
+<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tablet ornaments, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tabonie, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taboos, food, totemic, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Tabudium, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taburgula, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tabzagur, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadadawa, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
+<a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadek valley, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
+<a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadek, Kel, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>-9; antiquity of,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>; represent original invaders of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>; expelled by Kel Owi, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>; mother of, legend of, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a>; tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>-9, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadele, Kel, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tademari, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tademekka, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; Aulimmiden
+occupy, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
+<a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tademekka, city of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
+<a href="#Page_408">408</a>; foundation of, <a href=
+"#Page_399">399</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tademekkat, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>,
+<a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>; driven out by Aulimmiden, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadenak, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadent, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadesa, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tadsa, Tuareg defeat near, <a href=
+"#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafadek, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafarzas, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafasas, Kel, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafassasset, the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+<a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafassasset-T’immersoi basin, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taferaut, Kel, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafidet, Child of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<em>see</em> Añastafidet.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tafidet range, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; valley, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_37" class=
+"fnanchor">[37]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafidet, Kel, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>-4; “agoalla” of,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>; and appointment of Añastafidet,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>; place in
+Kel Owi Confederation, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>-4; mother of,
+legend of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>; origin of, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tafilelt area, Morocco, capital of, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_449" class=
+"fnanchor">[449]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagay (Tagei), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagedufat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_63">63</a>-4, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>-8, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; well, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagei, Kel (Ikazkazan), <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a>; (Imaslagha), <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;
+(Itesan), <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagermat, Kel, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Taghalam,” the, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
+<a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagharit valley, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>;
+lions in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
+<a href="#Page_214">214</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_206"
+class="fnanchor">[206]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taghazit, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taghist plateau, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taghmeurt range, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taghmeurt, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>,
+<a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taghmeurt n’Afara, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
+<a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagidda n’Adrar, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
+<a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; position
+of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagidda n’Tagei, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
+<a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagidda n’T’isemt, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
+<a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; position
+of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagiddas, the: and Ibn Batutah’s “Tekadda,”
+<a href="#Page_454">454</a>-6; people of, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tagilmus” (the Veil), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-90</li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_498">[498]</span>Tagilmus, Kel, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taginna, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>
+<em>n.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagirit, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagmart (Taghmeurt), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagunar, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>,
+<a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagunet, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tagurast, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tahanazeta, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tahua, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taiagaia, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taitoq, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>; dialect of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Takadda (Nakda), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Takarkari, the, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Takatkat,” <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Takazanzat (Takazuzat), rock of, <a href=
+"#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Takermus, Kel, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Takirbai,” <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Takrizat, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Takrizat, Kel, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>; a holy
+tribe, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Takuba” (sword), <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Talak plain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a>; tomb of Awa in, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Talak, Kel, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Talat Mellen, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Talha” acacia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Talhakim,” the (ornament), <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>-3, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Talimt,” <a href="#Page_226">226</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Talras, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamadalt Tan Ataram, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamanet, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamanghasset, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tamat” acacia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamat, Kel, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamatut well, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;
+destroyed, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamel, Kel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamenzaret, wells of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+<a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamet Tedderet, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamgak, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>; mother of Kel Owi settles in, <a href=
+"#Page_386">386</a>; “Wild Men” of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-7,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamgak mountains, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamgak, Kel, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>; one of the original five tribes, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_379">379</a>; modern representatives of, <a href=
+"#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamizgidda, Kel, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+<a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tamkak, the, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;
+<em>see</em> Tamgak, Kel.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tanamari, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tanghot” (spirit), <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tanut (in Damergu), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_107" class=
