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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..18631ad --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #74831 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74831) diff --git a/old/74831-0.txt b/old/74831-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3ea903f..0000000 --- a/old/74831-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8071 +0,0 @@ - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 *** - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - -NORTH SIDE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN, LOOKING WEST.] - - - SURVEY DEPARTMENT, - EGYPT. - * * * * * - - THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY - OF THE - FAYUM PROVINCE - OF EGYPT - - BY - H. J. L. BEADNELL, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. - -[Decoration] - - CAIRO - NATIONAL PRINTING DEPARTMENT - 1905. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - * * * * * - - - INTRODUCTION. - - PAGES. - - Surveying operations. Soil survey. History of discovery of - Fayûm vertebrate fauna 9 - - PART I.—TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. - - SECTION I.—CULTIVATED LAND— - - Area. Composition and character of alluvial soil. Connection - with Nile Valley. Bahr Yusef and canal system. Ravines. - Alluvial deposits of Lake Moeris and prehistoric lake. - Increase of cultivated lands 11 - - SECTION II.—THE BIRKET EL QURUN— - - Site, depth and dimensions. Remnant of Lake Moeris. Continual - shrinkage of lake. Deposition of sand in lake at present day. - Salinity of lake. Possible underground outlets. Currents 12 - - SECTION III.—THE SURROUNDING DESERT REGION— - - Area and limits of Libyan Desert described. Rocks forming the - area. Importance of dip. Chief causes of origin of Fayûm 14 - - SECTION IV.—WADI RAYAN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD— - - Colonel Western’s survey. Sir William Willcocks’ report. - Borings. Details of proposed reservoir. Schweinfurth’s - estimate of salt content. Willcocks’ “Assuan Reservoir and - Lake Moeris.” Detailed geological examination not yet - undertaken. Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla and - Rayan to Gharaq. Warshat el Melh and springs of Wadi Muêla. - Der el Galamûn. Pass from Muêla to Rayan. Sand accumulations. - Wadi Korif. Springs of Wadi Rayan. Analyses and output of - water. Geological succession in Wadi Rayan. General geology of - floor and bounding walls. Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq. - Apparent absence of Nile deposit and freshwater shells in Wadi - Rayan. Question of leakage through ridge. Permeability of Rayan - if used as a reservoir. Salinity of water 16 - - SECTION V.—CENTRAL AREA OF THE REGION— - - Area and features. Dip-slope of surface. Drainage basins of - central plain. Pools formed by rainfall. Tamarisk growth. The - eastern area covered by alluvium. The bounding plateau to the - north. Ghart el Khanashat dunes 24 - - SECTION VI.—THE RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND FAYUM— - - Width and highest points. Strata forming ridge. Gravel - terraces. Low points of ridge. Original access of Nile waters - to depression. Formation of lake and deposition of sediment - in Fayûm 25 - - SECTION VII.—THE NORTHERN DESERT REGION— - - Escarpments and plateaux. Extreme west and south-west limits - of area. Ferruginous silicified puddingstone of ancient rivers. - Jebel el Qatrani. Widan el Faras. Elwat Hialla. Garat el Gindi. - Garat el Faras 26 - - PART II.—TECTONICS. - - SECTION VIII.—FAULTING AND FOLDING— - - Origin of depression. Evidence in drainage ravines El Bats and - El Wadi. Deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm. Dr. Blanckenhorn’s - theory that depression owes its origin to extensive fault - system. Fault theory disproved. Fault N.N.E. of Qasr el Sagha. - Numerous local strike faults of small throw. Occasional - influence of fractures in determining escarpments 29 - - PART III.—GEOLOGY. - - SECTION IX.—GENERAL AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA— - - Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks. Local lava flows. - Dip. Oldest beds the Nummulites gizehensis limestones of - Middle Eocene. Fluviomarine series of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene age. Absence of Miocene strata. Pliocene, - Pleistocene and Recent. Table showing succession and - classification of strata 33 - - SECTION X.—MIDDLE EOCENE— - - A.—_Wadi Rayan Series._—Work of Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar. - Section at entrance to Wadi Muêla on Nile Valley side. Strata - of cliffs near Der el Galamûn. Detailed section measured at - Jebel Rayan. Mayer Eymar’s section in Wadi Muêla 35 - - B.—_Ravine Beds._—In ravines of El Bats and El Wadi. Relation - to underlying series seen at Gar el Gehannem. Section at Gar - el Gehannem. Fauna of strata. In ravines unconformably - overlain by Pleistocene, etc. Form plain bordering cultivation - on east side. Extension into Nile Valley. Occurrence at Sersena - and Tamia. Forming base of Geziret el Qorn and lower part of - northern escarpment of Birket el Qurûn. West end of lake. Hard - siliceous bands give rise to horns or promontories of lake. - Ravine Beds in the Medinet el Fayûm boring. Thickness 37 - - C.—_Birket el Qurun Series._—Homotaxial with quarried - limestones of Cairo. Foraminiferal beds. Extension of series. - Section at Ezba Qalamsha. Section north of Lahûn pyramid. East - of Sersena and north-east of Rubiyat. Section 17 kilometres - 28° N. of E. of Tamia. Series characterized by large globular - concretions. Development and fauna in Geziret el Qorn. - Zeuglodon remains. Profile at Geziret el Qorn. Rich molluscan - fauna. Section on mainland opposite Geziret el Qorn. Section at - west end of Birket el Qurûn. Formation of earth-pillars. - Extension west of the lake. Development of the series in the - Zeuglodon Valley. Abundance of skeletons of whales. Molluscan - fauna. Pseudomorphs in celestine. Hill mass south of the - Zeuglodon Valley. Junction of Birket el Qurûn series with - overlying stage 41 - - D.—_Qasr el Sagha Series._—Equivalent of the Upper Mokattam - of Cairo. Greater development in Fayûm. Vertebrate fauna of - series. Schweinfurth’s original discovery of cetacean remains. - Recent discovery of land and marine mammals. Extension of - series generally. N.N.E. of Tamia. At Garat el Faras. In the - cliffs north of the Birket el Qurûn. Detailed section near - ruin of Qasr el Sagha. At Gar el Gehannem and westwards. Land - animals floated out from land by river currents. The series a - littoral deposit. Lignitic beds and thin seams of coal 49 - - SECTION XI.—UPPER EOCENE — LOWER OLIGOCENE— - - E.—_Fluvio-marine Series._—Nature of sediments, Interbedded - basalts in upper part. Character of its invertebrate fauna. - Conditions of deposition of series. Continuance of similar - conditions to Miocene and even Pliocene times. Bone-beds at - base of series. Association of skeletons of animals and forest - trees. Preservation of remains. Analysis of fossil bones. - Relation of Fluvio-marine series to underlying stage. - Characteristics of the group. Its development in the field. - Its slight development at Elwat Hialla. Section near Elwat - Hialla. Constant northerly dip. Organic (molluscan) remains 9 - and 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha. Detailed section - from near Qasr el Sagha to Widan el Faras. Determinations of - mollusca from the series. Tripartite character of the series - west of Widan el Faras and Qasr el Sagha. Occurrence of - calcite, gypsum and chalcedony. Tabular chert and flint. - Ancient workings. Extent of basalt. Silicified trees 53 - - F.—_Age of the Fluvio-Marine Series._—Difficulty in the - determination of age owing to paucity of fossils. Zittel’s - tabulation of “Schichten von Birket el Qurûn” as Oligocene. - Mayer-Eymar’s age determinations. Schweinfurth’s comparison - of the series with the Scutella beds of Der el Beda near - Cairo. Blanckenhorn’s determinations. The stratigraphical - position of the series and relationship to Qasr el Sagha - series. Stratigraphically lower than the Lower Miocene of - Mogara. Whole complex in all probability of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene age, the transition being at or near the basalt - sheets 63 - - G.—_The Position of the Land Mass from which the Mammals - were derived._—Proximity of continental land. Absence of - branches on fossil trees. Massif of Abu Roash perhaps an - island to the north. Extension of Eocene sea. Continual - retreat of the sea northwards. Rivers emerging from the land. - Number and positions of such rivers doubtful. Evidence for - river passing from the modern oasis of Baharia through Gar el - Hamra to the Fayûm. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits along - the course. Huxley’s theory of immigration and invasion of - animals into Africa. Fayûm animals belong to an extinct African - fauna of Tertiary times. Contains the earliest and most - primitive forms of elephants and other groups. Emigration and - immigration. Prof. Osborn’s theory of the African continent as - a centre of radiation. Confirmation by the Fayûm mammal - discoveries. List of new species obtained from the Fayûm 65 - - H.—_The Absence of Miocene deposits in the Fayûm._—The Fayûm a - land area in Miocene times. Miocene deposits of Mogara. - Lithological similarity. Probable persistence of geographical - conditions 71 - - SECTION XII.—PLIOCENE— - - J.—_Marine deposits: Middle Pliocene._—Marine deposits of - Sidmant with typical Middle Pliocene mollusca. Relation of - these deposits to the gravel terraces as yet unknown though - important 71 - - K.—_Borings on Rock Surfaces; of doubtful age._—Apparently - due to marine boring mollusca. No exact evidence as to age. - (α) Low level borings from zero to 20 metres above sea-level. - (β) High level borings at 112 metres above sea-level. Limited - occurrences of borings 71 - - L.—_Gravel Terraces:? Upper Pliocene._—Well marked terraces - of gravel up to 170-180 metres above sea-level. East of Sêla. - Character of deposit. East of Sersena and Roda. N.N.E. of - Tamia, N.N.E. of Garat el Faras, east and north-east of Garat - el Gindi. Relation to different series. Character of gravels - at Elwat Hialla. West of Elwat Hialla gravel terraces almost - completely removed by denudation. Traces near Widan el Faras - and near Garat el Esh. Height of terraces in latter locality - determined as 170 metres above sea-level. Terrace marks shore - line of great sheet of water, whether freshwater or marine. - The great plains of the Fayûm possibly in part plains of marine - denudation 73 - - M.—_Gypseous Deposits: probably dating from the close of the - Pliocene._—Extension in Nile Valley and Fayûm. Section at - Medum. On the east side of the Fayûm. Gypsum cemented - conglomerate. Close connection with upper part of gravel - terraces 77 - - N.—_Summary of Pliocene Period_ 78 - - SECTION XIII.—PLEISTOCENE— - - Earliest existence of a freshwater lake. Probably not a - remnant of the Pliocene sea or lake in which gravel terraces - were formed. Intermediate denudation of area. Date of earliest - entry of Nile waters doubtful. Freshwater lake of Nile Valley. - Drainage down the Nile Valley and establishment of river. - Breaking down of gravel ridge separating the valley and the - Fayûm. Entrance of flood waters. Formation of lake and - deposition of sediment. Subsequent disconnection of Nile Valley - and Fayûm owing to erosion of river bed. Rise of Nile in - prehistoric and historic times. Reconnection. Geological - evidence for the existence of great freshwater Pleistocene - lake. Position and dimensions. Fossil fauna of the lake, and - its difference from all other Egyptian faunas. Blanckenhorn’s - conclusions 79 - - SECTION XIV.—RECENT 81 - - O.—_Prehistoric._—Abundance of worked flints. Shores of lake - inhabited by Neolithic and probably prehistoric man. Tamarisk - remains. Probable age of flints anterior to Egyptian historic - period 82 - - P.—_Historic._—Relations of the Nile Valley river system and - the Fayûm. Lake Moeris a regulator of the Nile floods. Brought - under control in XIIth dynasty. Early references to Lake - Moeris. Its position disputed in modern times. Linant de - Bellefonds’ assertion disproved by Sir Hanbury Brown. - Archæological evidence for the site. Present day fauna of the - Birket el Qurûn. Modern deposits. Blown sand. Erosion 82 - - APPENDICES 87 - - 1. Previous literature relating to the Fayûm 87 - - 2. Fayûm lamellibranchs mentioned in Oppenheim’s “Zur Kenntnis - alttertiärer Faunen in Ægypten.” 89 - - INDEX 91 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - * * * * * - - - PHOTOGRAPHS. - - PLATES. PAGE. - - I. — North side of the Birket el Qurûn, - looking west _Frontispiece._ - - II. — Bahr Yusef at Lahûn before entering - the Fayûm _to face_ 11 - - III. — El Wadi, Ravine near Qasr Gebali „ 19 - - IV. — Western extremity of the Birket el Qurûn „ 29 - - V. — Alluvial deposits overlying marly - limestones (Ravine Beds) in El Wadi, - Ravine near Qasr Gebali „ 37 - - VI. — Escarpment of the Birket el Qurûn series - near the western end of the lake „ 41 - - VII. — Weathered concretionary sandstone - (Birket el Qurûn series) on north shore, - near Geziret el Qorn „ 45 - - VIII. — Middle Eocene escarpment (Qasr el Sagha - series) 12 kilometres west of Qasr el - Sagha „ 49 - - IX. — Upper beds of Fluvio-marine series with - basalt cap, looking west from the - eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani „ 53 - - X. — El Qatrani range from the south-east „ 57 - - XI. — Silicified trees of Fluvio-marine - series, 4½ kilometres north of Qasr el - Sagha „ 63 - - XII. — Raised Beach unconformably overlying - Middle Eocene limestones (Birket el - Qurûn series) in the desert east of - Sersena „ 69 - - XIII. — Borings in false-bedded sandstone, 2 - kilometres south of Dimê „ 73 - - XIV. — Pleistocene lacustrine clays with - tamarisk stumps _in situ_ at 50 metres - above the present surface of the Birket - el Qurûn „ 77 - - XV. — Isolated sand-dune near Gar el Gehannem „ 81 - - XVI. — The Birket el Qurûn near the western end „ 85 - - PLANS. - - XVII. — General Map of the Fayûm depression, with Wadi Rayan - and Wadi Muêla, 1/250000 end - - XVIII. — Map of the area north-west of Qasr el Sagha, showing - principal bone-bearing localities, 1/50000 „ - - SECTIONS. - - XIX. — From the Birket el Qurûn through Dimê and Qasr el - Sagha to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani end - - XX. — From Wadi Rayan to the summit of the escarpment - north of Gar el Gehannem „ - - XXI. — The Desert Ridge separating the Nile Valley and - the Fayûm „ - - XXII. — From Sidmant el Jebel in the Nile Valley through - Medinet el Fayûm to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani, - near Widan el Faras „ - - XXIII. — Middle Eocene escarpment near Qasr el Sagha „ - - XXIV. — From Garat el Esh to summit of Jebel el Qatrani „ - - FIGURES (IN THE TEXT.) - - 1. — Fault near Qasr el Sagha 32 - - 2. — Section at Gar el Gehannem, showing the relation of - the Wadi Rayan series to the Ravine Beds 38 - - 3. — Sketch-section across El Bats, one kilometre west - of Sêla 40 - - 4. — Profile of beds of Geziret el Qorn 44 - - 5. — Section of cliffs, western end of the Birket el-Qurûn 47 - - 6. — Probable course of chief river of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene times 67 - - 7. — Block of sandstone pierced by numerous borings 72 - - 8. — Sketch showing relations of the Eocene to Pliocene - gravel terraces on the east side of the Fayûm 74 - - 9. — Sketch-section through the summit of the Fayûm - escarpment at Elwat Hialla 76 - - 10. — Sketch-map showing approximately the site of - Lake Mœris 83 - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - * * * * * - - -The geological survey of the desert surrounding the Fayûm was -commenced in October 1898. At that time the area, although so near -to Cairo, was little known; the Rohlfs Expedition maps marked the -region as “unexplored,” and in fact with the exception of a -publication by Schweinfurth, who had traversed the region from north -to south, _via_ Qasr el Sagha and Gar el Gehannem to Rayan, there was -little information obtainable. The area being of considerable size -(12,000 sq. kilom.) and almost unexplored, both geologically and -topographically, the primary object was to construct as rapidly as -possible a general map of the depression, at the same time laying down -in broad outline the chief geological formations and trusting to future -opportunity to examine in more detail places of special interest. - -Commencing work at Sêla, on the eastern side of the depression, the -survey was carried northwards along the east side of the cultivated -lands and thence through the northern desert, up to the summit -of the depression. After mapping westwards as far as the isolated -hill-mass of Gar el Gehannem the work was temporarily suspended until, -in the spring, the narrow defile of Wadi Muêla, and the Wadi Rayan, -forming the southern part of the Fayûm depression, were provisionally -examined. - -In January 1901, samples of soil and water from the cultivated lands -were collected as an experimental soil-survey, and the results have -been published.[1] - -During the winter’s work of 1902-03 a traverse was carried from Gar -el Gehannem in a south-west direction through a hitherto unexplored -part of the depression. On reaching a point midway between Cairo -and the oasis of Baharia a connection was made eastwards to Wadi -Rayan. In the winter of 1903-04 further exploration was carried out -in the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem. - -It will be convenient here to briefly relate the history of the -discovery of the remarkable series of new and extinct animal forms, the -recovery of which from the Fayûm deposits has created such widespread -interest in the zoological world. When Schweinfurth crossed the region -in 1879 he obtained fossil bones, which were examined and determined -by Dames to be the remains of cetacea of the genus _Zeuglodon_, -from certain beds of the escarpment west of Qasr el Sagha; these, -it is believed, were the earliest vertebrate remains obtained from -the Fayûm. During the early part of the survey of the district, -remains of fish and crocodiles were frequently found in one of the -beds of the Middle Eocene, probably on the same horizon as that -from which Schweinfurth had collected. Fragments of bone were also -commonly met with on a much higher horizon (_i.e._, near the base -of the Fluvio-marine series) but nothing of particular interest -was obtained, as no detailed search could be made at that time. In -April 1901, during the survey of the western end of the Birket el -Qurûn, some of the localities found to be bone-bearing in 1898 were -re-visited in company with Dr. C. W. Andrews, who was in Egypt at the -time and had accompanied the survey in order to obtain specimens of -jackals, hares, etc., for the British Museum, in connection with the -forthcoming work on Egyptian mammals. In one of these Dr. Andrews -picked up several vertebrae which turned out to belong to a new -species of _Pterosphenus_. - -Further north, when descending the Middle Eocene escarpments at a place -not previously examined, we crossed the outcrop of the bone-beds at a -point where a considerable number of mammalian and reptilian bones lay -exposed on the surface, many in an excellent state of preservation. The -importance of the find was evident, and a short examination of the -material on the spot enabled Dr. Andrews to pronounce the discovery -to be of the highest importance from a palaeontological point of view. - -Some three weeks’ work in the immediate neighbourhood resulted in -a very good collection of vertebrates from the Middle Eocene beds, -including several new genera afterwards described[2] under the names of -_Eosiren_, _Barytherium_, _Mœritherium_, _Gigantophis_, etc. Moreover, -a fossil tooth brought in by one of the camelmen from a point several -kilometres to the north led to a careful examination of the lower beds -of the overlying Upper Eocene formation, which resulted in obtaining -well-preserved remains belonging to a new genus, since described as -_Palaeomastodon_. All the material so far obtained was taken home to -be worked up and determined at the British Museum and a preliminary -description was published by Dr. Andrews in the Geological Magazine. - -In the winter of 1901-02 the survey of the Fayûm was resumed -with the special intention of following up the highest beds, -those in which _Palaeomastodon_ had been found. Continued search -westwards eventually led to the discovery of the remains of a large -and remarkable horned ungulate (_Arsinoitherium_), a preliminary -notice[3] of which was published in the spring of 1902. Shortly after, -the remains of several new smaller mammals and reptiles (_Phiomia_, -_Saghatherium_), including the shell of a large land tortoise -(_Testudo Ammon_), were obtained[4]. Further work in the winters -of 1902-03-04 led to a great deal more material being obtained[5], -mostly of course belonging to the same species, but including some -new genera _Geniohyus_, _Megalohyrax_, _Pterodon_. - -The amount of palaeontological material is now so large that the -Egyptian Government has arranged with the Trustees of the British -Museum for the publication of the whole in a monograph to be issued -by the Trustees. The present report, therefore, deals only with the -geology and topography of the district. - - -[Footnote 1: A. LUCAS, _A preliminary investigation of the Soil and -Water of the Fayum Province_; Survey Dep., P.W.M. Cairo, 1902.] - -[Footnote 2: ANDREWS, _Extinct Vertebrates from Egypt_. Parts I -and II. Geol. Mag. N. 8. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct. 1901, -pp. 400-409 and 436-444.] - -[Footnote 3: BEADNELL, _A Preliminary Note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, -Beadn._ Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. See also _A New Egyptian -Mammal (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm_. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, -Vol. X. Dec. 1903, pp. 529-532.] - -[Footnote 4: ANDREWS and BEADNELL, _A Preliminary Note on Some New -Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt_. Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo, -1902.] - -[Footnote 5: ANDREWS, _Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, -with Description of some New Mammals_. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, -Vol. X. Aug. 1903, pp. 337-343. Also _Further Notes on the Mammals -of the Eocene of Egypt_ (Parts I, II, III). Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V., -Vol. I. March, April, May 1904.] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - -BAHR YUSUF AT LAHUN BEFORE ENTERING THE FAYUM.] - - - - - PART I. - - =TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.= - - * * * * * - - -The Fayûm, a large circular depression in the Libyan Desert, is -situated immediately west of that part of the Nile Valley lying -between Kafr el Ayat and Feshn (Plate XVII.) - -The depression, which has an area, roughly speaking, of 12,000 -square kilometres, is primarily divisible into three distinct -parts—cultivated land, lake, and desert. - - - SECTION I.—CULTIVATED LAND. - - -The cultivated land has an area of about 1,800 square kilometres and, -with the exception of the lake and part of the Wadi Rayan, occupies -the lowest part of the depression. Cultivation is necessarily strictly -limited to the area covered with alluvial soil. The latter, for the -most part identical in origin and composition with the river-alluvium -of the Nile Valley, covers a leaf-shaped tract between the bounding -desert on the east side and the lake (the Birket el Qurûn) on -the north-west. The easterly and central part of the cultivated -area forms a more or less level table-land, from which the ground -slopes gently away, especially on the north side, where the slope is -towards the lake and very marked. The cultivated land of the Fayûm -is directly connected with that of the Nile Valley by a narrow strip -of low ground, a natural passage through the desert separating the -Nile Valley and the depression of the Fayûm. Through this gap runs -the natural canal known as the Bahr Yusef, which is practically the -sole source of water in the Fayûm and irrigates the entire district. - -The canal leaves the Nile Valley at Lahûn (Plate II), and follows a -somewhat serpentine course through the desert for about 5 kilometres, -irrigating a narrow strip of land on either side, which at Hawara -rapidly broadens out into the wide cultivated area of the Fayûm. Once -within the latter, the Bahr Yusef gives off numerous subsidiary canals -which traverse the country in all directions, constantly splitting up -into smaller branches until the water-supply is divided throughout the -whole area. With the exception of the self-contained basin of Gharaq, -on the south side of the Fayûm, the entire district drains into the -Birket el Qurûn, which occupies the lowest part of the depression, -to the north of the cultivation. The basin of Gharaq is irrigated by -the Bahr el Gharaq, a canal which takes off from the Bahr Yusef soon -after the latter enters the Fayûm[6]. - -The cultivated land of the Fayûm is traversed by two main ravines, -cut down in many places to the Eocene limestone below the alluvium -(Plates III and V.) At the present time these ravines carry canals -for irrigating the lower parts of the district, and also act largely -as drains to the higher lands. They were probably initiated by the -escape of water through breaches in the Bahr Yusef during flood time, -and have since been deepened to their present dimensions. - -In addition to the main central cultivated area, the soil of which, -as mentioned above, is essentially identical with that of the Nile -Valley, large tracts of the surrounding country, more especially on -the north, north-west, and west sides, are also covered with alluvial -deposits. These latter, which include sands, sandy clays, and clays -of a quite distinct type, represent the slowly formed accumulations -of the quieter and more remote parts of the ancient Lake Moeris (and -the earlier prehistoric lake). The material was mostly derived from -the Eocene strata which formed the shores of the lake, augmented no -doubt by a certain amount of very fine sediment drifted from the Bahr -Yusef, and by sand blown in by wind. - -It is noticeable that the thickest and most sandy deposits occur near -the borders of the lake site; when close under the Eocene cliffs, -as along the north side above the Birket el Qurûn, the deposits -closely resemble those of the latter. The finer more calcareous beds -occur further out and the true marls were accumulated only at some -distance from the shores of the lake. - -When in Ptolemaic times the lake became reduced to a fraction of -its former size, large areas covered by these lacustrine clays were -exposed and some portions were brought under cultivation. Subsequently, -however, all these outlying districts were abandoned and became -absorbed by the surrounding desert, until in modern times the -cultivation was restricted to the central portion of the old lake -bed, a portion almost identical with the area over which true “Nile -Mud” had been deposited. - -The construction during recent years of extensive irrigation works -in the Nile Valley has made it possible to largely augment the -water-supply of the Bahr Yusef to the Fayûm. High level canals are -being cut in various parts of the district and already large areas of -desert covered by these lacustrine deposits have been brought under -cultivation, notably to the north of Tamia and in the neighbourhood -of Qasr Qurûn. The approximate area covered with lacustrine deposits -can be seen on the map and with a sufficiency of water probably the -greater part of this area could be utilized, though the exact value -of the soil compared with Nile deposit remains to be determined. - - - SECTION II.—THE BIRKET EL QURUN. - - -The lowest part of the depression, lying immediately to the north-west -of the cultivation, is occupied by a sheet of water of considerable -size, known as the Birket el Qurûn.[7] The lake, which has a length of -40 kilometres, and a maximum breadth under ten, covers at the present -time an area of about 225 square kilometres. Sir Hanbury Brown obtained -no sounding exceeding 5 metres in crossing the lake to Dimê, but -according to the fishermen the depth increases towards the south-west. - -Its long axis lies nearly east and west, and while on the north it is -entirely[8] bordered by desert, along a large part of the south side -the cultivated land approaches its shore, although even here a large -area actually bordering the lake is waste salty land as yet unfit for -cultivation. As already mentioned, with the exception of the Gharaq -basin, the lake receives the whole drainage from the cultivated lands. - -The Birket el Qurûn is the existing remnant of the ancient prehistoric -lake which covered a large part of the floor of the Fayûm depression, -and which in historic times was converted into an artificially -controlled sheet of water—the celebrated Moeris—by Amenemhat I -and his successors in the XII Dynasty. - -Lake Moeris, being used as a regulator of excessively high and low -Nile floods,[9] was of the greatest importance in connection with -the irrigation of the Nile Valley. In more recent times, apparently -under the Persians or Ptolemies according to Flinders Petrie,[10] -Lake Moeris ceased to perform its function of regulator; since that -time all water, except that required for irrigation of the reclaimed -land, being carefully excluded, the surface of the lake has continually -and gradually sunk to its modern dimensions.[11] - -Lacustrine deposits, showing approximately the actual limits of the -ancient Fayûm lake, can be traced over wide areas of now barren -desert; these will be more fully dealt with later. The present -lake-level is still continually sinking owing to an improved system -of irrigation, by which a constantly decreasing amount of waste -water drains into the lake. Its average annual fall has, during the -last decade, been nearly half a metre,[12] and the slope of the land -being very gradual, large areas have been reclaimed during the last -few years, though whether the advantages derived from this constant -lowering of the lake are not more than balanced by certain drawbacks -is somewhat doubtful.[13] - -With the new areas now being brought under cultivation the amount -of drainage water finding its way into the lake will increase and -the fall be checked. At the beginning of 1904 the level was markedly -higher than in the previous winter, and a difference of even half a -metre alters the shore line to a considerable extent, owing to the -flatness of the land by which the lake is for the most part bounded. - -Although under the present desert conditions practically no material -from the surrounding desert is washed into the lake, doubtless a -considerable amount of fine dust and sand is carried into it by the -wind, especially during the violent sandstorms which occur frequently -in the locality. The high cliffs which bound the northern shore of -the lake throughout a portion of its length probably have the effect -of checking the velocity of both north and south winds, thus causing a -considerable amount of sand, which would otherwise be carried across, -to be dropped on its surface. This material, together with the fine -mud brought down by the canals on the cultivation sides, must have -an appreciable effect in raising the level of the bed of the lake. - -The phenomenon of the extraordinary freshness of the water of the -Birket el Qurûn has been commented on by Schweinfurth, who shows -that the degree of concentration of salt in a lake whose volume -has been continually reduced, and to which salt has constantly -been added, should be many times greater than the actual existing -amount. An analysis[14] of the water at the west end of the lake -(where the concentration is greatest, owing to the distance from the -feeder canals) showed that the total salts amounted to only 1·34%, -of which 0·92% was sodium chloride. Dr. Schweinfurth[15] concludes -that the lake has a subterranean outlet, which alone would enable -it to maintain its comparative freshness.[16] In this connection -it is interesting to note the existence of distinct currents, which -may possibly be caused by such outlets, in certain localities on the -north side of the lake; and it is just possible that a careful survey -of the lake itself would not only prove the existence, but show the -exact position, of such underground outlets. - -Most probably, however, the currents are simply local movements -produced by temporary differences of level, which might conceivably -be caused in such a large and comparatively shallow sheet of water, -varying considerably in salinity in different localities, by wind -and evaporation. - -The comparative freshness of the lake and the possible presence of -underground outlets are of the highest importance in their bearing -directly on two of the most important questions in connection with the -proposed utilization of the Wadi Rayan as a reservoir, i.e. what the -leakage from such a reservoir would be and to what degree of salinity -its water would attain. - - - SECTION III.—THE SURROUNDING DESERT REGION. - - -With the exception of the lake and the cultivated area the depression -is practically entirely desert. The southern and south-western parts -include the wadies Rayan and Muêla, where freshwater springs occur, -surrounded by areas covered by a good deal of wild scrub. Apart from -these, however, no springs occur outside the cultivated land. - -The topography of the region is so intimately connected with its -geological structure that an adequate description of the former is -not possible without constant reference to the latter. Full geological -details will, however, be reserved for later consideration. - -[Sidenote: Area and Limits.] - -The part of the Libyan Desert dealt with in this report has, excluding -the cultivated land and the lake, an area of some ten thousand square -kilometres. While some portions have been examined and mapped in -detail, others are still very imperfectly known, especially on the -south and south-west sides. The irregular cliff-line forming the -southern boundary of Rayan and the adjacent wadis may be taken as our -limit in this direction, beyond lying an almost unbroken limestone -plateau rising gradually and continually to the south. On the north -and north-west the area under description is bounded by the southern -limit of the great undulating high-lying gravelly desert-plateau which -stretches with little change of character to the Mediterranean. On the -east side the Nile Valley forms a convenient though not altogether -natural boundary; while to the south-west our limit practically -coincides with the boundary of the depression, where the floor of -the latter insensibly merges into the general desert plateau. - -[Sidenote: Rocks forming the Area.] - -The rocks forming the area within the above limits are almost entirely -of sedimentary origin, the exception being a band of hard basalt -intercalated at the very top of the series and exposed only on the -extreme northernmost limit of the depression. The total thickness of -sediments, from the lowest beds exposed in the bottom of the Wadi Rayan -to the summit of the escarpments, a day’s march north of Tamia, -is some 700 metres. These beds include every kind of sedimentary -deposit—limestones, marls, clays, sandstones, sands and gravels, -forming an ever-changing succession of rocks, varying considerably in -hardness and capacity for withstanding the agents of denudation. It is -not too much to say that the coming into existence of the Fayûm, with -its plains, lowlying depressions, precipitous cliffs and escarpments, -was largely dependent on the existence of this variable series of -deposits. - -Apart from the presence of sediments varying greatly in hardness -and durability, the fact that the whole of the rocks have an almost -constant northerly dip of two or three degrees is a point of prime -importance. So small a dip may be scarcely noticeable in any one place, -but over the large areas with which we have to deal its influence -on the position and level of any individual bed is very marked and -the topography of the region would have been essentially different -if the strata had been quite horizontal. - -[Sidenote: Origin of the Fayûm.] - -The unique character of the Fayûm is alone sufficient to show -that special causes have acted in its production. Two main causes -stand out:—(1) the presence of thick bands of comparatively -soft arenaceous and argillaceous strata breaking up the usually -continuous hard limestone of the Middle Eocene; (2) the effect of -the Nile Valley fault in lowering the whole of the western desert -(north of Assiut) relatively to the eastern. The former took place -as the result of changed geographical conditions on the continent -to the south at the time in question, with which however we need -not deal here. On a homogeneous mass of rock weathering has little -power to form depressions of any magnitude, and this is the cause of -the continuous unbroken plateau which stretches southwards from the -Fayûm, the underlying rocks being one continuous thick mass of hard -limestone. Wherever softer intercalations are present differential -weathering takes place, and all the great depressions of the Libyan -desert owe their origin to the presence of soft easily denuded strata; -if the great homogeneous mass of Nile Valley limestone had stretched -unchanged westwards, the oases of Farafra and Baharia would never -have existed. They owe their origin entirely to the presence of the -underlying saddle of softer Cretaceous rocks. Similarly if changed -conditions had not led to the deposition of soft beds of clay, marl, -and sandstone, the western plateau would have continued unbroken -northwards. - -A comparison of the two sides of the Nile Valley between Cairo and -Assiut shows that the tectonic movements, which largely determined the -existence of the valley itself, resulted in a considerable lowering -of the rocks forming the western side. This was brought about by -differential movements along the north and south line or lines -of fault, and by the presence of an east to west monoclinal fold -which is especially well marked in the neighbourhood of Heluan. The -depressions of the Fayûm would doubtless have existed irrespective of -this general lowering of the western desert relative to the east, but -denudation would have required an additional period of many thousands -of years before the floor of the depression was low enough to allow -of its actual connection with the Nile river. - -As it has been maintained that the Fayûm is an area let down and -enclosed by faults, it may be mentioned here that all available -evidence points in an opposite direction; this question of faults -will however be dealt with in detail later. The influence of the Nile -Valley fault has been explained above and it must be remembered it -is one affecting not the Fayûm alone but the northern part of the -western desert as a whole. - - -For purposes of description it will be convenient to divide the whole -region into three parts: first, the southern portion, including the -wadis Muêla and Rayan; secondly, the central area, comprising the -extensive plain forming the floor of the depression as a whole, and -including the areas under cultivation and the Birket el Qurûn, as well -as the desert separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley. Thirdly, the -northern portion, embracing all the rising ground between the floor and -the northern rim of the region. These areas will now be taken in order. - - - SECTION IV.—WADI RAYAN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. - - -This part of the Fayûm is of special interest in consequence of -its possible future as a reservoir. Although the area has not yet -been examined in detail by the Geological Survey it will be useful -to bring together all the information that is at present available. - -[Sidenote: Colonel Western’s Survey.] - -In 1882, as a counter-project to other irrigation schemes, Cope -Whitehouse suggested[17] utilising as a reservoir the Wadi Rayan, -a depression which had been referred to by Linant de Bellefonds.[18] -At the request of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff the Government deputed -Colonel Western to make plans of the Wadi Rayan and surrounding country -and to ascertain the capacity of the depression and its capability -of being used as a reservoir. Liernur Bey under his direction -prepared a contoured map, and Colonel Western’s report, plans, and -estimates were published.