+"fnanchor">[107]</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tanut (near Marandet), <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tanut Unghaidan, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tanutmolet, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a>; houses in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tanutmolet, Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Tanzar, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taodenit, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; salt
+deposits of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tara,” camel disease, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tara Bere, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taranet, Kel, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tarantulas, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tarat Mellet, the, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tarei tan Kel Owi,” <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+<a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tarenkat, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Targa, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>; Ibn Khaldun on, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;
+Leo Africanus describes Air and Ahaggar as inhabited by, <a href=
+"#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>; and the name “Tuareg,” <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>-9, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tariq, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tariqa,” Senussi, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tarki” (Tarqi) and the word “Tuareg,” <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tarrajerat, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taruaji, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Taruaji mountains, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+<a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tasalgi” (north), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
+<a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tasawa, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tasawat, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>; mosque of,
+<a href="#Page_255">255</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Tasessat, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tashel (Taschell, Tashil), the, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tashkeur (Teshkar) well, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_446" class=
+"fnanchor">[446]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tasr, wells of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Tassili, Azger, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+<a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tatenei, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tateus well, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tattus, Kel, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tautek, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tawarek, the, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
+<a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a>; Arab etymology of, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>; <em>see</em> Tuareg.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tazizilet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tebehic, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_82">82</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;
+spirits of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tebernit valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;
+water holes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tebu, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>; Berdeoa, people
+of, identified with, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-6; Bornu dynasty
+of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;
+boundary between Tuareg and, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>; camel saddles of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;
+camels of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; Dunama II’s war with,
+<a href="#Page_374">374</a>; Ikaradan, Temajegh name for, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; Itesan driven out
+by, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;
+language of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_155">155</a>; origin of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-6;
+raids by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a>; throwing irons used by, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a>; treachery of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a>; Tuareg driven from south by, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>; Tuareg feud with, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>; women of, wives of kings of Kanem, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Technique of raids, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+<a href="#Page_189">189</a>-93, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
+<a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tecoum, the, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teda, the, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_387" class=
+"fnanchor">[387]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teda Inisilman, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tedamansii, the, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tedekel, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tedi” or “teddi” (measure of length), <a href=
+"#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tedmukkeren (Tetmokarak), the, <a href=
+"#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tefakint,” <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tefgun, mosque of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tefgun, Kel, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’efira, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tefis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>; mosque of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
+<a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tefis, Kel, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegama (Southern Air), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_303">303</a>; Barth in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">[499]</span>
+<a href="#Page_118">118</a>; camels of, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>; servile tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>; villages of, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Tegama valley, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegama, Kel, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_64">64</a>-5, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_443">443</a>; defeated by Kel Geres, <a href=
+"#Page_391">391</a>; women of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegama, Sultan, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegaza, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a>; Moors capture, <a href=
+"#Page_411">411</a>; salt mines of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegbeshi, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tegehe” (descendants), <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_336" class=
+"fnanchor">[336]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegehe Mellen, the, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegehe n’Aggali, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>,
+<a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegehe n’Efis, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegehe n’es Sidi, the, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegehe n’Essakal, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
+<a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegemi (Tégémui), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teget (Tagei), Kel, <a href=
+"#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teghazar valley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teghzeren, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegibbut, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegidda valley, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teginjir, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; plain,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; position
+of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>; spring, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegir, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tegir, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teguer, Kel, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tehammam, the, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tehenu, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_481" class=
+"fnanchor">[481]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tehert, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tekadda, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Ibn Batutah’s, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; copper mines of, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a>-3, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; identification
+of, attempted, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_455">455</a>; Sultan of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
+<a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tekerkeri, the,” <a href="#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ekhmedin, the guide, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>-7, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tekursat valley, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
+<a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Telamse, Kel, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Telezu valley, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+<a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Telia, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Telizzarhen, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; rock
+drawings of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tellia valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teloas-Tabello, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Telwa river, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a>; valley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Temagheri, the, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>,
+<a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Temahu, the, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Temajegh, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-71, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; camel names in, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;
+Christianity, words associated with, in, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a>-8; dictionaries of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+<a href="#Page_467">467</a>; etymology of, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_14" class=
+"fnanchor">[14]</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; “Kel” names in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;
+Latin, traces of, in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_278">278</a>; origin of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a>; Quran translated into, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>; written, <em>see</em> T’ifinagh.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tembellaga, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Temed, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Temeder” (part of the Veil), <a href=
+"#Page_287">287</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Temperatures in the Sahara, <a href=
+"#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tents, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Terga,” <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_461">461</a>; <em>see</em> Targa.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tergulawen, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_390">390</a>; road, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; well,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Terjeman, quarter of Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Terminal points of trans-desert traffic, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Termit, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>-50; author’s march
+to, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-51; drainage of,
+<a href="#Page_450">450</a>; mountains of, <a href=
+"#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>-50; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a>; rocks of, oddly shaped, <a href=
+"#Page_450">450</a>; wells of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>,
+<a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Territories du Niger, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_416">416</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tesabba valley, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teshkar, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teskokrit, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_72">72</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tessawa, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_47">47</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tessuma valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tetmokarak, the, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Teworshekaken valleys, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tezirzak, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tezogiri valley, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tgibbu (Tegibbut), the, <a href=
+"#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thorns in vegetation of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Throwing-iron, used by Tebu, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thuben, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thugga inscription, <a href=
+"#Page_267">267</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thukdha (Nakda), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thunderbolt, an evil omen, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Thunderstorms, violent, <a href=
+"#Page_82">82</a>-3, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tiakkar, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’iaman, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tibawi (Tebu), <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tibesti, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; identified with Agisymba Regio, <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a>; camels of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>; camels
+commandeered for expeditions to, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+drainage system of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; mountains of, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>; raiding in, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+<a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_444">444</a>; rainfall of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; rock
+drawing in, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; unknown area of, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>; Turkish penetration of, <a href=
+"#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tidikelt, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tidrak hills, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tifaut, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ifinagh (Tuareg script), <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>-16, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>; name of Air in, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;
+alphabet of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-7; Arabic letters in,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>; Ifadeyen familiarity with, <a href=
+"#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>; inscriptions in,
+<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>; origin of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-8;
+Quran in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; taught by women, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>-4, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’igefen, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tiggedi cliff, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>-7, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a>;
+defeat of Kel Tegama at, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tiggeur” acacia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ighummar valley, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tikammar cheese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tildhin, the, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tilemsan, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tilho, Colonel, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;
+Anglo-French frontier delimitation by, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;
+maps of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>; observations made
+by, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ilimsawin hills, <a href=
+"#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ilimsawin, Kel, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’ilisdak valley, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
+<a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tilkatine, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>
+<em>n.</em></li>
+<li class="indx">Tilutan, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_500">[500]</span>Timbuctoo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; earliest accounts
+of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; camels of, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>; foundation of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;
+Melle conquest and loss of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_408">408</a>; mithkal of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;
+Moorish garrison in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>; “People of the
+West” in, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>; salt caravan from, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_452">452</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_451" class=
+"fnanchor">[451]</a>; Songhai conquest of, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a>; Tuareg of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; Tuareg
+conquest and loss of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Timbuctoo-Cairo pilgrim road, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Timbulaga, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’imia, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>-17, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; houses in,
+<a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; hut
+circles at, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; Kel Owi invasion of,