[19] Some general details of the wadi and -surrounding hills are given and the detailed survey showed that the -30 metre contour line (above sea-level) enclosed an area of 706 square -kilometres (170,000 feddans). The lowest points of the depression were -found at 42 metres below sea-level. The sand, scrub and springs are -briefly referred to and the discharge of the latter is given as equal -to that of a very slow-going four inch hand pipe, the water running -out at about + 20 m. and disappearing in the sand. Wadi Muêla was -found to be separated from the Rayan depression by sandhills and rock -at a mean level of + 50 metres, the lowest point in Muêla being at + -25 metres. A line of levels was run from Rayan through Muêla to the -Nile Valley, the highest point crossed being at + 105 metres; for -fifteen kilometres the level was not below + 75 metres. In order to -find the most suitable passage for a canal to connect the Nile with -the Wadi Rayan two lines of level were made after a reconnaissance of -the hills near Sidmant el Jebel: the southern, from Ezba Menesi Ali, -near the Gharaq canal, to Mazana on the Bahr Yusef, being considered -the best. Along this line the highest point was only at + 44·7 metres -and the average + 35 metres along four kilometres. Borings were not -made here but judging from the surface excavation would be mostly -in soft limestone, sand, and conglomerate. A much shorter route is -from Deshasleh on the Bahr Yusef over the hills about 5 kilometres -to the south of Mazana or Sidmant into the Wadi Gharaq, a distance -of 30 kilometres. This route was not however levelled but is fairly -straight and apparently not much higher than the Mazana passage. - -The survey of the + 30 metre contour line of the Wadi Rayan proved -that there were only two outlets into the Fayûm, both on the northern -side: these two openings are only from 400-500 metres wide and their -lowest points are not below + 25 or + 26 metres. - -[Sidenote: Later Government Publications by Scott Moncrieff and -Willcocks.] - -In 1889 Sir C. Scott Moncrieff published[20] a further note, in which -he briefly discussed the probable cost and benefits to be derived -from the suggested reservoir, concluding that at least the project -was one worthy of being thoroughly examined. - -In 1894 the plans and designs in connection with the Wadi Rayan -were published[21] and the possibility of utilizing the Wadi Rayan -was examined by Sir William Willcocks, then Director General of -Reservoirs, from an engineering point of view, and the questions of -its probable cost and future utility were discussed. In this report -it is stated that the routes proposed by Colonel Western in 1888 pass -through salty marls and clays unsuitable for holding canals. Another -route is suggested, which after leaving the Nile Valley crosses the -high desert ridge in a straight line, passing through the so-called -Wadi Liernur (Wadi Lulu of Cope Whitehouse); this depression is 12 -kilometres long and has its bed some 24 metres below the general -level of the desert. Plate 15 of the report shows the Wadi Rayan, the -deserts between it and the Nile Valley and the cultivated land. The -map was begun by Col. Western and completed by Willcocks. The lowest -point of Wadi Rayan is shown as − 42 metres and the depression is -separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge generally from + 34 to + -60 metres, except at two places where it falls to + 26 metres above -sea level on a length of 600 metres. Within the + 27 metre contour -line the wadi has an area of 673 square kilometres and a capacity of -18,743,000,000 cubic metres. Between it and the Nile Valley lie 30 -kilometres of desert, of which 11 are occupied by a marked depression -discovered by Liernur Bey in 1887. At the extreme western edge of the -Nile Valley (here 20 kilometres wide) runs the Bahr Yusef. Comparing -the proposed Wadi Rayan reservoir and the ancient Mœris and allowing -for a difference of 4·5 metres between the levels of the Nile Valley -in B.C. 2,000 and to-day, Willcocks assumes that the high water mark of -Lake Mœris was at + 22·5 metres and its area 2,500 square kilometres, -against 673 square kilometres of the Wadi Rayan at + 27 metres. It -is pointed out that the ancient lake had the great advantage that in -those days the Bahr Yusef was an important branch of the Nile, if not -the main river itself, and the reservoir was connected with the Nile -by a natural ravine of great length and short breadth, across which -a massive embankment was thrown and destroyed annually, the surplus -water of high floods being stored for the deficiency of low floods. - -The published sections along the lines of borings put down show the -different strata cut through by the proposed canal. The Nile Valley, -along the line of the inlet canal, consists of hard clay 6 to 10 -metres thick, lying on coarse sand. Along the outlet canal sandy -clays and clays alternate to a depth of 10 metres. On entering the -desert sands and sandy conglomerate, with gypsum and salt, are met -with below the surface, then a yellow marl with salts, and finally a -plastic black clay overlying the Parisian limestone. These beds are -most extensive in the narrow neck of land between the Nile Valley and -the Fayûm and to some 10 kilometres to the south of it. They rise -to + 70 metres. There are some other marls inside the Wadi Rayan or -in the adjacent depressions and as they have to be traversed by the -canals form a serious factor, being easily dissolved in water; in -consequence Willcocks chose the alignment of the inlet canal along -the Bahr Belama where the extent of these beds would only be 2·5 -kilometres against 9 kilometres on the alternative route marked on -the plan. A narrow neck of land, some 15 kilometres in length, runs -between the Fayûm and the depressions traversed by the proposed -Wadi Rayan canal; this neck is the continuation of the salty marls -and clays, but the limestone is near the surface and is overlain by -a thin deposit of sand and pebbles, with freshwater shells on its -northern slope at + 22·50 metres; the southern slope is entirely -devoid of them. Willcocks points out that it is evident the ancient -Mœris rose to + 22·50 metres but its water never penetrated into the -Wadi Rayan. The report goes into details of inlet and outlet canals, -discharge, necessary masonry works, cost, and compares the different -reservoir schemes. - -After a careful review of the whole question, the scheme, while -considered perfectly feasible as far as available data went, was -abandoned by Sir William Garstin[22] in favour of the less costly -and more useful Nubian reservoir. - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - -EL WADI, RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.] - -[Sidenote: Schweinfurth’s report on the probable salt-content in -Wadi Rayan Reservoir.] - -In an appendix[23] to the above report Schweinfurth discusses the -question as to how salt the water of such a reservoir would become. He -points out that the exact valuation of the salt which would be -contained in this reservoir when the water had risen to + 27 metres -cannot be accurately determined, owing to the absence of information -on certain points. The maximum quantity of salt in the desert soil -is estimated at 2% and this figure is used in his calculation, -which includes the amount of salt which would be brought into the -reservoir, (1) from the Nile during filling and in the extra water -entering to replace that lost by evaporation in the lake and canals; -(2) from the ground forming the bed of the lake (far the largest item); -(3) from the bed and banks of the inlet canal, both in the desert and -in the Nile Valley; and (4) from infiltration. The figure obtained -is 7,500 million kilogrammes, equal to 0·04 per cent, or almost one -twenty-fifth per cent of salt. This amount is only equivalent to half -the salt existing in many of the well waters used in the country for -irrigation. As Schweinfurth is careful to point out his calculation -is based on maximum and assumed data. - -[Sidenote: Willcocks’ “Assouan Reservoir and Lake Mœris”.] - -The question of the utilisation of the Wadi Rayan as a reservoir has -recently been again brought to the front, notably by Sir William -Willcocks in a paper[24] read before the Khedivial Geographical -Society, Cairo. The author, after pointing out the value of such a -lake, working in connection with the Assuan reservoir, discusses at -length the position, dimensions, and functions of the ancient Lake -Moeris. It is suggested that the main canal should be cut through -the desert opposite Mazana and crossing the so-called wadis Liernur -and Masaigega enter the Wadi Rayan at its easternmost point. These -wadis would in time become covered with alluvium and be converted -into valuable cultivated land. After examining the big ravines of -the Fayûm, where similar beds are exposed, the author comes to the -conclusion that the maintenance of canals in the saliferous marls, -which form part of the desert through which the inlet canal would pass, -would offer no particular difficulties. - -With regard to the questions of leakage into the Fayûm and of the -water of the lake eventually becoming salted, Sir William Willcocks -says, “When the old Lake Moeris, or the present Fayûm, was full -of water and 63 metres higher than the bottom of the Wadi Rayan and -remained so for thousands of years, there was no question of the waters -having become salted or having escaped into the Wadi. The Wadi was -as dry as it is to-day and the great inland sea was always fresh.” -As to the question of leakage into Gharaq the author considers that -if water found its way into that depression it would be a distinct -advantage, as such water could be pumped into the Nezleh canal and -utilized elsewhere; he maintains at the same time that no leakage -will take place. Incidentally it is mentioned that the Wadi Rayan is -separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge, a statement which, -as will be shown later, requires modification. - -[Sidenote: Wadi Rayan not yet examined in detail by the Geological -Survey of Egypt.] - -Until a detailed geological examination of the Wadi Rayan and -neighbourhood has been carried out it will not be possible to form -reliable opinions on many of the questions raised in connection with -the prospective reservoir. The writer’s acquaintance with the area -is limited to a traverse in 1899 from the Nile Valley through Wadi -Muêla to Rayan and thence to Gharaq, and subsequently to a stay -of a few days duration in the neighbourhood of the Rayan springs, -after mapping the extreme south-west of the Fayûm depression. While -the accompanying maps may be taken as representing fairly accurately -the bolder topography of the region, they do not replace the older -contoured maps of the floor of the depression and the country between -it and the Nile Valley to the east, accompanying the report on -“Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt.” - - -The following description of this part of the district is based on a -traverse from the Nile Valley through the wadis Muêla and Rayan to -Gharaq; the detailed geological sections measured and examined along -the line of route will be given later. - -[Sidenote: Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla to Rayan -and Gharaq.] - -[Sidenote: Warshat el Melh in Wadi Muêla.] - -Between the village of El Gayat and the mouth of the Wadi Muêla -(16 kilometres to the north-west) stretches a gradually rising -undulating gypseous plain, superficially covered with loose sand and -rounded pebbles of quartz and flint. In occasional small hills the -white limestone which forms the underlying rock is visible. Near -the entrance to the wadi stands a somewhat prominent conical hill -composed of hard whitish fossiliferous limestone passing down into -more sandy and clayey beds. The bottom of the wadi is cut out in soft -green and brown clays, its surface being covered with blown sand, -fragments of limestone, flints and gypsum. From the mouth of the wadi -the Nile Valley cliffs run north and south in a winding irregular -manner. On entering the valley several outstanding flat-topped -limestone capped hills are passed on the right hand; they are in -part joined to the regular bounding cliff beyond; the eastern cliff -is steep and well-marked, while that on the west only outcrops here -and there, buried as it is in immense accumulations of blown sand, -rising in places into definite dune-ridges. Wadi Muêla has a length -of some 18 kilometres and lies nearly N.W. and S.E. The central part -of its floor is a sandy scrub-covered area, the lowest points lying -at about + 25 metres; just at the southern edge of the scrub stands -a small hill composed of hard shaly clays capped by white limestone, -surrounded by a saline, superficially dry. Holes dug in this are -at once filled with excessively salt water, and by evaporation of -the brine in shallow troughs supplies of white fairly pure salt can -be obtained. The area is known as Warshat el Melh. Banks of reeds -were found growing on the north side of the saline, the surface of -the latter being here composed of a soft brown sandy salty deposit, -caking here and there into a hard earthy impure salt. - -In the lowest spots the saline frequently consists of soft wet sludge; -its area is about half a square kilometre but the depth of the deposit -is unknown. In the middle of the scrub-covered area to the north lies -Ain Warshat el Melh, a pool of water, fairly fresh and drinkable, -although ferruginous, measuring 10 by 5 metres in size and from 2 -to 2½ metres deep. The water evidently rises from a spring on the -west side, round which are fifty square metres of green rushes, with -some larger bushes. The ground around and above is very saliferous; -between the spring and the ruins to the north the ground is sandy, -with many bushes and much scrub. This ground extends two kilometres -to the west, whence it gradually passes up into great masses of drift -sand; an occasional small outcrop of the top of the plateau above the -sand is all that serves to locate the position of the buried cliff. On -the east side the sandy ground with scrub extends about a kilometre, -beyond which the plain gradually rises for another kilometre to the -base of the cliff beyond, which is fairly steep and well-marked, -though with an entire absence of indentations of any kind. - -[Sidenote: Der el Galamûn.] - -Close to the north end of the valley, and about 33 kilometres from -El Gayat, lie the ruins known as Der el Galamûn bil Muêla. At -the time of our visit a new square stone building was in course of -erection and five or six persons were inhabiting the place. There are -several small palms scattered about to the south of the monastery and -an excellent running spring of clear water five hundred paces to the -south-west. A new well is being sunk within the premises. To the north -of the monastery the eastern cliff takes a marked trend to the west -for some three kilometres, whence it resumes a northerly direction, -always maintaining its character of a steep well-marked escarpment -rising some 100 metres above the floor of the wadi. At the corner -of the cliffs the lowest bed exposed is a white limestone; this is -overlain by gypseous clays passing up into sandy beds, the latter -being surmounted by the white limestone capping the escarpment. - -[Sidenote: Wadi Rayan.] - -We are here on the summit of the divide between Wadi Muêla and Wadi -Rayan, the height of the floor being about + 105 metres; to the north -stretches a gradually widening bay descending to the lowest ground -of the Rayan depression. Immense accumulations of sand almost block -the defile and stretch away to the east, and the hitherto well-marked -cliff on that side bends back and is lost to view. On the other side -however, the bounding wall gradually emerges from the dunes, getting -more distinct as it is followed northwards until it becomes quite -clear of the sand. The first glimpse of this cliff is seen a couple of -kilometres west of the pass in an outcropping headland, the next point -visible being some five kilometres further west. Between these portions -of the cliff are one or two outliers, surrounded by quantities of blown -sand. A depression known as Wadi Korif is reported to lie to the west, -and much scrub and some water is said to exist there; such a wadi is -marked on Schweinfurth’s map but apparently has not been examined. - -Continuing in a N.N.W. direction high rather steep dunes occur -on either flank, running N.N.W. and S.S.E. Between the dunes is a -fairly hard undulating sand-flat affording an easy route; further -on a narrow defile between the dunes leads down to the centre of -the depression. The main areas occupied by blown sand are shown in -the accompanying maps. The most interesting part of the depression -is the bay lying to the south of the narrow well-marked promontory -jutting out from the southern plateau, a huge pointer, as it were, -in the direction of Gharaq; this is the Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth. - -[Sidenote: Springs in Wadi Rayan.] - -The bay is on three sides completely enclosed by cliffs and its -floor is thickly covered by a luxurious growth of wild scrub—chiefly -tamarisk and ghardag; numerous isolated palm trees occur, especially in -the neighbourhood of the water which exists at several points. There -are three particularly good springs,[25] the positions of which are -shown on the accompanying maps. According to Colonel Western’s -survey the water emerges at about + 20 metres. In 1899 the water of -the northern spring was found to have a temperature of 26°C. On our -last visit we found an artificially constructed pool of two metres -diameter and a depth of 30 centimetres; on the west side of this -were two springs, marked by the motion of the grey sand rising and -falling in the vents, down which a stick could be easily pushed to -a depth of two metres. The output of these springs together amounted -to six litres a minute; the water was quite clear and although soft -and rather ferruginous not by any means unpalatable (see analyses -below). The pool lies on an open bare sandy spot and is surrounded by -scattered bushes, none of which however are within fifteen metres; -a sand dune lies 150 metres to the south-west, with bushes and -seven or eight young palms. The southerly spring has an output of -21 litres a minute, and its water does not differ essentially from -that of the northern spring. Rising at the foot of a palm tree it -forms pools on either side; thence it flows a distance of 20 metres -into an artificially constructed shallow basin 2 to 3 metres across, -from which it runs away down the slope and disappears after five or -six metres. The east spring, which is situated on the east side of -the dunes bounding the mouth of the bay, consists of a small hole cut -out in soft sand. The water seemed good, although analysis shows the -salts content to be high; this spring does not run, but if emptied -the hole soon refills. The remains of old buildings occur near the -well, in the shape of loose roughly squared limestone blocks, broken -pottery, and remains of old walls; the latter are nearly level with -the ground and very thickly and solidly built. - -To the south of the promontory lies the so-called Little Rayan. Here -there is a good deal of scrub, and water can be obtained on the lowest -ground at a few metres depth, although there do not appear to be any -surface springs. - -[Sidenote: Geology of Wadi Rayan in broad outline.] - -The geological succession of beds exposed in the cliffs of the -promontory is given later. Broadly speaking it consists of two -thirty-metre bands of hard limestone separated by 68 metres of softer -sandy and clayey beds. The lower of the limestone bands in places -forms the floor of the depression but more frequently the latter -is composed of the overlying sandy or clayey beds. The depression -is bounded on the north side by the same succession, and, as far -as could be judged from observations made on the traverse, the bed -of limestone capping the ridge, and forming the plain stretching -away to the Birket el Qurûn and to Gar el Gehannem, is identical -with that capping the cliffs to the south, i.e. is the uppermost of -the two thick limestone bands. At the two points more particularly -noticed, namely, the spurs projecting southwards into the depression, -23 kilometres west and 18 kilometres W.S.W. of Gharaq basin, the -sequence seemed to be the same as in the southern cliffs, although, -owing to the northerly dip, the upper bed of limestone lies at a -much lower level and the basal beds are not exposed at all. In both -these localities, however, some of the underlying clays were exposed, -as well as on the lowest spots crossed between the most easterly spur -(18 kilom. W.S.W. of Gharaq) and the extensive dunes lying immediately -west of Gharaq cultivation. These dunes, though of no height, have -remarkably steep sides. In crossing Gharaq to the Fayûm cultivation -occasional beds of yellow sandy limestone were noticed, but their -horizon was not determined. Numerous bored blocks, probably belonging -to the marine Pliocene, were observed scattered about. Apparently -the uppermost thirty-metre band of limestone passes continuously -northwards under the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the Fayûm; -in the ravines of the latter this limestone is not observed, the -soft limestones exposed below the alluvial deposits almost certainly -belonging to the overlying Ravine beds. The country to the east of -Gharaq has not been geologically examined and the exact locality in -which the thick bed of limestone dips underground and is overlain by -the succeeding beds is doubtful. Further north, in the desert ridge -east of Qalamsha, we have observed the Birket el Qurûn beds and a -section measured at this point is given later. - -[Sidenote: Character of Ridge separating Wadi Rayan from Gharaq and -the Fayûm.] - -As it appears to have been freely assumed that the ridge separating -the Rayan depression from the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the -Fayûm is formed throughout of solid limestone, it is important to -point out that, on our assumption of the identity of the beds of -limestone capping the cliffs to the south and the plain to the north -of the Wadi Rayan, the dividing ridge would in part be formed of the -underlying arenaceous and argillaceous beds. - -[Sidenote: Question of leakage through dividing ridge.] - -The absence of Nile deposit and freshwater shells in the Wadi Rayan -will, when confirmed after a thorough examination of the area, afford -the strongest evidence that the depression was never directly flooded -by Nile water. The fact that the dividing ridge is probably everywhere -above the highest level attained by Lake Mœris, and by the still more -ancient prehistoric lake, is almost sufficient in itself as a proof of -this. It does not however follow that there was not leakage through -the ridge into the Rayan basin, as such leakage might conceivably -have taken place to a considerable extent without the water ever -having collected in sufficient quantities to form even moderate -sized pools within the depression. The bottom of the depression is -for the most part covered with soft porous sandy deposits overlying -the Eocene bed-rock below, and at the present time the water of the -Rayan springs, though continually running, at once disappears from -sight, drains down to the lowest parts of the depression and is then -gradually lost by evaporation or underground leakage. In the lowest -parts of the depression this water is, as already mentioned, met with -on digging to a very moderate depth. - -A careful examination of the flanks of the ridge separating the Fayûm -and Gharaq cultivated areas from Rayan might prove if such leakage -ever took place. If such was the case the seepage was probably -along the line of junction of the limestone and underlying clayey -or sandy beds. Even if it were proved that there never was leakage -from Lake Mœris into Wadi Rayan, it would not be safe to assume -that the converse would not happen, as the dip of the beds is from -south to north and this fact is one to be reckoned with. Judging from -the nature of the Eocene beds forming the Wadi Rayan, my opinion is -that leakage on a large scale would not take place, and that owing -to the northerly dip any water that escaped from the reservoir would -pass indefinitely northwards and would not find its way through the -overlying limestone to the surface either in Gharaq or the Fayûm -cultivation. A detailed examination of the local geology would, -however, be necessary to prove or disprove this. As to the question -whether the Wadi Rayan as a whole would hold water, as far as is known -there are no faults or other fissures of any magnitude through which -the water could escape. No doubt a good deal of water would be lost -before the smaller joints and passages, which exist in all rocks, -were silted up. Schweinfurth supposes that the freshness of the -Birket el Qurûn is due to the existence of subterranean outlets, -and such might also be found to exist in the Wadi Rayan. In any case -the argillaceous deposits from such a lake would very soon form a -bed to all intents and purposes impermeable. - -[Sidenote: Degree of Salinity.] - -With regard to the extent of salinity of such a lake Dr. Schweinfurth’s -figures are of considerable interest and value, although based wholly -on assumed data. The greater part of the salt would be derived from -the rocks and soil forming the bed of the reservoir and only by -extensive sample collecting and analysis can reliable figures be -obtained. We believe that in the lowest parts of the basin the salt -content of the ground would be found considerably in excess of the two -per cent used by Schweinfurth in his calculation, although his total -estimate would probably be found well within the mark. - - - SECTION V.—CENTRAL AREA OF THE REGION. - - -[Sidenote: Central Plain at the Fayûm Depression.] - -The great central plain, forming the floor of the depression as a -whole, is composed of a hard bed of limestone some thirty metres -thick. This limestone, forming the uppermost member of the Rayan -series, is, as already mentioned, almost certainly identical with -that capping the cliffs to the south of the depression, and in all -probability in the eastern extension of the plain under description -underlies the whole of the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the -Fayûm. The feature of the plain as a whole is its marked and -constant, though low, dip to the north; so that its surface, bared -by denudation of the overlying soft limestones of the Ravine series, -over a distance of some twenty kilometres, is a true dip-slope, -at the base of which lies a strip of low-lying country extending -from beyond Gar el Gehannem through the Birket el Qurûn to the Nile -Valley ridge east of Tamia. The central and lowest portion of this -low-lying area is occupied by the Birket el Qurûn, the bed of which -lies fifty metres below sea level and is thus the lowest known spot in -the whole of the Libyan desert. Thirty kilometres south-west of the -western end of the lake, at the base of the dip-slope of the central -plain and immediately under the southern scarps of the great outlying -hill-mass west of Gar el Gehannem, lies another low lying basin, which -receives the drainage from a considerable area of the plain to the -south-west. The latter, consisting of the limestone above-mentioned, -is here superficially covered by gravel, and its dark undulating -surface is scored by numerous shallow winding water-courses marked -by an abundant growth of scrubby vegetation; some of the principal -of these drain into the basin just mentioned and after heavy rainfall -the water collects and forms a pool 600 metres in length by 100 to 150 -metres wide. The base of the basin, at about 80 metres above sea level, -is marked by a level deposit of silt of considerable thickness, the -east end of the site being surrounded by great numbers of luxuriantly -growing tamarisks. Other similar basins exist on the plain to the -south, and under an isolated hill five kilometres W.S.W. several full -grown acacias were noticed. On the low ground to the north-west of -Gar el Gehannem, and at several points between it and the head of -the Birket el Qurûn, similar silt covered areas exist, some being -only from 30 to 40 metres above sea level. - -In the extreme south-west of the region the limestone forming the -central plain is gradually overlain by the succeeding beds, so that the -ground rises imperceptibly to the level of the plateau separating the -depression from that of Baharia, distant some two days march. On the -eastern side, if the superficial alluvial deposits could be stripped -off, the underlying surface of limestone, sloping from south to north, -would not differ materially from the plain further west, except that -here, at any rate north of Gharaq, the Rayan limestone is overlain -by the basal beds of the Ravine series. - - - SECTION VI.—RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND THE FAYUM. - - -The desert ridge separating the Nile Valley from the Fayûm has, to -the north of the Bahr Yusef, an average width of some ten kilometres; -further south it narrows, until due east of Gharaq the ridge is barely -2½ kilometres wide. The highest points are situated to the east of -Sersena and Qalamsha respectively. - -In both these localities the Eocene rocks, consisting of clays -alternating with beds of calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone -(pp. 39, 40) are overlain by thick deposits of conglomerate and -gravel, attaining altitudes of over 100 metres above the cultivated -land below. From these summits the slope is usually very gradual on -the Nile Valley side but much more rapid towards the Fayûm. - -The ridge is cut down, however, to a comparatively low level in -four localities; to the north-east of Tamia; to the east of Sêla, -where the railway crosses; between Lahûn and Hawara, where the Bahr -Yusef canal enters; and to the south of Qalamsha, where along the -site of the proposed Wadi Rayan canal the highest point is only some -40 metres above the Gharaq basin and 27 metres above the adjoining -Nile Valley cultivation. - -[Sidenote: Outline of earliest connection of Nile with Fayûm.] - -One of the most interesting problems connected with the Fayûm may -be briefly alluded to here—When did the waters of the Nile first -obtain access to the depression? - -As will be shown later the Fayûm was occupied by the sea in Pliocene -times, when the great gravel accumulations and gypseous deposits were -formed. Later the area became dry and denudation of the land surface -completed the work of erosion already begun in earlier times. - -In Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile Valley appears to have -become definitely established and probably the river in the lower -part of its course eventually washed up against and broke down the -separating barrier of gravel between the Fayûm and the Nile Valley, -so that part of its waters obtained access to the depression, formed a -lake on the lowest part, and gradually rose until the whole basin, up -to the level of the channel connecting it with the Nile Valley, became -filled. Every year thousands of tons of sediment were carried in by -the floods and spread out on the floor in the shape of a fan. Probably -later, as the Nile level fell, the valley and the depression again -became disconnected, until the more modern river, with its gradually -rising bed, again attained the requisite altitude. In early historic -times the alluvial deposits had probably silted up the lake in its -southern central part, and when in the XIIth dynasty the district -was first taken in hand by Amenemhat I this part of it must have -had the character of a huge marsh, nearly surrounded by open water, -rapidly deepening towards the north. - - - SECTION VII.—THE NORTHERN DESERT REGION. - - -[Sidenote: The Plateau bounding the Fayûm depression to the north.] - -All along the north-west and north sides the ground rises rapidly from -the base of the dip-slope of the plain in a series of escarpments to -the summit of the rim of the depression, averaging 340 metres above sea -level. Northwards from the summit stretches a rolling pebbly desert, -the prevailing character of which is a dark brown, relieved by lighter -brown grey and yellow patches, and especially flecked by the light -sandy slopes of the undulations. Although the latter seldom rise to -any considerable height above the general level of the plain, from the -top of the most modest eminence an immense view in every direction can -frequently be obtained. The monotony of this desert is only relieved by -the occasional belts of sand, which although extremely narrow in width, -run for immense distances in almost absolutely straight lines, and in -a N.N.W.—S.S.E. direction. Although none of these dunes actually -reach the rim of the escarpment we may mention here the beautiful -Ghart el Khanashat, an almost straight and apparently unbroken ridge -of sand, extremely narrow but of great length. Near its southern -extremity the width does not exceed 100 metres; the slopes on both -sides are frequently as much as 30°. The commencement of the Ghart -el Khanashat was observed on a march from Wadi Natrûn to Mogara; it -lay some way to the south of a line joining those two localities but -could not be accurately fixed from the line of route. The belt dies out -24 kilometres from the rim of the Fayûm depression, its termination -being particularly abrupt, although the height of the ridge diminishes -gradually throughout the last kilometre or two. The line of the belt if -continued would almost strike the western extremity of the Birket el -Qurûn; near its termination the desert is almost flat, the surface -being finely gravelly, with numerous groups of silicified trees; -tufts of coarse grass grow in some profusion on the sandy ground at -the base of the ridge on either side. A fairly well-marked road from -the Birket el Qurûn to the Wadi Natrûn passes the end of the ridge -and continues northwards at a distance of 200 metres from the east -side of the dunes, although apparently gradually diverging eastwards. - -Except to the north and north-west of Tamia, where a somewhat extensive -and fairly level plain exists, the ground, as already mentioned, rises -from the limits of the central plain in a series of escarpments to the -summit of the rim of the depression. These cliff lines are broadly -speaking three in number and represent the escarpments of the three -great rock-stages which build up the northern part of the Fayûm, -i.e., the Birket el Qurûn series, the Qasr el Sagha series, and the -Fluvio-marine series. It would serve no useful purpose describing -these different cliffs in detail; their positions and characters are -apparent on the accompanying maps. The intervening plateaux are for -the most part dip-slope plains formed of hard bands of rock, which -resisting denudation, are left protecting the underlying strata while -the softer beds above are cut back at a comparatively rapid rate. - -[Sidenote: Desert west and south-west of Gar el Gehannem.] - -In December 1902 and March 1903 a traverse was made through the -unexplored country west and south-west of Gar el Gehannem, finally -connecting up with Wadi Rayan. The highest escarpment, i.e. that of -the Fluvio-marine series, dies out about 20 kilometres west of Gar -el Gehannem, gradually merging into the undulating gravel-covered -plain. The lower escarpments, those of the Qasr el Sagha and Birket el -Qurûn series, continue to a considerable distance in a south-westerly -direction, although gradually losing the characters of well-marked -cliffs. In fact westwards of this the depression gradually shallows, -until at a point some 50 kilometres south-west of Gar el Gehannem -the floor has attained the level of the ordinary desert plateau, -on which the outcrops of the beds of successive rock-stages follow -one another in regular order from south to north, but without forming -well-marked topographical features, as in the depression. - -Hills, capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and -puddingstone, were met with in the extreme south-west extension of the -depression; these deposits, which will be referred to more fully later, -considered in conjunction with the similar beds occurring within the -oasis of Baharia, and in the hills of Gar el Hamra, on the plateau -immediately to the north-east of that depression, are of considerable -interest and importance, especially in connection with the question -of the position of the early rivers which in Eocene and later times -brought down quantities of trees and animals, the remains of which -are so abundant throughout the later Fayûm deposits. - -[Sidenote: Jebel el Qatrani and escarpments north of the Birket -el Qurûn.] - -The boldest part of the region is the area lying between the Birket el -Qurûn and the summit of the depression to the north. All three lines -of cliff are here high and precipitous, and the uppermost escarpment, -well known by the name of Jebel el Qatrani, formed of a highly coloured -series of sandstones and clays and capped for a distance of many -kilometres by a thick bed of hard black basalt, is of a most striking -character. The eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani is perhaps the -most conspicuous point in the whole region; here the two conical black -basalt-capped cliff-outliers, known as Widan el Faras, stand side by -side, and from their summits the eye commands the whole region from -the pyramid of Lahûn on the one side, across Rayan to the south, up -to the extreme limits of the depression to the south-west. The rim of -Jebel el Qatrani has a fairly constant level of about 340 metres above -the sea. From Widan el Faras the escarpment trends northwards for a -few kilometres before again resuming an easterly direction, which is -continued till the well-marked bluff of Elwat Hialla is reached. From -this summit the pyramids of Dashûr, Saqâra and Giza are visible to -the north, as well as Cairo and the Nile Valley southwards, backed -by the bluffs on the Eastern desert limestone plateau. - -To the south the isolated peaks of Garat el Gindi and Garat el -Faras form conspicuous landmarks on the more or less open plain -which stretches to Tamia and the limits of the Fayûm cultivated -lands. Eastwards the escarpments continue in a broken irregular -manner; the upper ones are gradually lost in an undulating plain, -while the lower eventually join those forming the northern part of -the ridge separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley. - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 6: For fuller details of the cultivated lands, water-supply, -etc., of the Fayûm, the reader is referred to the excellent description -by Sir Hanbury Brown in his work _The Fayum and Lake Moeris_, London, -1892.] - -[Footnote 7: “The Lake of the Horns,” so called from the narrow -horn-like promontories which jut out into the lake on the north -side. Views of the lake are shown in Plates I, IV, XVI.] - -[Footnote 8: This was the case until a year or two ago. At the -present time a limited amount of freshwater finds its way to the -area immediately north of the east end of the lake and small plots -are cultivated by the arabs.] - -[Footnote 9: _Herodotus_, Book II; _Strabo_, Book XVII; and _Diodorus -Siculus_, Book I, Chap. LI. (See Brown op. cit. p. 19-22.)] - -[Footnote 10: “_Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ_,” 1889.] - -[Footnote 11: BROWN, op. cit. p. 95. As mentioned above in some areas -the cultivated land was formerly even more extensive than at present, -notably near the modern villages of Roda, Tamia, etc.] - -[Footnote 12: For details of evaporation and level-records of the lake, -see Brown, op. cit. pp. 6-9, and P.W.M. annual reports.] - -[Footnote 13: See WILLCOCKS’ _Egyptian Irrigation_, 2nd edition, -London, 1899.] - -[Footnote 14: See _A Preliminary Investigation of the Soil and Water -of the Fayûm Province_, by A. LUCAS, Survey Department, Cairo, 1902.] - -[Footnote 15: See Appendix II, _A Note by Dr. Schweinfurth on the -Salt in the Wadi Rayan_, in Willcocks’ _Egyptian Irrigation_, -pp. 460-465.] - -[Footnote 16: The word “freshness” is used comparatively, as -the amount of salt is sufficient to make the water unpalatable or -unfit for drinking, except near the feeder canals. It is, however, -quite good enough for most culinary purposes, and camels will usually -drink from it, although it is not advisable to water the latter from -the lake either before or after a fatiguing desert march, as in such -cases the salinity of the water may have bad effects.] - -[Footnote 17: “Bull. of the American Geographical Society, 1882, -pp. 22 and 24.”] - -[Footnote 18: _Mémoires sur les travaux publics en Egypte_, Paris, -1873, pp. 53, 54.] - -[Footnote 19: G. A. LIERNUR, COL. WESTERN and COL. SIR C. C. SCOTT -MONCRIEFF, K.C.M.G. _Notes on the Wadi Rayan_, Cairo, 1888.] - -[Footnote 20: _Note on the Wadi Rayan Project_, Cairo, 1889.] - -[Footnote 21: _Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt_, -by W. WILLCOCKS, M.I.C.E. Dir. Gen. of Reservoirs, with A Note by -W. E. GARSTIN, Under Secretary of State, P.W.M., Cairo, 1894.] - -[Footnote 22: The engineering details of the Wadi Rayan reservoir -project have since been more fully discussed by Sir William Garstin -in his “_Report on the Basin of the Upper Nile_” Cairo, (pp. 6-9 -Appendix I).] - -[Footnote 23: A Note by Dr. SCHWEINFURTH on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan: -an appendix to _Perennial Irrigation_, etc.] - -[Footnote 24: _The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Moeris_, London, 1904.] - -[Footnote 25: The following analyses of the chief springs in the -Wadi Rayan, made by Mr. Lucas, Chemist to the Survey Department, -are of interest:— - - -------------------------+---------------+--------------+------------- - | NORTH SPRING.| SOUTH SPRING.| EAST SPRING. - -------------------------+---------------+--------------+------------- - Matter In Solution | 398·8 | 350·8 | 811·6 - | | | - Chlorine calculated as | | | - Sodium Chloride | 278·4 | 238·2 | 585·5 - | | | - Sulphur Trioxide | | | - calculated as | | | - Sodium Sulphate | 62·9 | 53·9 | 126·2 - -The above figures are parts per 100,000 parts of water. - -Although the above analyses prove the water to be of a very poor -quality for drinking purposes, compared with many of the wells -and springs of the oases, the water, which is quite clear, seemed -good. Except for its softness and somewhat ferruginous taste, it -is quite palatable, and on my last visit we used no other for five -days. The south spring was found to yield 21 litres and the north 6 -litres per minute. The water of the third spring does not run.] - - - - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - -WESTERN EXTREMITY OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.] - - PART II. - - =TECTONICS.= - - * * * * * - - - SECTION VIII.—FAULTING AND FOLDING. - - -[Sidenote: The Fayûm Depression formed by subaerial Erosion.] - -More extended examination of the Fayûm region supports my original -conclusion[26] that the depression owes its origin to the same causes -as have given rise to the other oases-depressions of the Libyan Desert, -namely Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga[27]. No evidence has as yet -been met with which would suggest that earth-movements have played -any important part in the formation of the Fayûm depression. Local -faults, for the most part of short length and slight throw, occur -at certain points, but the influence of these is strictly limited to -their immediate neighbourhood. In fact, an examination of the desert -margin of the Fayûm conclusively proves that the depression has been -cut out through the action of ordinary subaerial denuding agents. The -somewhat prevalent idea that the central portion of the depression, -that covered by alluvial soil and the water of the lake, is faulted -down, also rests on no foundation, all available evidence pointing -in an opposite direction. Throughout the margin of the alluvial -covered area the Eocene beds forming the surface of the desert can -be observed to pass regularly under the cultivated lands; moreover, -the same strata are frequently exposed in the bottoms of canals, -drains, etc., far within the cultivation. The big drainage ravines -of El Bats and El Wadi are, through a large part of their courses, -cut down to the underlying Eocene rocks (Ravine beds), and in every -locality examined the strata were found in the position they would -be expected to occupy if undisturbed by tectonic movements. - -[Sidenote: Deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm.] - -The evidence yielded by the deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm is, -as far as it goes, to the same effect. The ground level at the site -was at 23·40 metres above sea-level and the following beds were -passed through[28]:— - - Metres. - - Alluvial clays, clayey sands and sands, the latter in - part coarse and pebbly 18·5 - - Yellow, brown, and grey marls and marly clays (probably - belonging for the most part to the Ravine beds) 112·5 - - Cement coloured stone } 43·5 - } - Yellowish stone } Probably these 6·5 - } limestones and - Light brown solid stone } occasional marls 10·5 - } and clays belong - Cement coloured soft clay } to the Rayan series. 1·7 - } - Cement coloured stone } 12·5 - ----- - 205·7 - ----- - Bottom of boring 182·3 metres below sea-level. - -The method employed in this boring was such as to bring up the -material as a ground-up paste, an examination of which does not afford -absolutely conclusive evidence as to the age of the rock. The absence, -after the first 18·5 metres, of sand or pebbles, common throughout -the alluvial deposits of the Fayûm, suggests that the base of these -beds was reached at that depth, but from this evidence alone it would -perhaps hardly be satisfactory to conclude that the underlying 112·5 -metres were entirely Eocene. Considering, however that in the two deep -ravines of El Bats and El Wadi the underlying Eocene is very commonly -exposed at an average depth of some 15 metres below cultivation level, -it is highly improbable that in the centre of the area, at Medinet el -Fayûm, the alluvial deposits greatly exceed the same thickness. To -classify the 112·5 metres of marly clays as alluvium would give -the latter a total thickness of 131 metres and would mean that over -an extremely restricted area the Eocene rocks had been denuded to -such an extent that the floor of the depression lay 108 metres below -sea-level. The ground-up samples of rock closely resemble what might -be expected from the clays and marls forming the Ravine beds and -in all probability the greater part of the 112·5 metres belong to -that series. The harder stone met with at 131 metres, which, with -the exception of a band of soft clay, continued down to the bottom, -must be regarded as belonging to the underlying Rayan series. - -[Sidenote: Dr. Blanckenhorn’s Fault theory.] - -Dr. Blanckenhorn, in a paper published in 1901[29] dealing with -the Pliocene and Pleistocene of Egypt, describes the Fayûm as a -triangular depression bounded on all sides by faults. The position -of these bounding faults, as well as of numerous others more or less -parallel to the north shore of the Birket el Qurûn, is shown on an -accompanying map[30] and in a section drawn from Abshawai to the summit -of the plateau north of the lake.[31] Stratigraphical evidence, based -on the supposed identity of certain strata in different localities, -is brought forward in support of these faults, the author finally -stating that the production of the Fayûm is clearly and distinctly -to be referred to tectonic movements. - -Our conclusion, formed after an examination of the region in some -detail, is so diametrically opposed to the above, that it may be worth -while to state here the evidence which we consider sufficient to refute -the existence of the particular faults described by Blanckenhorn. - -Blanckenhorn’s fault-lines lie for the most part within the area -covered by the alluvial deposits and the water of the lake, so that for -want of exposures it is in most cases impossible to directly disprove -their existence, although strong presumptive evidence against them can -be adduced. The fault along the east side, however, is shown as closely -following the junction line of the desert and the cultivated land, -but everywhere along this line we found the marls and limestones -of the Ravine beds passing regularly from the desert under the -cultivated lands, without any sort of break or dislocation. Moreover, -an examination of the desert ridge to the east disproved the existence -of any faulting on the desert side, while the appearance of the -same beds in the ravine of El Bats, a few kilometres to the west, -proved the continuity of the beds under the cultivated alluvium in -this direction. Certainly no fault exists along this side of the -Fayûm. Similarly with regard to the fault shown as running from the -west end of the lake along the west side of the Fayûm cultivation -into the basin of Gharaq; although the desert margin along this side -of the Fayûm cultivation has not been so closely surveyed as that on -the east side, no evidence in favour of the existence of faults was met -with in the particular localities examined. With regard to the third -main bounding fault, considered by Blanckenhorn to run throughout -the length of the Birket el Qurûn and to be continued eastwards, -possibly to the Nile Valley and at least to join the fault on the east -side of the cultivation, we need only say that an examination of the -desert near Tamia disproves its existence at that end; while it is -difficult to imagine that a fault could traverse the lake from end -to end without revealing its presence in the island Geziret el Qorn -or in one or other of the promontories which jut out so far into the -lake from its northern shore. Everywhere the strata are undisturbed -and occupy their normal stratigraphical level and position. - -Let us finally examine the series of more or less parallel faults -stated to exist between the island and the northern shore of the lake, -and on the mainland to the north and south of Dimê. Dr. Blanckenhorn -publishes a detailed section (op. cit., fig. 2., taf. XIV) showing -the positions of these step faults and their effect on the various -strata through which they cut. Fortunately, in this neighbourhood the -stratigraphical succession is well exposed and the presence or absence -of faults become matters of easy determination. The sequence of beds -from south to north is normal and uninterrupted and our interpretation -of the area is shown in the accompanying sections (Plates XIX, XXII, -and fig. 4). We have no hesitation in saying that such faults as -those shown on Blanckenhorn’s section do not exist. Their insertion -appears to be the outcome of an error in the correlation of strata at -the three points Abshawai, Geziret el Qorn and Dimê. The bed capping -the island is not identical with that forming the plain to the north -of Dimê, although shown to be such on the section under discussion. - -In a later publication[32] Blanckenhorn admits being in error in -his correlation of the different beds in the localities in question -and completely withdraws his former statements that the depression -owes its existence to fracture and subsidence. The faults shown on -his detailed section from Abshawai to Qasr el Sagha are admitted to -be non-existent and in this retraction we may presumably include the -remainder of the faults described by the same author, as the evidence -for them is of a still less satisfactory nature. - -In a wind-swept desert area like the Fayûm the slightest dislocations -are as a rule markedly obvious, and faults of any magnitude could -scarcely escape detection. Over the greater part of the region -every bed is laid bare on the surface and can be minutely examined; -while the marked irregularity of the escarpments afford sections cut -through the different series in every direction. Some areas, however, -are covered with superficial deposits, which more or less effectually -obscure the underlying rocks; for instance, on the east side a large -part of the central floor is hidden by the cultivated alluvium and -by the water of the lake; in the south a considerable proportion of -the floor of Wadi Rayan is buried under accumulations of blown sand; -and again large areas on the north, west, and south-west sides are -obscured by a superficial covering of loose gravel. But as already -mentioned, there is no reason to suppose that faults of any importance -exist within the areas thus partly obscured. The cultivated lands and -the Birket el Qurûn do not occupy low areas produced by faulting but, -as shown above, owe their positions entirely to the original northerly -dip of the strata and to subsequent erosion. - -[Sidenote: Numerous small faults effects local.] - -We have already stated that small local faults occur in various parts -of the Fayûm and some of these may be specially mentioned. The most -important is about 10 kilometres N.N.E. of Qasr el Sagha; the line -of fault lies nearly north-west and south-east, has a length of six -or seven kilometres, and affects both middle and upper Eocene beds; -at its northern end the fault passes into a fold before finally dying -out. Some of the Upper Eocene sandstones are hardened and silicified -and form a succession of black knobs along the line of disturbance. To -the south of these the axis of dislocation bends slightly eastwards and -takes the form of a sharp fold; further south it again becomes a true -fault, flanked by a line of highly tilted beds along its south-west -side. The effects of this fault are very marked locally but entirely -restricted to a limited area. The most important is the breaking of -the continuity of the escarpment of the Qasr el Sagha series; the -line of cliffs formed by those beds is a very marked topographical -feature and the fault in question causes a lateral displacement of -seven kilometres. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Fault near Qasr el Sagha.] - -In the neighbourhood of Qasr el Sagha and westwards for a considerable -distance, small strike-faults are of common occurrence in the beds -of the Qasr el Sagha series. As a rule these faults do not extend -more than a few hundred metres in length, while the down-throw seldom -exceeds two or three metres and in almost every case observed is to the -north. The hade may be 65° or more. Fig. 1 shows an example near Qasr -el Sagha. The most marked of these strike faults is seen to the east -of Garat el Esh; commencing a little to the north-east of that hill -it runs in a nearly due easterly direction till it cuts the cliffs of -the Qasr el Sagha series after some five kilometres. Its down-throw -is to the north and never exceeds a few metres; this small throw -is however sufficient to cause a marked displacement of the highest -bed of limestone forming the dip-slope surface of the plateau at the -summit of the Middle Eocene beds. - -At first sight it might be suspected that the very irregular trend -of the different escarpments throughout the Fayûm was determined -or influenced by fault lines; an extended examination of the cliffs -however gave negative results, with one exception; the long narrow -hill-mass to the north east of Gar el Gahannem is bounded by faults -on both sides and that on the west can be easily traced for seven or -eight kilometres northwards, and throughout its length its influence -on the topography is very conspicuous. - - -[Footnote 26: BEADNELL. _The Fayûm depression: A Preliminary Notice -of the Geology of a District in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene -Vertebrate Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, -p. 540.] - -[Footnote 27: See reports on Kharga Oasis (1900), Farafra Oasis -(1901), Dakhla Oasis (1901), and Baharia Oasis (1903), issued by -Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo.] - -[Footnote 28: Public Works Ministry Report. Cairo, 1899.] - -[Footnote 29: BLANCKENHORN. _Geologie Aegyptens_, Berlin 1901, Pt. IV, -pp. 339-344.] - -[Footnote 30: „ p. 341, Fig. 10. Skizze der Strukturlinien des -Fayûm.] - -[Footnote 31: „ Taf. XIV. Querprofil durch den Fayûmgraben.] - -[Footnote 32: BLANCKENHORN, _Neue geologisch-stratigraphische -Beobachtungen in Aegypten_, S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe -d. kgl. bayer. Ac. d. Wiss. Bd. XXXII 1902, Heft III, München 1902, -pp. 428, 429.] - - - - - PART III. - - =GEOLOGY.= - - * * * * * - - - SECTION IX.—GENERAL AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA. - - -The geology of the area[33] under consideration is almost entirely -stratigraphical, the only igneous rocks being more or less local lava -flows. The sedimentary rocks of the district have yielded an abundant -fauna, both invertebrate and vertebrate; the latter is of unique -interest, including as it does a number of highly interesting animal -types quite new to science. An extended examination in the field, -and comparisons with the stratigraphical succession in other parts of -Egypt, checked by the determinations of the fossil molluscan fauna, -make it possible to form a very fair estimate of the approximate -age of the different rock-stages, although this may necessarily -be subject to modification when the specific determinations of the -entire collection of organic remains have been completed, and the -development of vertebrate life has been correlated and compared with -that in other parts of the world. - -The depression is cut out in a great series of sedimentary rocks of -Middle Eocene, Upper Eocene, and Oligocene age, and one of the features -of the stratigraphy of the region is the constancy of many beds over -wide areas. The dip of the beds throughout the area is nearly due north -and at a very low angle, averaging 2° or 3°, but varying from 1° to -5°; this low dip is very constantly maintained except when locally -affected by small faults. The structural geology and tectonics have -already been discussed at some length in the previous sections. - -The oldest beds found in the depression are the clays, marls, and -limestones with _Nummulites gizehensis_, of Middle Eocene age. These -are succeeded by a group of white marly limestones and gypseous clays, -which largely underlie the cultivated alluvium of the Fayûm. They are -followed by a series consisting of clays, sandstones, and calcareous -grits, some beds of which are characterized by the abundance of small -nummulites and _Operculina_. The latter series is followed by the -uppermost truly marine Eocene beds, a group of alternating clays, -sandstones and limestones, the “Qasr el Sagha Series” (or Carolia -beds), characterized by an abundant invertebrate and vertebrate fauna, -and equivalent to the Upper Mokattam beds of Cairo. - -Above the Qasr el Sagha series, and well marked off from them both -lithologically and palæontologically, is found a great thickness of -variegated sands, sandstones, clays and marls, the “Fluvio-marine -Series” (Jebel el Qatrani beds), divided near the summit by -one or more thick intercalated lava sheets, the latter forming a -convenient junction line. This series of variegated beds is of Upper -Eocene—Lower Oligocene age. - -No Miocene strata have been recognized within the area, but further -north, as at Mogara, Lower Miocene deposits occur;[34] and it is -probable that there is a continuous series of lithologically similar -beds from the summit of the Fayûm escarpments (Lower Oligocene) -to the Mogara Miocene. - -The Pliocene is probably represented by the great terraces of -gravel—raised beaches—which are such a marked feature in the -geology of the district. Fossiliferous Pliocene deposits have also -been recorded from the south part of the area by Schweinfurth.[35] - -Pleistocene and Recent are abundantly represented by lacustrine clays, -both ancient and modern, alluvial land and blown sand, the formation -of which deposits is continuing at the present time. - -The following table will show the sequence of strata and the -classification adopted in the present memoir:— - - TABLE SHOWING SUCCESSION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA IN THE FAYUM. - - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | |Approximate| - | | | average | - | | | thickness | - | | | in metres,| - | | | north part| - | | | of Fayum. | - | | +-----------| - | | | | Alluvial soil, clays, - | | | | sands, etc. - RECENT | | | | - AND | | | | Blown sand. - PLEISTOCENE| | | | - | | | | Lacustrine clays, - | | | | extending to about 23 - | | | | metres above sea-level. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | | Gravel Terraces (? - | | | | Pleistocene). - | | | | - (MIDDLE?) | | | | Shell-borings on rock - PLIOCENE | | | | surfaces. - | | | | - | | | 50 | Fossiliferous deposits of - | | | | Sidmant. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Fluvio-marine Series - | | | |(Jebel el Qatrani beds)_. - | | | | - LOWER | | | 30 | Sandstones and - OLIGOCENE |TONGRIAN | | | sandstone-grits with - | | | | silicified trees and - | | | | - | | | | Basalt sheets, - | | | | interbedded and - | | | | contemporaneous. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | | Variegated sands, - | | | | sandstones, clays and - | | | | marls, with - | | | | limestone-grits and thin - | | | | bands of limestone. The - | | | | upper beds contain _Unio_ - | | | | sp., _Lanistes - | | | | bartonianus_, Blanck., - | | | | _Turritella pharaonica_, - | | | | Cossm., _Potamides - | | | | scalaroides_, Desh., _P. - | | | | tristriatus_, Lam., - | | | | _Pleurotoma ingens_, - | | | | May.-Eym. In the lower - | | | | beds are large numbers of - | | | | silicified trees - | | | | associated with - | | | | vertebrate remains - | | | | including _Arsinoitherium - | | | | Zitteli_, Beadn., _A. - | | | | Andrewsii_, Lankester, - UPPER | | | | _Palæomastodon - EOCENE |BARTONIAN| | 250 | Beadnelli_, Andr., _P. - | | | | minor_, Andr., - | | | | _Mœritherium Lyonsi_, - | | | | Andr., _M. trigodon_, - | | | | Andr., _Megalohyrax - | | | | eocænus_, Andr., _M. - | | | | minor_ Andr., - | | | | _Saghatherium antiquum_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., _S. - | | | | minus_, Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _S. magnum_, Andr., - | | | | _Ancodus Gorringei_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _Geniohyus mirus_, Andr., - | | | | _G. fayumensis_, Andr., - | | | | _G. major_, Andr., - | | | | _Phiomia serridens_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _Pterodon africanus_, - | | | | Andr., _P. macrognathus_, - | | | | Andr., _Eremopezus - | | | | libycus_, Andr., _Testudo - | | | | Ammon_, Andr., and - | | | | frequent crocodilian and - | | | | chelonian remains. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Qasr el Sagha Series - | | | |(Carolia beds)_. - | | | | - | | | | Alternating limestones, - | | | | marls, clays and - | | | | sandstones with _Qerunia_ - | | | | (_Hydractinia_) - | | | | _cornuta_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Astrohelia similis_, - | | | | Felix., _Echinolampas - | | | | Crameri_, Loriol., - | | | | _Ostrea Reili_, Fraas, - | | | | _Ostrea elegans_, Desh., - | | | | _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - | | | | Bellardi, _Exogyra - | | | | Fraasi_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Carolia placunoides_, - | | | | Cantr., _Cardita - | | | | fajumensis_, Oppenh., - | | UPPER | | _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, - | |MOKATTAM| 155 | Sowerby, _Turritella - | | | | pharaonica_, Cossm., _T. - | | | | carinifera_, Desh., - | | | | _Mesalia fasciata_, Lam., - | | | | _Rimella rimosa_, Sol. - | | | | The vertebrate remains - | | | | include _Mœritherium - | | | | Lyonsi_, Andr., _M. - | | | | gracilis_, Andr., - | | | | _Barytherium grave_, - | | | | Andr., _Eosiren libyca_, - | | | | Andr., _Zeuglodon - | | | | Osiris_, Dames, - | | | | _Gigantophis Garstini_, - | | | | Andr., _Pterosphenus - | | | | Schweinfurthi_, Andr., - | | | | _Psephophorus eocænus_, - | | | | Andr., _Thallassochelys - | | | | libyca_, Andr., - | | | | _Podocnemis antiqua_, - | | | | Andr., _P. Stromeri_, v. - | | | | Rein., _Stereogenys - | | | | Cromeri_, Andr., _S. - | | | | podocnemioides_, v. - | | | | Rein., _Tomistoma - | | | | africanum_, Andr., with - | | | | siluroids and _Propristis - MIDDLE | | | | Schweinfurthi_, Dames. - EOCENE |PARISIAN |--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Birket el Qurûn Series - | | | |(Operculina-Nummulite - | | | |beds)_. - | | | | - | | | | Sandstones and clays, - | | | | with sandy limestones, - | | | | and one or more well - | | | | marked concretionary - | | | | sandstones weathering - | | | | into large globular - | | | | masses. - | | | | - | | | | _Nummulites Fraasi_, de - | | | | la Harpe, _N. Beaumonti_, - | | | 50 | _Operculina discoidea_, - | | | | Schwag., _Qerunia - | | | | cornuta_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Plicatula polymorpha_, - | | | | Bell., _Pectunculus - | | | | pseudopulvinatus_, Orb., - | | | | _Cardita Viquesneli_, - | | | | d’Arch., _Cardium - | | | | Schweinfurthi_, - | | | | May.-Eym., _Venus - | | | | plicatella_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, - | | | | Sow., _Lucina pharaonis_, - | | | | Bell., _Tellina - | | | | scalaroides_, Lam., - | | | | _Clavellithes longævus_, - | | | | Sol., _Voluta arabica_, - | | | | May.-Eym., _Turritella - | | | | pharaonica_, Cossm., _T. - | | | | carinifera_, Desh., with - | | | | _Zeuglodon Osiris_, - | | | | Dames, and _Z. Isis_, - | | | | Beadn. - | | LOWER +-----------+--------------------------- - | |MOKATTAM| |_Ravine Beds._ - | | | | - | | | 70 | White marls and marly - | | | | limestones with gypseous - | | | | clays; _Nucularia_ sp. - | | | | _Leda_ sp., _Corbula_ - | | | | aff. _pixidicula_, Desh., - | | | | _Lucina_ sp. (? - | | | | _pharaonis_), _Tellina - | | | | tenuistriata_, Desh., - | | | | _Zeuglodon Isis_, Beadn., - | | | | and scales and teeth of - | | | | fish. - | | |-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Wadi Rayan Series - | | | |(Nummulites gizehensis - | | | |beds)._ - | | | | - | | | 130 | Limestones, marls, clays, - | | | | etc., with _Nummulites - | | | | gizehensis_, Ehrbg., _N. - | | | | curvispira_, _Carolia - | | | | placunoides_, Cantr. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - - - SECTION X.—MIDDLE EOCENE (PARISIAN). - - - _A._—=Wadi Rayan Series.=—(_Nummulites Gizehensis Beds_). - - (A.I.e. Schweinfurth, I.b. Mayer-Eymar,[36] Lower Mokattam of Cairo). - - -Beds of this group are chiefly found in the south of the -depression. The wadis Rayan and Muêla, as already shown by -Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar[37], are cut out in clays and limestones -of Lower Mokattam age; the upper beds of limestone, containing -among other fossil[38] numerous examples of the large _Nummulites -gizehensis_, form the greater part of the floor of the depression -west of the Fayûm cultivation, stretching from Jebel Rayan to the -foot of Gar el Gehannem,[39] 28 kilometres west of the western end -of the Birket el Qurûn (Section XX). Near the latter hill examples -of _N. gizehensis_ of inordinately large size occur.[40] - -At the conical hill at the southern entrance to Wadi Muêla the -following beds were noticed:— - - _Top of hill._ - - 1. Hard white limestone with small nummulites, _Lucina_, - _Callianassa_, and echinids. Salt occurs in thin deposits along - joint-planes. The lower part of this bed is largely composed of - small nummulites and bryozoa. This generally white limestone - passes down into - - 2. Brown, usually sandy, limestone with oysters and small nummulites. - In it are intercalated thin beds of greenish brown sandstone and - clayey sand with impressions of bryozoa. Some of the brown sandy - limestones are full of small nummulites. _Ostrea_ and _Carolia_ - numerous. The beds are not constant, the clayey sandstones passing - insensibly into sandy limestones. - - 3. Softer beds with large nummulites, corals, _Ostrea_, _Nautilus_. - - 4. Soft green and brown clays, with occasional oyster-beds. - -At the corner of the cliff 7½ kilometres N.N.W. of the monastery of -Der el Galamûn, in Wadi Muêla, occur about 80 metres of hard white -nummulitic limestones, with beds of argillaceous sandstone and sandy -clays. Fossils are numerous and include nummulites of several species -(_N. gizehensis_, etc.), _Carolia placunoides_, different species -of _Ostrea_, with gastropods (among others _Terebellum sopitum_), -bryozoa, etc. It is very noticeable that the nummulites, especially -the small species, occur in remarkable profusion not only in the -limestones but often in the clays. - -The following section will give a good idea of the general alternations -found in this area; it was measured at Jebel Rayan,[41] 24 kilometres -west of the western end of the cultivation of Gharaq basin. - - _Top of plateau._ Metres. - - 1. Hard snow-white limestone with occasional nummulites - passing down into hard highly nummulitic limestone; - _N. gizehensis_, _Ostrea_ sp., _Lucina_ sp., _Mitra_ sp., - and _Carolia placunoides_ occur among others 31 - - 2. Vertical-faced bed of greenish clayey sands and sandy - clays (glauconitic) with _Carolia_, _Ostrea_ and - _Nummulites_. Near top of bed there is much gypsum. The - nummulites in this bed are often collected together so as - to form hard concretionary masses; these masses, by - becoming more numerous, finally form a hard bed of - nummulitic limestone intercalated in the clays near the - top. The junction of the clays with the limestone of Bed - No. 1 is very irregular 16 - - 3. Greenish shelly sands and sandy clayey bands, interbedded - with impure chalky nummulitic limestones with _N. - gizehensis_, _N. curvispira_, and a third smaller species; - _Ostrea_ sp. This bed is much obscured by debris 11 - - 4. Hard slate-blue shales, weathering to paper-shales 2 - - 5. Brownish marls passing up into clays 2 - - Limestone band largely made up of small and large - nummulites and echinids 1 - - Glauconitic (?) and clayey sands and sandy clays, - with _Ostrea_, _Carolia_, and nummulites, weathering - with a vertical face. In some bands large numbers of - small and large nummulites lie embedded in every - position, as if tossed about by currents during the - process of becoming buried by sediment. Gypsum occurs - in thin veins and often encloses the nummulites 36 - - 6. Hard markedly-white nummulitic limestone full of _N. - gizehensis_ and other species (_N. curvispira_, etc.); - the rock usually has a dark brown colour when freshly - fractured. A shelly band rich in corals occurs nine - metres from the top. The upper part is more marly and - less nummulitic than the rest of the bed. Base invisible 30 - --- - Total thickness of beds in the above section 129 - --- - -[Illustration: PLATE V. - -ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OVERLYING MARLY LIMESTONES (RAVINE BEDS) IN EL WADI, -RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.] - -The following is a section of the beds exposed in Wadi Muêla compiled -from a paper by Mayer-Eymar on this oasis:— - - _Top._ Metres. - - { { White siliceous cavernous limestone with - { { _Lucina globulosa_, Desh., _Gisortia_, - { { _Rostellaria_, _Eschara Duvali_, - { { Michelin., (Probably ≡ bed No. 1 of our - { { J. Rayan section) 10 - { { - { { Greyish-yellow marl, rich in places with - { Id. { _Ostrea Gumbeli_, _Pecten mœlehensis_, - { { May.-Eym., _Vulsella chamiformis_, - { { May.-Eym., _Velates Schmiedeli_, Chemnitz, - { { _Cerithium fodicatum_, _Pleurotoma_, - { { _Borsonia_, _Fusus_, _Rostellaria_, etc. 6 - { { - { { Yellowish sandy marl, with small - { { nummulites. - PARISIAN. { - { { Yellowish marls, divided by one or two - { { bands of red clay, with _Nummulites - { { gizehensis_ 7 - { { - { Ic. { Hard bedded clay 1 - { { - { { Vari-coloured gypseous marls 4 - { { - { { (Probably ≡ beds 2, 3, 4 at J. Rayan). - { - { { Very hard, rich greenish-grey, siliceous - { { limestone with _N. gizehensis_, _Pecten - { { corneus_, J. Sow., and _Lucina_ (_L. - { Ib. { consobrina_, Desh., and _L. Defrancei_, - { { Desh.). 4 to 5 - { { - { { (Probably ≡ upper part of bed 5 at J. - { { Rayan.) - -There is a considerable difference in thicknesses between the above -section and that of Jebel Rayan. Our heights agree closely with those -of Schweinfurth, so that it is probable that Mayer-Eymar is in error, -notwithstanding his challenge of Schweinfurth’s figures in the -paper mentioned. - - - _B._—=Ravine Beds.= - - -The beds of this series, consisting of gypseous clays, clayey marls, -and white marly limestones, are met with bordering the cultivation -on the east, west and north sides; they pass under the alluvial -soil of the cultivated land and are frequently seen in the bottoms -of canals, and especially in the deep ravines known as El Bats, -and El Wadi (Plates III and V). The relation of these beds to the -Rayan series below is well seen at the prominent outstanding hill -Gar el Gehannem (Fig. 2); here the plain to the east and south is -formed of the uppermost member of the Wadi Rayan series, a limestone -full of _Nummulites gizehensis_. In the hill itself the latter is -directly overlain by gypseous and glauconitic sandy clays and marls, -with hard intervening beds of yellowish, often marly, limestone. The -upper beds consist of alternating clays, sandy limestone and sandstone, -at the top being a thick bed of the latter passing up gradually into -the sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series. The following is the -detailed section:— - - _Summit of Gar el Gehannem._ Thickness in metres. - - 1. Hard yellow and white limestone crowded with } - shells, chiefly large individuals of _Carolia } - placunoides_ and _Ostrea Fraasi_. Numerous } - nummulites in upper part } 25 - } - 2. Limestone full of _Turritella carinifera_, } - _Ostrea Clot-Beyi_ } 1 - } - 3. Brown clays } Lower 6 - } beds of - 4. Shelly limestone with _Carolia_, _Turritella_, } Qasr el - _Ostrea_, _Cardita_ and _Qerunia_ } Sagha - (_Hydractinia_) } Series 1 - } (45 - 5. Greenish clays } metres) 6 - } - 6. Nummulitic limestone with _Carolia_, _Qerunia_ } - and four species of _Turritella_ } 1½ - } - Light blue clays } 2 - } - 7. Light green and brown sandstone with irregular } - concretions } 2½ - - 8. Brown shelly limestone full of _Carolia } - placunoides_, _Ostrea Reili_, _O. Fraasi_, } - _Turritella_, _Balanus_ and nummulites } 2 - } - 9. Yellow sandstone with bands of shelly } - limestone crowded with nummulites, oysters, } Birket - etc. Near top casts of _Cardita_, _Carolia_; } el Qurûn - also _Cerithium_, _Teredo_, _Ostrea_, } Series - _Pecten_, _Pinna_, and echinids. Calcareous } (50 - concretions near base } metres) 18 - } - 10. Clays with much gypsum } 6 - } - 11. Yellow sandstone with _Balanus_. Bands } - crowded with two species of nummulites and } - occasional oysters. In places the } - foraminiferal bands become highly } - calcareous. Below similar, with hard } - compact grey bands and occasional fish-spines } - and teeth } 24 - - 12. Similar to above, with numerous casts of } - _Cardita_, etc., and small _Ostrea_ } 24 - } - Argillaceous sandstone with thick stockwork } - of gypsum and calcareous nodules } 6 - } - 13. Light yellow, brown, and greyish gypseous clays } 3 - } - 14. Yellow-brown sandstones and sandy limestones, } - often argillaceous. Fish-scales. } - } - Brown clays } - } - Yellow-white marls and marly limestone } Ravine 5 - } Beds - 15. Hard light yellow shelly limestone, in part } (10 - marly, in part sandy } metres) 10 - } - 16. Ochreous-yellow, grey, and white clays and } - marls with gypsum } 9 - } - 17. Hard yellow-white shaly marl with numerous } - shell-impressions; much gypsum } 3 - } - 18. Yellow marly clays; soft yellow and grey-brown } - clays, dark sandy glauconitic, yellow, and } - black, clays. _Zeuglodon_ remains fairly } - common. Shell impressions. Much gypsum } - } - Fairly hard yellow-white glauconitic marl } 10 - - Marly limestone with _Nummulites gizehensis_ forming top of - Rayan beds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Section at Gar el Gehannem, showing the -relation of the Wadi Rayan Series to the Ravine Beds.] - -The clays, marls, and limestones of the Ravine beds are generally found -to contain fairly numerous shell-impressions, including _Nucularia_ -sp., _Leda_ sp., _Cardita_ sp., _Corbula_ aff. _pixidicula_, _Lucina_ -sp., _Oudardia ovalis_, Desh., _Tellina tenuistriata_,[42] numerous -small fish-scales, and occasional large teeth of sharks; while the -skeletons of the toothed-whale _Zeuglodon Isis_ are fairly common, -although usually in poor preservation. - -In the ravine of El Bats, about one kilometre west of Sêla, these beds -(5-6 metres thick) are seen unconformably overlaid by 12 metres of -false-bedded gypseous sands and clays passing up into the superficial -cultivated loam. The junction of these alluvial deposits and the -underlying Eocene is distinctly unconformable and an intervening -pebble-bed is occasionally present (Fig 3). - -In the large ravine known as El Wadi, which traverses the west side -of the cultivation of the Fayûm, these beds are frequently well -exposed; their lithological characters remain very constant. Here, -as in El Bats, they are unconformably overlain by a varying thickness -of Pleistocene and Recent clays. Their surface, a plain of subaerial -denudation, represents the original floor of the depression before -the entry of the sediment-carrying water from the Nile Valley through -the Lahûn gap; its irregularity is seen in Plate V. - -The plain bordering the cultivation to the east of Sêla and Rubiat -likewise consists of these same white marls with fish-scales, -etc.; they pass regularly under the cultivated land. Shaly marls, -gypseous clays, and chalky limestones of the same age are seen in, -and to the south of, the railway crossing the desert between Sêla -and Medum. Eastwards they stretch into the Nile Valley, being found -exposed along the desert-edge bordering the cultivation at Medum, -Nawamis and Masaret-Abusia. - - { 1. Marsh and poorly cultivated land. - { - RECENT { 1a Cultivated loam. - AND { - PLEISTOCENE { 2. Sands and clays, with gravelly bands; - { often concretionary and gypseous beds. - { - { 3. Pebble-bed marking unconformable junction. - - MIDDLE } RAVINE { 4. Gypseous saliferous marly clays, white - EOCENE } BEDS { marls and limestone with fishscales and - } { _Tellina Corbula_, etc. - -FIG. 3.—Sketch-Section across _El Bats_, 1 kilometre West of Sêla.] - -The same beds are exposed immediately to the east of the village of -Sersena, midway between Sêla and Tamia. They are again well seen -in the ravine below the last named village, and forming the narrow -strip of the desert projecting into the cultivation as far as the -northern end of the Tamia lake; they also occur on the shore of the -latter at El Tuba, about 2 kilometres south of the village. At Tamia -their exposure measures 25 metres in thickness. - -At various points along the north side of the Birket el Qurûn -exposures of this series occur, the beds forming the lower sloping -part of the cliffs overlooking the lake, as well as the base of the -island “Geziret el Qorn,” although only the upper beds are visible -above the water of the lake. Both here and along the northern shore of -the lake they are for the most part hidden by the high level recent -lacustrine clays, but where occasionally exposed their identity is -certain, the characteristic small brown fish-scales being abundant, -besides occasional teeth, with shell-impressions of the different -genera enumerated above. - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - -ESCARPMENT OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES NEAR THE WESTERN END OF -THE LAKE.] - -At the western end of the lake the Ravine beds form the lower part -of the cliff as well as the plain to the south; the underlying -_Nummulites gizehensis_ limestone not being exposed. The series -consists of some 45 metres of white and grey shaly marls with harder -bands of siliceous limestone intercalated throughout, one of which -usually forms the uppermost bed. It is, in fact, the development in -places of one or other of these hard beds of limestone near the top -of the series that gives rise to the bold promontories, or horns, -which occur on the north side of the Birket el Qurûn. - -The greater part of the marls and clays met with from 18·5 to 112·5 -metres below the surface in the boring at Medinet el Fayûm in all -probability belong to the Ravine beds. - -The maximum thickness of this series is 70 metres, measured at Gar -el Gehannem. - - - _C._—=Birket el Qurun Series= (_Operculina-Nummulite Beds_). - - -The above designation is convenient and applicable to these beds, -which form the escarpment immediately overlooking the lake on the -north side throughout its length. - -The group includes all the beds between those last described and -the well-marked Qasr el Sagha series, homotaxial with the Upper -Mokattam (the brown beds) of Jebel Mokattam, near Cairo. It thus -appears to be the equivalent of the upper part of the white -beds (quarried limestones) of the Mokattam section, although -the lithological characters are entirely different, the massive -limestones of Jebel Mokattam being represented in the Fayûm by an -arenaceous and argillaceous series, deposited probably in water of -far less depth. Where the different members of this series are well -exposed certain beds are found to be characterized by the abundance -of two foraminifera, the one a small thin-shelled _Operculina_ -(_O. discoidea_)., and the other a small thick nummulite.[43] The -tests of these foraminifera sometimes make up entire bands of rock. In -addition, the series includes certain beds which at times become very -fossiliferous, and contain a well-preserved molluscan fauna. - -The series is well seen in the desert separating the Fayûm from the -Nile Valley; on the south-east and east sides of the former; along -the northern boundary of the cultivation and the Birket el Qurûn; -and westwards in the cliffs to beyond the outlying hill-mass of Gar -el Gehannem. - -The following section was measured on the south-west of the Fayûm, -from Ezba Qalamsha (on the confine of the cultivation) to the ridge -summit 5 kilometres to the south-east. - - _Top._ Metres. - - Summit of ridge 5 kilometres south-east of Ezba - Qalamsha. - - Pliocene Raised Beach with occasional _Ostrea - cucullata_, Born., made up of gravels with - blocks of limestone. - - { 1. Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone and sandy - { limestone crowded with foraminifera - { (_Nummulites Fraasi_, etc.), _Ostrea_, etc. 38 - { - { 2. Sandy limestone, largely made up of - { foraminifera (_Operculina discoidea ?_) 2 - { - { 3. Sandy shale 2 - { - { 4. Sandstone, partly calcareous, with much - { gypsum 3 - { - { 5. Calcareous sandstone with concretionary - BIRKET { weathering 17 - EL QURUN { - SERIES. { 6. Shale with gypsum 2 - { - { 7. Calcareous sandstone 4 - { - { 8. Shale with gypsum 2 - { - { 9. Calcareous sandstone, hard and yellowish 2 - { - { 10. Gypseous shale with numerous small shells - { (_Tellina_ sp.) passing down into sandy - { limestone. (This bed is the uppermost member - { of the Ravine beds) 6 - -- - Total thickness 78 - -- - _Base, cultivation level._ - -To the north of the Lahûn pyramid the beds agree generally with the -above. The following are the chief divisions here:— - - _Top of Hills._ Metres. - - Gravel Terrace (Pliocene) 22 metres thick. - - 1. Calcareous sandstone and sandy limestones full of - nummulites; also _Ostrea_, etc. 31 - - 2. Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone or sandy limestone, - often crowded with _Operculina discoidea_ and some - _Nummulites Fraasi_, etc. 12 - - 3. Sandy limestone with small foraminifera at top and - some shells. The upper part of this bed has been - quarried 20 - - 4. Shales and shaly limestone; gypsum — - -- - Total thickness 63 - -- - -The foraminiferal sandy limestones of this series are seen at points -in the desert bounding the eastern margin of the cultivation, notably -east of Sersena and at the top of the hill 15 kilometres north-east -of Rubiat. - -The following section was measured at the prominent hills 17 kilometres -28° N. of E. (magn.) of Tamia:— - - Metres. - - 1. Greyish laminated sandy clays with gypsum; _Ostrea_ - band near top 7 - - 2. White sandy limestone with numerous badly preserved - _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, and other lamellibranchs 1 - - 3. Dark-brown clayey sands with gypsum and grey sandy - clays with obscure plant-remains. Occasional _Ostrea_ 14 - - 4. Hard, white, sandy limestone with numerous _Ostrea_ - at top; soft clays with gypsum 1 - - 5. Greenish and brownish sands and sandy clays with } - band of sandy limestone near top } - } 14 - 6. Greyish-brown, impure, sandy limestone weathering } - into large globular concretions. Shell impressions } - - 7. Sandy clays and marls alternating with impure } - limestones; much gypsum. Occasional fish-remains and } - small oysters } 22 - } - 8. Greenish sandy limestone with traces of shells } - - 9. Finely laminated grey-brown clays with black - carbonaceous matter and fish-remains; saliferous 3 - - 10. White sandy limestone 1 - - 11. Soft yellow sandstones, etc. } - } - 12. White marls with fish-scales, etc.; base not seen. } 7 - (This bed, and possibly also 9, 10, 11, should be } - reckoned as belonging to the Ravine beds) } - -- - Total thickness 70 - -- - -In the north of the Fayûm the series is characterized by the -presence of one or more very constant well-marked beds of hard -calcareous sandstone, which almost invariably weather into huge -globular masses. These masses should be regarded as huge weathered-out -concretions, rather than as water-rounded blocks, although no doubt -in many cases their roundness has been increased by the action of the -waters of Lake Moeris as the level of the latter gradually fell, and -possibly still earlier during the invasion of the Pliocene sea; from -the latter time also may date the millions of parallel vertical borings -with which these and other exposed rocks are often perforated. In -the various places where one of these beds forms the present surface -of the desert the concretions may be seen in different stages of -exposure, from the initial, where only just the tops are laid bare, -to the final stage where the globes are left completely weathered out, -as seen in the illustration (Plate VII). The appearance of the desert -when covered for many square kilometres with thousands of these blocks -is more easily imagined than described. - -The lower beds of the Birket el Qurûn series form the island Geziret -el Qorn, and consist of clays and sandstones containing a considerable -number of organic remains. These beds were collected from and examined -by Schweinfurth[44] in 1879, the mollusca being subsequently described -by Mayer-Eymar,[45] while the vertebrate remains, which included -cetacean bones and numerous fish-teeth, were submitted to Dames. - -The following species were determined by Mayer-Eymar, who indicated -that the fauna as a whole had a Bartonian aspect[46]:— - - UPPER BED. - - _Ostrea plicata_, Defr. - - _Arca Edwardsi_, Desh. - - _Lucina pomum_, Duj.[47] - - _Lucina_ cfr. _tabulata_, Desh. - - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, May.-Eym. - - _Cytherea Newboldi_, May.-Eym. - - _Tellina pellucida_, Desh. - - _Mactra compressa_, Desh. - - _Corbula pyxidicula_, Desh. - - _Calyptræa trochiformis_, Lam. - - _Turritella angulata_, Sow. - - _Ficula tricarinata_, Lam. - - LOWER BED. - - _Astrohelia similis_, May.-Eym. - - _Goniastræa cocchii_, d’Achiardi. - - _Heliastræa acervularia_, May.-Eym. - - _Heliastræa Ellisi_, Defr. (_Astræa_). - - _Heliastræa flattersi_, May.-Eym. - - _Ostrea digitalina_, Dubois. - - _Ostrea gigantea_, Sol. - - _Ostrea longirostris_, Lam. - - _Ostrea producta_, Delb. et Raul. - - _Isocardia cyprinoides_, Braun. - - _Turritella carinifera_, Desh. - - _Turritella transitoria_, May.-Eym. - - _Turritella turris_, Bast. - - _Turbo Parkinsoni_, Defr. - - _Pleurotoma_, sp. - -The cetacean remains, belonging to the genus _Zeuglodon_, were -described by W. Dames,[48] who compared them with the American species -_Z. macrospondylus_ and _Z. brachyspondylus_, but did not then consider -them to represent a new species; in a later publication,[49] however, -the same author described similar but more complete remains, also -collected by Schweinfurth (from beds belonging to our Qasr el Sagha -series), as a new species, _Z. Osiris_. A considerable number of -fish-remains from Geziret el Qorn are also described in the earlier -publication. Although the difference in size of the bones of separate -individuals was considered by Dames to be sexual, it seems probable -that there are two distinct species of _Zeuglodon_, as the smaller -type appears to have a much greater upward range than the larger[50]; -both species, _Z. Osiris_, and _Z. Isis_ occur in the Birket el Qurûn -series, and a very fine mandible of the larger was obtained from these -beds in the cliffs near the west end of the lake.[51] More recently -a third species has been discovered by Stromer and described under -the name of _Z. Zitteli_.[52] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Profile of beds of Geziret el Qorn. - -1. Hard brown sand-rock with large concretions of weathered globular -sandstone on the summit; ferruginous nodular bands containing -shell-casts occur near top. 2. Soft gypseous clays with bands of -sand-rock and sandstone with _Ostrea_, _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, -_Turritella_, corals, _Zeuglodon_, chelonian and fish-remains. 3. Brown -sand-rock. 4. Soft gypseous clays and harder brown sandstones. 5. White -shaly marl with fish-scales; hard band at top and soft sandy shaly -clays below. - -The surface-slope is much less than shown in sketch and is generally -covered by a deposit of lacustrine clays containing freshwater shells -and fish-bones.] - -The accompanying profile (Fig. 4), measured during a hurried visit -to the island for the purpose of correlating these beds with those -of the mainland, shows the character of the lower beds of the Birket -el Qurûn series at this point.[53] - -[Illustration: PLATE VII. - -WEATHERED CONCRETIONARY SANDSTONE (BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES) ON NORTH -SHORE OF LAKE NEAR GEZIRET EL QORN.] - -The upper beds of the Birket el Qurûn series in this part of the -Fayûm are lithologically similar to those just described, consisting -of alternating clays and sandstones, about 37 metres thick. They are, -however, generally much richer in fossil remains, which are likewise -usually better preserved than in the lower beds. Some of the brown -sandstones of this series are literally crowded with perfect examples -of many of the typical mollusca; and further west, near the end of -the lake, foraminiferal bands again become noticeable. Near Dimê the -escarpment of these and the lower beds is gentle and inconspicuous, -but followed westwards it becomes a bold precipitous cliff, increasing -in height towards the western end of the lake, where it is capped by -the lower beds of the Qasr el Sagha series. - - -The following section was measured on the mainland[54] opposite the -island Geziret el Qorn. - - _Top._ Metres. - - 1. Gypseous clays, separated by a band of brown sandstone - crowded with white well-preserved shells, including - numerous individuals of _Plicatula polymorpha_, _Ostrea_, - _Turritella_ and _Lucina pharaonis_. Large vertebrae of - _Zeuglodon Isis_ occur on this horizon further to the - north-east 8 - - 2. Sandstones and gypseous clays. Although here the - sandstones are not hard or predominant, this bed is - equivalent to the hard sandstone full of borings capping - the plain between the ruins of Dimê and the top of the - escarpment overlooking the lake. Further north this bed - often contains numerous _Carolia placunoides_ and _Ostrea_ 3 - - 3. Gypseous clays 3 - - 4. Clays, brown sandstones, and occasional beds of limestone, - often very fossiliferous, containing _Ostrea Reili_, - _Carolia placunoides_, _Cardita Viquesneli_, d’Arch., - _Lucina_ sp., _Turritella pharaonica_,[55] _Clavelithes - longævus_, _Qerunia cornuta_, etc., etc. 10 - - 5. Clays with fossils as in last bed, capped by hard band of - shelly sandstone 3 - - 6. Alternating yellow-brown sandstones and gypseous clays 10 - -- - Total thickness 37 - -- - Bed with weathered-out sandstone concretions at top—upper bed of - section at Geziret el Qorn.[56] - -At the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the series is well marked, -the sandstone beds forming the steep face of the bold precipitous -cliffs which are so marked a feature at this end of the lake. The group -has a thickness of some 50 metres and is overlain by the lower beds -of the Qasr el Sagha series; it is more convenient here to give the -entire section of the cliffs down to the base of the series under -discussion:— - - _Top of Cliffs._ Metres. - - 1. Hard grey sandstone and shelly limestone } - passing up into calcareous sandstone } - (forming surface of plain dipping north). } - } - 2. Impure sandstone with numerous fossils:— } - _Qerunia cornuta_, corals, _Ostrea Reili_, } - _O. Clot-Beyi_, _Carolia placunoides_, } - _Plicatula polymorpha_, _Cardita_ } - (? _fajumensis_) sp., _Clavelithes } - longævus_, _Serpula_, etc. } - } - 3, 4. Clays with band of argillaceous } Lower part - sandstone. Septaria bed near base. }(42 metres) - Fish-remains. } of Qasr - } el Sagha - 5. Earthy limestone crowded with _Ostrea } Series. - Clot-Beyi_, _O._ sp., _Plicatula } - polymorpha_, _Pecten_ sp., _Lucina_ sp., } - _Cytherea_ sp., _Turritella_ sp., } - _Nonionina_ sp., _Oliva_ sp., _Pleurotoma_ } - sp., _Vermetus_ sp., _Nautilus_ sp. } - } - 6. Thin-bedded clays, grey with yellowish band, } - sandy clays interbedded with soft whitish } - sandstones with small irregular concretions. } - Clays, gypseous and sometimes carbonaceous. } - } - 7. Shelly sandstone, hard on upper surface and } - very fossiliferous (forms similar to Bed 9). } - } - 8. Gypseous clays. } - - 9. Thin (·25 to ·5 metre) hard dark - reddish-brown, very ferruginous, - concretionary-weathering sandstone with - nummulites and _Operculina_ and - well-preserved examples of _Qerunia - cornuta_, _Pecten_ sp., _Pectunculus_ sp., - _Venus_ sp., _Cardita Viquesneli_, _Astarte_ - sp., _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, _Lucina_ sp., - _Natica_ sp., _Cerithium_ sp., _Clavelithes - longævus_, _Voluta_ sp., _Dentalium_ sp. 1 - - 10. Hard purplish clays 7 - - 11. Soft yellowish sandstone with _Ostrea_ - sp., _Cardita ægyptiaca_, _Lucina_ sp., - _Turritella_ sp., and sharks’ teeth. Upper - surface tends to become dark, ferruginous, - and concretionary 1 - - 12. Purple clays, with strings of gypsum 6 - - 13. Soft light-yellow sandstones with harder - shelly bands and occasional concretionary - beds, forming vertical cliff-wall 17 - - 14. Grey and brown clays 18 - -- - _Ravine Beds._ Total 50 - -- - - -In the cliffs west of the end of the lake the upper bed No. 9 continues -highly fossiliferous and yields the most perfectly preserved molluscan -remains to be found in the Fayûm and probably in Egypt. - -A few kilometres east of the end of the lake a band of large globular -concretions occurs in the thick brown sandstone forming the vertical -face of the cliff. In many places the effect of weathering of these -rocks is of some interest, numerous “earth-pillars” having been -formed; these are largely the result of the action of blown sand, -assisted by rain, the concretions being left capping pillars of -brown sandstone, the sides of which are sculptured by the wearing -action of sand. The curious perforate or cellular appearance which -the weathered surfaces of this sandstone assume after long exposure -are particularly noticeable in this neighbourhood and in the Zeuglodon -Valley further west. - -In the well-marked hill distant 17 kilometres to the north-east of -Gar el Gehannem, the soft fossiliferous sandstones of this series are -crowded with _Operculina_, _Nummulites_, and many species of mollusca -beautifully preserved. - -At Gar el Gehannem the series is seen (Fig. 2 and detailed section -page 36) forming part of the slope of the hill, underlain by the -Ravine beds, and capped by part of the Qasr el Sagha series. It here -consists of yellow sandstones divided by a bed of clay; the sandstones -are often crowded with nummulites (of two species); also _Operculina_ -(_discoidea?_), echinids, _Balanus_ sp., _Ostrea Reili_, _O. Fraasi_, -_Carolia placunoides_, and species of _Pecten_, _Pinna_, _Cardita_, -_Teredo_, _Turritella_, and _Cerithium_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Section of cliffs, western end of the Birket -el Qurun. - -Pleistocene.—(_a_) Lacustrine clays and sands with freshwater shells -and fish-remains; _Middle Eocene_, 1. 14 Clays, sandstones and impure -limestones; 15 White shaly clays and marly limestones.] - -In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilometres W.S.W. of Gar el Gehannem, -the brown sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series are divided by a -narrow band of fine-bedded grey clay. Most of the fantastically shaped -hills on the south-west slope of the valley are carved out of the -lower division of the sandstone. The concretionary beds of the Birket -el-Qurûn series are not developed in this neighbourhood. Remains of -_Zeuglodon_ of both species (_Z. Osiris_ and _Z. Isis_) are remarkably -abundant and the skeletons of these cetaceans may be found in every -stage of weathering. The larger species, _Z. Isis_, is the more -common, and series of vertebrae, twelve to fifteen in number, can -frequently be counted in situ. The remains are most abundant enclosed -in the hard brown nodular bands of the series but in such cases it is -almost impossible to extract specimens of any value. In one instance -an almost complete skull of _Z. Isis_, measuring 116 cm. in length, -was found enclosed in a large block of the nodular rock.