+<a href="#Page_389">389</a>; massif of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; measures
+used in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; mosque of, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>; rock drawing at, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a>;
+women of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’imia, Kel, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a>; mixed, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’imilen mountains, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’imilen valley, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’immersoi, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Timmi” (oath of friendship), <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’imuru peak, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Awak mountain, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Dawin, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; position
+of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Shaman, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_364">364</a>-5, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>; French post at,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_365">365</a>; position of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Taboraq, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Tarabin valley, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
+<a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Wafara, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Wana, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; fossil trees at,
+<a href="#Page_81">81</a>-2, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>; pool
+of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>; position of, <a href=
+"#Page_424">424</a>; rock inscriptions at, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Wansa, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>; houses
+in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’in Yerutan, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’inalkum, Kel, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>,
+<a href="#Page_383">383</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_400"
+class="fnanchor">[400]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’inien, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’inien mountains, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’intabisgi, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tintagete, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’intaghoda, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>; Barth’s
+expedition attacked at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; capital of
+Northern Air, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; mosque of,
+<a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’intaghoda, Kel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>; a holy
+tribe, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>,
+<a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’intellust, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; Barth’s
+headquarters at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_312">312</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">T’intellust, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tinteyyat, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tinylcum, the, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tinylkum, Barth’s, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tirekka, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tirik” (riding saddle), <a href=
+"#Page_230">230</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">T’iriken peak, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>-300</li>
+<li class="indx">Tirza, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tisak n’Talle, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’Isemt, Kel, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tishorén (Tuareg), <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tiski, the Children of, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a>-3, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tissot, C. J.: <em>Géographie comparée</em>,
+<a href="#Page_207">207</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_190"
+class="fnanchor">[190]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tit, Ahaggar Tuareg defeated at, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’iugas and her six daughters, story of, <a href=
+"#Page_384">384</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’iwilmas, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’iyut valley, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_31">31</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_36" class=
+"fnanchor">[36]</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tizraet, the pool of, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tobacco chewed by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tobacco snuff as remedy for camel disease,
+<a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Todra, Mount, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Toga, North African robes said to be descended
+from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Toiyamama, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tokede valley, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+<a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Toledo swords owned by Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tomb of Awa, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tombs (<em>see</em> Graves), Air, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>-63; possibly made in floor of hut, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tools, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Toreha, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Toshit N’Yussuf, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Totemism, survival of, among Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_294">294</a>-5, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><em>Tournées d’apprivoisement</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Towar, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>-5, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a>; houses in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+<a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Towar river, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Towar, Kel, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_439">439</a>; mixed, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tower of Agades, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+<em>see</em> Minaret.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tracks, marked by coloured stones, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Trade roads, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>; map of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; railway’s
+effect on, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; <em>see</em> Caravan
+roads.</li>
+<li class="indx">Traghen, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Transliteration, difficulties of, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Transport enterprises, Kel Owi monopoly of,
+<a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Trans-Saharan caravan roads, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>-9, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Trans-Saharan railway, suggestion of, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Travelling bags, leather, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Treachery, Tuareg averse to, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Treaty between Tuareg and original inhabitants of
+Air, tradition of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Trees, fossil, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_259">259</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_226"
+class="fnanchor">[226]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Triangular ornaments (“talhakim”), <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>-3</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal allegiance derived through mother, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>-51</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal alliances, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal chiefs: and the Amenokal, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; authority of,
+passing to village headmen, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>; functions of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>; measures kept by, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>; selection of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal classification, importance attached by
+Tuareg to, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal councils, women in, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal feuds set aside in trade centres, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal groupings, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>-8</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal histories, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>,
+<a href="#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal marks on camels, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal names, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>-31</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal organisation of Tuareg of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_426">426</a>-41</li>