[57] Bones are -frequently to be observed protruding from the wind-worn sides of the -small hills, while those portions of the skeleton already weathered -out litter the ground below. Exposed they break up with rapidity, -although where the enclosing rock is softer than the bone itself, -parts of the skeleton beautifully preserved and perfectly free from -matrix may sometimes be obtained. - -The molluscan fauna is represented by very large numbers of -pseudomorphs in sulphate of strontium (celestine) of the genera -_Lucina_, _Turritella_, _Fusus_ and _Nautilus_, the profusion of -individuals of a species of the latter being very marked. In the case -of lamellibranchs the radiating bundles of crystals of celestine are -seen to originate from a point placed centrally on one of the valves, -so that on this side (of a slightly weathered example) a radiating mass -of crystals is seen, while on the other appear numerous contiguous -circular areas, representing the terminal ends of the bundles of -crystalline fibres or needles. Apart from the quantities of organic -pseudomorphs, masses of crystalline celestine occur in the sandstones -throughout the valley, and altogether the quantity of sulphate of -strontium present must be very great. The gigantic oysters and other -fossils which occur in some of the overlying higher beds, and the -numerous individuals of nummulites in the sandstone itself, never -seem to be replaced by celestine. - -Nummulites of two species are very abundant in some bands and the -presence in the Zeuglodon Valley of occasional individuals of the -large _N. gizehensis_ shows that in favourable localities this species -persisted throughout the time represented by the deposition of the -Ravine beds and ranged upward into the basal members of the Birket -el Qurûn series. - -In the higher hills within the valley, and in the hill-mass on the -south side, the yellow sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series -pass up into the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha series. In their -upper limits the sandstones become very nummulitic in places and at -the top bands made up of _Carolia_ and _Ostrea_ occur. Above these, -in the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha series, huge oysters and -finely preserved specimens of _Qerunia cornuta_ are conspicuous. - -The dip in the valley is 2° north. - -The southern face of the hill-mass lying immediately to the south of -the Zeuglodon Valley is an almost sheer cliff of over 100 metres, -descending to the silt covered basin below which has already been -noticed (page 23). On this escarpment the hard nodular marly limestones -of the Ravine beds are seen near the base, overlain by a mass of grey -shaly gypseous beds; above, forming as a rule a vertical wall of rock, -lies the hard massive brown sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series, -here undivided by clays; at the top, highly fossiliferous alternating -clays and limestones are found forming the summit of the hills. - -The exact junction between the Birket el Qurûn series and the -overlying Qasr el Sagha beds is naturally perfectly arbitrary, many -of the fossils being common to both groups. _Carolia placunoides_, -which is perhaps the most abundant fossil in the Qasr el Sagha series, -is sometimes very common in the upper beds of the underlying group, -and, as shown before, is common enough in the still lower _Nummulites -gizehensis_ beds of Wadi Rayan. So that, though this fossil itself is -no criterion, its relative abundance in the upper series justifies -those beds being called the “Carolia beds,” the additional name -of the Qasr el Sagha series being taken from the old ruin of that -name where these beds are fully seen. - -[Illustration: PLATE VIII. - -MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT (QASR EL SAGHA SERIES) 12 KILOM. WEST OF -QASR EL SAGHA.] - - - _D._—=Qasr el Sagha Series= (_Carolia Beds_). - - -This division is strikingly developed in the north of the Fayûm, -where it forms a bold escarpment of great length, consisting of -an alternating series of very fossiliferous clays and limestones, -with sands and sandstone in the upper beds, of a total thickness of -175 metres. - -This series is the equivalent of the well known Upper Mokattam beds of -Jebel Mokattam, immediately to the east of Cairo. The cliffs of this -hill are among the best known in Egypt and have been studied by many -geologists, including Zittel, Schweinfurth, Mayer-Eymar, etc.; these -authors have classified the whole of the Upper Mokattam of Cairo as -equivalent to the Upper Parisian (Middle Eocene) of Western Europe. The -series is far better developed in the Fayûm than at Jebel Mokattam, -where the total thickness is only some 70 to 80 metres. - -In consequence of the discovery in these beds of a highly interesting -vertebrate fauna, including land animals, the series becomes of -the greatest importance. As already mentioned, as long ago as 1879, -Schweinfurth, during a journey across the Fayûm, obtained remains of -_Zeuglodon_ in the underlying series from the island in the Birket -el Qurûn. Subsequently[58] he obtained additional remains of the -same cetacean in a violet marl belonging to the present series, from -a locality 12½ kilometres west of Qasr el Sagha[59]; these remains, -as already mentioned, were described by Dames as _Z. Osiris_. Since -then important finds of land and marine mammals and reptiles have been -made in different beds of this series; these will be referred to later. - -The outcrop of the Qasr el Sagha series occupies a large part of -the northern desert of the Fayûm. The beds are, however, best seen -in the cliffs about 8 kilometres north of the Birket el Qurûn, -where they form a steep double escarpment, running east and west, -nearly parallel to the northern shore of the lake. The dip of the -series being northward at a very low angle, and the upward slope -of the ground being in the same direction, this cliff dies out a -few kilometres north-east of Qasr el Sagha. A little further north, -however, a N.W.-S.E. fold and fault again exposes nearly the whole -of the beds of the series, forming prominent cliffs as before. - -In the conspicuous hill 17½ kilometres 28° N. of E. (magnetic) of -Tamia the series consists of innumerable alternations of clays and -sandy limestone. The calcareous beds nearly always contain numerous -examples of _Carolia placunoides_, _Ostrea_ and _Turritella_ of -several species, but other well-preserved fossils are rare. The -exposed beds here have a thickness of about 55 metres, and are -underlain by the Birket el Qurûn beds with a well-marked band of -concretionary sandstone, the thickness of the two series together -being 127 metres. The upper beds of the former series are not here -exposed, the top of the hill being formed of well-rounded flint -and quartz pebbles embedded in a base of finely crystalline gypsum -(2 metres thick), a deposit of Pleistocene times. - -To the north of Tamia a large area of desert is occupied by the beds -of this series; the district has the character of an undulating plain -with occasional groups of hills and low irregular escarpments. At -the groups of hills 12 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia, and just to the -east of Garat el Faras, the Qasr el Sagha beds are found to consist -as usual of an alternating series of sands, sandstones, clays, marls -and limestones, with numerous individuals of _Ostrea_, _Carolia_ -and _Turritella_, besides vertebræ, teeth and spines of large fish. - -We may pass now to the locality where this series shows its best -development and exposure, the beds being all concentrated in one -bold escarpment, generally divisible into an upper and a lower -cliff. These cliffs overlook the Birket el Qurûn, although distant -usually about 8 kilometres, being separated from the lower escarpment -of the Birket el Qurûn series (immediately above the lake shore) -by a broad plain, the surface of which is usually the dip-slope of a -hard bed of sandstone. From Qasr el Sagha (6½ kilometres N.N.E. of -Dimê) these cliffs trend westward, keeping approximately the same -distance from the north shore of the lake; they have been followed -and mapped for a distance of 70 kilometres to a point 13 kilometres -N.N.W. of Gar el Gehannem, whence they could be seen still trending -in a direction slightly south of west (see Plate XVII). - -Small faults are of frequent occurrence along these escarpments, but -are not of other than local interest; they almost invariably have their -downthrow to the north, and it seldom exceeds a few metres. Fig. 5 -shows a section through one of these faults near Qasr el Sagha. - -The following detailed section (Plate XXIII) will show the character -of the beds forming this division. As might be expected in such a -series, although the calcareous bands are fairly constant, there is -a continuous change of character among the sandy and clayey sediments -from point to point; the false-bedding is in places very striking. - -The main part of the section was measured 3½ kilometres north-east -of Qasr el Sagha, but the lower beds not being exposed at that point, -they were added from the cliffs at the ruin itself. The total thickness -is 154 metres. - - Thickness - _Top._ in metres. - - 1. Hard, white, grey-weathering, sandy limestone with - numerous shell-casts: _Echinolampas Crameri_, - Loriol, _Plicatula Bellardi_, May.-Eym. 2 - - 2. False-bedded sand and sand-rock with grey and - green clays; concretions and bands of ironstone. - - Hard, dark-brown or purplish ferruginous sandstone - band. Occasional vertebrae of _Zeuglodon Osiris_, - Dames, _Pterosphenus_ (_Mœriophis_) - _Schweinfurthi_, Andr., crocodilian and fish- - remains; coprolites 16 - - 3. Hard, calcareous, ferruginous, clayey sandstone - with brown ironstone concretions. Occasional fish- - spines. - - Clays with massive veins of gypsum forming a - stock-work, and left weathered out above surface. - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, May.-Eym., _Cardita - fajumensis_, Oppenh., (_Cossmannella ægyptiaca_, - May.-Eym[60]), _Crassatellithes_ sp. 9 - - 4. Hard, yellow, gypseous sandy limestone or - calcareous sandstone 1½ - - 5. Sandy, glauconitic clays with gypsum; oyster-bed - at base in places. _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - Bellardi, _Exogyra Fraasi_, May.-Eym. 10 - - _2nd escarpment._ - - 6. Hard or friable limestone, sometimes sandy, full - of _Carolia placunoides_, Cantr., and _Exogyra - Fraasi_, also _Ostrea_ aff. _heteroclyta_, Defr., - _Ostrea Reili_, Fraas., _O. elegans_, Desh., - _Plicatula Bellardi_, May.-Eym., _Pectunculus (?) - ægyptiacus_, Oppenh., _Qerunia_ (_Hydractinia_) - _cornuta_, May.-Eym. 2 - - 7. Purplish clays interbedded and remarkably current- - bedded with ash-grey sands, with both ferruginous - and highly carbonaceous bands with plant-remains, - lignite and natural charcoal. Vertebrate remains - fairly common, the mammalian including _Zeuglodon - Osiris_, _Eosiren libyca_, Andr., _Mœritherium - Lyonsi_, _Barytherium?_ Andr.; the reptilian - _Stereogenys Cromeri_, Andr., and _Tomistoma - africanum_, Andr., with numerous coprolites; also - frequent remains of siluroid and other fish. - Masses of coral, _Astrohelia similis_, Felix, in - places 12 - - 8. Hard grey, close-grained, concretionary sandstone, - frequently weathering into huge elongated rounded - masses; _Turritella pharaonica_, Cossm. - - Hard, purplish clays with grey sandy clays, - sandrock, etc. Occasional crocodile and fish- - remains 4 - - 9. Hard ripple-marked sandstone. False-bedded - sandstones with clay partings; ferruginous and - lignitic bands with lumps of lignite. Occasionally - coprolites and remains of Sirenia and Crocodilia - are numerous 7 - - 10. Hard or friable brown sandy limestone with shell- - casts filled with scalenohedra of calcite. - _Carolia placunoides_, _Turritella_ sp. ½ - - 11. Gypseous clays, with red ferruginous band; - weathering to paper-shales below 4½ - - 12. Light-yellow limestone and calcareous sandstone - with sharks’ teeth, _Mesalia fasciata_, Lam., - _Cassidaria_ sp., _Rimella rimosa_, Sol., - _Trachelochetus bituberculatus_, Cossm., - _Turritella carinifera_, Desh., _T. Lessepsi_, - May.-Eym., _Cardita fajumensis_, Oppenh. - _Goniopora?_ 1 - - 13. Slate-blue and brown gypseous clays with band - containing _Mesalia_ sp., _Cassidaria nilotica_, - Bell., _Exogyra Fraasi_ and _Goniaræa elegans_ 3 - - 14. Sandstone and sandrock, light yellow 1 - - 15. Yellow sandy friable limestone with casts of - shells and _Mesalia fasciata_, _M. oxycrepis_, - May.-Eym., _Turritella Lessepsi_, _T. pharaonica_, - Cossm., _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, _Ostrea Reili_ ½ - - 16-17. Sands, sandy clays and clays with a double band of - limestone containing _Ampullina hybrida_, Lam., - _Melongena nilotica_, var. _bicarinata_, - May.-Eym., _Tudicla_ aff. _umbilicaris_, - May.-Eym., _Turritella Lessepsi_, _T. parisiana_, - May.-Eym., _Solarium_ sp., _Alectryonia Clot- - Beyi_, _Plicatula polymorpha_ (occasional), - _Lucina fortisiana_, Defr., _L. pharaonis_, Bell., - _Mytilus affinis?_ J. and C. Sowerby, _Astrohelia - similis_, _Goniaræa elegans_, Mich.; numerous - vertebrate remains both above and between - limestones including _Zeuglodon Osiris_, _Eosiren - libyca_, _Barytherium grave_, Andr., _Moeritherium - Lyonsi_, _M. gracile_, Andr., _Gigantophis - Garstini_, Andr., _Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi_ and - _Tomistoma africanum_, Andr. The remains of a - siluroid fish are abundant; also _Propristis - Schweinfurthi_, Dames. Large numbers of - coprolites. Silicified wood 12 - - 18. Brown sandy limestone with casts of shells, - _Akera_ aff. _striatella_, Lam., _Ampullaria_, n. - sp., _Gisortia gigantea_, Munst., _Lanistes - antiquus_, Blanck., _Melongena nilotica_, var. - _bicarinata_, _Mesalia_ sp., _Cassidaria - nilotica_, _C._ aff. _nodosa_, _Solarium_ aff. - _bistriatum_, Desh., _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Lucina - pharaonis_, Bell., _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, J. - Sowerby, _Meretrix nitidula_, Lam., _M. - parisiensis_, Desh., _Ostrea flabellula_, Lam., - _Tellina_ sp., overlying clays with gypsum 4 - - 19. Sandy limestone with numerous _Carolia - placunoides_ and _Turritella imbricataria_, Lam. 1 - - 20. Greyish-blue and brown ferruginous, sandy, and - other clays. Plant remains 13 - - 21. Friable shelly limestone with occasional small - calcite veins ½ - - 22. Clays 4 - - 23. Hard yellow sandy limestone with _Ostrea_ and - _Anisaster_ (_Agassizia_) _gibberulus_ ½ - - 24. Clays with thin bands of fibrous gypsum 6 - - 25. Hard friable shelly limestone with numerous - fossils, including _Dictyopleurus Haimi_, Dunc. - and Slad.; _Akera_ aff. _striatella_, _Turritella - carinifera_, _T. imbricataria_, _T. pharaonica_, - _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, _Arca tethyis_, Oppenh., - _Cardita_ aff. _carinata_, J. Sowerby, _C._ aff. - _depressa_, Locard., _C._ aff. _triparticostata_, - Cossm., _C._ cf. _gracilis_ and _depressa_, - Locard., _Cardita fajumensis_, _Cucullæa_ aff. - _crassatina_, Lam., _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Glycimeris_ - (_Pectunculus_) _pulvinatus_, Lam., _Ostrea_ aff. - _Reili_, _Spondylus ægyptiacus_, Bull. Newt., - _Pecten solariolum_, May.-Eym., _P. moelehensis_, - May.-Eym., _Qerunia cornuta_, _Euspatangus - cairensis_, Loriol, _Linthia_ sp., _Anisaster - gibberulus_, _Schizaster_ aff. _africanus_, - Loriol; bryozoa ½ - - 26. Sandy clays with gypsum 7 - - 27. Friable, gypseous, impure limestone with _Exogyra - Fraasi_, _Carolia placunoides_, _Turritella_ sp., - _Qerunia cornuta_, _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_ ½ - - 28. Sandy gypseous clays 3 - - 29. Friable sandy limestone with _Carolia - placunoides_, _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Turritella_ sp. - (The ruin of Qasr el Sagha is built on this bed) 1 - - 30. Gypseous sandy clays with occasional oyster- - limestone with _Qerunia cornuta_; ferruginous - sandstone band, etc. 27 - --- - Total 154 - --- - Hard grey sandstone with _Zeuglodon_ and numerous _Carolia_, - _Ostrea_, etc., in places, capping plain to south of Qasr el Sagha - and forming the top of the “Birket el Qurun series.” - -The chief divisions of the series remain fairly constant and can be -recognized and followed for many kilometres westwards.[61] The lower -beds form the summits of Gar el Gehannem and the neighbouring hills -(see Fig. 2 and section p. 36), the upper beds of the series being -exposed in the higher escarpments to the north. - -Although vertebrate remains are more common on some horizons[62] than -on others, they are occasionally met with in most of the beds. The -most prolific bone horizon is, however, about half-way down, i.e., -those beds numbered 16 and 17 in the above section; bed 7 also yielded -a number of remains. At the point where the upper part of the section -was measured, 3½ kilometres north-east of Qasr el Sagha, the beds -16 and 17 yielded a considerable number of land-animal remains, all -of which occurred within a fairly confined space, suggesting that -they had been carried out from the land to this point by a strong -river-current and deposited when the latter became too feeble to -carry them further out to sea. The same beds were also examined in -the faulted bay 8 kilometres to the north, but no bones, or at most -a very occasional fragment or two, were obtained here. This is easily -explained by the greater distance of this locality from the land-mass -to the south. Westwards the same beds were always found more or less -bone-bearing, isolated detached mandibles, limb-bones and vertebræ of -_Mœritherium_, being of frequent occurrence, although no such complete -remains were found as those from near Qasr el Sagha. Reptilian and -fish bones are very widespread throughout the area. An extensive and -detailed examination of these beds over a large area can hardly fail -to yield important results, as other localities where skeleton-carrying -currents came out from the land would very likely be discovered. - -That the Qasr el Sagha series was deposited in fairly shallow water at -no great distance from land seems certain, not only from the general -lithological character of the beds but from the number of land-animal -remains and the frequency of river and shore-frequenting whales, -dugongs, crocodiles and turtles. The clays, moreover, are found -to abound with impressions of plants, and in some cases are highly -lignitic, being made up of compressed masses of vegetation including -solid twigs, now found in a state more resembling charcoal than -ordinary dense lignites; some bands approximate to an impure brown -coal. In certain beds of the series further to the west, very thin -seams of true coal occur; they were, however, never seen to exceed one -or two millimetres. The intercalated bands of limestone are generally -impure and do not indicate any great conditions of depth, but only -rather a temporary cessation in the supply of sand and clay. Corals, -moreover, abound along many horizons. - -[Illustration: PLATE IX. - -UPPER BEDS OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES WITH BASALT CAP, LOOKING WEST FROM -THE EASTERN EXTREMITY OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - - - SECTION XI.—UPPER EOCENE (BARTONIAN)—LOWER OLIGOCENE. - - - _E._—=Fluvio-Marine Series= (_Jebel el Qatrani Beds_). - - -Throughout the north of the Fayûm depression the Qasr el Sagha -beds, forming the uppermost Middle Eocene, are followed by an unique -series[63] of variegated[64] sands and sandstones, with alternating -beds of clay and clayey marl. The ever-recurring bands of limestone, -so common to the underlying marine beds, have now almost completely -disappeared, being represented by only an occasional bed of calcareous -grit, marl, or thin band of limestone. In the upper part of the -series occurs a horizontal sheet of basalt,[65] in all probability -contemporaneously interbedded; this forms a convenient datum line and -may perhaps be provisionally taken as an arbitrary junction between the -Eocene and Oligocene. Although as a rule remarkably barren of organic -remains, certain bands, especially in the upper part, yield numerous -individuals of a few species of mollusca, including _Lucina_, _Arca_, -_Mutela_, _Spatha_, _Unio_, _Lanistes_, _Turritella_, _Melania_, -_Potamides_, _Cerithium_ and _Pleurotoma_. From such an assemblage we -may without doubt conclude that the conditions under which the series -was deposited were estuarine or fluvio-marine, and this is further -proved by the non-marine lithological character of the beds. The -enormous quantities of silicified wood which occur in certain beds, -in the shape of hundreds of trees of great length and girth, together -with the numerous remains of land-animals, crocodiles, tortoises -and turtles, indicate that rivers of considerable size emerged from -the land to the south, the coast-line of which was probably not far -distant. In fact the retreat of the sea, which as already mentioned, -had probably already begun in Middle Eocene times, was now still -further continued, although the cause of this was apparently not so -much due to elevation of the land as to the continued deposition -of sediment from south to north beyond the land-shore. We may in -fact regard the series as a huge delta deposit in an area of local -depression, in which the great accumulation of sediment brought down -from the land continually caused the gradual retreat of the sea to -the north. - -The same conditions would even appear to have continued on to -Pliocene times, as from the Fayûm northwards stretches an immense -plain of lithologically similar rocks, evidently accumulated under -similar conditions, and which appear to contain newer and newer -faunas from south to north. Thus, while in the Fayûm the remains -are of Middle and Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene age, when the -latitude of Mogara is reached, some 70 kilometres further north, -a fauna distinctly Lower Miocene in aspect occurs; further north -again, as at Wadi Natrûn, Pliocene remains are abundant. We may -hope therefore that this otherwise barren desert, when carefully and -systematically explored, will yield us a continuous record of the -vertebrate life of the northern part of the African continent from -Eocene to Pleistocene times. - -In the Fayûm, over a length of 80 to 90 kilometres, the basal beds -of the Fluvio-marine series, at a height of only a few metres above -the top of the Qasr el Sagha series, are frequently found to contain -the remains of land-animals, often in sufficient quantities to form -in places a true “bone-bed.” Besides land-mammals, remains of -large tortoises, turtles and crocodiles, are very common, some of -the latter being identical with those of the Qasr el Sagha series -below. Chelonian and crocodilian remains are to be found on various -horizons, but so far none but fragmentary mammal remains have been -observed in the higher parts of the series. It is interesting to -note that the bones in these beds appear to be most common near the -accumulations of fossil trees, thus suggesting that they were floated -out from the land at the same time and by the same river-currents. The -porous character of the sands and sandstones of this group has resulted -in the remains not being in nearly so hard or durable a condition, -except when coated with ferruginous sand, as those in the series below, -although the actual state of preservation is even more perfect. - -Analysis shows that these bones, with the exception of the loss -of all organic matter, have undergone very little change. A sample -examined by Mr. Lucas was taken from a typically preserved pelvis of -_Arsinoitherium_ and gave the following result:— - - DETERMINED. CALCULATED. - - Silica 0·57 Silica 0·57 - - Oxide of Iron 1·98 Oxide of Iron 1·98 - - Lime 51·40 Calcium Phosphate 76·11 - - Magnesia trace Magnesium Phosphate trace - - Phosphoric Acid 34·86 Calcium Sulphate 4·64 - - Sulphuric Acid 2·74 Calcium Carbonate 14·75 - - Loss on ignition, Organic Matter nil - being Carbon - dioxide 6·13 - - Chlorine trace Sodium Chloride trace - - Not determined 2·32 Not determined 1·95 - ------ ------ - 100·00 100·00 - -The following composition of the bones of an ox, from an analysis by -Berzelius, is - -appended for comparison:— - - % - - Phosphate and Fluoride of Calcium 57·35 - - Carbonate of Calcium 3·85 - - Phosphate of Magnesium 2·05 - - Soda and a little Sodium Chloride 3·45 - - Organic Matter 33·30 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -It is curious that these Eocene bones should have so completely -preserved their original composition considering the almost universal -silicification of the trees deposited in the same beds. - -Most frequently the vertebrate remains are found in an unconsolidated -false-bedded clean quartz sand, the grains of which are semi-rounded -or angular; in some layers the sand is very coarse and polished, and -mixed with fine gravel. These deposits of sand, apparently brought down -by river floods, are not continuous along any particular horizon, but -are intercalated here and there in the ordinary sandstones, clays and -marls of the series; they occur chiefly, however, as local lenticular -masses along a more or less constant horizon near the base of the -series. The bone-remains are not absolutely confined to these deposits -of river-sand, but like the silicified trees are far more common in -them than elsewhere. Scattered mammal bones occur in the lower clays, -marls, and hard concretionary sandstones, while the remains of aquatic -animals, such as turtles and crocodiles, may be found almost anywhere. - -From an examination of the series in the field, there is no doubt that, -in at least the centre of the area, the deposition of the lowest beds -was continuous with those of the Qasr el Sagha (Middle Eocene) series -below. Followed away from the centre (i.e. the district round Widan el -Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani) the series gradually -thins out, and eastwards, at Elwat Hialla, some 23 kilometres north -of Tamia, has a thickness of only 40 metres, the basal beds being -apparently laid on to a bed of limestone of the Qasr el Sagha series -about the horizon of Bed 12 in Section XXIII. The junction here is -apparently one of perfect conformity as far as the individual beds go, -and the peculiar sequence does not seem to be due to ordinary overlap; -it appears as if the change from marine to estuarine conditions had -set in earlier here than further to the west, with the result that -the upper Qasr el Sagha beds are wanting. Moreover, the accumulation -of estuarine beds went on so slowly in this locality that the series -does not attain to nearly its normal thickness, while further east it -dies out altogether. The slight dip to the north is identical in both -series, their lithological characters being, however, very different. - -Although the Qasr el Sagha series contains numerous bands of clay and -sandstone, the continual recurrence of thick beds of limestone at once -gives it a distinguishing feature from the group under discussion; -the latter is in fact characterized by the highly-coloured sandy, and -to less extent clayey, character of its beds. While the Middle Eocene -is essentially marine, the succeeding formation marks the retreat of -the sea and the incoming of estuarine and brackish water conditions. - -Before discussing the age of the Fluvio-marine series it will be well -to describe its development in the field. The beds of the complex are -throughout the district always found following on above the Qasr el -Sagha beds, although their thickness varies considerably, as might -be expected in a series of this nature. The most easterly locality -to which the formation was mapped is the scarp 23 kilometres due -north of Tamia, known as Elwat Hialla. Here the beds form a separate -escarpment, consisting of only about 40 metres of sands and sandstone -grit (sometimes silicified) with pieces of silicified wood: some of -the beds of sandstone have a concretionary stem-like weathering. From -this point these beds extend westwards far beyond the western end -of the lake, always forming the highest escarpments of the Fayûm -depression. A kilometre or two from our most easterly point the first -basalt sheets are seen, and these, preserving the same level as far -as can be observed, continue some 60 kilometres further west, to a -point nearly due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. The -series, only 40 metres thick at the eastern end, gradually thickens -as it is followed westward, until it reaches its maximum development -in the cliffs of Jebel el Qatrani, north-west of the temple of Qasr -el Sagha, where a thickness of some 210 metres is attained. - -Just 29 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia (6 kilometres N.W. of the prominent -western scarp of Elwat Hialla), a long hill offers a good section of -these beds, which consist of a variegated group of green sands, red -clays, coarse sandstones, red and yellow sand and sandstone, etc., -capped by a band of hard impure yellowish limestone with numerous -enclosed sand-grains (calcareous grit). Near the same place is an -interbedded sheet of basalt, which is sometimes followed by another -band of impure limestone and the latter by false-bedded sandstone. Huge -logs of weathered-out silicified trees are seen strewn about. - -The following is a detailed section of the series, measured from a -point 3½ kilometres W.N.W. of Elwat Hialla, and about 28 kilometres -N.N.W. of Tamia, to the top of the escarpment 4 kilometres further -north:— - - Undulating sandy, gravel-covered desert[66] stretching northwards. - - _Top of escarpment._ Metres. - - 1. False-bedded sandstones } - } - 2. Band of impure limestone } - } 8 - 3. Interbedded basalt sheet } - } - 4. Sandstone } - - _(Section continued in hill ¾ kilometre further north-east)._ - - 5. Hard yellow limestone with enclosed sand-grains; cavities - full of calcite 1 - - 6. Greenish-white sand-rock 1 - - 7. Hard reddish-brown stem-weathering sandstone 1½ - - 8. Greenish or white sand and sand-rock 3 - - 9. Variegated sandy clays; sand-rock with occasional - fragments of bone 6 - - 10. White sand-rock 1 - - 11. Rose-coloured sandstone 2 - - 12. Hard grey white marly clays 2½ - - 13. Coarse yellow sandstone 5 - - 14. Reddish, white, and variegated sands and sand-rock 8 - - 15. Grey, reddish and yellowish clays, with bands full of - plant-remains 3½ - - 16. Brown clayey, sandstone 2 - - 17. Greenish sandstone 1 - - 18. Sandy grey clay 1½ - - 19. Hard grey sandstone ½ - - 20. Greenish sand-rock and clayey sandstone 3 - - 21. Dark red clay 1 - - 22. Sands, etc.; outcrop of bed covered with silicified trees - of large dimensions, 12-15 metres long 10 - - 23. Clays with hard grey false-bedded sandstone and showing - fine mammilary weathering at top. Silicified logs on - surface 8 - - 24. Red clays, sandy clays and argillaceous sands 4 - - 25. Reddish sand-rock 1 - - 26. Yellowish sand-rock, in part false-bedded 2 - - 27. Red clays with thin sandy bands 1½ - - 28. Coarse grey sandstone 2 - - 29. Red and green sandy clays with thin band of hard white - sandstone at top 1 - - 30. Bright red clay 4 - - 31. Red clays with thin green sandy bands 3 - - 32. Greenish sand-rock with thin red clayey bands 1 - - 33. Reddish white mottled clayey sandstones passing up into - red and white mottled clays and sandy clays 8 - - 34. Fine white sand } - } 3 - 35. Black ferruginous silicified sandstone } - -- - Total thickness 90 - -- - _Base._ - - Junction with Middle Eocene (Qasr el Sagha series). - -[Illustration: PLATE X. - -EL QATRANI RANGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST.] - -A little further west, at a point 25 kilometres north of the eastern -end of the Birket el Qurûn, thick beds of white coarse sandstone -form the upper part of the escarpment. Below comes a bed of yellowish -impure limestone and below this an interbedded sheet of basalt 21 -metres thick, underlaid by more white sandstone. - -The series has almost always a constant dip of two or three degrees -to the north. Silicified trees are very commonly found strewn over -the surface both near the base and high up in the series. - -At a point about 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha definite organic -remains other than bone-fragments were for the first time met with -in the series. Here a fragment of ochreous-coloured grit containing -numerous specimens of a small _Melania_ was picked up and similar -rocks were afterwards found _in situ_. Calcareous grits and impure -limestones occurred at the same spot, and one of the harder more -compact bands of limestone was found to contain casts of _Cerithium_. - -Also at a point 9 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha hard -grey limestones, generally compact and cherty, and sometimes -semi-crystalline, are present, containing casts of _Melania_, -frequently filled with calcite. These overlie variegated sandstones, -and occur at about 40 metres below the basalt near the top of the -escarpment. - -Blanckenhorn has determined my fossils from these localities as -follows:— - -_Melania_ nov. sp., allied to _M. Nysti_ of the Oligocene. - -_Potamides scalaroides_, Desh., an important guiding form of the -Middle Beauchamp Sands of the Paris Basin, and thus Upper Eocene. - -_Potamides tristriatus_, Lam., of the Parisian (_Cerithium crispum_, -Desh.,) is nearly related to the frequent Middle and Upper Eocene -_C. perditum_, Bay, between which, according to Cossmann, transitions -exist. - -_Cerithium tiarella_, Desh., of the Middle and Upper Eocene, but more -especially in the latter. - -Blanckenhorn considers these determinations as certain, and thus -marking the complex as Upper Eocene, on the level of the “Beauchamp -Sands” of the Paris Basin, and consequently of the Lower Headon -Hill beds and Barton Clay of the South of England. - -The following section was measured from the base of the series, 2½ -kilometres N.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, to the summit of the escarpments, -2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. The series has its maximum -thickness at this point. - - Summit of escarpment of Fayûm depression, 2 kilometres - N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. - - _Top._ Metres. - - 1. Sandstones with band of coarse dark ferruginous grit; - silicified logs occur weathered-out of this bed 18 - - 2. Coarse sandstone-grit with yellowish calcareous base } - } 1 - } - 3. Greyish clay, possibly a product of decomposed basalt } - - 4. Basalt sheet, soft friable, grey or bright green, and - decomposed at base 5 - - 5. Hard yellow calcareous-grit with calcite-filled - cavities, passing into semi-compacted yellowish sand, - hardened at junction with basalt 1 - - 6. White and red sands } - } - 7. Greenish sandstones and yellow concretionary sands } - with 2·5 cm. layer of calcareous grit, with gastropods } 27 - including large _Cerithium_, _Melania_ sp., } - _Turritella pharaonica_, _Pleurotoma ingens_, } - May.-Eym., occasional lamellibranchs and also } - _Callianassa_ } - - 8. White, green and brown sands and sand-rock 17 - - 9. Hard yellow calcareous grit } - } - 10. Red and white clayey sand and sandy clays; some pebbly } 10 - bands; _Lucina_ sp., _Unio_ sp.,[67] preserved in } - brown ironstone, common in places on this horizon } - - 11. Coarse grey and white sand (2 metres) } - } - 12. Red clayey sands (1 metre) } 5 - } - 13. White and yellow sand and sand-rock } - - 14. Red clays 7 - - 15. Sandy ferruginous band with lamellibranchs and - gastropods of genera _Unio_, _Pseudodon_, _Mutela_, - _Spatha_ and _Lanistes_, indicating fluviatile or - fresh water conditions of deposition 5 - - 16. Green clay (1 metre) passing into a red variety } - } - 17. White sandy clay (2 metres) } - } - 18. Red clays } 6 - } - 19. White, brown, and red sands, partly consolidated } - } - 20. Bright red clay } - - 21. Hard coarse sandstone 3 - - 22. Hard compact light yellow limestone enclosing sand- } - grains (½ metre) } - } - 23. White and yellow sands } - } 5 - 24. Greenish clays (1 metre) } - } - 25. Coarse white sands with _Unio_ and _Cardium_-like } - lamellibranchs preserved in brown ironstone } - - 26. Grey clay 2 - - 27. Hard yellow impure limestone (forms a small platform) } - } 2 - 28. Grey clays } - - 29. Red and yellow sands with hard base of grey sandstone 15 - - 30. Grey sandstones. Base of basalt-capped escarpment 7 - - _(Section continued ¾ kilometre south-east)._ - - 31. Hard blue-grey compact cherty limestone (½ metre) with - casts of _Melania_; hollows often filled with calcite 18 - - 32. Variegated (red, white and yellow) sands, sand-rock } - and sandy clays } - } - 33. Hard compact close-grained limestone } 18 - } - 34. Red and white variegated sands and sand-rock, with } - some bands of red clay } - - 35. Hard yellow impure limestone (⅓) } - } - 36. Grey clays } - } 14 - 37. Coarse white sand } - } - 38. Brown calcareous sandstones } - - 39. Greenish and grey sandy clays (3 metres) } - } 8 - 40. Alternating white and red sands } - - 41. Coarse yellow calcareous grit (½ metre) } - } - 42. Light green sandstone } 2 - } - 43. Reddish clays } - - 44. White sand 2 - - 45. Alternating white and bright red sands } - } 19 - 46. Grey sandstone with silicified wood; occasional } - crocodilian and other bones } - - 47. Hard red clays 5 - - 48. Grey and brown clays, sandy clays, and thin beds of - sandstone with some silicified wood 19 - - 49. Grey sandstones and loose false-bedded sandy clays - with many silicified trees and remains[68] of - _Arsinoitherium Zitteli_, Bead., _Palæomastodon - Beadnelli_, Andr., _Mœritherium_ sp., _Phiomia - serridens_, Andr. and Beadn., _Saghatherium antiquum_, - Andr. and Beadn., _S. minus_, Andr. and Beadn., - _Megalohyrax eocænus_, Andr., _Ancodus Gorringei_, - Andr. and Beadn., _Pterodon africanus_, Andr., - _Crocodilus_ sp., _Tomistoma africanum_, Andr., and - large and numerous tortoises (_Testudo Ammon_, - Andr.)[69] and turtles[70], and very rarely - fragmentary fish-remains 5 - - 50. Thin bands of limestone } - } - 51. Yellow sand-rock } - } - 52. Grey sandstone with fragments of bone (½ metre) } 25 - } - 53. Brown calcareous-grit (½ metre) } - } - 54. Light green sand-rock and sandstone } - - Approximate total thickness in metres 271 - -The specimens collected from Bed 15, on about the same horizon as the -fossils mentioned from the locality 14 kilometres north of Qasr el -Sagha, were examined by Blanckenhorn, who has published the following -notice of them:— - -“I should first mention the fresh-water shells found by Beadnell -in brown sandstone 1 kilometre north of Camp 19 (i.e. at Widan el -Faras), which, in the absence of special literature on the Palaeogene -fresh-water shells of North Africa and nearer Asia, I have compared -with the fauna of to-day, in which I was most kindly helped by -Professor v. Martens, Director of the Conchological Collection of -the Natural History Museum. The greater number of the forms have a -distinctly tropical, and more especially Central African, character. - -_Unio_ sp., small, related to the recent _U. Nyassænsis_ of Lake -Nyassa. - -_Unio_, related to _U. Homsensis_[71] Lea, from Syria, and -_U. Bonneaudi_ from Cochin China, with many radial folds behind the -umbo which run obliquely from the blunt edge backwards towards the -hinge-border. - -_Unio_, related to _U. teretiusculus_, Phil. (_Caillaudi_, Fer., -_lithophagus_, Ziegli.) of the Nile. - -_Pseudodon?_ sp. - -_Mutela_ (a genus of tropical Africa) sp., long, with a straight -finely-toothed hinge-border which very much recalls that of _Barbatia_ -(a sub-genus of _Arca_). - -_Spatha_ sp. related to _S. dahomeyensis_ and _S. Droueti_ of Assinia -in West Africa. - -_Lanistes carinatus_,[72] scarcely distinguishable from the Nile form. - -The _Melania_ occurring in mass in the uppermost calcareous bed -appears to be a new species[73] whose nearest relation must in any -case be _M. Nysti_ of the Oligocene, not _M. muricata_ of the Eocene, -amongst forms at present known. - -_Turritella angulata_, Sow. A marine form, occurring below the -basalt and indubitably this species, as it is well preserved and -easily determined[74]; _T. angulata_ ranges from the Middle Eocene -to the Lower Oligocene of the East and occurs in the Upper Mokattam -of Syria.” - -From Widan el Faras the series continues westwards, forming several -escarpments, the uppermost that of Jebel el Qatrani, and maintaining -the same general characters. The tripartite character of the series, -already noticeable between Qasr el Sagha and Widan el Faras (see -foregoing section) becomes still more marked. The lowest division is -very largely composed of fluviatile sands and sandstones, frequently -coarse-grained and usually markedly current-bedded, divided by clays -and containing an abundance of silicified trees and quantities of -vertebrate remains. These soft beds, some 60 metres in thickness, -have as a rule an extensive outcrop, forming an undulating plain -averaging two or three kilometres in width. They are overlaid by -some 17 metres of harder dark red sandstones, which invariably form -a well-marked escarpment capped by a very constant two or three -metres band of hard white or pinkish calcareous grit. This grit -varies in composition, frequently passing into a marl; and one of the -characteristics of this and the underlying red beds is the abundance -of nodular masses of calcite and gypsum. In some localities, as for -instance 3 kilometres W.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, numerous spherical -nodules of beekitic chalcedony occur in the beds of this division, -and some of these when broken are found to be geodes lined with -beautiful crystals of quartz and calcite. - -The next division consists of some 60 metres of alternating sandstones -and clays with occasional thin calcareous bands in the upper part, and -capped by a well-marked hard cherty limestone, frequently passing into -a dense tabular chert or flint. This exceptionally hard band generally -forms a dip-slope plain of some width, before the softer basal members -of the third and highest division overlie it. The siliceous bed caps -many of the most notable hills in the district; among others may be -mentioned the big isolated hill 9 kilometres north-west of Garat el -Esh, and the hills five kilometres N.N.E. of the same point. This -is the only horizon throughout the Eocene succession of the Fayûm -on which an abundance of flint is met with; that it was well known -and exploited in early times is evident from the old pits met with -on the summits of the hills overlooking the main bone-pits, a few -kilometres north of Garat el Esh. As no worked flints were noticed -round the workings it is probable that the material was excavated and -carried away to the borders of the lake, there to be fashioned into -the harpoons, saws and other implements which are so commonly found -scattered at the present day near the margin of the old lake site. - -The uppermost division of the Fluvio-marine series consists of over -100 metres of variegated sediments and forms the escarpment of Jebel -el Qatrani itself, capped by the conspicuous band of hard black -basalt, which is itself overlain by a further 20 metres of similar -sediments. The basalt has a thickness of over 20 metres in places, -though its average is considerably less; at the base it is frequently -decomposed, soft, and of a brown colour. - -At a point due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the -interbedded basalt sheet terminates, and no further flows were seen as -far as the point up to which the series was mapped, nearly due north -of Gar el Gehannem. As far as could be seen on a traverse through -the Zeuglodon Valley to the south-western limits of the depression -no further basalt flows occur. - - -Section from the base of the Fluvio-marine series, 2 kilometres north -of Garat el Esh, to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani 5½ kilometres -north of the bone-pits. (See Plates XVIII and XXIV). - - Approximate - thickness in - _Summit of plateau._ metres - - 1. Coarse sandstones and grits 13 - - 2. Basalt 25 - - 3. Yellow sands and sandstones, capped by 3 m. of - hard concretionary grey sandstone with occasional - mammalian bones (underlying basalt in scarp and - capping outlying hill) 15 - - 4. Hard sandstones with clayey bands 8 - - 5. Sandy and clayey beds 5 - - 6. Hard yellow calcareous grit 5 - - 7. Clays and clayey marls 7 - - 8. Sandy beds 15 - - 9. Hard sandstone (forms connecting ridge between ½ - hill and escarpment) - - 10. Clays with thin sandstone bands } - } 40 - 11. Variable sandy and marly red clays with a hard } - yellowish sandstone band ten metres from base } - - _Base of isolated hill._ - - 12. Soft sands with chelonian and crocodilian remains 4 - - 13. Sandy clays with chelonian and mammalian } - (_Arsinoitherium_) bones, capped by coarse grit, } - in part ferruginous silicified grit and quartzite } 1 - } - 14. White calcareous grit and marly limestone. Band } - of flint in places - - _Summit of hill overlooking bone-pits._ - - 14. Sandstone, becoming calcareous and passing up 10 - into 3 m. of hard white calcareous grit, and - yellowish white bedded marly limestone with - calcite druses. Capped by ¼ m. hard tabular chert - and flint - - 15. Finely laminated grey shaly clays, sandy and } - marly clays, capped by 2 m. of mottled yellow and } - red sandstone and sandstone-grit } 10 - } - 16. Hard red, green, and brown sandstone } - - 17. Variegated grey, green and red clays, marly clays - and sandy beds, with thin bands of sandstone. - More arenaceous towards top 21 - - 18. Hard grey sandstone; greenish sandy clays; hard - dark red marls and marly clays at top 6 - - 19. Thin band of hard yellow limestone, capping salty - red clays and sandy clays 6 - - 20. Soft greenish clayey sandstone capped by ½ m. of - hard false-bedded concretionary sandstone with - numerous enclosed coprolites 3 - - _Base of hill overlooking bone-pits._ - - 21. Pink calcareous grit (forming summit of lowest - escarpment), with small flint and quartz pebbles - in some layers. An abundance of calcite and - gypsum 3 - - 22. Mottled red and green clayey sandstone, clays and - clayey marls. Passing up into a hard sandy (or - clayey) dark red marl with greenish mottlings 7 - - 23. Light yellow finely-laminated sandrock passing up - into dark red sandrock. Some clayey bands 10 - - 24. Coarse unconsolidated false-bedded sands, with - occasional bands of clay and consolidated - sandstone bands. Numerous silicified trees and - abundant mammalian and reptilian remains. (See - list in Bed 49 of Widan el Faras section). - Bone-pits are in this bed 40 - - 25. Thin band (½ m.) of hard sandstone with sometimes } - impure calcareous grit } - } 10 - 26. Hard light yellow sandstone, often very coarse, } - and with red bands } - - 27. Soft brick red and light yellow sands and - sandstones, (seen on plain and overlying - uppermost limestone of the Middle Eocene) 20 - - _Base of Fluvio-marine Series._ - -[Illustration: PLATE XI. - -SILICIFIED TREES OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES, 4½ KILOMETRES NORTH OF -QASR EL SAGHA.] - -In some localities pebbly bands occur in the sandstone-grits, -especially in some of the beds above the basalt: the pebbles are mostly -quartz or flint, subangular or rounded, the layer averaging perhaps two -cm. in diameter, although occasional specimens three or four times that -size are met with. Silicified trees of two distinct types[75] occur, -and they are met with chiefly on two horizons; usually large numbers of -trees occur together, completely covering the surface in places; they -lie as a rule scattered about in every direction, although occasionally -a large proportion may show considerable parallelism of deposition, -as if arranged by the direction of the current which floated them to -the spot. They always occur in a horizontal position or parallel to -the dip of the bed, and it seems quite certain that none of them ever -grew near where they are now found. The trees never bear attached -branches, the latter having always been broken off at or near the -point of junction with the trunk, where the scars are often plainly -seen; this points to the trees having been drifted a considerable -distance. Many trees over 25 metres[76] in length have been met with, -but this by no means represents the original height, as the trunks -have lost considerably in length during transport to their present -localities. Although, as a rule, found completely weathered-out and -exposed on the surface, in numerous localities these silicified trees -are to be observed firmly embedded in the sandstones in which they -were deposited, many being met with in our excavations for bones. - -As the Fluvio-marine series is followed westwards from the central -part of the area, the different divisions become more and more -attenuated and the outcrops more and more obscured by superficial -gravel. North-west of the Zeuglodon Valley an escarpment capped by a -conspicuous bed of white calcareous grit occurs and perhaps represents -the lower beds of the series. The higher are lost on the gravelly -undulating plateau above. - - - _F._—=Age of the “Fluvio-Marine Series”.