+<li class="indx">Tribal warfare, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>,
+<a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_402">402</a>-3; before appointment of common ruler, <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tribes, colour differences in, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; holy, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>-91, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>,<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_501">[501]</span> <a href="#Page_439">439</a>,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a>; of mixed caste, <a href=
+"#Page_355">355</a>; noble and servile, <em>see</em> Imajeghan,
+Imghad, <em>and</em> Noble and servile tribes.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tripoli, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; caravan
+road, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
+<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; Col. Hamer
+Warrington Consul at, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; embassy from Bornu
+to, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tripolitania, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; former British
+paramountcy in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; anti-French and
+-British activities in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; Hawara in,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>; Islam, spread of, in, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>; Italian occupation of, Tuareg and, <a href=
+"#Page_8">8</a>; rock drawings in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;
+Southern, Roman occupation of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Trotting on camels thought unwise, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Trousers, Tuareg, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tsabba valley, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’Sidderak hills, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’Sidderak, Agoalla of, <a href=
+"#Page_397">397</a></li>
+<li class="indx">T’Sidderak, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
+<a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuaghet pool, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuareg of Ahaggar, <em>see</em> Ahaggaren.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tuareg of Air: not a tribe but a people, <a href=
+"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; racial purity of,
+<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">their arrival in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-93, <a href=
+"#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_405">405</a>-6; its date, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
+<a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; their
+vicissitudes, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>-16; future of, <a href=
+"#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">accounts of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>-20, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">adultery not common among, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">agriculture despised by, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">amulets worn by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+<a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">ancestry of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>-7, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_462">462</a>; Bello on, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
+<a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>; Ibn
+Khaldun on, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; Leo Africanus on,
+<a href="#Page_330">330</a>-31, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_334">334</a>-5, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_349">349</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">animism of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">architecture of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-59,
+<a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">art of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">belts worn by, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+<a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Berbers and, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">“Black” and “White,” <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>-40</li>
+<li class="isub2">blue-eyed, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">calm manner of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">caravan trade of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
+<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>; <em>see</em> Salt
+caravans.</li>
+<li class="isub2">caste system of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>-8; <em>see</em> Imajeghan <em>and</em>
+Imghad.</li>
+<li class="isub2">cattle trade of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">characteristics lost by, <a href=
+"#Page_40">40</a>-41</li>
+<li class="isub2">children of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">chivalry of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a>-7</li>
+<li class="isub2">Christianity, former, of, <a href=
+"#Page_275">275</a>-8, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4</li>
+<li class="isub2">circumcision practised by, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">civilisation of, present, decline from earlier,
+<a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">civilising rôle of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">cleanliness of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
+<a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">colouring of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-2,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">courage of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>-70, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">dancing of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">disease among, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a>-80</li>
+<li class="isub2">divorce among, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-7</li>
+<li class="isub2">dress of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_163">163</a>-7, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">education among, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a>-8, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Europeans and, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">evacuation of, by French, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>-61, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">family system of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53,
+<a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">female descent among, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">festivals of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_274">274</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">food of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-60, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">French and: hostilities between, <a href=
+"#Page_9">9</a>-11, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; migration of some
+tribes from, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; pacific attitude
+of others, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-7, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a>;
+revolt against, in 1917, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_84">84</a>-5, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>-2, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">furniture of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-30</li>
+<li class="isub2">geographical knowledge of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>-6</li>
+<li class="isub2">government of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-8</li>
+<li class="isub2">graves and tombs of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-63</li>
+<li class="isub2">greetings used between, <a href=
+"#Page_419">419</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">historical knowledge of, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="isub2">honour, sense of, among, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">hospitality of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
+<a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">houses of, various types, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_240">240</a>-41, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-55, <a href=
+"#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-11, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-16, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>-8, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">huts of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>-3</li>
+<li class="isub2">industries of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>-6, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>-30, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">judicial system of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
+<a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Kings of, <em>see</em> Amenokal; list of,
+<a href="#Page_463">463</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">language of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;
+<em>see</em> Temajegh.</li>
+<li class="isub2">Libyans and, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">literature of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>,
+<a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-2</li>
+<li class="isub2">live stock of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">love affairs among, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>-5, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">marriage system of, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-71, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-7, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">matriarchal system among, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">medicine among, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
+<a href="#Page_180">180</a>-81, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">migrations of, <em>see</em> Migrations.</li>
+<li class="isub2">ministers and officials of, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>-7</li>
+<li class="isub2">monarchy, democratic, of, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>-8, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">monogamy usual among, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">mosques of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>-2, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">music of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">name of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-4,<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_502">[502]</span> <a href="#Page_412">412</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>-60,
+<a href="#Page_461">461</a>; derivation of, <a href=
+"#Page_348">348</a>-9</li>
+<li class="isub2">noble and servile, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a>-43, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; <em>see</em>
+Imajeghan <em>and</em> Imghad.</li>
+<li class="isub2">nomadism of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_406">406</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">numbers of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">origin of, <em>see above under</em> ancestry
+of.</li>
+<li class="isub2">ornaments of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-6</li>
+<li class="isub2">patience of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+<a href="#Page_420">420</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">physical type of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">poetry of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">population of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">pottery of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-61,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">prostitution among, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">proverbs of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
+<a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">raiding by, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>-94</li>
+<li class="isub2">“red” colouring of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_460">460</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">religion of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-4;
+earlier, possibly Christianity, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-8,
+<a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4; traces of Christian influence,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a>-6, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
+<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-4; their
+conversion to Islam, and their lax practice, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">revolt of, 1917, <em>see above under</em>
+French.</li>
+<li class="isub2">script of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-16;
+<em>see</em> T’ifinagh.</li>
+<li class="isub2">shields of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">slave trading, former, by, <a href=
+"#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">slaves of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
+<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">snuff taken by, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
+<a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Sultan of, <em>see</em> Amenokal.</li>
+<li class="isub2">superstitions of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
+<a href="#Page_278">278</a>-81, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
+<a href="#Page_295">295</a>-6</li>
+<li class="isub2">taboos among, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-5</li>
+<li class="isub2">tobacco chewed by, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">tools of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">totemism among, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_394">394</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_408"
+class="fnanchor">[408]</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">trade of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">tribal names of, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>-31</li>
+<li class="isub2">tribes and sub-tribes of, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>-5, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>-41</li>
+<li class="isub2">unselfishness of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">vanity of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Veil worn by, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-15,
+<a href="#Page_139">139</a>-40, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
+<a href="#Page_284">284</a>-90, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-9</li>
+<li class="isub2">warfare, methods of, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>-7; tribal, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+<a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-3</li>
+<li class="isub2">weapons of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>; allegiance to <em>armes blanches</em>,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a>; arm daggers, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;
+knives, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;
+spears, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-4, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;
+swords, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+<a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">weights and measures of, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>-22</li>
+<li class="isub2">women of, <em>see</em> Women, Tuareg.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tuareg, Azger, Damergu, Elakkos, Fezzan,
+<em>etc.</em>, <em>see under those heads</em>.</li>
+<li class="indx">Tuat, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a>; earliest account of, <a href=
+"#Page_19">19</a>; Ibn Batutah’s journey to, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_456">456</a>; Jews massacred in, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuat road, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuat-Tidikelt area, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuberculosis case at Auderas, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tubuzzat, Kel, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Tufakoret” (solar halo), <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tuggurt, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tukda (Nakda), <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tumayu, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tummo, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tumuli, funerary, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>-61</li>
+<li class="indx">Tunfafia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tunisia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; Christianity in,
+<a href="#Page_294">294</a>; the Circumcelliones in, <a href=
+"#Page_328">328</a>; spread of Islam in, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Tunsi, El, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Turayet, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; graves in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;
+valley, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Turdja, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Turha, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Turks: their part in the 1917 revolt, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; penetration of
+Tibesti by, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Ufa Atikin, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ufugum, Kel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ula, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ulcer, nasal, caused by sand, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ulli, Kel, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_441">441</a>; Damergu, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">’Umbellu, the ’alim, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Umuzut, Kel, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>; Damergu,
+<a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Unankara valley, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
+<a href="#Page_390">390</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Uncle, maternal, descent traced through, <a href=