= - - -The beds in question being as a whole remarkably unfossiliferous, -a determination of their exact age on palaeontological grounds is -an undertaking of some difficulty. The series, however, in certain -beds is very rich in vertebrate remains; a considerable number of new -and important forms have already been obtained and further additions -are probable. Until the survey of the area in 1898 it appears that -the only fossils obtained from these rocks were a few casts and -badly-preserved specimens of mollusca from the highest beds above -the basalt, collected by one or two observers from localities between -the summit of the Fayûm escarpments and the Pyramids of Giza. - -The Rohlfs Expedition did not visit this part of Egypt, and Zittel[77] -tabulated the beds, which he called the “Schichten von Birket el -Qurûn” as doubtfully Oligocene; probably the beds referred to are -those of the island Geziret el Qorn, which, as already mentioned, -belong to the lower division of the Birket el Qurûn series, and are -therefore of Middle Eocene age. Mayer-Eymar[78] states that he was -able to subdivide the series under discussion into Upper and Lower -Ligurian and Lower Tongrian. Schweinfurth[79] considered the series -as Miocene, comparing them with the lithologically similar _Scutella_ -beds of Der el Beda to the east of Cairo. Blanckenhorn, on the evidence -of the writer’s fossil collections, states, as already mentioned, -that the upper part is certainly to be regarded as Lower Oligocene -and the lower part as Upper Eocene. - -First as to the stratigraphical position of the series. There is no -doubt that the lowest beds of the group were deposited (at any rate -in the central part of the area) in practical continuity with the -Qasr el Sagha series, which, as shown, is certainly of Middle Eocene -age. A great change in the lithology of the beds, however, makes the -junction a perfectly natural one. We pass from a truly marine series -into an estuarine or fluvio-marine set of beds, and such a change -near the summit of the Eocene is not an uncommon one in some parts of -Europe. The stratigraphical position in the field, therefore, favours -an Upper Eocene age for the lower beds. The dip being northwards, -newer and newer beds are met with from south to north on the great -undulating, but more or less level, desert north of the escarpment -summit. The occurrence of Lower Miocene beds at Mogara, some 100 -kilometres north or north-west, also points to a somewhat younger, -or Oligocene, age for the underlying beds, (i.e., those between the -Fayûm escarpment and Mogara). The actual relations, however, of the -beds in the two localities have not yet been determined, but it is -probable younger beds are continually met with from south to north. - -Until the entire collection of fossils has been examined and -determined, it is somewhat premature to attempt to fix the age -of the series on palaeontological grounds. Up to the present the -foregoing lists show the species which have been provisionally or -finally determined. Some of these appear to be identical with species -which have been recorded from Upper Eocene deposits of Europe, such -as _Potamides scalaroides_, _P. tiarella_, while others, such as -_Melania_ cf. _Nysti_, _Natica crassatina_ (found below the basalt in -the so-called Sandberger Hills north-east of the Fayûm escarpment), -are typically Lower Oligocene. Other forms, such as _Turritella -angulata_, are common to both Eocene and Oligocene elsewhere. - -If Blanckenhorn’s determinations of these forms are confirmed, we -may regard the upper beds, i.e., those immediately above the basalt, -as undoubtedly of Lower Oligocene age. The beds below the basalt -mark the transition from the Eocene to Oligocene, while the base of -the series, so far unfossiliferous as far as molluscan remains are -concerned, must be regarded as of Upper Eocene (Bartonian) age. - -We may hope that when the important vertebrate fauna occurring chiefly -in the basal part of the series has been thoroughly exploited, and -the remains systematically determined, confirmatory evidence will -be obtained. At present the only forms described and determined, -beyond pointing to a pre-Miocene age, do not indicate any definite -horizon. Probably most of the animals will prove to be new, and -although on that account more interesting from one point of view, -will probably not assist us greatly in the exact determination of -the age of the beds in question. - - - _G._—=The Position of the Land-mass from which the Mammal Remains - were Derived.= - - -The existence of remains of land animals throughout the larger part of -the Qasr el Sagha series and in still greater quantity in the basal -beds of the overlying Fluvio-marine series, and occasionally in the -highest beds also, points to the presence of continental land within no -great distance of the area in which these deposits were laid down. That -the animal-remains were carried out from the land by river currents is -almost certain, and although in some cases such currents are known to -persist to great distances from their points of emergence, it seems -probable from the quantity and mode of distribution that the Fayûm -bones were deposited within a moderate distance of land. Moreover, -the silicified trees, by which the bones are so often accompanied, -occur together in very great quantities, and we should imagine that -the individual trees would have been far more scattered if they had -been floated to considerable distances from land. On the other hand -the fact that among the hundreds of trees examined, in no single case -were branches found attached to the trunk, points to the conclusion -that these trees had travelled great distances; probably the branches -were lost during their river journey, from constant jamming together -of a great number in a more or less constricted space, and not after -they had left the river mouth. - -The exact position of this land-mass is a highly interesting and -important question. There is no reason to suppose that land of any -extent occurred to the north, except possibly an occasional island, -such as that of the Cretaceous massif of Abu Roash,[80] west of Cairo, -which probably formed an island in the sea at that time; without doubt -the great Eocene sea which covered the area stretched northwards, -and was continuous with that in which the southern European deposits -of this period were laid down. To the west also there was certainly -no land-mass within approximate distances. Eastwards, possibly part of -the Red Sea Hills igneous range may have formed a restricted land-area, -but even this is not probable; in fact, it seems certain that we must -look to the south for the nearest land of any extent. In supposing -the land lay in this direction we are confronted at the outset with -the fact that the Lower Eocene limestones stretch southwards for -several hundred kilometres. In Egypt the Lower Eocene consists of -a great mass of nummulitic limestones, some 400-500 metres thick, -with no intercalated clays or sandstones except at the base, and was -evidently formed in water of considerable depth. The thickness of, -and superficial area covered by, these limestones show that they -were formed in a truly open sea, in contra-distinction to a littoral -area; the nummulitic sea in fact covered an enormous part of Europe, -North Africa and Asia. To the south of this sea lay the African -continent, a land-mass dating possibly from Palæozoic times. Since, -and possibly partly during, the deposition of the Lower and Middle -Eocene formations, a gradual elevation of the land or lowering -of the sea, resulting in a retreat of the latter, took place; -this continually brought the shore-line further northwards until, -during the deposition of the beds of the Qasr el Sagha series of the -Middle Eocene, we may surmise that it was not very far to the south, -though the exact distance is extremely doubtful; while in Upper Eocene -times it was still further north. We may assume therefore that the -Upper Eocene bone-bearing strata of the Fayûm represent sediments -transported by rivers and currents from a fairly adjacent continental -land-mass to the south and laid down as littoral and delta deposits -beyond the margin of the land. That at least one large river emerged -from the land in the neighbourhood of the Fayûm is certain; drainage -was then, as now, from south to north, although not probably confined -to a single channel like the present Nile. - -Apart from broader considerations a minute examination of the more -typically fluviatile beds favours the conclusion that the currents -were from the south or south-west. The general dip of the strata, -probably the natural inclination of the sediments at the time of -deposit, is from south to north; the most frequent lamination in the -current-bedded arenaceous deposits is also from south to north. In our -excavations for fossil bones it was noted that of seven tortoise shells -exposed at the same time in different parts of the pit, six lay with -their long axes similarly orientated and were distinctly tilted to the -north-east, or exactly away from the point of the compass from which, -as will presently be shown, the main river probably came. As a rule, -however, the scattered fossil bones and trees in these beds give no -definite clue as to the direction from which they were floated. The -existence of separate accumulations of fluviatile sand at different -horizons, but lying one above the other in the series and along a -north and south line, is of importance as indicating the continued -appearance of a river current from the same quarter. - -Blanckenhorn has published[81] diagrams showing what he supposes -to have been the relative areas occupied by land and sea in -Upper Mokattam, Lower Oligocene, Middle Pliocene and Pleistocene -times. Various lines of drainage are shown, the main river, which he -calls the Ur-Nil, being placed some 70 kilometres to the west of the -modern Nile, although closely following the trend of the latter. We -have been unable to ascertain on what evidence Blanckenhorn relies -for assuming rivers in Upper Mokattam and Lower Oligocene times to -have occupied the positions shown on his diagrams; the number and -positions of such rivers must remain more or less problematical. In -this connection however it is interesting to recall[82] the lacustrine -ferruginous grits which were brought to notice by the writer in 1900 -as having been deposited in a lake, occupying in post-Middle Eocene -times a shallow depression in that part of the Libyan desert now -occupied by the oasis-depression of Baharia. Similar deposits were -found forming the hills of Gar el Hamra a few kilometres east of the -extreme north end of the depression. Finally, during a traverse through -the unexplored country south-west of Gar el Gehannem in the winter of -1902-1903, hills capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits -and puddingstone were met with in the extreme south-west of the Fayûm -depression at a point nearly midway, and in the direct line, between -the hills of Gar el Hamra and the chief bone-bearing localities in the -north of the Fayûm. The deposits in question—at Baharia, at Gar el -Hamra and in the hills to the south-west of the Fayûm—are evidently -of lacustrine and fluviatile origin; and we may infer, with some -degree of probability, that they were laid down along the course of a -river which flowed in a north-easterly direction and formed extensive -delta deposits in what is now the northern part of the Fayûm. That -this river had its origin in the interior of a well-wooded continent -hundreds of miles to the south of Baharia is not to be questioned; -its size, length and exact position must remain matters of doubt, -but of its existence we can be as certain as if in times of flood -we had stood on its banks and watched the passage northwards of its -turbid swollen waters, laden with matted rafts of forest trees and -bearing seawards the carcases of those curious Eocene animals, the -remains of which are so abundant in the Fayûm of to-day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Probable Course of chief river of Upper -Eocene and Oligocene times.] - -In the Middle and Upper Eocene beds we first obtain an idea of the -animals which inhabited Africa in Tertiary times, and the collecting -and working out of this fauna will throw much light, not only on our -actual knowledge of the African vertebrata of the Eocene period, -which was practically nil until the discovery of the remains here -described, but also on other wider biological questions, such as the -origin of certain groups of animals, some of which were evolved in -this part of the world. - -As recently pointed out by a writer in the Field (No. 2605, Nov. 29, -1902) many years ago the late Prof. Huxley, to account for the -present distribution of the mammalian fauna of Africa and Magadascar, -advanced the theory that in the early part of the Tertiary period -Madagascar was connected with Africa, and Africa with Europe or Asia, a -connection which allowed of the immigration into Africa and Madagascar -of numerous small types of European and Asian mammals. Madagascar -later becoming separated from the mainland, its fauna, undisturbed by -the larger carnivora, was able to develop to its present remarkable -extent. Subsequently to the isolation of Madagascar the ancestors of -the modern fauna were presumed to have invaded the African continent -from the north. - -The extinct fauna of the Fayûm, however, shows that in early -Tertiary times Africa already had its own mammalian fauna, which, -besides containing some remarkable large types of somewhat doubtful -position, such as _Arsinoitherium_, _Barytherium_, etc., certainly -in _Mœritherium_ and _Palæomastodon_ included the earliest known -elephants, the forbears of the Mastodon and the modern elephants. There -is little doubt therefore that in Upper Eocene and Oligocene times -these early members of the elephant group ranged northward and -eastwards into Asia and India, and since in the Upper Tertiary deposits -of India and eastern Asia the extinct transitional types between the -mastodons and modern elephants appear to have been found, it is not -unlikely that during the later phases of the evolution of this group -of animals the radiation was back towards Africa, so that the African -elephant may be, as it has usually been regarded, an immigrant from -the Oriental region. Further research among the later deposits of the -Fayûm and the deserts to the north may, however, throw an entirely -new light on the subject and it is somewhat premature to theorise -at present. - -[Illustration: PLATE XII. - -RAISED BEACH UNCONFORMABLY OVERLYING MIDDLE EOCENE LIMESTONES (BIRKET -EL QURUN SERIES) IN THE DESERT EAST OF SIRSENA.] - -In this connection it is interesting to notice the observation of -so eminent a palæontologist as Prof. H. F. Osborn. In two recent -addresses[83] to the New York Academy of Sciences he pertinently -points out his belief that the African continent has been a great -centre of radiation of certain groups of the mammalia, and especially -mentions the Proboscidea as likely to have been evolved in the -Ethiopian region. Our discoveries in the Fayûm and Andrews’s -determinations, made subsequently to these addresses, so completely -confirm this view, at any rate with regard to the elephants, that it -may not be out of place to give here a somewhat lengthy extract of his -“_Theory of Successive Invasions of an African Fauna into Europe_” -(op. cit. pp. 56-58). “In Europe there are in the Upper Eocene two -classes of animals, first those which have their ancestors in the older -rocks; second, the class including certain highly specialized animals -which have no ancestors in the older rocks, among these, perhaps, -are the peculiar flying rodents or _Anomaluridæ_, now confined to -Africa, and secondly the highly specialized even-toed ruminant types -the anoplotheres, xiphodonts and others, the discovery of which in the -gypse near Paris Cuvier has made famous. It is tempting to imagine -that these animals did not evolve in Europe but that they represent -what may be called the first invasion of Europe by African types from -the Ethiopian region. - -“It is a curious fact that the African continent as a great -theater of adaptive radiation of Mammalia has not been sufficiently -considered. It is true that it is the dark continent of palæontology -for it has no fossil mammal history; but it by no means follows that -the Mammalia did not enjoy there an extensive evolution.[84] - -“Although it is quite probable that this idea has been advanced -before, most writers speak mainly or exclusively of _the invasion -of Africa by European types_. Blanford and Allen, it is true, have -especially dwelt upon the likeness of the Oriental and Ethiopian -fauna, but not in connection with its antecedent cause. This cause -I believe to have been mainly an invasion from south to north, -correlated with the northern extension of Ethiopian climate and -flora during the Middle Tertiary. It is in a less measure due to a -migration from north to south. Let us therefore clearly set forth -the hypothesis of _the Ethiopian region or South Africa as a great -center of independent evolution_ and as the source of successive -northward migrations of animals, some of which ultimately reached -even the extremity of South America, I refer to the Mastodons. This -hypothesis is clearly implied if not stated by Blanford in 1876 in -his paper upon the African element in the fauna of India. - -“The first of these migrations we may suppose brought in certain -highly specialized ruminants of the Upper Eocene, the anomalures -or peculiar flying rodents of Africa; with this invasion may have -come the pangolins and ard varks, and possibly certain armadillos, -_Dasypodidæ_, if M. Filhol’s identification of _Necrodasypus_ is -correct. A second invasion of great distinctness may be that which -marks the beginning of the Miocene when the mastodons and dinotheres -first appear in Europe, also the earliest of the antelopes. A -third invasion may be represented in the base of the Pliocene by -the increasing number of antelopes, the great giraffes of the Ægean -plateau and in the upper Pliocene by the hippopotami. With these forms -came the rhinoceroses with no incisor or cutting teeth, similar to the -smaller African rhinoceros, _R. bicornis_. Another recently discovered -African immigrant upon the Island of Samos in the Ægean plateau is -_Pliohyrax_ or _Leptodon_, a very large member of the Hyracoidea, -probably aquatic in its habits, indicating that this order enjoyed -an extensive adaptive radiation in Tertiary times. - -“It thus appears that the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, certain edentata, -the antelopes, the giraffes, the hippopotami, the most specialized -ruminants, and among the rodents, the anomalures, dormice and jerboas, -among monkeys the baboons, may all have enjoyed their original -adaptative radiation in Africa; that they survived after the glacial -period, only in the Oriental or Indo-Malayan region, and that this -accounts for the marked community of fauna between this region and -the Ethiopian as observed by Blanford and Allen. - -“Against the prevalent theory of Oriental origin of these animals -are: first, the fact observed by Blanford and Lydekker in the Bugti -Beds (Sind) that the Oligocene or lower Miocene fauna of the Orient is -markedly European in type; second, that if these animals had originated -in Asia some of them would have found their way to North America; -third, the fact that all these animals appear suddenly and without -any known ancestors in older geological formations. These are the -main facts in favor of the Ethiopian migration hypothesis.” - -That Professor Osborn’s main contention has already been partly -proved by the Fayûm mammal discoveries is apparent, and how far his -detailed remarks are confirmed will be seen when the new fauna has -been more completely explored and examined. - -The following is a list of the new species already obtained:— - - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - UPPER EOCENE. | MIDDLE EOCENE. - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Mammalia_ - - Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadnell.|Barytherium grave, Andr. - | - „ Andrewsii, Lankester. |Mœritherium Lyonsi., Andr. - | - Palæomastodon Beadnelli, Andrews.| „ gracile, „ - | - „ minor, „ | „ sp., „ - | - Mœritherium Lyonsi, „ |Eosiren libyca,„ - | - „ trigodon, „ |Zeuglodon Osiris, Dames. - | - Megalohyrax eocænus, „ | „ Zitteli, v. Stromer. - | - „ minor, „ | „ Isis, Beadn. (M.S.). - | - Saghatherium antiquum, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - „ minus, „ „ | - | - „ magnum, Andr. | - | - Ancodus Gorringei, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - Geniohyus mirus, Andr. | - | - „ fayumensis, Andr. | - | - „ major, „ | - | - Phiomia serridens, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - Pterodon africanus, Andr. | - | - „ macrognathus, Andr. and | - another much smaller and | - imperfectly known creodont. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Birds._ - - Eremopezus libycus, Andr. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Reptiles._ - - Testudo Ammon, Andr. |Gigantophis Garstini, Andr. - | - Pelomedusa progaleata, v. |Pterosphenus (Mœriophis) - Reinach. |Schweinfurthi, Andr. - | - Podocnemis fayumensis, Andr. |Psephophorus eocænus, Andr. - | - „ Blanckenhorni, v. Reinach. |Thalassochelys libyca, Andr. - | - „ „ var. ovata, v. Reinach.|Podocnemis antiqua, „ - | - Stereogenys libyca. Andr. | „ Stromeri, v. Reinach. - | - Tomistoma sp. | „ „ var. major, v. Reinach. - | - Crocodilus sp. |Stereogenys Cromeri, Andr. - | - | „ podocnemioides, v. Reinach. - | - |Tomistoma africanum, Andr. - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Fish._ - - Occasional fragments of |Propristis Schweinfurthi, Dames. - siluroids and rays. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - - - _H._—=The absence of Miocene deposits in the Fayûm.= - - -No traces of deposits of this age having been met so far south as -the Fayûm we may presume that in Miocene times the area had become -land, the sea margin having receded northwards. The slight depression -of Mogara, some 100 kilometres further north-west, is however cut -out in Lower Miocene beds, lithologically somewhat similar to the -Upper Eocene and Oligocene deposits of the Fayûm. Probably similar -conditions obtained throughout, and the existence of vertebrate remains -indicates the persistence of river-currents from the south. The fauna -of the Mogara beds has only as yet been very incompletely examined, -the locality being rather inaccessible.[85] - - - SECTION XII.—PLIOCENE. - - -We have presumed that in Miocene times the Fayûm remained land, no -traces of deposits of that age having been recorded; possibly the area -underwent considerable denudation during the Miocene and early Pliocene -periods, but of this it is difficult to adduce definite evidence. The -records of Pliocene times in the Fayûm may be classed as follows:— - - (J). _Marine deposits_ of Middle Pliocene age. - - (K). _Borings_ on rock surfaces, exact age doubtful. - - (L). _Gravel Terraces_, probably late Pliocene. } (or early - } Pleistocene). - (M). _Gypseous Deposits_, probably latest Pliocene. } - - - _J._—=Marine Deposits: Middle Pliocene.= - - -In Middle Pliocene times the area, which had probably undergone -considerable denudation, was again invaded by the sea, and we find -at Sidmant el Jebel, on the south-east side, definite evidence of -deposits of this age in the shape of sands containing such well known -forms as _Ostrea cucullata_ and _Pecten benedictus_. - -The beds in question reach an altitude of from 60 to 70 metres and -were first brought to notice by Schweinfurth. Although they are in -reality on the Nile Valley side of the separating ridge or saddle, -there is little doubt that the same beds will, when looked for, be -found within the Fayûm depression in places where they have been -preserved. As has already been mentioned this south-eastern side of -the Fayûm yet remains to be examined and mapped in detail, and the -determination of the relation of these marine sands to the gravel -terraces shortly to be described is a matter of primary importance -for the proper interpretation of their relative ages. - - - _K._—=Borings on Rock surfaces; of doubtful age.= - - -There are within the Fayûm depression numerous rock-surfaces pierced -by borings, apparently the work of marine boring mollusca but naturally -offering no exact evidence as to their age and origin. These borings -are found at two distinct levels, approximately from zero to 20 metres -above sea-level, and at 112 metres above sea-level. - - - (α) _Low level borings._ - -Between Tamia and Dimê, near the eastern end of the Birket el Qurûn, -the lowest ground, consisting of poor sandy land with tamarisk scrub, -bordering the lake and cultivation, is bounded by a low escarpment -of beds of the Birket el Qurûn series. Along certain horizons one -or more beds of calcareous sandstone weather into large globular -masses, which as already pointed out are in reality huge concretions, -but which may have been further rounded by water-action. The chief -point is, however, the fact that these blocks are honey-combed in the -most remarkable way by beautiful examples of borings; their presence -was first noticed by Schweinfurth. The globular masses of sandstone, -often several feet in diameter, are worn on the surface into a number -of parallel ledges, each of which is perforated with countless numbers -of vertical holes, averaging 10 millimetres in diameter (maximum 15 -millimetres), placed at right angles to the ledges; these holes are -not, as a rule, connected from one ledge to another. They occur in -every stage of perfection, from hollows as small as the finger tips -and only a few millimetres deep, to long completed chambers which -generally show considerable tapering, and are often placed so close -together that the dividing wall is pierced. - -Fig. 7 and Plate XIII show the appearance of these bored rocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Block of sandstone pierced by numerous -borings.] - -At El Kenîsa, a promontory jutting out into the lake, sandstones -showing shell-borings occur at a height of 14 metres above -sea-level. Between Dimê and the lake a calcareous sandstone contains -many borings, 66 metres above the lake-level, or about 22 metres -above sea-level. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIII. - -BORINGS IN FALSE-BEDDED SANDSTONE, TWO KILOMETRES SOUTH OF DIMÊ.] - - - (β) _High level borings._ - -Further west, but at a considerably higher level, borings are again -met with. In this case a hard compact limestone, forming a dip-slope -surface on the top of the lower cliff of the Qasr el Sagha series, -was found pierced with borings, similar in character to those of the -lower level. The exact locality where these high level borings were -observed is 14 kilometres west of the western end of the lake and 16 -kilometres north-east of the eastern extremity of Gar el Gehannem. The -height was determined as 156 metres above the Birket el Qurûn, -or 112 metres above sea-level, and we have every reason to believe -these figures to be approximately correct. Up to the present time -borings at this altitude have not been met with in any other locality. - -At first sight it seems surprising that the occurrences should be so -limited, but it should be remembered that only in those cases where -borings were made in the very hardest and most durable rocks could -they have been preserved to the present time. Considering the amount -of denudation which has taken place in the area since the Pliocene -period it is surprising that any of the rocks which formed the actual -surface of the country at that date should still be preserved; and -in all probability the comparatively few records that exist to-day -owe their preservation to the protection afforded by superficial -deposits. Under the present rigorous desert conditions, when the whole -surface is subjected to continual and rapid changes of temperature, -and every exposed rock is being worn down by the natural sandblast, -it must be admitted that in a comparatively short time every trace -of the borings now exposed will have been removed. At the same time -the denudation of superficial deposits will probably lay bare other -bored rock-surfaces, and the conserving nature of drift sand itself -where accumulated to even a limited degree must not be forgotten. - - - _L._—=Gravel Terraces: ? Upper Pliocene.= - - -On the north, east, and south-east sides of the Fayûm, well marked -terraces of gravel are found at certain levels up to a maximum of -about 170-180 metres above sea-level. Nine kilometres east of Sêla -the summit of the ridge separating the Fayûm and the Nile Valley is -formed of thick deposits of gravel, laid irregularly and unconformably -on the top of limestones belonging to the Birket el Qurûn series. The -lowest terrace occurs only 15 metres above the canal[86] running -along the outside of the cultivation. The main deposit of gravel is -laid on the top of the limestones and marls at 70 metres above the -canal; it is some 50 metres thick (summit 120 metres above canal) -and consists of a mass of well-rolled flint and quartz pebbles, with -blocks of limestone (frequently full of well-known Eocene fossils -such as _Carolia placunoides_). Large well rounded blocks of grey -quartzite and pebbles of black quartzite also occur, besides rounded -blocks of silicified wood. A certain amount of false-bedding occurs -and false-bedded sand was noticed in places. Numerous derived rolled -fossils are present, but no contemporaneous remains were found. On -the summit of the ridge is situated the remnant of an old pyramid-like -building. - -Fig. 8 shows the relation of these gravels to the underlying rocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—_Sketch showing relations of Middle Eocene -to Pliocene Gravel Terraces on the east side of the Fayûm._ - -_Birket el Qurun series._—(_a_) Clays, marls and limestone; -(_b_) Limestones with _Operculina_ (_O. discoidea?_). Pliocene -(to Pleistocene); (_c_) Coarse deposits of gravel, etc., with huge -blocks of derived Eocene limestone with _Carolia_, etc.; (_d_) sands -and sandrock with leaves of hard sandstone; (_e_) sand, gravel and -conglomerate.] - -At the spur of the cliff immediately to the east the terrace is -laid on to limestones of the Birket el Qurûn series at a height of -32 metres above the canal. Enormous blocks of _Carolia_-limestone, -some exceeding 3 × 2 × 1·5 metres in measurement, are included in -this deposit; such blocks cannot have been transported far, and were -doubtless derived from formerly-existing higher beds in the immediate -neighbourhood. The matrix of the deposit is usually crushed limestone -with sand and gravel. Occasional fragments of silicified wood (and -further west large logs), evidently derived from the Fluvio-marine -beds, also occur. - -In favoured localities the relation of the gravels to the Eocene is -still better seen; the lower beds of the terrace here are sometimes -formed of sands and sandy beds dipping 10° eastward. - -At the little promontory 9 kilometres east of Sersena the same deposits -reach an altitude of 157 metres above the canal below. - -Further north another cake of gravel caps the summit, attaining -here 60-70 metres above the canal-level. Probably these deposits -were originally more or less connected and continuous, but since -their deposition denudation must have removed the greater part, as -they are now only found here and there capping the highest points -of the escarpment along the east side of the Fayûm. Such isolated -gravel-capped hills occur notably 12 kilometres east of Roda, 16½ -kilometres east and 17½ kilometres north-east of Tamia. - -Along the north side of the Fayûm the same deposits are found, -in some cases covering large areas. - -Twenty-five kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia the Eocene beds, here an -alternating series of clays and limestones, are capped by a deposit -consisting of coarse rolled gravel, with blocks of silicified wood -enclosed in a sandy gypseous base, some 10 metres thick. A larger -and similar deposit caps the next high ground four kilometres to the -west, and about 9 kilometres N.N.E. of Garat el Faras; in this case -it forms a round-topped gravelly hill-range, attaining a height of -about 165 metres above the canal to the south-east. The loose gravel -at many points passes into hard conglomerate, notably in the hills -9 kilometres east and 4 kilometres north-east of Garat el Gindi. At -the former spot the conglomerate is composed of blocks of limestone, -with round pebbles of flint and quartz, sandstone and quartzite, -and fragments of silicified wood, cemented by sand and calcareous -material. Blocks of silicified wood also occur strewn on the surface -of these gravel deposits. - -In the hills north-east of Garat el Gindi the gravel deposits do not -occupy the summit of the escarpment but occur laid on to a platform of -beds belonging to the Qasr el Sagha series. Behind, another escarpment, -that of the Fluvio-marine series, rises to the plateau summit. - -Fig. 9 will show the general relation of the different formations in -this part of the district. - -Near Elwat Hialla the deposits contain numerous blocks of basalt -in addition to the usual constituents. The basalt is derived from -the sheets interbedded at the base of the Oligocene a little to the -north. As these gravels are here close to that formation, blocks of -sandstone, basalt, and silicified wood now form a large proportion -of the constituents. - -Along the north side of the Fayûm depression, to the west of Elwat -Hialla, the gravel terraces are almost absent, having been removed -nearly completely by denudation. That the terraces once existed -throughout this region is however shown by the small patches met with -to the north-east of Widan el Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel -el Qatrani, and at several points high up on the escarpments as far -west as the western end of the lake. Beyond the latter point these -terrace gravels have not been noticed; the slopes of the depression -become more and more obscured by loose superficial flints washed down -from the plateau, and the existence of underlying terrace gravels -could only be shown by detailed mapping. - -[Illustration: - - PLIOCENE (TO PLEISTOCENE) —1. Terrace of gravel and conglomerate. - - UPPER EOCENE-OLIGOCENE —2. Sands and sandstones. - - MIDDLE EOCENE —3. Clays, marls and limestones of the - Upper Mokattam. - -FIG. 9.—Sketch-Section through summit of Fayûm Escarpment at -Elwat Hialla.] - -Near Widan el Faras the terrace occurs at a level of about 220 -metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 175 metres above sea-level, -and consists of a 10-metre thickness of a semi-consolidated mass of -boulders and pebbles of sandstone, limestone, and basalt, with fine -gravel and sand, unconformably laid on to the variegated sandstones -of the Fluvio-marine series. - -In the neighbourhood of the Survey’s main excavations for fossil -bones, to the north of Garat el Esh, several local remnants of the -formerly more or less continuous gravel terrace were detected[87]. The -height was probably more accurately determined here than elsewhere -and the upper limit of the deposits was found to lie at approximately -170 metres above sea-level; this figure may indeed be taken as the -average height of the Pliocene terraces throughout the Fayûm. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIV. - -PLEISTOCENE LACUSTRINE CLAYS WITH TAMARISK STUMPS IN SITU AT 50 METRES -ABOVE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.] - -Briefly then we have shown the existence of the well marked remains -of a gravel terrace 170-180 metres above sea-level, throughout the -south-east, east, and north sides of the Fayûm depression, and the -first question that suggests itself with regard to these deposits -is, whether they are of marine or of freshwater origin? From their -position in part capping and in part perched on the flanks of the -escarpments, it is evident that the depression of the Fayûm must -have been partly formed before their deposition; probably it had -approximately obtained to its present form and dimensions, except as -to depth. The terrace certainly marks the shoreline of the sheet of -water in which its constituents were deposited, and the surface of this -water must have attained a height of nearly 200 metres above present -sea-level. It is not unlikely that some of the extensive plains of the -Fayûm may owe their existence in part to the presence in Pliocene -times of the sea or of a large inland lake, that they may in fact -be plains of denudation. The plain above the escarpment of the Qasr -el Sagha series, lying between 150 and 200 metres above sea-level, -and stretching throughout a large part of the north of the Fayûm, -has characters which tend to support this idea. - -Unfortunately the gravels are entirely barren of contemporaneous -organic remains, with one exception; near Ez. Qalamsha some examples -of _Ostrea cucullata_ were discovered, and these we believe to -have truly belonged to the lower beds of the terraces and not to -have been derived from the undoubted marine Middle Pliocene beds -of Sidmant. If the existence of _O. cucullata_ in these terraces -could be confirmed we should undoubtedly class them as marine and of -Middle Pliocene age. But the single evidence of the Qalamsha shells -is not sufficient, and confirmatory occurrences must be obtained and, -if possible, the relation of the terraces to Schweinfurth’s marine -Sidmant beds determined, which has not been yet done. - - - _M._—=Gypseous deposits, probably dating from the close of the - Pliocene Period.= - - -Of distinctly later date than the gravel-terraces are the widely -distributed gypseous deposits of the Fayûm and Nile Valley. These -deposits are found covering the plain which separates the Nile Valley -cultivation from the Fayûm depression, gradually rising from the -level of the former until they overlie the gravels capping the summit -overlooking the Fayûm (Section XXI). - -Near the Pyramid of Medum the following beds are seen at the edge of -the desert plain:— - - _Top._ Metres. - - Pure, gravelly, or marly gypsum 1-2 - - Clayey shales with gypsum and salt 1-1½ - - White marly limestone with much salt } probable { - and fish-remains (fish-scales, etc.) } part of { 2 - } Ravine beds. { - Yellow sandstone with fish-scales, etc. } { 3 - -The gravel deposits along the east side of the Fayûm are always capped -by a gypseous bed. The latter is often 2 metres thick and frequently -occurs as solid and almost pure white crystalline gypsum; sometimes -it is calcareous and is frequently deposited in a tufaceous manner, -especially resembling a tufa on the weathered surface. At other times -it passes into a yellowish compact mass and may be very saliferous. - -Frequently the deposit is full of rounded pebbles, the latter -being often in the greater proportion and forming a sort of -gypsum-cemented conglomerate. Not unfrequently it is impossible to -draw any divisional line between the terrace gravels and the gypseous -gravels above. Probably they are both closely connected and of Upper -Pliocene age. - - - _N._—=Summary of the Pliocene Period.= - - -From the above descriptions it is probable that the Pliocene period -is represented in the Fayûm by the following:— - -(1) Marine beds of Sidmant, undoubtedly of Middle Pliocene age and -reaching a level of from 60 to 70 metres above present sea-level. - -(2) Borings on exposed rock-surfaces at two distinct levels, the -lower 0-20 metres, the higher some 112 metres, above sea-level. These -borings appear to be the work of marine boring mollusca, and although -those on the lower level may perhaps be of Middle Pliocene age with -the Sidmant beds, the similar examples discovered at a much higher -altitude (112 metres), point to the sea having attained a much higher -level in later, perhaps Upper Pliocene, times. - -(3) An extensive beach or terrace of gravel on the south-east, east, -and north sides of the Fayûm, attaining a maximum level of about -170 to 180 metres above sea-level. - -All the known facts seem to be satisfied if we imagine that in -the Middle Pliocene the sea occupied the area, depression probably -continuing until the 112 metre level with the highest borings was -reached. Perhaps the lowest part of the terraces was formed during -this time. In the later Pliocene times we may infer that the area -was occupied, up to 180 metres above present sea-level, by a vast -inland lake, perhaps of brackish water, connected with the sea on -the one hand and the fiord or lakes of the Nile Valley on the other, -the deposits of which have been described elsewhere[88]. - -Along the margins of this gigantic lake, these great accumulations -of gravel might well have been formed, chiefly of material derived -from the immediate shores, augmented perhaps by a certain amount of -sediment brought by river-currents from the south. - -Finally, from the way in which the gypsum and gypseous deposits are -laid on the terrace gravels, and from their extension and thickness, -we may presume that they were deposited on the bottom of just such -a lake on evaporation of its water, when the sulphate of lime in -solution, becoming more and more concentrated, may have been finally -precipitated.[89] - - - SECTION XIII.—PLEISTOCENE. - - -The course of events in Pleistocene times is at present obscure. As -far as can be judged it was during this period that a freshwater -lake, the precursor of the great Mœris, came into existence. It -might be thought that the early Pleistocene prehistoric lake was a -relic of the still older body of water of Pliocene times, in which -the gravel terraces and gypseous deposits were laid down. But such -a remnant would have been of a high degree of salinity and could not -have given rise to the fresh water Mœris. Most probably at the close -of the Pliocene period, after the formation of the gypseous deposits, -the area became elevated and cut off from the sea and from the Nile -Valley marine fiord; probably an extensive body of water remained as -an isolated lake, but this, cut off from external supply, would have -gradually evaporated, its salt being left as a superficial deposit on -the dried up bed. In early Pleistocene times we may presume the area -became dry and was gradually eroded to its present shape and depth. The -superficial deposits of salt and gypsum were for the most part removed -as the depression was deepened, while the continuous terrace of gravel -laid round the greater part of the rim was broken through, except -where protected in favourable localities, the constituents being -washed down and spread out over the lower ground. In course of time -the region was moulded to its present form and dimensions, or rather to -what it would be if the local alluvial deposits were stripped off and -the water of the lake baled out. The area was an inland depression, -probably sparsely vegetated like the rest of the higher country and -separated from the Nile Valley by a low rocky ridge surmounted by a -more of less continuous terrace of gravel of considerable height and -thickness. In our opinion desert conditions had already set in before -the early Nile broke down the ridge and formed a lake in the Fayûm; -the date when this important event first took place is a matter of -considerable doubt, as has already been mentioned (pp. 24, 25). We -know that at the close of the Pliocene period the Nile Valley was -a marine fiord (connected with the Fayûm and the Mediterranean) -which was replaced in Pleistocene times, probably in consequence of -slight elevation, by a series of fresh water lakes throughout the -valley. These lakes were probably two or three in number and drained -one into the other; the exact position of the barriers is as yet a -matter of conjecture. Within these lakes thick lacustrine deposits -were accumulated, so that the basins eventually became to a great -extent silted up. In later Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile -Valley appears to have become more pronounced, the barriers between -the lakes were broken down and the river cut for itself a channel -through the lacustrine beds, filling up the old lake basins. From -this time onwards to early prehistoric times the bed of the river -would appear to have steadily fallen, as it eroded its channel deeper -and deeper. That this early Nile was a river of considerable size is -evident from the amount of erosion it accomplished in the trough of the -valley, whence the older lacustrine beds have been almost completely -removed. Probably in the lower part of its course it swept against -the base of the dividing ridge between the Nile Valley and the Fayûm -depression. If, as we imagine, the river was at that time flowing -some 20 metres higher than at present its currents would have met -with little resistance from the loosely cemented terrace of gravel -which formed the upper part of the dividing ridge. Once this was -broken down the waters must have poured into the depression behind, -until a lake of considerable size was formed. The sediment spread out -over the floor in the shape of a fan, while at the same time deposits -of sands and fine clays, blown and washed into the waters from the -surrounding shores, were being slowly accumulated in the quieter and -more remote parts of the lake. - -For some time subsequent to the first connection between the Fayûm -depression and the Nile, the latter continued to fall in level owing to -continued erosion along its course, possibly the Fayûm again became -completely isolated for a time. Subsequently in the earliest historic -times under changed conditions the river commenced to carry and lay -down the modern alluvial deposit of “Nile mud”, and from this time -to the present day its bed has gradually risen. This is shown by the -high Nile flood-readings on the early gauges of the Nile Valley; the -nilometer at Roda shows a difference of 1·22 metres in 1026 years, or -an annual rise of 0·12 centimetre, which is equivalent to 12 metres -in 10,000 years[90]. Whether there was ever complete disconnection -between the Nile and the originally formed lake in Pleistocene times -is uncertain, but even so it was probably only during a comparatively -short period: in early historic times the rise of the Nile bed must -have brought about a reconnection. - -The geological evidence for the existence of a great freshwater lake -in Pleistocene and prehistoric times is afforded by the well-marked -lacustrine clays and sands which are found over such a large area of -the northern and western deserts of the Fayûm; the great extent of -this lake will be seen by an examination of the accompanying maps. Its -area must have been about 2250 square kilometres or about ten times -the size of the modern Birket el Qurûn. The western limit may even -have been further west than shown on fig. 10.,[91] as some of the -desert in the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem is very low-lying; -or there may have existed subsidiary lakes in that direction. The -upper limit of these ancient lacustrine clays is between 22 and 23 -metres above sea-level, which exactly agrees with the figure adduced -by Sir Hanbury Brown as the height of the more modern Lake Moeris -from the evidence of levels. That Lake Moeris was simply the older -prehistoric lake placed under artificial control admits of no doubt; -the difficult question being as to when the lake first came into -existence in prehistoric times. - -The clays abound in freshwater shells and semi-fossil fish-bones of -exactly the same species of fish (siluroid, etc) as still inhabit the -Birket el Qurûn; probably some are even hardly different specifically -from the Middle Eocene forms of the district. In addition remains -of large animals are common, and include _Hippopotamus_, _Elephas_, -_Bubalis_, sheep or goat, and _Canis_, with crocodiles and turtles, -etc.