+"#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ungwa, Kel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Unnar, Kel, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Uraren, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Urn burial, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>; pre-Tuareg example of, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Urufan, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Ushr, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Utzila, the, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Uye, Kel, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Valleys, of Air, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_83">83</a>-4; of Azawagh, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a>-2, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>-7, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vassalage and Imghadage compared, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vegetables, cultivation of, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>-2, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vegetation, desert, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; hardiness
+of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; rain and, <a href=
+"#Page_124">124</a>; Elakkos and Termit, <a href=
+"#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_449">449</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Veil, People of the, <em>see</em> Tuareg.</li>
+<li class="indx">Veil, the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-15, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>-90, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; appearance of
+Tuareg without, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; colour of, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-40; how put on,
+<a href="#Page_287">287</a>-8; Southerners adopt practice of
+wearing, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; theories concerning, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>-90; not worn by women and slaves, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Venereal disease, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>-80</li>
+<li class="indx">Vespasian, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vicissitudes of Tuareg in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_401">401</a>-16</li>
+<li class="indx">Village organisations, effect of 1917 revolt on,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-9</li>
+<li class="indx">Villagers, nomads’ lot envied by, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_503">[503]</span>Villages, Central and North African type,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-90, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>; Damergu, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; Elakkos,
+<a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_446">446</a>; Tuareg, no factions in, <a href=
+"#Page_338">338</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Viper, Sand, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vizir, the, Agades, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>,
+<a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Vogel, Dr., <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Volcanic origin of Saharan mountains, <a href=
+"#Page_2">2</a>; phenomena in geology of Air, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Volcano, Gheshwa, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>-2</li>
+<li class="indx">Von Bary, Erwin, <em>see</em> Bary.</li>
+<li class="indx">Voulet, Captain, French expedition under, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>-6, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Wad Righ, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wadai, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wadan, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_301" class=
+"fnanchor">[301]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wadi el Shati, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wadigi valley, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wadigi, Kel, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wahat, El, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Wakili,” the Sultan’s, <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Walad Delim, the, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_328"
+class="fnanchor">[328]</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Walata, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a> <em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_419" class=
+"fnanchor">[419]</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">War of Famine, the, <a href=
+"#Page_414">414</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Warfare, desert: raids distinct from, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>; small numbers involved in, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>; Tuareg methods of, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Wargla, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Warrington, Colonel Hamer, <a href=
+"#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Warrington, Henry, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Water, native powers of abstinence from, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Water of the Horse,” <a href=
+"#Page_325">325</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Water-skins, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Watering points: for salt caravans, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>; technique of raids and, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>; <em>see</em> Wells.</li>
+<li class="indx">Wati, Kel, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-13</li>
+<li class="indx">Wau el Harir, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wau el Kebir, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wau el Namus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wau el Seghir, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wawat People of the West, <a href=
+"#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Weather superstitions, Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>-6</li>
+<li class="indx">Weathering, uneven in action, <a href=
+"#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Webster, G. W., <a href="#Page_362">362</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Weights and measures, Air, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>-22</li>
+<li class="indx">Welimmid (Aulimmiden), the, <a href=
+"#Page_357">357</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Well, iron in, Ibn Batutah on, <a href=
+"#Page_453">453</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Well, People of the Deep, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wells, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_74">74</a>-6, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>; filled in during revolt, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_451">451</a>; not poisoned in warfare, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>; silted up, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">of Azawagh, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-6, <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>; of Elakkos, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>-6,
+<a href="#Page_447">447</a>; irrigation, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>-3; attributed to the Itesan, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a>; of Northern Air, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;
+origin and guardianship of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_393">393</a></li>
+<li class="indx">West, People of the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+<li class="indx">West and north, confusion of terms for, <a href=
+"#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Western Negroland: Sanhaja dominant in, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>-5; occupied by Songhai, <a href=
+"#Page_409">409</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Western Sahara, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-4; caravan
+route to, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; Sanhaja rulers of, <a href=
+"#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Western Sudan, French expedition from, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wheat: cultivation of, <a href=
+"#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; “kus-kus” made
+of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-8; considered a luxury, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wheeled transport, ancient use of, in Air,
+discussed, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-19, <a href=
+"#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-2, <a href=
+"#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“White” and “Black” Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>-40</li>
+<li class="indx">White camels, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“White Nobles,” Tuareg term for British, <a href=
+"#Page_459">459</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“White People,” the (Arab traders), <a href=
+"#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“White People,” the (Kel Ahamellan), <a href=
+"#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wild donkeys, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Wild Men of Air,” the, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>-7</li>
+<li class="indx">Wireless stations: Agades, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>; raiders handicapped by, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="indx">“Witnesses, The,” <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wives of Tuareg: male friends allowed to, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>-6; monogamy usual in Air, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; purchase of,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wolof language, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Women: Bardamah, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>,