[92] - -[Illustration: PLATE XV. - -ISOLATED SAND-DUNE NEAR GAR EL GEHANNEM.] - -Martens[93] has described the following species of mollusca from -Schweinfurth’s collections:— - - _Unio abyssinicus_, Mart. - - _U. Schweinfurthi_, Mart. - - _Corbicula fluminalis_, var. _consobrina_ Caill. - - _Neritina nilotica_, Reev. - - _Valvata nilotica_, Jick. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_, Jick. - - _C. pirothi_, var., _unicarinata_, Mart. - - _Bithynia_ aff. _Boissieri_, Charp. - - _Melania tuberculata_, Müll. - - _Limnaea natalensis_, Krauss. - - _L. mœris_, Mart. - - _L. palustris_, Müll. - - _Planorbis subangulata_, Phil. - -Blanckenhorn has pointed out[94] that this fauna is of special -interest and differs from all fossil and living faunas in Egypt. It -might be compared with the _Melanopsis_-fauna of the Nile Valley if the -exceptional _Limnaea_ were replaced by _Melanopsis_ or _Paludina_. Its -_Unio Schweinfurthi_ recalls the youngest alluvial deposits of the -Nile Valley, 2nd Cataract, Kom Ombo and Silsila; at these places, -however, the beds containing the species in question are at least 20 -metres above mean water level of the present day. - -The sub-fossil fauna of the Fayûm alluvium, in addition to those forms -everywhere met with in the Nile Valley, includes _Neritina nilotica_ -and _Melania tuberculata_, which are common forms of the _Melanopsis_ -stage, as well as _Unio abyssinicus_ and _Valvata nilotica_. In -common with the present fauna of the Birket el Qurûn it has the five -forms belonging to the genera _Corbicula_, _Neritina_, _Valvata_, -_Melania_, and _Planorbis_. The sub-fossil fauna, which passes into -the modern fauna of the Birket el Qurûn, shows connection with the -Mediterranean and Blue Nile, but has a total absence of White Nile -forms such as _Ampullaria_, _Lanistes_, _Cleopatra bulimoides_, -_Spatha_ and _Aetheria_. Moreover _Limnæa palustris_, although -identical with the form found on other Mediterranean coasts, is as -yet entirely unknown from the Nile Valley. Blanckenhorn concludes that -the diluvial subfossil deposits of the Fayûm were produced when the -climate of Egypt was damper and more Europæan, the Nile carrying -more arenaceous sediment in place of the mud of to-day and running -at higher level, as it did when the shells of _Unio Schweinfurthi_ -were enclosed in the deposits of Jebel Silsila. Blanckenhorn thinks -the Nile obtained access to the depression during the last European -ice period. This last supposition, coupled with the above comparison -of the Fayûm fresh-water fauna with the Melanopsis stage of the Nile -Valley Pleistocene series, shows that in regarding the early Fayûm -lake as dating from prehistoric times Blanckenhorn and the writer -are in agreement. - - - SECTION XIV.—RECENT. - - -We may divide the Recent period into two epochs, Prehistoric and -Historic, always remembering that the line of demarcation is not much -more distinct than that between Recent and Pleistocene. - - - _O._—=Prehistoric.= - - -The abundance of worked flints on the desert just within and around the -site occupied by the Fayûm lake in late Pleistocene and prehistoric -times, shows that the shores were eventually inhabited by people -who made and used these primitive tools. That the edge of the lake -was abundantly wooded is shown by the thousands of well preserved -tamarisk stumps met with at the present day in situ (Plate XIV) -in the clays throughout the former margin of the lake. - -The implements occur chiefly along the margin of the highest level -of the old lake, and have probably in many cases been buried in the -lake clays until the present time, which would account for their -beautiful state of preservation. We have not, however, yet actually -detected them enclosed within the clays, although commonly found lying -on the clean wind-worn surface. From the fine degree of workmanship -we may undoubtedly refer these flint implements to the Neolithic or -later stone-age, although the exact date is doubtful. That they were -made and used while the lake still stood at its highest level seems -certain, but as we have shown above, the lake, as a sheet of water -up to 23 metres above sea-level or thereabouts, probably existed far -anterior to the Egyptian historic period. They might, on the other -hand, as far as the evidence from the position of the lake goes, -have been used by the inhabitants of the lake-margin down to the -great reclamation which took place in Ptolemaic times. As it seems -impossible to date them by comparison with flints of known age from -any Egyptian period, we may perhaps conclude that they are at least -of older date than the earliest Egyptian records.[95] - - - _P._—=Historic.= - - -In historical times, under conditions almost identical with those of -the Nile of to-day, there would have been an annual inflow during -the flood and outflow back to the Nile when the latter subsided; -during the inflow a constant supply of Nile mud was brought into the -lake and deposited on the surface of the earlier alluvium, continually -augmenting the thickness of the latter and raising its surface, until -in the central area marshy land began to appear. In the XII Dynasty -this natural backwater of the Nile, which acted as a more or less -efficient regulator of high and low floods, was brought under human -control by Amenemhat I, and a considerable area of land reclaimed from -the shallowest part of the lake, or that part of the country now lying -near Edwa, Medinet el Fayûm, etc. The new artificially controlled -lake was called Moeris, and its wonders are mentioned by Herodotus, -Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Pliny. - -The actual position of Lake Moeris has been the subject of much -discussion, the late Linant de Bellefonds[96] having asserted that -it was a high-level lake, quite distinct from the Birket el Qurûn, -occupying the gap in the hills by which the Bahr Yusef enters the -Fayûm, its encircling bank commencing at Edwa and passing through -Biahmu, Medinet, etc. Sir Hanbury Brown has,[97] however, completely -demolished Linant’s theory, which is shown to be absolutely -untenable; and has proved conclusively that the ancient Mœris -occupied the greater part of what is now the cultivated land, as -well as the area covered by the present lake and a considerable part -of the surrounding desert, the reclaimed land being in fact part of -the very district Linant supposed the lake to have occupied. Since -the publication of Brown’s work complete corroborative evidence -has been forthcoming from two distinct sources, one archæological, -the other geological. The latter has already been mentioned. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Sketch Map showing approximately the site -of Lake Moeris.] - -It was clear from the map of Claudius Ptolemy that the route through -the Fayûm to the Oasis Parva left Bacchias near the north end of the -lake, and passing between Arsinœ and Lake Mœris, reached Dionysias -near the other end. The archæological researches of Messrs. Grenfell -and Hunt[98] have shown that Bacchias occupied the site of the -modern Um el Atl close to one end of the Birket el Qurûn, while -Dionysias was probably in the neighbourhood of Qasr el Banat or Qasr -el Qurûn. Thus the Ptolemaic Lake Mœris was almost identical with -the modern Birket el Qurûn. Neither did the sites excavated yield a -trace of anything older than the third century B.C. Theadelphia and -Philoteris were founded in the reign of the second Ptolemy, when a -great reclamation of the land from the lake took place, and probably -Euhemeria, Dionysias, Karanis and Bacchias date from the same reign. - -The archæological evidence is thus briefly summed up by Grenfell and -Hunt: “Originally the lake filled the whole basin of the Fayûm, -the first reclamation being carried out by Amenemhat I, who built the -great dam at El Lahûn, where the Bahr Yusef enters the province, -and recovered the high ground near the entrance as far as Biahmu, -and a point between Abshawai and Agamiin. This remained the Pharaonic -province until the time of Herodotus, when the water still came up -to the colossi at Biahmu. Subsequently all the land now cultivated -below the level of the Pharaonic province was reclaimed, chiefly in -the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, when Lake Mœris was reduced nearly -to the size of its modern representative, the Birket el Qurûn”. - -[Sidenote: Present day Fauna of the Birket el Qurûn.] - -As mentioned above, the Pleistocene fauna of the Fayûm differs in one -or two particulars from the fauna of the present day. The commonest -living molluscan forms include the following:— - - _Corbicula fluminalis_. - - _Neritina nilotica_. - - _Cleopatra bulimoides_. - - _Hydrobia stagnalis_. - - _Valvata nilotica_. - - _Melania tuberculata_. - - _Planorbis Ehrenbergi_. - - _P. marginatus_ var. _subangulata_. - -Blanckenhorn[99] has pointed out that in this fauna _Hydrobia -stagnalis_, as a typical brackish water form is of special -interest. The species appears to have established itself in the Birket -el Qurûn in modern times, as it has not been found in the youngest -alluvium of the lake, nor is it known in the modern Nile fauna. - -[Sidenote: Modern Deposits: Blown Sand and Erosion.] - -Except for the gradual accumulation of silt over the bed of the -Birket el Qurûn—sand and clay carried in by the wind and the fine -sediment borne by the feeder canals—the only modern deposits of any -importance are those of blown sand. The extensive arenaceous deposits -of younger Tertiary age, forming the greater part of the continent -from the latitude of the Fayûm to the Mediterranean shores, yield as -a result of the action of denudation a constant and abundant supply -of the raw material. The sand carried southwards by the prevailing -winds accumulates as dunes in the lowest parts of the depressions, -on the slopes of cliffs, and in all the less exposed localities. Wind -swept areas remain free or are only gradually encroached on by slowly -growing linear dunes originating in the wind-shadow of some protecting -hill or ridge. An unique example of such a dune is to be seen at the -south end of the well-marked ridge a few kilometres east of Gar el -Gehannem (Plate XV). - -The main accumulations of blown sand are in the southern part of the -Fayûm; large areas of the floors of Wadis Rayan and Moêla are covered -with dunes, while in their immediate neighbourhood the material has -accumulated to such an extent as to blot out entire cliffs and valleys; -immediately to the west of Gharaq a considerable area is covered with -small but steep dunes; and finally must be mentioned the great linear -belt of sand, known as the Ghart el Khanashat, which starting from a -point about midway between the Wadi Natrûn and Mogara comes to an -abrupt termination some 24 kilometres before gaining the northern -escarpment of the Fayûm depression (see page 23). - -As might be expected in an area like the Fayûm, where sedimentary -rocks of every type are met with, and where the wind never wants for -a sufficient supply of the necessary sand, superficial erosion is -everywhere well marked. We do not propose to study here the action of -wind-borne sand and it will be sufficient to mention two localities -where the effects are best seen; one is in the neighbourhood of Garat -el Esh, where the most remarkable scoring and grooving is to be seen -on the two beds of limestone capping the upper and lower cliffs of -the Middle Eocene; the other is the Zeuglodon Valley, and here the -sculpturing of the sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series is of -the finest and most unique description. - -[Illustration: PLATE XVI. - -THE BIRKET EL QURUN NEAR THE WESTERN END.] - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 33: BEADNELL, _The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice -of the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Palæogene -Vertebrate Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, -pp. 540-546.] - -[Footnote 34: ANDREWS, _Fossil Mammalia from Egypt_, Geol. Mag. 1899, -No. 425, pp. 481, 482; and BLANCKENHORN, _Neues zur Geologie und -Paleontologie Ægyptens_, III, “Das Miocän,” Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. -geol. Gesellschaft. Jahrg. 1901, pp. 98-101.] - -[Footnote 35: SCHWEINFURTH, _Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im -Umkreise des Fayum_, Zeitschr., Ges. f. Erdkunde, Berlin, No. 122, -1886, p. 100.] - -[Footnote 36: Op. cit. pp. 108-110.] - -[Footnote 37: _L’Oasis de Moëleh_, Bull. de l’Institut Égypt., -Fasc. 3, Ap. 1892.] - -[Footnote 38: The following may be mentioned; _Euspatangus_ -(_formosus?_ and _Blanckenhorni_), _Schizaster_, _Lobocarcinus_ -(? _Paulino Wurtembergicus_), _Nautilus_ sp. etc.] - -[Footnote 39: El Haram el Bahrl of Schweinfurth.] - -[Footnote 40: Individuals of 60 mm. diameter are not uncommon.] - -[Footnote 41: Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth.] - -[Footnote 42: BLANCKENHORN, _Neues zur Geologie und Palæntologie -Ægyptens_ (II. Das Palæogen) Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. -Gesellschaft, Jahrg. 1900, p. 446, has determined this as _T. -tenuistriata_. He refers to these beds as corresponding to the Tafla -of Jebel Mokattam, but I regard them as probably representing a -considerably lower horizon.] - -[Footnote 43: The nummulites from the Birket el Qurûn series have -not yet been critically examined. There appear to be several species -present, including _N. Beaumonti_, _N. Sub-Beaumonti_, _N. Fraasi_ -and _N. Schweinfurthi_. In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilom. W.S.W. of -Gar el Gehannem, occasional individuals of _N. gizehensis_ occur in -the basal beds. As there appears to be some doubt whether the four -smaller nummulites mentioned above are specifically distinct we shall -not attempt to discriminate too closely in the present report.] - -[Footnote 44: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit. p. 139.] - -[Footnote 45: ZITTEL, Palæontographica N.F.X. 3 (XXX) _Die -Versteinerungen der tertiäre Schichten von der westlichen Insel im -Birket el Qurun See_, von Prof. Karl Mayer-Eymar.] - -[Footnote 46: It must be mentioned here, however, that more recently -Mayer-Eymar speaks (_Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le -Tongrien d’Égypte_, Bull. Inst. Égypt., April, 1894, p. 216) -of the Mokattam beds above Qasr el Sagha, some 100 metres higher in -the series, as Parisian, but does not explain these two conflicting -determinations. It seems quite certain, however, that these island -beds are of Parisian age, and not Bartonian as stated by him.] - -[Footnote 47: _Lucina pharaonis_, Bell., (_L. pomum_, May. Eym. not -Dujardin) see Oppenheim, _Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in -Ægypten_, Palaeontographica, Bd. XXX, III, p. 124.] - -[Footnote 48: DAMES, _Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna von -der westlichen Insel des Birket el Qurun in Fayum (Ægypten)_, -Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883.] - -[Footnote 49: _Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die Beziehungen der -Archæoceten zu den übrigen Cetacean_, Palæontologische Abhandlungen -von W. Dames und Kayser, I. V. 5, Jena, 1894.] - -[Footnote 50: We propose to refer to this species as _Z. Isis_. See -Geol. Mag. No. 479, Dec. V, Vol I, No. V, May 1904, p. 214.] - -[Footnote 51: See also, Stromer von Reichenbach, _Zeuglodonten-Reste -aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum_, Bayer Akad. Wissensch. Bd. -XXXII, 1902, pp. 341-352.] - -[Footnote 52: ERNEST VON STROMER. _Zeuglodon-reste aus dem oberen -Mitteleocän des Fayum_, Beiträge zur Paläontologie und Geologie -Osterreich-Ungarns und des Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III, p. 82. - -Also _Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten_, Zeitschr. d. -Deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr. 1903. - -Compare Fraas _Neue Zeuglodonten aus dem Unteren Mitteleocän vom -Mokattam bei Cairo_, Geol. u. Palæont. Abhand. Neue Folge Band VI -Heft 3. Jena 1904.] - -[Footnote 53: As the fossils occurring in these beds had been collected -and described by Schweinfurth, Dames, and Mayer-Eymar, the writer -did not spend further time on the island than was necessary for -correlating the beds with his classification.] - -[Footnote 54: Cossmann has recently described some Middle Eocene shells -collected from the same locality, near Dimê, in a publication entitled -_Additions à la Faune Nummulitique d’Égypte_, le Caire, 1901.] - -[Footnote 55: _T. pharaonica_, Cossmann. A new species; apparently -this is the form quoted by Blanckenhorn and Mayer-Eymar as -_T. angulata_. According to Cossmann, however, _T. pharaonica_ -differs from _T. angulata_ in several particulars, especially in -being more thickset.] - -[Footnote 56: Blanckenhorn, thinking that the bed capping the island -of Geziret el Qorn is identical with that forming the plain around -and to the north of Dimê, has, in a section recently published -(_Neues zur Geol. u. Palænt. Ægyptens, IV. Das Pliocän_, etc., -Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., Jahrg. 1901, Taf. XIV, fig. 2), -inserted a number of faults letting the beds down continually to the -south. The beds however are not identical, and no faults occur.] - -[Footnote 57: This block was far too large to transport by camel, -but it may be feasible to effect its removal to Cairo by cart when -opportunity offers.] - -[Footnote 58: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit. p. 139.] - -[Footnote 59: A ruin discovered by Schweinfurth in 1886 and hence -often spoken of as “Schweinfurth’s Temple.” Nothing certain is -known as to its age or former use, but we may infer from its situation -just beyond the limits of the high-level lacustrine clays, that it was -built and inhabited only while Lake Mœris stood at its highest level.] - -[Footnote 60: See OPPENHEIM, op. cit. p. 105.] - -[Footnote 61: Details of a section of the lower beds of this group -near the end of the lake have already been given on p. 44.] - -[Footnote 62: As might be expected, vertebrate remains occur chiefly -in the sandy and clayey beds. Skeletons of marine animals such as -_Zeuglodon_ and _Eosiren_ may, however, be frequently observed embedded -in the hard intercalated limestones. Limestone cranial-casts of these -animals are thus sometimes found, and one of these has already been -figured and described (Elliot Smith, _The Brain of the Archæoceti_, -Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. 71, pp. 322-331. Some most beautifully -formed casts from one of the limestone beds were eventually determined -by Andrews to be casts of the air passages of crocodile skulls.] - -[Footnote 63: Schweinfurth appears to have been the first to examine -these beds.] - -[Footnote 64: One would imagine that there must have been a -considerable amount of ferruginous matter in the water at the time -of deposition of the Fluvio-marine series, the prevailing colours of -the deposits being red and yellow.] - -[Footnote 65: Mayer-Eymar appears to believe the depression of -the Fayûm is the result of the volcanic activity which produced -these basalt flows. He says (op. cit. _Nouvelles recherches, etc._, -p. 218.) “Or, de cette extension extraordinaire du phénomène -volcanique dans l’ouest du grand désert, il est, en premier lieu, -permis de conclure que c’est par suite de son action excavante -qu’a eu lieu l’effondrement rempli de nos jours, en partie par -le lac de Fayum.” - -Personally, we cannot see the slightest evidence in support of -this. Where the basalt occurs as a hard band it usually causes steep -cliffs as at Widan el Faras, owing to its protecting the underlying -beds from denudation. To the west, in Jebel el Qatrani, its thickness -and hardness determine the character and steepness of the escarpment -below.] - -[Footnote 66: Pebble bands are occasionally met with in the coarser -sandstones of the Fluvio-marine series, and it would seem that from -them are derived the pebbles of quartz and flint which so invariably -strew the desert-surface to the north to beyond the latitude of -Cairo. Those flints on the surface are largely broken up and flaked -by changes of temperature, but show comparatively little shaping by -blown sand; the white quartz pebbles on the other hand, while seldom -or never broken or flaked, are invariably more or less facetted, -frequently into typical “dreikanter” or pyramid-pebbles; below -the surface both varieties are perfectly water-rounded.] - -[Footnote 67: Many of the fossils mentioned in this profile were only -discovered after long search, and had to be inserted in the measured -section afterwards. Their position therefore is only approximate, -as individual beds could not always be correlated at the different -points where fossils were collected.] - -[Footnote 68: It is not intended to convey the impression that remains -of all these vertebrates were found at the point where the actual -line of section runs. As a matter of fact at that particular point -only _Palæomastodon_ remains were observed, while most of the others -were obtained some distance further west. Remains of _Mœritherium_, -probably identical with _M. Lyonsi_, of the Qasr el Sagha series, -in the shape of a beautifully-preserved and almost complete skull, -associated with _Palæomastodon_ and _Arsinoitherium_ in these same -beds, I only discovered in January 1903, at a point nearly due north of -the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. A preliminary description of -this skull has been published by Andrews, _Further Notes on the Mammals -of the Eocene of Egypt_; Geol. Mag. Dec. V. Vol. I. No III. March 1904, -pp. 109-115.] - -[Footnote 69: ANDREWS and BEADNELL, _A preliminary notice of a Land -Tortoise from the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt_, P.W.M. report, -Cairo, 1903.] - -[Footnote 70: In addition to those described from the Survey and -British Museum collections, some additional species are described -by von Reinach from von Stromer’s collection: _Schildkrötenreste -aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär_; Sonderabdruck aus den Abhandlungen -der Sendeenbergischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Band XXIX, -Heft I. Frankfurt 1903.] - -[Footnote 71: Op. cit., p. 455-456. Vide Blanckenhorn, _Zur Kentniss -der Süsswasserablag. u. Mollusken Syriens_. Palaeontographica XLIV, -1897, S. 97, t. 8, f. 2.] - -[Footnote 72: More recently Blanckenhorn in a paper entitled -_Nachträge zur Kentniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten_, (Centralbl. f. -Mineralogie ch. 1901, No. 9, p. 272) has named this species _Lanistes -bartonianus_ (spelled _bartoninus_ in same paper).] - -[Footnote 73: It has 4-5 flat spiral rows, the uppermost of which on -the last whorls is often more strongly developed but not keel-shaped -as in _M. muricata_. There are longitudinal ribs to the number of -8-12 over the whorls; the largest example was 9 millimetres long and -had 8 whorls.] - -[Footnote 74: See Note 2, p. 43.] - -[Footnote 75: The majority belong to the genus _Nicolia_, but more -rarely specimens, apparently referable to a species of conifer, -are met with.] - -[Footnote 76: The largest trunk noticed had a length of 28 metres.] - -[Footnote 77: ZITTEL, _Beitr. z. Geol. u. Palaeont. d. Libysch. -Wüste_, I Th. (Palaeontographica, Vol. XXX) p. XCIII.] - -[Footnote 78: MAYER-EYMAR, _Quelques mots sur les nouvelles -recherches relatives au Ligurien et au Tongrien d’Egypte_. Bull. de -l’Inst. Egypt. (3) N. 4, 1894. Mayer-Eymar’s division of the lower -beds into _Ligurien inférieur_ and _Ligurien supérieur_ is hardly -convincing, especially as no fossils were found by that observer. The -correlation of strata in widely separate areas by their lithological -similarity is at least open to question, especially with beds of -this type, which can indeed be exactly matched again and again at -many levels in the same vertical succession. His diagnosis of the -beds immediately below the basalt as _Tongrien inférieur_, rests, -however, on firmer grounds, as this basalt sheet can be traced across -the desert to beyond the latitude of Cairo, and is probably everywhere -of approximately the same age.] - -[Footnote 79: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit., _Reise in das Depression Gebiet_, -etc.) p. 41.] - -[Footnote 80: BEADNELL, _The Cretaceous Region of Abu Roash, near the -Pyramids of Giza_. Geol. Survey, Egypt, Report 1900, Pt. II. 1902, -p. 44.] - -[Footnote 81: _Zur Geologie Aegypten_, Pt. II, p. 458; _Die -Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär und Quartärperiode_, etc., -Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902, Tafel 10.] - -[Footnote 82: BEADNELL, _Découvertes Géologiques Récentes -dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, Compte rendu. VIIIe -Congr. Géol. Internat. 1900, Paris, 1901, p. [Blank]; also BALL -and BEADNELL, _Baharia Oasis: Its Topography and Geology_; Survey -Depart. P.W.M. report. Cairo. 1903, pp. 61-62.] - -[Footnote 83: _Correlations between Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe -and America_, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, No. 1, July 21, -1900, pp. 1-72.] - -[Footnote 84: Compare _Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere_, -Stromer, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr 1903. Also -_Betrachtungen über die Geologische geschichte Aethiopiens_, -do. do., 1901.] - -[Footnote 85: The locality has been briefly examined by Dr. -Blanckenhorn and more recently by Mr. T. Barron, who was accompanied -by Dr. Andrews; the writer spent a few days collecting in the -neighbourhood in April, 1903.] - -[Footnote 86: Approximately 10 metres above sea-level.] - -[Footnote 87: It is worth recording here that a single worn specimen -of _Chicoreus anguliferus_, Lam., was found on the desert surface -in the neighbourhood of the bone-pits and at about the level of the -highest gravel terrace. This determination was made by Bullen Newton, -who informs me the species occurs in the marine Pleistocene beach -deposits of the Red Sea.] - -[Footnote 88: BEADNELL, _Découvertes Géologiques Récentes -dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, VIIIe Congrès -Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris 1901, pp. 25-27.] - -[Footnote 89: Doubt has recently been thrown by American writers on -the possibility of large or thick deposits of gypsum being formed by -precipitation. See R. S. SHERWIN. _Notes on the theories of origin of -gypsum deposits_, Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans. Vol. 18. 1903, pp. 85-88.] - -[Footnote 90: Egyptian Irrigation (1899), p. 32.] - -[Footnote 91: The southern limits of the site (broken line) are taken -from the maps of Brown and Willcocks.] - -[Footnote 92: The mammalian remains collected from these lacustrine -clays have not yet been systematically examined. Dr. Andrews has -however determined some of the genera present: see, “_Notes on an -Expedition to the Fayum, Egypt_”, Geol. Mag. No. 470 Aug. 1903, -pp. 337-343.] - -[Footnote 93: MARTENS _Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem -Fajum_, Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin July, 1879, -S. 100 u. Oct. 1886, S. 126.] - -[Footnote 94: _Geologie Ægyptens_, pp. 444-446.] - -[Footnote 95: For figures and details of these flints see a paper by -the writer, _Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the -Fayûm, Egypt_, Geol. Mag., Dec. IV., Vol. X., pp. 53-59, Febr. 1903.] - -[Footnote 96: _Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité -publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité -jusqu’à nos jours_. 1872-1873, Chap. II.] - -[Footnote 97: Op. cit. pp. 28-40.] - -[Footnote 98: “_The disposition of the Lake Mœris_,” in the -Archæological Report of the Egypt Explor. Fund 1898-1899, Pt. I. D., -pp. 13-15.] - -[Footnote 99: BLANCKENHORN, op. cit. p. 463.] - - - - - APPENDIX I. - - =PREVIOUS LITERATURE RELATING TO THE FAYUM.= - - * * * * * - - - ANDREWS C. W.—_Extinct Vertebrates from Egypt_. Parts I, II, - Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct, 1901. - - _Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, with description - of some new Mammals_, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Aug. 1903. - - _Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt_, (Pts I, - II, III), Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V. Vol. I. March, April, May, 1904. - - _A note on the occurrence of a Ratite Bird in the Upper Eocene - beds of the Fayûm, Egypt_. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1904, Vol. I. - - ANDREWS, C. W. AND BEADNELL, H. J. L.—_A preliminary note - on Some New Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt_, Survey Dept., - P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - _A preliminary Notice of a Land Tortoise from the Upper Eocene - of the Fayûm, Egypt_. Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1903. - - BEADNELL, H. J. L.—_Découvertes Géologiques - Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, - VIII. Congr. Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris, 1901. - - _The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of the Geology - of a district in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene Vertebrate - Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII No. 450, Dec. 1901. - - _A preliminary note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadn._, - Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - _Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the - Fayûm, Egypt_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Febr. 1903. - - BLANCKENHORN, M.—_Geologie Ægyptens_ (Pts I-IV) - Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Berlin, 1901. - - _Neue geologisch-stratigraphische Beobachtungen in Ægypten_, - S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe d. Kgl. bayer. Ac. d. Wiss. Bd. - XXXII, 1902, Heft III, München, 1902. - - _Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär- - und Quartär periode, sowie des Palaeolithischen Menschen in - Ægypten_. Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902. - - _Nachträge zur Kenntniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten_, - Centralb. f. Mineral. No. 9. 1903. - - BROWN, SIR HANBURY.—_The Fayûm and Lake Mœris_, London, 1892. - - COSSMANN, M.—_Additions a la Faune Nummulitique d’Egypte_, - Cairo, 1901. - - DAMES, W.—_Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna - von der westlichen Insel des Birket-el-Qurûn in Fayûm - (Ægypten)_. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883. - - DAMES, W. AND KAYSER.—_Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten - und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den übrigen - Cetacean_. Palaeont. Abhand. I. V. 5, Jena, 1894. - - EDITOR GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.—_A New Egyptian Mammal - (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm_. Geol. Mag. N.S., Dec. IV, Vol. X, - Dec. 1903. - - ELLIOT SMITH, G.—_The Brain of the Archaeoceti_, - Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. 71. - - FLINDERS PETRIE.—_Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ_, - Egypt. Explor. Fund Reports, 1889. - - GARSTIN, SIR WILLIAM.—_Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile_, - Cairo, 1904. - - GRENFELL AND HUNT.—_The disposition of the Lake Mœris_, - Archaeol. Rep. Egypt. Exploration Fund. 1898-99. Pt. I. D. - - LIERNUR, WESTERN AND SCOTT MONCRIEFF, SIR COLIN.—_Notes on the - Wadi Rayan_, Cairo, 1888. - - LINANT DE BELLEFONDS.—_Mémoires sur les travaux publics en - Egypte_, Paris, 1873. - - _Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité publique - exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à nos - jours_, 1872-1873. - - LUCAS, A.—_A preliminary Investigation of the Soil and Water - of the Fayûm Province_, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - MARTENS. E. V.—_Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem - Fajum_. Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1879. - - MAYER-EYMAR,—_L’oasis de Moëleh_, Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt., - April, 1892. - - _Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le Tongrien - d’Egypte_, Bull. de l’Instit. Egypt., April, 1894. - - _Die Versteinerungen der tertiären Schichten von der - westlichen Insel im Birket-el-Qurûn See_, Paleontogr. N.F.X., 3, - (XXX). - - OPPENHEIM, P.—_Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Aegypten_, - (I). Palaeontographica, Dreif. Band. III, Public Works Ministry - reports, 1889-1904. Abt. Erst. Lief. Stuttgart, 1903. - - REINACH, V.—_Schildkrötenreste aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär_. - Sonderabd. aus d. Abhand. d. Senckenb. natur. Gesellsch. XXIX, I. - Frankfurt, 1903. - - SCHWEINFURTH, G.—_Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise - des Fajûm_, Zeitschr. Ges. F. Erdkunde, Berlin, 1886. - - _A note on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan_, Appendix II, Egyptian - Irrigation (Willcocks), London, 1899. - - SCOTT MONCRIEFF, SIR COLIN—_Note on the Wadi Raian Project_, - Cairo, 1889. - - STROMER, E.—_Zeuglodonten-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän - des Fayûm_, Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., Bd. XXXII, 1902. - - _Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten_, - Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. See also Beiträge - zur Paläont. u. Geol. Osterr.-Ungarins u. des Orients. Band XV. - Heft II and III. - - _Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere_, - Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. - - WHITEHOUSE, COPE.—_Bull. of the American Geographical Society_, - 1882. - - WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM.—_Perennial Irrigation and Flood - Protection in Egypt_, P.W.M. Report, Cairo, 1894. - - _Egyptian Irrigation_, 2nd Edit. London, 1899. - - _The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Mœris_, London, 1904. - - ZITTEL, K. V.—_Geologie u. Palaeontologie der Libyschen Wüste_, - Cassel, 1883. - - * * * * * - - - - - APPENDIX II. - - * * * * * - - -_Paul Oppenheim has recently published[100] a description of a large -collection of Egyptian lamellibranchs; the following is a list of the -species of which examples have been collected in the Fayûm (including -Rayan and Moêla). Figured species are marked by an asterisk._ - - *Gryphaea pharaonum, Oppenh Lower Mokattam. - - *Ostrea (Gryphaea) Whitehousei, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. „ Edmondstonei, May-Eym. „ - - *O. „ histris, May.-Eym. „ - - *Gryphaea (?) arabica, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. elegans, Desh. Upper (and intermediate) - Mokattam. - - *O. Fraasi, May.-Eym. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. Stanleyi, May.-Eym. „ „ - - *O. Cailliaudi, May.-Eym. Upper Mokattam. - - *O. ramosa, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - *O. plicata, Sol. Mokattam Series. - - O. paucicostata, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - O. Reili, Fraas. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - O. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym. Upper Mokattam. - - O. Sickenbergeri, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. Hessi, May.-Eym. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. qeruniana, May.-Eym. Mokattam Series. - - O. gigantica, Sol. Upper (and intermediate) - Mokattam. - - *O. (Alectryonia) Clot-Beyi, Bell. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. ( „ ) Bellardi, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - O. ( „ ) semipectinata, Schafh. „ - - *O. ( „ ) Mehemeti, May.-Eym. „ - - Carolia placunoides, Cantraine Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *Pecten moëlehensis, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - *P. Cailliaudi, Oppenh. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - Plicatula pyramidarum, Fraas Upper Mokattam. - - P. Bellardi, May.-Eym. Mokattam Series. - - P. indigena, May.-Eym. „ - - *P. Schweinfurthi, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *Spondylus ægyptiacus, Newton Mokattam Series. - - *S. Rouaulti, d’Arch. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *S. perhorridus, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *Vulsella crispata, Fischer Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *V. lignaria, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *V. moëlehensis, Oppenh. „ - - *V. chamiformis, May.-Eym. „ - - *Nucula Mœridis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *Cucullaea dimehensis, Oppenh. „ - - *Arca subplanicostata, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *A. Tethyis, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *A. uniformis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *A. tenuifilosa, Cossm. Mokattam Series. - - *Pectunculus juxtadentatus, Cossm. Upper Mokattam. - - *P. aegyptiacus, Oppenh. „ - - *Cardita Viquesneli, d’Arch. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - C. acuticostata, Lk. „ „ - - *C. mokattamensis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *C. fayumensis, Oppenh. „ - - *C. fidelis, May.-Eym. „ - - *C. Mosis, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *Crassatella fajumensis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - C. Junkeri, May.-Eym. „ - - C. puellula, May.-Eym. „ - - *C. trigonata, Lk. Mokattam Series. - - *Lucina pharaonis, Bell. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *L. Rai, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *L. polythele, Oppenh. „ - - *L. calliste, Oppenh. „ - - *L. gibbosula, Lk. Upper Mokattam. - - *L. fajumensis, Oppenh. „ - - *L. sinuosa, Bell. „ - - *Diplodonta cycloidea, Bell. Mokattam Series. - - *D. inflata, Bell. „ - - *Lucina (Diplodonta) corpusculum, Oppenh. „ - - *Cardium desertorum, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *C. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym. „ - - *Cyrena (Corbicula) Blanckenhorni, Oppenh. „ - - *Cyprina aegyptiaca, Oppenh. „ - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 100: _Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Ägypten_. Pt. I. -_Der Bivalven, erster Teil_. Palaeontographica Bd. XXX, III.] - - - - - INDEX - - * * * * * - - - A - - Abshawai—30-31, 84. - - Abu Roash as an island—65. - - Acacias—25. - - Adaptive radiation of Hyracoidea, &c.—69. - - Aegean plateau, Giraffes, &c. of—69. - - _Aetheria_—81. - - Africa with Europe or Asia, Connection of—68. - - Africa as centre of mammalian radiation—68, 88. - - Agamiin—84. - - _Agassizia gibberulus_—52. - - Ain Warshat el Melh—20. - - Air passages of crocodile skulls, as casts—52. - - _Akera_ aff. _striatella_—51-52. - - _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_—35, 50-52. - - Allen—69. - - Alluvial deposits—23, 25-26, 29, 39, 79-81. - - Alluvial soil, Composition of—11-12. - - Alluvium covering eastern area—25, 30. - - Amenemhat I—13, 26, 82, 84. - - _Ampullina hybrida_—51. - - _Ampullaria_—51, 81. - - Analyses of water—13, 22. - - Analysis of fossil bones—54. - - Analysis of ox bone—55. - - _Ancodus Gorringei_—34, 59, 70. - - Andrews, Dr. C. W.—10, 34, 52, 59, 68, 71, 80, 87. - - _Anisaster gibberulus_—52. - - Anomaluridae—68-69. - - Anoplotheres—69. - - Antelopes—69. - - Aquatic animals—55. - - Aquatic hyracoid—69. - - _Arca_—53, 60. - - _Arca Edwardsi_—43. - - _Arca subplanicostata_—90. - - _Arca tenuifilosa_—90. - - _Arca tethyis_—52, 90. - - _Arca uniformis_—90. - - Archæoceti—44, 52, 87. - - Ard varks—69. - - Area of Birket el Qurûn—13. - - Area of cultivated land—11. - - Area of desert in depression—15. - - Area of Fayûm depression—9-11. - - Area of Fayûm freshwater lake—80. - - Arenaceous deposits—84. - - Arenaceous sediments of Nile—81. - - Argillaceous sandstone—36, 39, 46. - - Argillaceous sands—57. - - Armadillos—69. - - Arsinœ—13, 83, 87. - - _Arsinoitherium_—10, 54, 59, 62, 68-87. - - _Arsinoitherium Andrewsii_—34, 70. - - _Arsinoitherium Zitteli_—10, 34, 59, 70, 87. - - Assuan Reservoir—88. - - _Astarte_—46. - - _Astrohelia similis_—35, 43, 51. - - B - - Baboons—69. - - Bacchias—83-84. - - Baharia Oasis—9, 25, 27, 29, 66, 67. - - Bahr Belama—18. - - Bahr Yusef—11-12, 17-18, 25-26, 83-84. - - _Balanus_—39, 47. - - Ball, Dr. J.—66. - - _Barbatia_—60. - - Barriers between Nile lakes—79. - - Barron, T.—71. - - Barton Clay—58. - - Bartonian beds—43, 53-70. - - _Barytherium_—10, 51, 68. - - _Barytherium grave_—35, 51, 70. - - Basalt sheet—15, 28, 34, 53, 56-64, 75-76 (derived). - - Basins receiving drainage—25, 79. - - Bats, Ravine of El—29-30, 37, 39-40. - - Beadnell, H. J. L.—10, 33, 59-60, 65-66, 78, 87. - - Beauchamp sands—58. - - Beekite—61. - - Biahmu—13, 83-84, 87. - - Birds, Fossil—70-87. - - Birket el Qurûn—11, 12-14, 16, 23-25, 27-28, 30-32, 36, 40-41, - 43-47, 49-50, 56, 61, 72-73, 80-81, 83-84, 87-88. - - Birket el Qurun Schichten—63. - - Birket el Qurûn Series—23, 27, 35, 41-50, 52, 64, 72-74. - - _Bithynia_ aff. _Boissieri_—81. - - Blanford—69-70. - - Blanckenhorn, Dr. M.—30-31, 34, 39, 45, 58, 60, 64, 66, 71, 81, 87. - - Blue Nile fauna—81. - - Bone horizons & pits—52, 54, 62, 76. - - Borings, Artesian—18. - - Borings at Medinet el Fayûm—29-30, 41. - - Borings by molluscs—23, 34, 43, 71-73, 78. - - Borings by shells at two levels—72-73. - - _Borsonia_—37. - - Boulders in gravel terraces—76. - - Brackish-water shells—84. - - Brain of archæoceti—52, 87. - - Branches wanting on fossil trees—64-65. - - British Museum collections—59. - - Brown coal—53. - - Brown, Sir Hanbury—11, 13, 80, 83, 87. - - Bryozoa—36, 52. - - _Bubalis_—80. - - Bugti beds (Sind)—70. - - Bullen Newton, R.—76. - - C - - Cairo—9, 16, 28, 49, 56, 64, 65. - - Calcareous beds in lake—12. - - Calcareous grits—33, 53, 56-63. - - Calcareous sandstone—25, 42-43, 45, 50-51, 59, 72. - - Calcite—51, 58-59, 61-62. - - _Callianassa_—36, 58. - - _Calyptræa trochiformis_—43. - - Canals—11-12, 18-19, 29, 73. - - Canals, Mud brought to lake by—14. - - _Canis_—80. - - Cape Rayan—21, 36. - - Carbonaceous clays—46. - - Carbonaceous matter—42, 51. - - _Cardita_—38-39, 47. - - _Cardita acuticostata_—90. - - _Cardita_ aff. _carinata_—52. - - _Cardita_ aff. _depressa_—52. - - _Cardita ægyptiaca_—46. - - _Cardita fidelis_—90. - - _Cardita fajumensis_—35, 46, 50-52, 90. - - _Cardita_ cf. _gracilis_ and _depressa_—52. - - _Cardita mokattamensis_—90. - - _Cardita Mosis_—90. - - _Cardita_ aff. _triparticostata_—52. - - _Cardita Viquesneli_—35, 45-46, 90. - - _Cardium_—59. - - _Cardium desertorum_—90. - - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_—35, 43-44, 50-51, 90. - - _Carolia_—36-39, 48, 50, 52. - - Carolia Beds—33, 48-53, 74 (rolled blocks). - - _Carolia placunoides_—35-36, 38-39, 45-49, 51-52, 73, 89. - - _Cassidaria_—51. - - _Cassidaria nilotica_—51. - - _Cassidaria_ aff. _nodosa_—51. - - Casts of crocodilian skull air passages—52. - - Casts of shells—39, 44, 51, 59, 63. - - Cavernous limestone—37. - - Celestine—48. - - Cellular weathering of sandstone—46. - - Central African character of Fayûm shells—60. - - Central Area of Fayûm—24-25. - - Centres of independent evolution—69. - - _Cerithium_—39, 46-47, 53, 57-58. - - _Cerithium crispum_—58. - - _Cerithium fodicatum_—37. - - _Cerithium perditum_—58. - - _Cerithium tiarella_—58. - - Cetacea—9, 43-44, 47, 49, 87. - - Chalcedony—61. - - Chalky limestones—40. - - Charcoal, Natural—51, 53. - - Chelonians—34, 44, 54, 62. - - Chert, Tabular—61-62. - - Cherty limestones—57, 59, 61. - - _Chicoreus anguliferus_—76. - - Claudius Ptolemy—83. - - _Clavellithes longævus_—35, 45-46. - - Clays—12, 15, 18, 20, 22-25, 28-30, 33-53, 55-59, 61-62, 74-76, - 80, 82. - - Clays, Variegated—62. - - Clayey marls—37, 53, 62. - - Clayey sands—29, 36-37, 42, 58. - - Clayey sandstones—36, 50, 57, 62. - - Clayey shales—77. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_—81. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_ var. _unicarinata_—81. - - _Cleopatra bulimoides_—81, 84. - - Cliffs—12, 14-15, 20-24, 27, 32, 36, 40-41, 45-46, 48-50, 53, - 56, 73-74, 84-85. - - Climate, Variations in Egyptian—81. - - Coal, Thin seam of—53. - - Coast-line of old continent—54. - - Colossi at Biahmu—84. - - Concretions—35-36, 38-40, 42-46, 50, 72. - - Concretionary sands—58. - - Concretionary sandstones—35, 46, 49, 51, 55-56, 62. - - Concretionary weathering—42, 46. - - Conglomerate—25, 74-76, 78. - - Conical hill near Wadi Muêla—36. - - Coniferous fossil trees—63. - - Constancy of beds over wide areas—33. - - Continental land in Oligocene times—64. - - Continuance of Oligocene continental conditions—54. - - Cope Whitehouse—16-17. - - Coprolites—50-51, 62. - - Corals—36-37, 44, 46, 51, 53. - - _Corbicula Blanckenhorni_—90. - - _Corbicula fluminalis_, var. _consobrina_—81, 84. - - _Corbula_—40. - - _Corbula_ aff. _pixidicula_—35, 39, 43. - - Cossmann, M.—45, 58, 87. - - _Cossmannella ægyptiaca_—50. - - Cranial casts in limestone—52. - - _Crassatella fajumensis_—90. - - _Crassatella Junkeri_—90. - - _Crassatella puellula_—90. - - _Crassatella trigonata_—90. - - _Crassatellithes_—50. - - Creodonts—70. - - Crocodiles—9, 34, 51-55, 59, 62, 80. - - _Crocodilus_—59, 70. - - Crystals of quartz, calcite &c.—61. - - _Cucullæa_ aff. _crassatina_—52. - - _Cucullæa dimehensis_—89. - - Cultivated lands—9, 11-14, 39-42, 73, 83-84. - - Currents in Birket el Qurûn—14. - - Currents in ancient river—52, 54, 65-66, 71-78, 80. - - Current-bedded clays, sands, &c.—51, 56. - - Cuvier—69. - - _Cyprina ægyptiaca_—90. - - _Cyrena Blanckenhorni_—90. - - _Cytherea_—46. - - _Cytherea Newboldi_—43. - - D - - Dakhla Oasis—29. - - Dam at El Lahûn—84. - - Dames—9, 43-44, 49, 87. - - Damp climate formerly in Egypt—81. - - Dashûr, Pyramids of—28. - - Dasypodidae—69. - - Defile of Wadi Muêla—9, 21. - - Delta, Ancient—54, 66-67. - - _Dentalium_—46. - - Denudation, Effects of—39, 73, 75, 77, 84. - - Deposition of sediments in Eocene times—54. - - Depression, Origin of Fayûm—15, 29, 33, 79. - - Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks—33. - - Depression, Fayûm—9, 11-16, 20, 24, 26-30, 33-36, 39, 53, 61, - 64, 67, 71, 75, 77-81, 84-85, 87-88. - - Depression, Mogara—71. - - Depression, Wadi Rayan &c.—17-19, 21-24. - - Depressions of Libyan Desert—16, 29, 67. - - Depth of Birket et Qurûn—13. - - Der el Beda—64. - - Der el Galamûn—21, 36. - - Desert conditions—73, 79. - - Desert region—11, 14, 16, 26-28. - - Deshasleh—17. - - _Dictyopleurus Haimi_—52. - - Diluvial deposits—81. - - Dimê—13, 31, 45, 50, 72. - - Dinotheres—69. - - Diodorus Siculus—13, 82. - - Dionysias—83-84. - - Dip, Importance and nature of—15, 33, 48-49, 55, 57, 64. - - _Diplodonta corpusculum_—90. - - _Diplodonta cycloidea_—90. - - _Diplodonta inflata_—90. - - Dip-slopes of central area &c., of Fayûm—24, 25, 27, 50. - - Disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—80. - - Dormice—69. - - Downthrow of faults—32, 50. - - Drainage basins—11, 13, 23, 25. - - Drains—12. - - Dreikanter—56. - - Druses of calcite—62. - - Dugongs—53. - - Dunes—17, 21-23, 26-27, 84-85. - - Dunes, Slope of—26. - - Dunes, Straight-lined character of—26, 85. - - E - - Earth-pillars—46. - - Earthy limestone—46. - - Echinids—36-37, 39. - - _Echinolampas Crameri_—35, 50. - - Edentata—69. - - Edwa—82-83. - - Egyptian irrigation—88. - - Elephants, Early—68. - - _Elephas_—80. - - El-Gayat, village—20. - - Elliot Smith, Dr.—52, 87. - - Elwat Hialla—28, 55-56, 75-76. - - Emigration of African animals—68. - - Eocene sea, Extension of—66. - - _Eosiren_—10, 52. - - _Eosiren libyca_—35, 51, 70. - - _Eremopezus libycus_—34, 70. - - Erosion by Nile—79, 80. - - Erosion, Superficial—85. - - Escarpments—15, 21, 26-28, 31-32, 45, 49, 52, 56-58, 60-61, 75-77. - - Escarpments determined by fractures—32. - - _Eschara Duvali_—37. - - Estuarine conditions of upper beds—53, 55. - - Ethiopian faunal region—68-69. - - Ethiopian region centre of independent evolution—69-70. - - Euhemeria—84. - - _Euspatangus Blanckenhorni_—36. - - _Euspatangus cairensis_—52. - - _Euspatangus formosus_—36. - - Evaporation of late Pliocene lake—78-79. - - Even-toed ruminants—68. - - _Exogyra Fraasi_—35, 50-52. - - F - - Facetted quartz pebbles—56. - - False-bedding—50-51, 55-57, 62, 73. - - Farafra Oasis—29. - - Faulting and folding—16, 29-32, 49-50. - - Fault near Qasr el Sagha—32. - - Fault, Nile Valley—15. - - Fayûm beds shallower water than those of Mokattam—41. - - Fayûm, Causes of origin of—15, 29, 33. - - Ferruginous bands—51-52, 58. - - Ferruginous clays—51. - - Ferruginous grits—27, 58, 62, 66-67. - - Ferruginous sand—54. - - Ferruginous sandstone—46, 50, 52, 57. - - Feshn—11. - - Fibrous gypsum—52. - - _Ficula tricarinata_—43. - - Filhol, M.—69. - - Fiord, Nile Valley—78-79. - - Fish remains—9, 35, 39-40, 42-44, 46-47, 50-52, 59, 70, 77, 70. - - Fish-scales—39-40, 42, 44, 77. - - Fish-spines—39, 50. - - Fish-teeth—39, 43, 50. - - Fish-vertebrae—50. - - Flat-topped hills—20. - - Flinders, Petrie—13, 87. - - Flint implements—61, 82. - - Flint pebbles—20, 50, 56, 62-63, 73, 75-76. - - Flint, Tabular—61-62. - - Floods—26, 54, 67, 82. - - Flood protection—88. - - Flood-readings—80. - - Floor of depression—39. - - Fluviatile conditions of deposition—58. - - Fluviatile sands, etc.—60, 66-67. - - Fluviomarine conditions of deposition—33. - - Fluviomarine Series—9, 27, 34, 53-65, 74-76. - - Flying rodents—68-69. - - Fold near Qasr el Sagha—32, 49. - - Foraminiferal beds—33, 35-39, 41-42, 45-48, 74. - - Formation of Fayûm lake—26, 78-80, 82-84. - - Fractures determining escarpments—32. - - Freshness of Birket el Qurûn—14, 24. - - Freshwater conditions of deposition—58. - - Freshwater lake before Mœris—79-80. - - Freshwater lakes of Nile Valley—79. - - Freshwater shells—18, 44, 47, 60, 80-81, 88. - - Freshwater shells absent in Wadi Rayan—23. - - _Fusus_—37, 48. - - G - - Gar el Gehannem—9, 23, 25, 27, 32, 36-39, 41, 46-47, 50, 52, 61, - 67, 73, 80, 85. - - Gar el Hamra—27, 67. - - Garat el Esh—32, 61, 76, 85. - - Garat el Faras—28, 50, 75. - - Garat el Gindi—28, 75. - - Garstin, Sir W.—18, 87. - - Gasteropods—36, 58. - - _Geniohyus_—10. - - _Geniohyus fayumensis_—34, 70. - - _Geniohyus major_—34, 70. - - _Geniohyus mirus_—34, 70. - - Geodes—61. - - Geological Succession in Wadi Rayan—22. - - Geological Magazine—10, 87. - - Geology of Fayûm—33, 90. - - Geziret el Qorn—31, 40, 43-45, 63. - - Gharaq, Bahr el—11, 17. - - Gharaq Basin—11, 13, 19-20, 23-26, 31, 36, 85. - - Gharaq, Wadi—17. - - Ghardag bushes—22. - - Ghart el Khanashat—26-27, 85. - - _Gigantophis_—10. - - _Gigantophis Garstini_—35, 51, 70. - - Giraffes—69. - - _Gisortia_—37. - - _Gisortia gigantea_—51. - - Giza, Pyramids of—28, 63. - - Glacial period—69, 81. - - Glauconitic clays—36, 39, 50. - - Glauconitic marl—39. - - Glauconitic sands—37. - - Globular concretions—35, 42-46, 72. - - _Glycimeris pulvinatus_—52. - - Goat remains—80. - - _Goniastræa cocchii_—43. - - _Goniaræa elegans_—51. - - _Goniopora_—51. - - Grass in desert—27. - - Gravels—15, 25-27, 32, 34, 40-42, 73-78. - - Gravel-capped hills—75. - - Gravel terraces—25, 34, 42, 71, 73-80. - - Gravelly gypsum—77. - - Grenfell, Mr.—83-84, 87. - - Grits—27, 33-34, 57-63, 66. - - Grooving due to blown sand—85. - - _Gryphæa arabica_—89. - - _Gryphæa Edmonstonei_—89. - - _Gryphæa histris_—89. - - _Gryphæa pharaonum_—89. - - _Gryphæa Whitehousei_—89. - - Gauges, Nile—80. - - Gypseous clays—33, 35, 37-40, 44-46, 51-52. - - Gypseous deposits—71, 75, 77, 79. - - Gypseous limestone—50, 52. - - Gypseous marls—37-39. - - Gypseous plain—20-21. - - Gypseous sands—39. - - Gypseous shale—42, 48. - - Gypsum—18, 20, 36-37, 39, 42, 50-52, 61-62, 77-79. - - Gypsum of Paris, Animals in—69. - - H - - Hade of fault—32. - - Haram el Bahrl, El—36. - - Harpoons, Flint—61. - - Hawara—11, 13, 26, 87. - - Headon Hill beds—58. - - Height of Pliocene terraces—76. - - _Heliastræa acervularia_—43. - - _Heliastræa Ellisi_—13. - - _Heliastræa flattersi_—43. - - Heluan—16. - - Herodotus—13, 82, 84. - - High-level lake—83. - - _Hippopotamus_—69, 80. - - Historic epoch—81-85. - - Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to siliceous bands—41. - - Hunt, Mr.—83-84, 87. - - Huxley, Prof.—68. - - _Hydractinia_—38. - - _Hydractinia cornuta_—35. - - _Hydrobia stagnalis_—84. - - Hyracoidea—69. - - I - - Ice periods—69, 81. - - Immigration of animals into Africa—68. - - Implements, Flint—61. - - India, Fauna of—69. - - Indo-Malayan faunal region—69. - - Invasion of Africa by European animals—69. - - Invasion of Europe by African animals—69. - - Ironstone—50, 58-59. - - Irrigation works, Result of—12, 88. - - _Isocardia cyprinoides_—43. - - J - - Jerboas—69. - - Joint-planes—36. - - K - - Kafr el Ayat—11. - - Karanis—84. - - Kayser—87. - - Kenîsa, El—72. - - Kharga Oasis—29. - - Knobs along line of fault—32. - - Kom Ombo—81. - - Korif, Wadi—21. - - L - - Lacustrine deposits—12-13, 34, 40, 44, 47, 49, 66-67, 79-80, 82. - - Lahûn—11, 26, 39, 84. - - Lahûn Pyramid—28, 42. - - Lake deposits—67, 79. - - Lake in Fayûm—11-14, 78-80. - - Lake Mœris—12-13, 18-19, 23-24, 43, 49, 79-80, 82-84, 87-88. - - Lake, Nile Valley—78-79. - - Lake of the Horns—12. - - Lamellibranchs—12, 58-59, 89. - - Lamination of arenaceous deposits—66. - - Land-animal remains—52-54. - - Land-areas, Ancient—65-67, 71. - - _Lanistes_—53, 58, 81. - - _Lanistes antiquus_—51. - - _Lanistes bartonianus_—34, 60. - - _Lanistes carinatus_—60. - - Lava Flows—15, 33-34, 53, 56-58, 61-62, 75. - - Leakage through ridge of Wadi Rayan—23. - - _Leda_—35, 39. - - Lenticular sand-beds—55. - - _Leptodon_—69. - - Levels made from Rayan to Nile Valley—17. - - Libyan Desert, Area, etc., of—15, 88. - - Liernur Bey—17-18, 87. - - Liernur, Wadi—17, 19. - - Lignite—51, 53. - - Ligurian beds—43, 64, 88. - - Limb-bones of vertebrates—52. - - Limestones—12, 15-16, 20-25, 29, 33-42, 45-53, 56-57, 59-62, - 65-66, 73-77. - - _Limnæa mœris_—81. - - _Limnæa natalensis_—81. - - _Limnæa palustris_—81. - - Linant de Bellefonds—16, 83, 88. - - _Linthia_—52. - - Little Rayan—22. - - Littoral deposits—66. - - Loam—39. - - _Lobocarcinus Paulino-Wurtembergicus_—36. - - Lower Headon Hill beds—58. - - Lower Oligocene—53-70. - - Lucas, A.—9, 14, 22, 54, 88. - - _Lucina_—36, 39, 45-46, 48, 53, 58. - - _Lucina calliste_—90. - - _Lucina consobrina_—37. - - _Lucina Defrancei_—37. - - _Lucina fajumensis_—90. - - _Lucina fortisiana_—51. - - _Lucina gibbosula_—90. - - _Lucina globulosa_—37. - - _Lucina pharaonis_—35, 43, 45, 51, 90. - - _Lucina polythele_—90. - - _Lucina pomum_—43. - - _Lucina Rai_—90. - - _Lucina sinuosa_—90. - - _Lucina_ cf. _tabulata_—43. - - Lulu, Wadi—17. - - Lydekker, R.—70. - - M - - _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_—35, 46, 51. - - _Mactra compressa_—43. - - Madagascar and Africa, Connection of—68. - - Mammalia, Fossil—34-35, 55, 62, 38-70, 80, 87. - - Mammillary weathering—57. - - Mandibles of vertebrates—52. - - Marls—18, 29-30, 33-35, 37, 39-42, 49-50, 53, 55, 61-62, 73-74, 76. - - Marls in lake—12. - - Marls, Saliferous—19. - - Marly clays—29-30, 57, 62. - - Marly gypsum—77. - - Marly limestones—33, 35, 37-39, 47-48, 62, 77. - - Marsh land—26, 40, 82. - - Martens, Prof. von.—60, 81, 88. - - Masaigega, Wadi—19. - - Masaret-Abusia—40. - - Mastodons—68-69. - - Mayer-Eymar, K.—37, 43, 49, 53, 64, 88. - - Mazana—17, 19. - - Medinet el Fayûm—29-30, 41, 82-83. - - Mediterranean fauna—81. - - Medum—40, 77 (pyramid). - - _Megalohyrax_—10. - - _Megalohyrax eocænus_—34, 59, 70. - - _Megalohyrax minor_—34, 70. - - _Melania_—53, 57-60. - - _Melania muricata_—60. - - _Melania_ cf. _Nysti_—60, 64. - - _Melania tuberculata_—81, 84. - - _Melanopsis_—81. - - _Melanopsis_ fauna—81. - - _Melongena nilotica_, var. _bicarinata_—51. - - Menesi Ali, Ezba—17. - - _Meretrix nitidula_—51. - - _Meretrix parisiensis_—51. - - _Mesalia_—51. - - _Mesalia fasciata_—35, 51. - - _Mesalia oxycrepis_—51. - - Middle Eocene—9-10, 15, 32-33, 35-53, 54-55, 57-58, 60, 62, 64, - 66-67, 70, 80. - - Migrations of mammalia—69-70. - - Miocene beds suggested—64. - - Miocene, Lower—34, 54, 70. - - Miocene, Lower, of Orient European in type—70. - - Miocene strata, Absence of—34, 71. - - _Mitra_—36. - - _Mœriophis Schweinfurthi_—50, 70. - - Mœris (see Lake Mœris). - - _Mœritherium_—10, 52, 59, 68, 70. - - _Mœritherium gracilis_—35, 51, 70. - - _Mœritherium Lyonsi_—34, 35, 51, 59, 70. - - _Mœritherium trigodon_—34-70. - - Mogara—34, 54, 71, 85. - - Mokattam beds, Lower—35, 89-90. - - Mokattam beds, Upper—33, 41, 49, 89-90. - - Mokattam beds deeper water than Fayûm beds—41. - - Mokattam, Jebel—39, 41, 49. - - Monastery in Wadi Muêla—21. - - Moncrieff, Sir C. S.—16-17, 87. - - Monkeys—69. - - Monoclinal fold—16. - - Monograph of Fayûm vertebrates—10. - - Monotony of desert—26. - - Muêla, Wadi—9, 14, 16-17, 20-21, 35-37, 88-89. - - _Mutela_—53, 60. - - _Mytilus affinis_—51. - - N - - _Natica_—46. - - _Natica crassatina_—64. - - Natrûn, Wadi—26, 27, 54, 85. - - _Nautilus_—36, 46, 48. - - Nawamis—40. - - _Necrodasypus_—69. - - Neolithic implements—82, 87. - - _Neritina nilotica_—81, 84. - - Nezleh Canal—19. - - _Nicolia_—63. - - Nile deposit absent in Wadi Rayan—23. - - Nile mud—80-82. - - Nile Valley, Connection with—11, 13, 17-18, 79-82. - - Nile Valley, History of—79, 87. - - Nile waters enter depression—26, 79-80, 82. - - Nilometer—80. - - Nodular bands—44, 47. - - Nodular limestones—48. - - Nodules, Calcareous—39, 61. - - _Nonionina_—46. - - Northern Desert Region—9, 26-28, 87. - - _Nucula Mœridis_—89. - - _Nucularia_—35, 39. - - Nummulites—33, 36, 39, 41, 46-48. - - _Nummulites Beaumonti_—35, 41. - - _Nummulites curvispira_—35-37. - - _Nummulites Fraasi_—35, 41-42. - - _Nummulites gizehensis_—33, 35-37, 39, 41, 48. - - _Nummulites gizehensis_ limestones—33, 35-37, 39, 41, 48. - - _Nummulites Schweinfurthi_—41. - - _Nummulites sub-Beaumonti_—41. - - Nummulitic limestones—36-39, 65. - - O - - Oases depressions—67. - - Oases, Origin of—29. - - Oasis, Parva—83. - - Oldest beds in Fayûm—33. - - Oligocene beds—34, 53, 70. - - Oligocene of Orient European in type—70. - - _Oliva_—46. - - _Operculina_—33, 46, 74. - - _Operculina discoidea_—35, 41-42, 47, 74. - - _Operculina-Nummulite_ Beds—35, 41-48, 74. - - Oppenheim, Dr. P.—43, 50, 88-89. - - Oriental faunal region—69. - - Origin of Fayûm, Causes of—15. - - Original floor of depression—39. - - Osborn, Prof. H. F.—68, 70. - - _Ostrea_—36-39, 42, 44-46, 48-50, 52. - - _Ostrea Bellardi_—89. - - _Ostrea Caillaudi_—89. - - _Ostrea Clot-Beyi_—38, 46, 89. - - _Ostrea cucullata_—41, 71, 77. - - _Ostrea digitalina_—43. - - _Ostrea Edmonstonei_—89. - - _Ostrea elegans_—35, 51, 89. - - _Ostrea flabellula_—51. - - _Ostrea Fraasi_—38-39, 47, 89. - - _Ostrea gigantea_—43. - - _Ostrea gigantica_—89. - - _Ostrea Gumbeli_—37. - - _Ostrea Hessi_—89. - - _Ostrea_ aff. _heteroclyta_—51. - - _Ostrea histris_—89. - - _Ostrea longirostris_—43. - - _Ostrea Mehemeti_—89. - - _Ostrea paucicostata_—89. - - _Ostrea plicata_—43, 89. - - _Ostrea producta_—43. - - _Ostrea qeruniana_—89. - - _Ostrea ramosa_—89. - - _Ostrea Reili_—35, 39, 45-47, 51-52, 89. - - _Ostrea Schweinfurthi_—89. - - _Ostrea semipectinata_—89. - - _Ostrea Sickenbergeri_—89. - - _Ostrea Stanleyi_—89. - - _Ostrea Whitehousei_—89. - - _Oudardia ovalis_—39. - - Outlets, Subterranean, to lake—14, 24. - - Outliers—21, 28. - - Output of water from springs—22. - - Oysters—36, 39, 42, 48. - - Oyster-beds—36, 50. - - Oyster-limestone—52. - - P - - Palæogene freshwater shells—60. - - Palæogene vertebrate fauna—87. - - Palæontographica—43, 63, 88. - - _Palæomastodon_—10, 59, 68. - - _Palæomastodon Beadnelli_—34, 59, 70. - - _Palæomastodon minor_—34, 70. - - Palms—21-22. - - _Paludina_—81. - - Pangolins—69. - - Paper-shales—36, 51. - - Paris basin—58. - - Parisian beds—18, 35-53. - - Pass from Muêla to Rayan—21. - - Pebble deposits—18, 30, 39-40, 56, 58, 76, 78. - - _Pecten_—39, 42, 46-47. - - _Pecten benedictus_—71. - - _Pecten Caillaudi_—89. - - _Pecten corneus_—37. - - _Pecten moëlehensis_—37, 52, 59. - - _Pecten solariolum_—52. - - _Pectunculus_—46. - - _Pectunculus juxtadentatus_—90. - - _Pectunculus ægyptiacus_—51, 90. - - _Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—35. - - _Pectunculus pulvinatus_—52. - - _Pelomedusa progaleata_—70. - - Pelvis of _Arsinoitherium_—54. - - Perforate weathering of sandstone—46. - - Permeability of Wadi Rayan—24. - - Perennial irrigation in Egypt—88. - - Pharaonic province—84. - - Philotera—84. - - _Phiomia_—10. - - _Phiomia serridens_—34, 59, 70. - - _Pinna_—39, 47. - - Plains—50, 52, 54, 77. - - Plain of subaerial denudation—39. - - _Planorbis Ehrenbergi_—84. - - _Planorbis marginatus_ var. _subangulata_—84. - - _Planorbis subangulata_—81. - - Plant-remains—42, 50-51, 53, 57. - - Plateau bounding Fayûm to north—26. - - _Plateaux_—15, 21, 25, 27-28, 32, 62. - - Pleistocene Beds—30, 34, 47, 50, 54, 71, 79-81, 84. - - _Pleurotoma_—37, 43, 46, 53, 58. - - _Pleurotoma ingens_—34, 58. - - _Plicatula Bellardi_—50-51, 89. - - _Plicatula indigena_—89. - - _Plicatula polymorpha_—35, 45-46, 51. - - _Plicatula pyramidarum_—89. - - _Plicatula Schweinfurthi_—89. - - Pliny—82. - - Pliocene Beds—30, 34, 41-42, 54, 69, 71-78. - - Pliocene sea, Invasion of—43, 71, 78. - - _Pliohyrax_—69. - - _Podocnemis antiqua_—37, 70. - - _Podocnemis Blanckenhorni_—70. - - _Podocnemis Blanckenhorni_ var. _ovata_—70. - - _Podocnemis fajumensis_—70. - - _Podocnemis Stromeri_—35, 70. - - _Podocnemis Stromeri_ var. _major_—70. - - Pools formed by rainfall—25. - - Pools produced by springs—20, 22. - - _Potamides_—53. - - _Potamides scalaroides_—34, 58, 64. - - _Potamides tiarella_—64. - - _Potamides tristriatus_—34. - - Prehistoric epoch—81-82. - - Prehistoric lake—23, 79-82. - - Preservation of fossil remains—55. - - Proboscidea—68-69. - - Promontories of Birket el Qurûn, Origin of—41. - - _Propristis Schweinfurthi_—35, 51, 70. - - _Psephophorus eocænus_—35, 70. - - _Pseudodon_—58, 60. - - _Pterodon_—10. - - _Pterodon africanus_—34, 59, 70. - - _Pterodon macrognathus_—34, 70. - - _Pterosphenus_—10. - - _Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi_—35, 50-51, 70. - - Ptolemaic lake—84. - - Ptolemaic period—82. - - Ptolemy Philadelphus—84. - - Ptolemy the second—84. - - Puddingstone of ancient rivers—26, 67. - - Pyramid-like building—74. - - Pyramid pebbles—56. - - Q - - Qalamsha, Ezba—23, 25-26, 41-42, 77. - - Qasr el Banat—84. - - Qasr el Qurûn—84. - - Qasr el Sagha—9, 31-32, 43, 49, 52, 56-58, 60-61. - - Qasr el Sagha Series—27, 32-33, 35, 38, 41, 44-57, 64-66, 75, 77. - - Qatrani, Jebel El—28, 55, 61, 75. - - Qatrani beds—34, 53-70. - - _Qerunia_—38. - - _Qerunia cornuta_—35, 45-46, 48, 51-52. - - Quartz pebbles—20, 50, 56, 62-63, 73, 75. - - Quartz sand—55. - - Quartzite—62, 73-75. - - R - - Radiation of Mammalia from Africa—69. - - Railway to Fayûm—40. - - Raised beaches—34, 41. - - Ratite bird—87. - - Ravine Beds—23, 25, 29-30, 35, 37-42, 46, 77. - - Ravines—12, 19, 29, 37, 39-40. - - Rayan, Jebel—36-37. - - Rayan, Geology of Wadi—22-23. - - Rayan, Little—22. - - Rayan Series—24, 25, 30, 33, 35-39, 41. - - Rayan, Wadi—9, 11, 14-24, 27-28, 31, 85, 87-89. - - Rays—70. - - Recent Beds—34, 81-85. - - Reclamation of Fayûm lake—82-84. - - Reconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—80. - - Reeds—20. - - Regulator of floods, Fayûm as—82. - - Reinach, Von—59, 88. - - Reptiles, Fossil—70. - - Reservoir at Assuan—88. - - Reservoir proposed in Wadi Rayan—16-19. - - Retreat of Eocene sea—54, 55, 66. - - _Rhinoceros bicornis_—69. - - Ridge separating Nile Valley and Fayûm—25-26, 71, 73-74, 79-80. - - Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq—23. - - _Rimella rimosa_—35, 51. - - Ripple-marked sandstone—51. - - Rise of Nile bed—80. - - River, Ancient—27, 52-55, 66-67, 79. - - River-currents—65, 71, 78. - - River-sand—55. - - Roads in desert—27. - - Rocks forming Libyan Desert—15. - - Roda—13, 75, 80. - - Rodents, Flying—68-69. - - Rohlfs’ Expedition—9, 63. - - Rolled fossils—73. - - _Rostellaria_—37. - - Round-topped hill-ranges—75. - - Rubiat—39-42. - - Ruins—20-22, 48-50, 52. - - Ruminants, Even-toed—68-69. - - Rushes—20. - - S - - _Saghatherium_—10. - - _Saghatherium antiquum_—34, 59, 70. - - _Saghatherium magnum_—34, 70. - - _Saghatherium minus_—34, 59, 70. - - Salines—20. - - Salinity of lake—14. - - Salinity of water in Wadi Rayan—24. - - Salt—18, 36, 77, 79. - - Salt in Wadis Rayan & Muêla—19, 20, 88. - - Samos, Island of—69. - - Sands—15, 18, 21, 29, 33-34, 40, 42, 47, 50, 53, 55-59, 61-62, - 71, 74-76, 80. - - Sand accumulations, Wind-blown—12, 20-21, 32, 34, 73, 84-85. - - Sand, &c., deposited in Birket el Qurûn—13, 80, 84. - - Sandberger Hills—62. - - Sandblast action—73. - - Sand-rock—44, 50-51, 56-60, 62, 74. - - Sands, Variegated—34, 53, 57, 59. - - Sandstones—15, 28, 32-36, 38-39, 42-63, 72, 74-77. - - Sandstone, Concretionary—35, 38. - - Sandstone-grit—56, 58, 62-63. - - Sandstones, Mottled—62. - - Sandstones, Variegated—76. - - Sandy clays—12, 18, 36-37, 42, 44, 46, 50-52, 56-59, 62. - - Sandy conglomerate—18. - - Sandy limestones—25, 35-36, 38-39, 42, 49-52. - - Sandy marl—37, 42, 62. - - Sandy shale—42. - - Saqâra, Pyramid of—28. - - Saws, Flint—61. - - Scalenohedra of calcite—51. - - _Schizaster_—36. - - _Schizaster_ aff. _africanus_—52. - - Schweinfurth, Dr.—9, 14, 19, 24, 34-37, 43-44, 49, 64, 71-72, - 77-80, 88. - - Schweinfurth’s Temple—49. - - Scoring due to blown sand—85. - - Scott Moncrieff, Sir C.—88. - - Sculpturing of sandstone—85. - - _Scutella_ beds—64. - - Second Cataract—81. - - Sections, Geological—36-42, 44-47, 50-52, 56, 58-62. - - Sediment deposited in Fayûm—26, 54. - - Sêla—9, 26, 39-40, 73. - - Septaria—46. - - _Serpula_—46. - - Sersena—25, 42, 75. - - Shales—36, 42, 48. - - Shaly Clays—44, 47, 62, 77. - - Shaly marl—39-41, 44. - - Sharks—39. - - Sharks’ teeth—46, 51. - - Sheep remains—80. - - Shell-borings—72. - - Shell-impressions—39-40, 42, 44, 50. - - Shelly limestone—38-39, 46, 51-52. - - Shelly sands—36. - - Shelly sandstone—46, 51. - - Sherwin, R. S.—78. - - Shore-line, Ancient—77. - - Shore-line, Movements of—65. - - Shrinkage of Birket el Qurûn—13. - - Sidmant el Jebel—17, 34, 71, 77. - - Siliceous bands, Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to—41. - - Siliceous beds capping hills—61. - - Siliceous limestone—37, 41. - - Silicified grits—27, 62, 67. - - Silicified sandstones—32, 57. - - Silicified trees—27, 34, 51, 53, 55-59, 61, 63, 65, 73-75. - - Silicified trees, Size of—53, 63. - - Silsila—81. - - Siluroid fish—35, 51, 70, 80. - - Sirenia—51. - - Sites, Excavated—84. - - Skeleton-carrying currents—53. - - Soil, Character of—11-12, 88. - - Soil survey—9. - - _Solarium_—51. - - _Solarium_ aff. _bistriatum_—51. - - South Africa as centre of evolution—69. - - South America, Migrations to—69. - - _Spatha_—53, 58, 60, 81. - - _Spatha dahomeyensis_—60. - - _Spatha Droueti_—60. - - _Spondylus ægyptiacus_—52, 89. - - _Spondylus perhorridus_—89. - - _Spondylus Ruaulti_—89. - - Springs in Wadi Muêla—20. - - Springs of Wadi Rayan—22. - - Stem-weathering in sandstone—56. - - Step-faults—31. - - _Stereogenys Cromeri_—35, 51, 70. - - _Stereogenys libyca_—70. - - _Stereogenys podocnemioides_—35, 70. - - Stock-work—50. - - Stone Age, Neolithic—82. - - Strabo—13, 82. - - Strata, Classification of—34. - - Strike faults—32. - - Stromer von Reichenbach, E.—44, 59, 69, 88. - - Strontium sulphate pseudomorphs—48. - - Subaerial denudation—39. - - Sub-fossil fauna of Fayûm—81. - - Successive faunal invasions, Theory of—68. - - Sulphate of lime—78. - - Sulphate of strontium pseudomorphs—48. - - Survey collections—59. - - Surveying operations—9. - - Surveying by Colonel Western—17. - - T - - Table-land of cultivated area—11. - - Tafla beds—39. - - Tamarisk growth—22, 25, 72, 82. - - Tamia—12-13, 15, 25, 27-28, 31, 40, 42, 49-50, 55-56, 72, 75. - - Tamia lake—40. - - Tectonics—16, 29-32. - - _Tellina_—40, 42, 51. - - _Tellina pellucida_—43. - - _Tellina scalaroides_—35. - - _Tellina tenuistriata_—35, 39. - - Temperature changes in desert—73. - - Temperature effects on pebbles—56. - - Temperature of springs in Wadi Rayan—22. - - Temple of Qasr el Sagha—49, 56. - - _Terebellum sopitum_—36. - - _Teredo_—39, 47. - - _Testudo Ammon_—10, 34, 59, 70. - - _Thallassochelys libyca_—35, 70. - - Theadelphia—84. - - Thickness of beds in section—37-29, 42, 45-46, 49-52, 56-60, - 65, 76-77. - - Thickness of sediments in Fayûm—15. - - Thinning of Fluvio-marine series—55. - - _Tomistoma_—70. - - _Tomistoma africanum_—35, 51, 59, 70. - - Tongrian beds—13, 64, 88. - - Toothed whales—39. - - Topography and structural geology—11-28. - - Tortoises, Large—10, 53-54, 59, 66, 87. - - _Trachelochetus bituberculatus_—51. - - Tropical shells in Fayûm—60. - - Tuba, El—40. - - _Tudicla_ aff. _umbilicaris_—51. - - Tufaceous gypsum—77. - - _Turbo Parkinsoni_—43. - - _Turritella_—38-39, 44-53. - - _Turritella angulata_—43, 45, 60, 64. - - _Turritella carinifera_—35, 38, 43, 51-52. - - _Turritella imbricataria_—51-52. - - _Turritella Lessepsi_—51. - - _Turritella parisiana_—51. - - _Turritella pharaonica_—34-35, 45, 51-52, 58. - - _Turritella transitoria_—43. - - _Turritella turris_—43. - - Turtles—53-55, 59, 60. - - Twelfth Dynasty—26, 82. - - Twigs preserved in clays—53. - - U - - Um el Atl—84. - - Unconformable junctions—39-40, 73, 76. - - Underground outlets of Birket el Qurûn—14. - - Ungulate, Horned—10. - - _Unio_—34, 53, 58-60. - - _Unio abyssinicus_—81. - - _Unio Bonneaudi_—60. - - _Unio Caillaudi_—60. - - _Unio Homsensis_—60. - - _Unio lithophagus_—60. - - _Unio Nyassænsis_—60. - - _Unio Schweinfurthi_—81. - - _Unio teretiusculus_—60. - - Upper Eocene—10, 32-34, 53-70, 76. - - Upper Mokattam beds—33. - - Upper Nile basin—87. - - Ur-Nil—66. - - V - - _Valvata nilotica_—80, 84. - - Vegetation in water-courses—25. - - _Velates Schmiedeli_—37. - - _Venus_—46. - - _Venus plicatella_—35. - - _Vermetus_—46. - - Vertebrae of _Mœritherium_—52. - - Vertebrae of _Zeuglodon_—45, 47, 50. - - Vertebrate fauna, Discovery of—9. - - Vertebrates, Extinct—10, 34-35, 43, 49, 51-52, 55, 61, 63, 65, - 67, 70, 87. - - _Voluta_—46. - - _Voluta arabica_—35. - - _Vulsella chamiformis_—37, 89. - - _Vulsella crispata_—89. - - _Vulsella lignaria_—89. - - _Vulsella moëlehensis_—89. - - W - - Wadi, Ravine of El—29-30, 37, 39. - - Wadi Rayan, Muêla, etc. (see under Rayan, Muêla). - - Wadi Rayan series—35-37. - - Warshat el Melh—20. - - Water analyses—22. - - Water-courses—25. - - Water-rounded pebbles—56, 72. - - Water-supply of Fayûm—11, 88. - - Weathering—57. - - Wells—21. - - Western, Colonel—16-18, 22, 87. - - Whales, Frequency of river and shore-frequenting—53. - - Whales, Toothed—39. - - Whitehouse, Cope—88. - - White Nile fauna, Absence of—81. - - Widan el Faras—28, 55, 58, 60, 62, 75-76. - - Willcocks, Sir William—13-14, 17-19, 80-88. - - Wind-shadow—84. - - X - - Xiphodonts—29. - - Z - - _Zeuglodon_—9, 39, 44, 49, 52, 87-88. - - _Zeuglodon brachyspondylus_—44. - - _Zeuglodon Isis_—35, 44-45, 47, 70. - - _Zeuglodon macrospondylus_—44. - - _Zeuglodon Osiris_—35, 44, 47, 49-51, 70. - - _Zeuglodon Zitteli_—44, 70. - - Zeuglodon Valley—41, 46-49, 61, 63, 85. - - Zittel, Prof. K.—43, 49, 62, 89. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration: PL. XVII. - -GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE FAYUM DEPRESSION - -_Survey Dept. Cairo._] - -[Illustration: PL. XVIII. - -MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAL BONE-BEARING LOCALITIES - -_Survey Dept. Cairo._] - -[Illustration: Plate XIX. - -SECTION FROM THE BIRKET EL QURÛN THROUGH DIMÊ AND QASR EL -SAGHA TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - -[Illustration: Plate XX. - -SECTION FROM WADI RAYAN TO THE SUMMIT OF THE ESCARPMENT NORTH OF GAR -EL GEHANNEM.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXI. - -SECTION OF THE DESERT RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND THE FAYÛM.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXII. - -SECTION FROM SIDMANT EL JEBEL IN THE NILE VALLEY THROUGH MEDINET -EL FAYÛM TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI, NEAR WIDAN EL FARAS.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXIII. - -MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT NEAR QASR EL SAGHA.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXIV. - -FROM GARAT EL ESH TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - - - - -Transcriber's note: - - - pg 4 Changed: "Homotoxial with quarried" to: "Homotaxial" - - pg 6 Changed: "M.—_Gyseous Deposits_" to: "_Gypseous_" - - pg 30 Absent references to footnotes 30 and 31 added after - "an accompanying map" and "plateau north of the lake." respectively. - - pg 31, footnote 32 Changed: "Bd. XXX I 1902" to: "Bd. XXXII 1902" - - pg 34, footnote 34 Changed: "III, Das Miocân,”" to: - "III, “Das Miocän,”" - - pg 58 Changed: "_Potamides tristiatus_" to: "_tristriatus_" - - pg 66, footnote 82 Some missing text has been indicated as [Blank]. - - pg 69, footnote 84 Changed: "für Saügetiere" to: "Säugetiere" - - pg 79 Changed: "matter or considerable doubt" to: "of" - - pg 80 Changed: "with little resistence" to: "resistance" - - pg 87 Changed: "_Eocene beds of the Fayûm, Egypi_" to: "_Egypt_" - - pg 88 Changed: "_Versteinerungen der tertiāren_" to: "tertiären" - - pg 88 Changed: "_für Saugetiere_" to: "_Säugetiere_" - - pg 88 Changed: "_der Libyschen Wūste_" to: "_Wüste_" - - pg 89 Changed: "Nacula Mœridis" to: "Nucula" - - pg 91 Changed: "_Arca tethyis_—52-90." to: "52, 90." - - pg 97 Changed: "Muêla, Wadi— [. . .] 21-21," to: "20-21," - - pg 97 Changed: "_Mytilus affinus_" to: "_affinis_" - - pg 98 Changed: "Perrenial irrigation" to: "Perennial" - - pg 98 Changed: "_Plonorbis subangulata_" to: "_Planorbis_" - - pg 98 Changed: "_Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—" to: - "_Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—35." - - pg 99 Changed: "Rohlfs’ Expedition—9-63." to: "9, 63." - - pg 100 Changed: "Thickness of beds in section—37-29" to: "37-39" - - Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently. - - Typographical errors changing æ for œ and vice versa have been - fixed silently. - - Placenames commonly spelled with diacritics (Fayûm, Qurûn, Lahûn, - etc.) were also accented elsewhere except illustration captions, - headers and titles of cited works. - - Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 *** diff --git a/old/74831-h/74831-h.htm b/old/74831-h/74831-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 65e8144..0000000 --- a/old/74831-h/74831-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13745 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> -<head> -<title>The topography and geology of the Fayum province of Egypt | -Project Gutenberg</title> -<meta charset="utf-8"> -<link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> -<style> -body { - margin-left: 10%; 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-} -figure p.small { - text-align: center; - font-size: 70%; -} -figure p.cpm { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 0.05em; - font-family: sans-serif, serif; - line-height: 1.7; - font-size: 85%; -} -.float-left { - float: left; -} -.x-ebookmaker .float-left { - float: none; -} -img { - width: inherit; - max-width: 100%; -} -.iwdecor1 { - width: 80px; -} -.iw1 { - width: 1000px; -} -@media screen and (max-width: 1500px) { -.iw1 { - width: 850px; -} -} -.iw2 { - width: 800px; -} -.iw3 { - width: 600px; -} -.iw4 { - width: 500px; -} -.iw5 { - width: 300px; -} -</style> -</head> -<body> -<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 ***</div> -<div class="margins"> -<div class="transnote x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<p class="center">Large-size versions of illustrations are -available by clicking on them.</p> -</div> - -<p class="space-above"> -</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i01"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate I.</p> -<a href="images/i01.jpg"><img src='images/i01.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">NORTH SIDE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN, LOOKING WEST.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="title-page"> -<p class="center spaced17 space-above space-below1"><span class= -"letter-spaced03 word-spaced05">SURVEY DEPARTMENT,</span><br> -<span class="less bold letter-spaced01">EGYPT.</span> -</p> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<h1><span class="large word-spaced02">THE TOPOGRAPHY AND -GEOLOGY</span><br> -<span class="small word-spaced02">OF THE</span><br> -<span class="xlarge letter-spaced03">FAYUM PROVINCE</span><br> -<span class="large">OF EGYPT</span> -</h1> - -<p class="center spaced17 space-below2"><span class= -"small">BY</span><br> -<span class="letter-spaced01">H. J. L. BEADNELL, F.G.S., -F.R.G.S.</span> -</p> - -<div class="container figcenter iwdecor1"><img src= -"images/logo.png" alt="[Decoration]"> -</div> - -<p class="publisher"><span class="less">CAIRO</span><br> -<span class="med"><span class="sc">National Printing -Department</span><br> -1905.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<table class="toc"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1 large"><a href= -"#intro">INTRODUCTION.</a> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr med sc">Pages.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Surveying operations. Soil survey. -History of discovery of Fayûm vertebrate fauna</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1 large"><a href="#p1"><span class= -"sc">Part</span> I.</a>—TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s01">Section -I.</a>—Cultivated Land—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Area. Composition and character of -alluvial soil. Connection with Nile Valley. Bahr Yusef and canal -system. Ravines. Alluvial deposits of Lake Moeris and prehistoric -lake. Increase of cultivated lands</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s02">Section II.</a>—The -Birket el Qurun—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Site, depth and dimensions. Remnant of -Lake Moeris. Continual shrinkage of lake. Deposition of sand in -lake at present day. Salinity of lake. Possible underground -outlets. Currents</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s03">Section III.</a>—The -Surrounding Desert Region—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Area and limits of Libyan Desert -described. Rocks forming the area. Importance of dip. Chief causes -of origin of Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s04">Section IV.</a>—Wadi -Rayan and Neighbourhood—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Colonel Western’s survey. Sir William -Willcocks’ report. Borings. Details of proposed reservoir. -Schweinfurth’s estimate of salt content. Willcocks’ “Assuan -Reservoir and Lake Moeris.” Detailed geological examination not yet -undertaken. Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla and Rayan -to Gharaq. Warshat el Melh and springs of Wadi Muêla. Der el -Galamûn. Pass from Muêla to Rayan. Sand accumulations. Wadi Korif. -Springs of Wadi Rayan. Analyses and output of water. Geological -succession in Wadi Rayan. General geology of floor and bounding -walls. Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq. Apparent absence of Nile -deposit and freshwater shells in Wadi Rayan. Question of leakage -through ridge. Permeability of Rayan if used as a reservoir. -Salinity of water</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s05">Section V.</a>—Central -Area of the Region—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Area and features. Dip-slope of surface. -Drainage basins of central plain. Pools formed by rainfall. -Tamarisk growth. The eastern area covered by alluvium. The bounding -plateau to the north. Ghart el Khanashat dunes</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">24</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s06">Section VI.</a>—The -Ridge separating the Nile Valley and Fayum—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Width and highest points. Strata forming -ridge. Gravel terraces. Low points of ridge. Original access of -Nile waters to depression. Formation of lake and deposition of -sediment in Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s07">Section VII.</a>—The -Northern Desert Region—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Escarpments and plateaux. Extreme west -and south-west limits of area. Ferruginous silicified puddingstone -of ancient rivers. Jebel el Qatrani. Widan el Faras. Elwat Hialla. -Garat el Gindi. Garat el Faras</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">26</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_4">[4]</span><a href="#p2"><span class="sc">Part</span> -II.</a>—TECTONICS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s08">Section -VIII.</a>—Faulting and Folding—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Origin of depression. Evidence in -drainage ravines El Bats and El Wadi. Deep boring at Medinet el -Fayûm. Dr. Blanckenhorn’s theory that depression owes its origin to -extensive fault system. Fault theory disproved. Fault N.N.E. of -Qasr el Sagha. Numerous local strike faults of small throw. -Occasional influence of fractures in determining escarpments</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">29</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1 large"><a href="#p3"><span class= -"sc">Part</span> III.</a>—GEOLOGY.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s09">Section -IX.</a>—General and Classification of Strata—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks. -Local lava flows. Dip. Oldest beds the Nummulites gizehensis -limestones of Middle Eocene. Fluviomarine series of Upper Eocene -and Oligocene age. Absence of Miocene strata. Pliocene, Pleistocene -and Recent. Table showing succession and classification of -strata</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">33</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc">Section X.—Middle Eocene—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s10a">A.</a>—<em>Wadi Rayan -Series.</em>—Work of Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar. Section at -entrance to Wadi Muêla on Nile Valley side. Strata of cliffs near -Der el Galamûn. Detailed section measured at Jebel Rayan. Mayer -Eymar’s section in Wadi Muêla</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">35</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s10b">B.</a>—<em>Ravine -Beds.</em>—In ravines of El Bats and El Wadi. Relation to -underlying series seen at Gar el Gehannem. Section at Gar el -Gehannem. Fauna of strata. In ravines unconformably overlain by -Pleistocene, etc. Form plain bordering cultivation on east side. -Extension into Nile Valley. Occurrence at Sersena and Tamia. -Forming base of Geziret el Qorn and lower part of northern -escarpment of Birket el Qurûn. West end of lake. Hard siliceous -bands give rise to horns or promontories of lake. Ravine Beds in -the Medinet el Fayûm boring. Thickness</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">37</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s10c">C.</a>—<em>Birket el -Qurun Series.</em>—Homotaxial with quarried limestones of Cairo. -Foraminiferal beds. Extension of series. Section at Ezba Qalamsha. -Section north of Lahûn pyramid. East of Sersena and north-east of -Rubiyat. Section 17 kilometres 28° N. of E. of Tamia. Series -characterized by large globular concretions. Development and fauna -in Geziret el Qorn. Zeuglodon remains. Profile at Geziret el Qorn. -Rich molluscan fauna. Section on mainland opposite Geziret el Qorn. -Section at west end of Birket el Qurûn. Formation of earth-pillars. -Extension west of the lake. Development of the series in the -Zeuglodon Valley. Abundance of skeletons of whales. Molluscan -fauna. Pseudomorphs in celestine. Hill mass south of the Zeuglodon -Valley. Junction of Birket el Qurûn series with overlying -stage</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">41</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s10d">D.</a>—<em>Qasr el Sagha -Series.</em>—Equivalent of the Upper Mokattam of Cairo. Greater -development in Fayûm. Vertebrate fauna of series. Schweinfurth’s -original discovery of cetacean remains. Recent discovery of land -and marine mammals. Extension of series generally. N.N.E. of Tamia. -At Garat el Faras. In the cliffs north of the Birket el Qurûn. -Detailed section near ruin of Qasr el Sagha. At Gar el Gehannem and -westwards. Land animals floated out from land by river currents. -The series a littoral deposit. Lignitic beds and thin seams of -coal</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">49</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_5">[5]</span>Section XI.—Upper Eocene — Lower Oligocene—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s11e">E.</a>—<em>Fluvio-marine -Series.</em>—Nature of sediments, Interbedded basalts in upper -part. Character of its invertebrate fauna. Conditions of deposition -of series. Continuance of similar conditions to Miocene and even -Pliocene times. Bone-beds at base of series. Association of -skeletons of animals and forest trees. Preservation of remains. -Analysis of fossil bones. Relation of Fluvio-marine series to -underlying stage. Characteristics of the group. Its development in -the field. Its slight development at Elwat Hialla. Section near -Elwat Hialla. Constant northerly dip. Organic (molluscan) remains 9 -and 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha. Detailed section from -near Qasr el Sagha to Widan el Faras. Determinations of mollusca -from the series. Tripartite character of the series west of Widan -el Faras and Qasr el Sagha. Occurrence of calcite, gypsum and -chalcedony. Tabular chert and flint. Ancient workings. Extent of -basalt. Silicified trees</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">53</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s11f">F.</a>—<em>Age of the -Fluvio-Marine Series.</em>—Difficulty in the determination of age -owing to paucity of fossils. Zittel’s tabulation of “Schichten von -Birket el Qurûn” as Oligocene. Mayer-Eymar’s age determinations. -Schweinfurth’s comparison of the series with the Scutella beds of -Der el Beda near Cairo. Blanckenhorn’s determinations. The -stratigraphical position of the series and relationship to Qasr el -Sagha series. Stratigraphically lower than the Lower Miocene of -Mogara. Whole complex in all probability of Upper Eocene and -Oligocene age, the transition being at or near the basalt -sheets</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">63</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s11g">G.</a>—<em>The Position -of the Land Mass from which the Mammals were -derived.</em>—Proximity of continental land. Absence of branches on -fossil trees. Massif of Abu Roash perhaps an island to the north. -Extension of Eocene sea. Continual retreat of the sea northwards. -Rivers emerging from the land. Number and positions of such rivers -doubtful. Evidence for river passing from the modern oasis of -Baharia through Gar el Hamra to the Fayûm. Lacustrine and -fluviatile deposits along the course. Huxley’s theory of -immigration and invasion of animals into Africa. Fayûm animals -belong to an extinct African fauna of Tertiary times. Contains the -earliest and most primitive forms of elephants and other groups. -Emigration and immigration. Prof. Osborn’s theory of the African -continent as a centre of radiation. Confirmation by the Fayûm -mammal discoveries. List of new species obtained from the -Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">65</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s11h">H.</a>—<em>The Absence of -Miocene deposits in the Fayûm.</em>—The Fayûm a land area in -Miocene times. Miocene deposits of Mogara. Lithological similarity. -Probable persistence of geographical conditions</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">71</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s12">Section -XII.</a>—Pliocene—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s12j">J.</a>—<em>Marine -deposits: Middle Pliocene.</em>—Marine deposits of Sidmant with -typical Middle Pliocene mollusca. Relation of these deposits to the -gravel terraces as yet unknown though important</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">71</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s12k">K.</a>—<em>Borings on -Rock Surfaces; of doubtful age.</em>—Apparently due to marine -boring mollusca. No exact evidence as to age. (α) Low level borings -from zero to 20 metres above sea-level. (β) High level borings at -112 metres above sea-level. Limited occurrences of borings</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">71</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s12l">L.</a>—<em>Gravel -Terraces:? Upper Pliocene.</em>—Well marked terraces of gravel up -to 170-180 metres above sea-level. East of Sêla. Character of -deposit. East of Sersena and Roda. N.N.E. of Tamia, N.N.E. of Garat -el Faras, east and north-east of Garat el Gindi. Relation to -different series. Character of gravels at Elwat Hialla. West of -Elwat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> Hialla gravel -terraces almost completely removed by denudation. Traces near Widan -el Faras and near Garat el Esh. Height of terraces in latter -locality determined as 170 metres above sea-level. Terrace marks -shore line of great sheet of water, whether freshwater or marine. -The great plains of the Fayûm possibly in part plains of marine -denudation</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">73</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s12m">M.</a>—<em>Gypseous -Deposits: probably dating from the close of the -Pliocene.</em>—Extension in Nile Valley and Fayûm. Section at -Medum. On the east side of the Fayûm. Gypsum cemented conglomerate. -Close connection with upper part of gravel terraces</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">77</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#s12n">N.</a>—<em>Summary of -Pliocene Period</em></td> -<td class="tdr-bot">78</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s13">Section -XIII.</a>—Pleistocene—</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2">Earliest existence of a freshwater lake. -Probably not a remnant of the Pliocene sea or lake in which gravel -terraces were formed. Intermediate denudation of area. Date of -earliest entry of Nile waters doubtful. Freshwater lake of Nile -Valley. Drainage down the Nile Valley and establishment of river. -Breaking down of gravel ridge separating the valley and the Fayûm. -Entrance of flood waters. Formation of lake and deposition of -sediment. Subsequent disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm owing -to erosion of river bed. Rise of Nile in prehistoric and historic -times. Reconnection. Geological evidence for the existence of great -freshwater Pleistocene lake. Position and dimensions. Fossil fauna -of the lake, and its difference from all other Egyptian faunas. -Blanckenhorn’s conclusions</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">79</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect05 sc"><a href="#s14">Section -XIV.