+<a href="#Page_452">452</a>; Bororoji, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+Hausa and Kanuri, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Kel Owi, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>; Tegama, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tuareg: general status of, <a href=
+"#Page_167">167</a>-71, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_293">293</a>; claimed as tribal ancestresses or leaders,
+<a href="#Page_398">398</a>; in childbirth, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>; courage of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-70;
+descent traced through, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>-4, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>-53, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_398">398</a>; divination by, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-2;
+dress of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;
+eat with men, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; education given by,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>-4, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a>; faces of, painted, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>; fatness of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
+<a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;
+forwardness of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>; household duties of, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>; industries in hands of, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; male friends of,
+<a href="#Page_175">175</a>-6; marriage system, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-71, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>-6, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>-7; noble, high standing of, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>; old, handsomeness of, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>; ornaments of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; as
+poets, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; property
+owned by, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; in public life,
+<a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; salons
+held by, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; spirits supposed to attack,
+<a href="#Page_279">279</a>-81; veil not worn by, <a href=
+"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; young, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>-5</li>
+<li class="indx">World, roundness of, known to Tuareg, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Wounds, Tuareg treatment of, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Yellow ochre used as cosmetic, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Yemen, the, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; early
+invasion from, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Yes, Quarter of, Ghat, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Yiti, Kel, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Youngest member of party made cook, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Youths, Tuareg, dress of, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Yunis, Sultan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_463">463</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Yusif (ben el Haj Ahmed ibn el Haj Abeshan),
+Sultan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> <em>n.</em><a href=
+"#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_464">464</a></li>
+<li class="ifrst">Za Alayamin (el Yemani), Libyan dynasty of,
+<a href="#Page_404">404</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Za Yasebi, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></li>
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_504">[504]</span>Zakarkaran, the, <a href=
+"#Page_428">428</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zamfarawa, the, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zanhaga, desert of, <a href=
+"#Page_332">332</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zanziga, the, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
+<a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zaria, type of houses of, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zawzawa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zegawa, the <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zegedan, Kel, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zelim massif. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; pool of,
+<a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zella, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>
+<em>n.</em><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zenega, the, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zerumini, the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zibduwa, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zilalet, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>; position of,
+<a href="#Page_425">425</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zilalet, Kel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>,
+<a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zinder, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>-4, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_418">418</a>; French garrison at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;
+Senussi “zawia” at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zinder-Chad, territory of, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zinder-Fashi-Kawar road, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zipta mountain, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zuila (Cillala), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+<a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zu’lhajja, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zungu, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zurbatan, the, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></li>
+<li class="indx">Zurika, position of, <a href=
+"#Page_425">425</a></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="space-above"></p>
+<div class="plate">
+<div class="figcenter iw14">
+<figure id="map11">
+<p class="cpm">Map showing<br class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+M<sup>R</sup>. FRANCIS RODD’S ROUTES<br class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+in<br class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<span class="xlarge">AÏR</span> AND <span class="xlarge">ADJACENT
+PARTS</span><br class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+of<br class="x-ebookmaker-drop">
+FRENCH WEST AFRICA</p>
+<a href="images/map11_large.jpg"><img src='images/map11.jpg' alt=
+''></a>
+<p class="ipub"><em>Published by permission of the Royal
+Geographical Society.</em></p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="transnote">
+<h2>Transcriber's note:</h2>
+<ul>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_76">76</a> Changed: <i>Crucifera thebaica</i>
+to: <i>Cucifera</i></li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_184">184,</a> footnote <a href=
+"#Footnote_176">176,</a> Changed: Plate 21 to: Plate 20</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_220">220</a> Changed: gives undulys hort
+weight to: unduly short</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_221">221</a> Changed: especially in measurng
+the to: measuring</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_224">224</a> Changed: at one end pased over
+to: passed</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_323">323</a> Changed: justify a futher
+advance to: further</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_350">350,</a> footnote <a href=
+"#Footnote_338">338,</a> Changed all instances of: ʿ to: ’</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_423">423</a> Changed: author’s meterological
+record to: meteorological</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_435">435</a> Changed: abounding in in “dûm
+palms.” to: abounding in “dûm palms.”</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_442">442</a> Changed: in an expense of yellow
+sea to: expanse</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_451">451</a> Changed: Bultum Babá to:
+Bullum</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_457">457</a> Changed: authors have asumed
+that to: assumed</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_460">460</a> Changed: del settrentrionale
+d’Africa to: settentrionale</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_468">468</a> Changed: Oriental Translations
+Fund, 1941 to: 1841</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_470">470</a> Changed: Agheláshem wells to:
+Aghelashem</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_473">473</a> Changed: Aulimmiden, the, [. .
+.] inheritance system disliked by, 153 to: 152</li>
+<li>pg <a href="#Page_487">487</a> Changed: Songhai atack on to:
+attack</li>
+<li>Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently.</li>
+<li>Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged.</li>
+<li>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to
+the public domain.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74774 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-14 02:35:11 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-14 02:35:11 -0800
commit	65b38cfa808ee75160b4f4813ea1cc41bedd2926 (patch)
tree	95f3f7d35e9eec214890fb2664f47462a56d3da3