</a>—Recent</td> -<td class="tdr-bot sect05">81</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href= -"#s14o">O.</a>—<em>Prehistoric.</em>—Abundance of worked flints. -Shores of lake inhabited by Neolithic and probably prehistoric man. -Tamarisk remains. Probable age of flints anterior to Egyptian -historic period</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">82</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href= -"#s14p">P.</a>—<em>Historic.</em>—Relations of the Nile Valley -river system and the Fayûm. Lake Moeris a regulator of the Nile -floods. Brought under control in XIIth dynasty. Early references to -Lake Moeris. Its position disputed in modern times. Linant de -Bellefonds’ assertion disproved by Sir Hanbury Brown. Archæological -evidence for the site. Present day fauna of the Birket el Qurûn. -Modern deposits. Blown sand. Erosion</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">82</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect1">APPENDICES</td> -<td class="tdr-bot sect1">87</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#app1">1.</a> Previous -literature relating to the Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">87</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang2"><a href="#app2">2.</a> Fayûm -lamellibranchs mentioned in Oppenheim’s “Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer -Faunen in Ægypten.”</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">89</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top sect1"><a href="#ind">INDEX</a> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot sect1">91</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>LIST OF -ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<table class="toi"> -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdc sect1 large">PHOTOGRAPHS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl med sc">Plates.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr med sc">Page.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i01">I.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">North side of the Birket el Qurûn, -looking west</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdr-bot med"><em>Frontispiece.</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i02">II.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Bahr Yusef at Lahûn before entering the -Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdc-bot med no-wrap"><em>to face</em> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i03">III.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Wadi, Ravine near Qasr Gebali</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i04">IV.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Western extremity of the Birket el -Qurûn</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">29</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i05">V.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Alluvial deposits overlying marly -limestones (Ravine Beds) in El Wadi, Ravine near Qasr Gebali</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">37</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i06">VI.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Escarpment of the Birket el Qurûn series -near the western end of the lake</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">41</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i07">VII.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Weathered concretionary sandstone (Birket -el Qurûn series) on north shore, near Geziret el Qorn</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">45</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i08">VIII.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Middle Eocene escarpment (Qasr el Sagha -series) 12 kilometres west of Qasr el Sagha</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">49</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i09">IX.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Upper beds of Fluvio-marine series with -basalt cap, looking west from the eastern extremity of Jebel el -Qatrani</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">53</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i10">X.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">El Qatrani range from the south-east</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i11">XI.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Silicified trees of Fluvio-marine series, -4½ kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">63</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i12">XII.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Raised Beach unconformably overlying -Middle Eocene limestones (Birket el Qurûn series) in the desert -east of Sersena</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">69</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i13">XIII.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Borings in false-bedded sandstone, 2 -kilometres south of Dimê</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">73</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i14">XIV.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pleistocene lacustrine clays with -tamarisk stumps <em>in situ</em> at 50 metres above the present -surface of the Birket el Qurûn</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">77</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i15">XV.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Isolated sand-dune near Gar el -Gehannem</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">81</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i16">XVI.</a> —</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">The Birket el Qurûn near the western -end</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">85</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdc sect1 large">PLANS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i17">XVII.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">General Map of the Fayûm -depression, with Wadi Rayan and Wadi Muêla, <span class= -"fraction med"><span class="numerator">1</span><span class= -"denominator">250000</span></span></td> -<td class="tdc-bot">end</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i18">XVIII.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Map of the area north-west of -Qasr el Sagha, showing principal bone-bearing localities, -<span class="fraction med"><span class= -"numerator">1</span><span class= -"denominator">50000</span></span></td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdc sect1 large">SECTIONS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i19">XIX.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">From the Birket el Qurûn -through Dimê and Qasr el Sagha to the summit of Jebel el -Qatrani</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">end</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i20">XX.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">From Wadi Rayan to the summit -of the escarpment north of Gar el Gehannem</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i21">XXI.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">The Desert Ridge separating -the Nile Valley and the Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i22">XXII.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">From Sidmant el Jebel in the -Nile Valley through Medinet el Fayûm to the summit of Jebel el -Qatrani, near Widan el Faras</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i23">XXIII.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Middle Eocene escarpment near -Qasr el Sagha</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#i24">XXIV.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">From Garat el Esh to summit -of Jebel el Qatrani</td> -<td class="tdc-bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdc sect1 large">FIGURES (<span class= -"sc">in the text</span>.)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig01">1.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Fault near Qasr el Sagha</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">32</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig02">2.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Section at Gar el Gehannem, -showing the relation of the Wadi Rayan series to the Ravine -Beds</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">38</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig03">3.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Sketch-section across El -Bats, one kilometre west of Sêla</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig04">4.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Profile of beds of Geziret el -Qorn</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig05">5.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Section of cliffs, western -end of the Birket el-Qurûn</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig06">6.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Probable course of chief -river of Upper Eocene and Oligocene times</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">67</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig07">7.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Block of sandstone pierced by -numerous borings</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">72</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig08">8.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Sketch showing relations of -the Eocene to Pliocene gravel terraces on the east side of the -Fayûm</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">74</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig09">9.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Sketch-section through the -summit of the Fayûm escarpment at Elwat Hialla</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">76</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top no-wrap"><a href="#fig10">10.</a> —</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Sketch-map showing -approximately the site of Lake Mœris</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">83</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_9">[9]</span><a id="intro"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<hr class="decor width3"> - -<p class="space-above2">The geological survey of the desert -surrounding the Fayûm was commenced in October 1898. At that time -the area, although so near to Cairo, was little known; the Rohlfs -Expedition maps marked the region as “unexplored,” and in fact with -the exception of a publication by Schweinfurth, who had traversed -the region from north to south, <em>via</em> Qasr el Sagha and Gar -el Gehannem to Rayan, there was little information obtainable. The -area being of considerable size (12,000 sq. kilom.) and almost -unexplored, both geologically and topographically, the primary -object was to construct as rapidly as possible a general map of the -depression, at the same time laying down in broad outline the chief -geological formations and trusting to future opportunity to examine -in more detail places of special interest.</p> - -<p>Commencing work at Sêla, on the eastern side of the depression, -the survey was carried northwards along the east side of the -cultivated lands and thence through the northern desert, up to the -summit of the depression. After mapping westwards as far as the -isolated hill-mass of Gar el Gehannem the work was temporarily -suspended until, in the spring, the narrow defile of Wadi Muêla, -and the Wadi Rayan, forming the southern part of the Fayûm -depression, were provisionally examined.</p> - -<p>In January 1901, samples of soil and water from the cultivated -lands were collected as an experimental soil-survey, and the -results have been published.<a id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>During the winter’s work of 1902-03 a traverse was carried from -Gar el Gehannem in a south-west direction through a hitherto -unexplored part of the depression. On reaching a point midway -between Cairo and the oasis of Baharia a connection was made -eastwards to Wadi Rayan. In the winter of 1903-04 further -exploration was carried out in the neighbourhood of Gar el -Gehannem.</p> - -<p>It will be convenient here to briefly relate the history of the -discovery of the remarkable series of new and extinct animal forms, -the recovery of which from the Fayûm deposits has created such -widespread interest in the zoological world. When Schweinfurth -crossed the region in 1879 he obtained fossil bones, which were -examined and determined by Dames to be the remains of cetacea of -the genus <i>Zeuglodon</i>, from certain beds of the escarpment -west of Qasr el Sagha; these, it is believed, were the earliest -vertebrate remains obtained from the Fayûm. During the early part -of the survey of the district, remains of fish and crocodiles were -frequently found in one of the beds of the Middle Eocene, probably -on the same horizon as that from which Schweinfurth had collected. -Fragments of bone were also commonly met with on a much higher -horizon (<em>i.e.</em>, near the base of the Fluvio-marine series) -but nothing of particular interest was obtained, as no detailed -search could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> be made -at that time. In April 1901, during the survey of the western end -of the Birket el Qurûn, some of the localities found to be -bone-bearing in 1898 were re-visited in company with Dr. C. W. -Andrews, who was in Egypt at the time and had accompanied the -survey in order to obtain specimens of jackals, hares, etc., for -the British Museum, in connection with the forthcoming work on -Egyptian mammals. In one of these Dr. Andrews picked up several -vertebrae which turned out to belong to a new species of -<i>Pterosphenus</i>.</p> - -<p>Further north, when descending the Middle Eocene escarpments at -a place not previously examined, we crossed the outcrop of the -bone-beds at a point where a considerable number of mammalian and -reptilian bones lay exposed on the surface, many in an excellent -state of preservation. The importance of the find was evident, and -a short examination of the material on the spot enabled Dr. Andrews -to pronounce the discovery to be of the highest importance from a -palaeontological point of view.</p> - -<p>Some three weeks’ work in the immediate neighbourhood resulted -in a very good collection of vertebrates from the Middle Eocene -beds, including several new genera afterwards described<a id= -"FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -under the names of <i>Eosiren</i>, <i>Barytherium</i>, -<i>Mœritherium</i>, <i>Gigantophis</i>, etc. Moreover, a fossil -tooth brought in by one of the camelmen from a point several -kilometres to the north led to a careful examination of the lower -beds of the overlying Upper Eocene formation, which resulted in -obtaining well-preserved remains belonging to a new genus, since -described as <i>Palaeomastodon</i>. All the material so far -obtained was taken home to be worked up and determined at the -British Museum and a preliminary description was published by Dr. -Andrews in the Geological Magazine.</p> - -<p>In the winter of 1901-02 the survey of the Fayûm was resumed -with the special intention of following up the highest beds, those -in which <i>Palaeomastodon</i> had been found. Continued search -westwards eventually led to the discovery of the remains of a large -and remarkable horned ungulate (<i>Arsinoitherium</i>), a -preliminary notice<a id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" -class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of which was published in the spring of -1902. Shortly after, the remains of several new smaller mammals and -reptiles (<i>Phiomia</i>, <i>Saghatherium</i>), including the shell -of a large land tortoise (<i>Testudo Ammon</i>), were -obtained<a id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class= -"fnanchor">[4]</a>. Further work in the winters of 1902-03-04 led -to a great deal more material being obtained<a id= -"FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>, -mostly of course belonging to the same species, but including some -new genera <i>Geniohyus</i>, <i>Megalohyrax</i>, -<i>Pterodon</i>.</p> - -<p>The amount of palaeontological material is now so large that the -Egyptian Government has arranged with the Trustees of the British -Museum for the publication of the whole in a monograph to be issued -by the Trustees. The present report, therefore, deals only with the -geology and topography of the district.</p> - -<div class="footnotes" id="ftintro"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class= -"label">[1]</span></a>A. <span class="sc">Lucas</span>, <em>A -preliminary investigation of the Soil and Water of the Fayum -Province</em>; Survey Dep., P.W.M. Cairo, 1902.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class= -"label">[2]</span></a><span class="sc">Andrews</span>, <em>Extinct -Vertebrates from Egypt</em>. Parts I and II. Geol. Mag. N. 8. Dec. -IV, Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct. 1901, pp. 400-409 and 436-444.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class= -"label">[3]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>A -Preliminary Note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadn.</em> Survey -Dept. P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. See also <em>A New Egyptian Mammal -(Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm</em>. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, Vol. -X. Dec. 1903, pp. 529-532.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class= -"label">[4]</span></a><span class="sc">Andrews</span> and -<span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>A Preliminary Note on Some -New Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt</em>. Survey Dept. -P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class= -"label">[5]</span></a><span class="sc">Andrews</span>, <em>Notes on -an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, with Description of some New -Mammals</em>. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, Vol. X. Aug. 1903, pp. -337-343. Also <em>Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of -Egypt</em> (Parts I, II, III). Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V., Vol. I. -March, April, May 1904.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i02"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate II.</p> -<a href="images/i02.jpg"><img src='images/i02.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">BAHR YUSUF AT LAHUN BEFORE ENTERING THE FAYUM.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span><a id= -"p1"></a>PART I.</h2> - -<p class="sch">TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.</p> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<p class="nind space-above2"><span class="sc">The</span> Fayûm, a -large circular depression in the Libyan Desert, is situated -immediately west of that part of the Nile Valley lying between Kafr -el Ayat and Feshn (<a href="#i17">Plate XVII.</a>)</p> - -<p>The depression, which has an area, roughly speaking, of 12,000 -square kilometres, is primarily divisible into three distinct -parts—cultivated land, lake, and desert.</p> - -<h3><a id="s01"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> I.—CULTIVATED -LAND.</h3> - -<p>The cultivated land has an area of about 1,800 square kilometres -and, with the exception of the lake and part of the Wadi Rayan, -occupies the lowest part of the depression. Cultivation is -necessarily strictly limited to the area covered with alluvial -soil. The latter, for the most part identical in origin and -composition with the river-alluvium of the Nile Valley, covers a -leaf-shaped tract between the bounding desert on the east side and -the lake (the Birket el Qurûn) on the north-west. The easterly and -central part of the cultivated area forms a more or less level -table-land, from which the ground slopes gently away, especially on -the north side, where the slope is towards the lake and very -marked. The cultivated land of the Fayûm is directly connected with -that of the Nile Valley by a narrow strip of low ground, a natural -passage through the desert separating the Nile Valley and the -depression of the Fayûm. Through this gap runs the natural canal -known as the Bahr Yusef, which is practically the sole source of -water in the Fayûm and irrigates the entire district.</p> - -<p>The canal leaves the Nile Valley at Lahûn (<a href="#i02">Plate -II</a>), and follows a somewhat serpentine course through the -desert for about 5 kilometres, irrigating a narrow strip of land on -either side, which at Hawara rapidly broadens out into the wide -cultivated area of the Fayûm. Once within the latter, the Bahr -Yusef gives off numerous subsidiary canals which traverse the -country in all directions, constantly splitting up into smaller -branches until the water-supply is divided throughout the whole -area. With the exception of the self-contained basin of Gharaq, on -the south side of the Fayûm, the entire district drains into the -Birket el Qurûn, which occupies the lowest part of the depression, -to the north of the cultivation. The basin of Gharaq is irrigated -by the Bahr el Gharaq, a canal which takes off from the Bahr Yusef -soon after the latter enters the Fayûm<a id= -"FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class= -"fnanchor">[6]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>The cultivated -land of the Fayûm is traversed by two main ravines, cut down in -many places to the Eocene limestone below the alluvium (Plates -<a href="#i03">III</a> and <a href="#i05">V.</a>) At the present -time these ravines carry canals for irrigating the lower parts of -the district, and also act largely as drains to the higher lands. -They were probably initiated by the escape of water through -breaches in the Bahr Yusef during flood time, and have since been -deepened to their present dimensions.</p> - -<p>In addition to the main central cultivated area, the soil of -which, as mentioned above, is essentially identical with that of -the Nile Valley, large tracts of the surrounding country, more -especially on the north, north-west, and west sides, are also -covered with alluvial deposits. These latter, which include sands, -sandy clays, and clays of a quite distinct type, represent the -slowly formed accumulations of the quieter and more remote parts of -the ancient Lake Moeris (and the earlier prehistoric lake). The -material was mostly derived from the Eocene strata which formed the -shores of the lake, augmented no doubt by a certain amount of very -fine sediment drifted from the Bahr Yusef, and by sand blown in by -wind.</p> - -<p>It is noticeable that the thickest and most sandy deposits occur -near the borders of the lake site; when close under the Eocene -cliffs, as along the north side above the Birket el Qurûn, the -deposits closely resemble those of the latter. The finer more -calcareous beds occur further out and the true marls were -accumulated only at some distance from the shores of the lake.</p> - -<p>When in Ptolemaic times the lake became reduced to a fraction of -its former size, large areas covered by these lacustrine clays were -exposed and some portions were brought under cultivation. -Subsequently, however, all these outlying districts were abandoned -and became absorbed by the surrounding desert, until in modern -times the cultivation was restricted to the central portion of the -old lake bed, a portion almost identical with the area over which -true “Nile Mud” had been deposited.</p> - -<p>The construction during recent years of extensive irrigation -works in the Nile Valley has made it possible to largely augment -the water-supply of the Bahr Yusef to the Fayûm. High level canals -are being cut in various parts of the district and already large -areas of desert covered by these lacustrine deposits have been -brought under cultivation, notably to the north of Tamia and in the -neighbourhood of Qasr Qurûn. The approximate area covered with -lacustrine deposits can be seen on the map and with a sufficiency -of water probably the greater part of this area could be utilized, -though the exact value of the soil compared with Nile deposit -remains to be determined.</p> - -<h3><a id="s02"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> II.—THE BIRKET -EL QURUN.</h3> - -<p>The lowest part of the depression, lying immediately to the -north-west of the cultivation, is occupied by a sheet of water of -considerable size, known as the Birket el Qurûn.<a id= -"FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class= -"fnanchor">[7]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> -The lake, which has a length of 40 kilometres, and a maximum -breadth under ten, covers at the present time an area of about 225 -square kilometres. Sir Hanbury Brown obtained no sounding exceeding -5 metres in crossing the lake to Dimê, but according to the -fishermen the depth increases towards the south-west.</p> - -<p>Its long axis lies nearly east and west, and while on the north -it is entirely<a id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class= -"fnanchor">[8]</a> bordered by desert, along a large part of the -south side the cultivated land approaches its shore, although even -here a large area actually bordering the lake is waste salty land -as yet unfit for cultivation. As already mentioned, with the -exception of the Gharaq basin, the lake receives the whole drainage -from the cultivated lands.</p> - -<p>The Birket el Qurûn is the existing remnant of the ancient -prehistoric lake which covered a large part of the floor of the -Fayûm depression, and which in historic times was converted into an -artificially controlled sheet of water—the celebrated Moeris—by -Amenemhat I and his successors in the XII Dynasty.</p> - -<p>Lake Moeris, being used as a regulator of excessively high and -low Nile floods,<a id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class= -"fnanchor">[9]</a> was of the greatest importance in connection -with the irrigation of the Nile Valley. In more recent times, -apparently under the Persians or Ptolemies according to Flinders -Petrie,<a id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class= -"fnanchor">[10]</a> Lake Moeris ceased to perform its function of -regulator; since that time all water, except that required for -irrigation of the reclaimed land, being carefully excluded, the -surface of the lake has continually and gradually sunk to its -modern dimensions.<a id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" -class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>Lacustrine deposits, showing approximately the actual limits of -the ancient Fayûm lake, can be traced over wide areas of now barren -desert; these will be more fully dealt with later. The present -lake-level is still continually sinking owing to an improved system -of irrigation, by which a constantly decreasing amount of waste -water drains into the lake. Its average annual fall has, during the -last decade, been nearly half a metre,<a id= -"FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> -and the slope of the land being very gradual, large areas have been -reclaimed during the last few years, though whether the advantages -derived from this constant lowering of the lake are not more than -balanced by certain drawbacks is somewhat doubtful.<a id= -"FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class= -"fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<p>With the new areas now being brought under cultivation the -amount of drainage water finding its way into the lake will -increase and the fall be checked. At the beginning of 1904 the -level was markedly higher than in the previous winter, and a -difference of even half a metre alters the shore line to a -considerable extent, owing to the flatness of the land by which the -lake is for the most part bounded.</p> - -<p>Although under the present desert conditions practically no -material from the surrounding desert is washed into the lake, -doubtless a considerable amount of fine dust and sand is carried -into it by the wind, especially during the violent sandstorms which -occur frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> in -the locality. The high cliffs which bound the northern shore of the -lake throughout a portion of its length probably have the effect of -checking the velocity of both north and south winds, thus causing a -considerable amount of sand, which would otherwise be carried -across, to be dropped on its surface. This material, together with -the fine mud brought down by the canals on the cultivation sides, -must have an appreciable effect in raising the level of the bed of -the lake.</p> - -<p>The phenomenon of the extraordinary freshness of the water of -the Birket el Qurûn has been commented on by Schweinfurth, who -shows that the degree of concentration of salt in a lake whose -volume has been continually reduced, and to which salt has -constantly been added, should be many times greater than the actual -existing amount. An analysis<a id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> of the water at the west -end of the lake (where the concentration is greatest, owing to the -distance from the feeder canals) showed that the total salts -amounted to only 1·34%, of which 0·92% was sodium chloride. Dr. -Schweinfurth<a id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class= -"fnanchor">[15]</a> concludes that the lake has a subterranean -outlet, which alone would enable it to maintain its comparative -freshness.<a id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class= -"fnanchor">[16]</a> In this connection it is interesting to note -the existence of distinct currents, which may possibly be caused by -such outlets, in certain localities on the north side of the lake; -and it is just possible that a careful survey of the lake itself -would not only prove the existence, but show the exact position, of -such underground outlets.</p> - -<p>Most probably, however, the currents are simply local movements -produced by temporary differences of level, which might conceivably -be caused in such a large and comparatively shallow sheet of water, -varying considerably in salinity in different localities, by wind -and evaporation.</p> - -<p>The comparative freshness of the lake and the possible presence -of underground outlets are of the highest importance in their -bearing directly on two of the most important questions in -connection with the proposed utilization of the Wadi Rayan as a -reservoir, i.e. what the leakage from such a reservoir would be and -to what degree of salinity its water would attain.</p> - -<h3><a id="s03"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> III.—THE -SURROUNDING DESERT REGION.</h3> - -<p>With the exception of the lake and the cultivated area the -depression is practically entirely desert. The southern and -south-western parts include the wadies Rayan and Muêla, where -freshwater springs occur, surrounded by areas covered by a good -deal of wild scrub. Apart from these, however, no springs occur -outside the cultivated land.</p> - -<p>The topography of the region is so intimately connected with its -geological structure that an adequate description of the former is -not possible without constant reference to the latter. Full -geological details will, however, be reserved for later -consideration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span><span class= -"sidenote">Area and Limits.</span>The part of the Libyan Desert -dealt with in this report has, excluding the cultivated land and -the lake, an area of some ten thousand square kilometres. While -some portions have been examined and mapped in detail, others are -still very imperfectly known, especially on the south and -south-west sides. The irregular cliff-line forming the southern -boundary of Rayan and the adjacent wadis may be taken as our limit -in this direction, beyond lying an almost unbroken limestone -plateau rising gradually and continually to the south. On the north -and north-west the area under description is bounded by the -southern limit of the great undulating high-lying gravelly -desert-plateau which stretches with little change of character to -the Mediterranean. On the east side the Nile Valley forms a -convenient though not altogether natural boundary; while to the -south-west our limit practically coincides with the boundary of the -depression, where the floor of the latter insensibly merges into -the general desert plateau.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Rocks forming the -Area.</span>The rocks forming the area within the above limits are -almost entirely of sedimentary origin, the exception being a band -of hard basalt intercalated at the very top of the series and -exposed only on the extreme northernmost limit of the depression. -The total thickness of sediments, from the lowest beds exposed in -the bottom of the Wadi Rayan to the summit of the escarpments, a -day’s march north of Tamia, is some 700 metres. These beds include -every kind of sedimentary deposit—limestones, marls, clays, -sandstones, sands and gravels, forming an ever-changing succession -of rocks, varying considerably in hardness and capacity for -withstanding the agents of denudation. It is not too much to say -that the coming into existence of the Fayûm, with its plains, -lowlying depressions, precipitous cliffs and escarpments, was -largely dependent on the existence of this variable series of -deposits.</p> - -<p>Apart from the presence of sediments varying greatly in hardness -and durability, the fact that the whole of the rocks have an almost -constant northerly dip of two or three degrees is a point of prime -importance. So small a dip may be scarcely noticeable in any one -place, but over the large areas with which we have to deal its -influence on the position and level of any individual bed is very -marked and the topography of the region would have been essentially -different if the strata had been quite horizontal.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Origin of the -Fayûm.</span>The unique character of the Fayûm is alone sufficient -to show that special causes have acted in its production. Two main -causes stand out:—(1) the presence of thick bands of comparatively -soft arenaceous and argillaceous strata breaking up the usually -continuous hard limestone of the Middle Eocene; (2) the effect of -the Nile Valley fault in lowering the whole of the western desert -(north of Assiut) relatively to the eastern. The former took place -as the result of changed geographical conditions on the continent -to the south at the time in question, with which however we need -not deal here. On a homogeneous mass of rock weathering has little -power to form depressions of any magnitude, and this is the cause -of the continuous unbroken plateau which stretches southwards from -the Fayûm, the underlying rocks being one continuous thick mass of -hard limestone. Wherever softer intercalations<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_16">[16]</span> are present differential weathering takes -place, and all the great depressions of the Libyan desert owe their -origin to the presence of soft easily denuded strata; if the great -homogeneous mass of Nile Valley limestone had stretched unchanged -westwards, the oases of Farafra and Baharia would never have -existed. They owe their origin entirely to the presence of the -underlying saddle of softer Cretaceous rocks. Similarly if changed -conditions had not led to the deposition of soft beds of clay, -marl, and sandstone, the western plateau would have continued -unbroken northwards.</p> - -<p>A comparison of the two sides of the Nile Valley between Cairo -and Assiut shows that the tectonic movements, which largely -determined the existence of the valley itself, resulted in a -considerable lowering of the rocks forming the western side. This -was brought about by differential movements along the north and -south line or lines of fault, and by the presence of an east to -west monoclinal fold which is especially well marked in the -neighbourhood of Heluan. The depressions of the Fayûm would -doubtless have existed irrespective of this general lowering of the -western desert relative to the east, but denudation would have -required an additional period of many thousands of years before the -floor of the depression was low enough to allow of its actual -connection with the Nile river.</p> - -<p>As it has been maintained that the Fayûm is an area let down and -enclosed by faults, it may be mentioned here that all available -evidence points in an opposite direction; this question of faults -will however be dealt with in detail later. The influence of the -Nile Valley fault has been explained above and it must be -remembered it is one affecting not the Fayûm alone but the northern -part of the western desert as a whole.</p> - -<p class="space-above15">For purposes of description it will be -convenient to divide the whole region into three parts: first, the -southern portion, including the wadis Muêla and Rayan; secondly, -the central area, comprising the extensive plain forming the floor -of the depression as a whole, and including the areas under -cultivation and the Birket el Qurûn, as well as the desert -separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley. Thirdly, the northern -portion, embracing all the rising ground between the floor and the -northern rim of the region. These areas will now be taken in -order.</p> - -<h3><a id="s04"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> IV.—WADI RAYAN -AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.</h3> - -<p>This part of the Fayûm is of special interest in consequence of -its possible future as a reservoir. Although the area has not yet -been examined in detail by the Geological Survey it will be useful -to bring together all the information that is at present -available.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Colonel Western’s -Survey.</span>In 1882, as a counter-project to other irrigation -schemes, Cope Whitehouse suggested<a id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> utilising as a reservoir -the Wadi Rayan, a depression which had been referred to by Linant -de Bellefonds.<a id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class= -"fnanchor">[18]</a> At the request of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff the -Government deputed Colonel Western to make plans of the Wadi Rayan -and surrounding country and to ascertain<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_17">[17]</span> the capacity of the depression and its -capability of being used as a reservoir. Liernur Bey under his -direction prepared a contoured map, and Colonel Western’s report, -plans, and estimates were published.<a id= -"FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> -Some general details of the wadi and surrounding hills are given -and the detailed survey showed that the 30 metre contour line -(above sea-level) enclosed an area of 706 square kilometres -(170,000 feddans). The lowest points of the depression were found -at 42 metres below sea-level. The sand, scrub and springs are -briefly referred to and the discharge of the latter is given as -equal to that of a very slow-going four inch hand pipe, the water -running out at about + 20 m. and disappearing in the sand. Wadi -Muêla was found to be separated from the Rayan depression by -sandhills and rock at a mean level of + 50 metres, the lowest point -in Muêla being at + 25 metres. A line of levels was run from Rayan -through Muêla to the Nile Valley, the highest point crossed being -at + 105 metres; for fifteen kilometres the level was not below + -75 metres. In order to find the most suitable passage for a canal -to connect the Nile with the Wadi Rayan two lines of level were -made after a reconnaissance of the hills near Sidmant el Jebel: the -southern, from Ezba Menesi Ali, near the Gharaq canal, to Mazana on -the Bahr Yusef, being considered the best. Along this line the -highest point was only at + 44·7 metres and the average + 35 metres -along four kilometres. Borings were not made here but judging from -the surface excavation would be mostly in soft limestone, sand, and -conglomerate. A much shorter route is from Deshasleh on the Bahr -Yusef over the hills about 5 kilometres to the south of Mazana or -Sidmant into the Wadi Gharaq, a distance of 30 kilometres. This -route was not however levelled but is fairly straight and -apparently not much higher than the Mazana passage.</p> - -<p>The survey of the + 30 metre contour line of the Wadi Rayan -proved that there were only two outlets into the Fayûm, both on the -northern side: these two openings are only from 400-500 metres wide -and their lowest points are not below + 25 or + 26 metres.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Later Government -Publications by Scott Moncrieff and Willcocks.</span>In 1889 Sir C. -Scott Moncrieff published<a id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> a further note, in which -he briefly discussed the probable cost and benefits to be derived -from the suggested reservoir, concluding that at least the project -was one worthy of being thoroughly examined.</p> - -<p>In 1894 the plans and designs in connection with the Wadi Rayan -were published<a id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class= -"fnanchor">[21]</a> and the possibility of utilizing the Wadi Rayan -was examined by Sir William Willcocks, then Director General of -Reservoirs, from an engineering point of view, and the questions of -its probable cost and future utility were discussed. In this report -it is stated that the routes proposed by Colonel Western in 1888 -pass through salty marls and clays unsuitable for holding canals. -Another route is suggested, which after leaving the Nile Valley -crosses the high desert ridge in a straight line, passing through -the so-called Wadi Liernur (Wadi Lulu of Cope Whitehouse); this -depression is 12 kilometres long and has its bed some 24 metres -below the general level of the desert. Plate 15 of the report shows -the Wadi Rayan, the deserts between it and the Nile Valley and the -cultivated land. The map was<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_18">[18]</span> begun by Col. Western and completed by -Willcocks. The lowest point of Wadi Rayan is shown as − 42 metres -and the depression is separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge -generally from + 34 to + 60 metres, except at two places where it -falls to + 26 metres above sea level on a length of 600 metres. -Within the + 27 metre contour line the wadi has an area of 673 -square kilometres and a capacity of 18,743,000,000 cubic metres. -Between it and the Nile Valley lie 30 kilometres of desert, of -which 11 are occupied by a marked depression discovered by Liernur -Bey in 1887. At the extreme western edge of the Nile Valley (here -20 kilometres wide) runs the Bahr Yusef. Comparing the proposed -Wadi Rayan reservoir and the ancient Mœris and allowing for a -difference of 4·5 metres between the levels of the Nile Valley in -B.C. 2,000 and to-day, Willcocks assumes that the high water mark -of Lake Mœris was at + 22·5 metres and its area 2,500 square -kilometres, against 673 square kilometres of the Wadi Rayan at + 27 -metres. It is pointed out that the ancient lake had the great -advantage that in those days the Bahr Yusef was an important branch -of the Nile, if not the main river itself, and the reservoir was -connected with the Nile by a natural ravine of great length and -short breadth, across which a massive embankment was thrown and -destroyed annually, the surplus water of high floods being stored -for the deficiency of low floods.</p> - -<p>The published sections along the lines of borings put down show -the different strata cut through by the proposed canal. The Nile -Valley, along the line of the inlet canal, consists of hard clay 6 -to 10 metres thick, lying on coarse sand. Along the outlet canal -sandy clays and clays alternate to a depth of 10 metres. On -entering the desert sands and sandy conglomerate, with gypsum and -salt, are met with below the surface, then a yellow marl with -salts, and finally a plastic black clay overlying the Parisian -limestone. These beds are most extensive in the narrow neck of land -between the Nile Valley and the Fayûm and to some 10 kilometres to -the south of it. They rise to + 70 metres. There are some other -marls inside the Wadi Rayan or in the adjacent depressions and as -they have to be traversed by the canals form a serious factor, -being easily dissolved in water; in consequence Willcocks chose the -alignment of the inlet canal along the Bahr Belama where the extent -of these beds would only be 2·5 kilometres against 9 kilometres on -the alternative route marked on the plan. A narrow neck of land, -some 15 kilometres in length, runs between the Fayûm and the -depressions traversed by the proposed Wadi Rayan canal; this neck -is the continuation of the salty marls and clays, but the limestone -is near the surface and is overlain by a thin deposit of sand and -pebbles, with freshwater shells on its northern slope at + 22·50 -metres; the southern slope is entirely devoid of them. Willcocks -points out that it is evident the ancient Mœris rose to + 22·50 -metres but its water never penetrated into the Wadi Rayan. The -report goes into details of inlet and outlet canals, discharge, -necessary masonry works, cost, and compares the different reservoir -schemes.</p> - -<p>After a careful review of the whole question, the scheme, while -considered perfectly feasible as far as available data went, was -abandoned by Sir William Garstin<a id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> in favour of the less -costly and more useful Nubian reservoir.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i03"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate III.</p> -<a href="images/i03.jpg"><img src='images/i03.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">EL WADI, RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_19">[19]</span><span class="sidenote">Schweinfurth’s report -on the probable salt-content in Wadi Rayan Reservoir.</span>In an -appendix<a id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class= -"fnanchor">[23]</a> to the above report Schweinfurth discusses the -question as to how salt the water of such a reservoir would become. -He points out that the exact valuation of the salt which would be -contained in this reservoir when the water had risen to + 27 metres -cannot be accurately determined, owing to the absence of -information on certain points. The maximum quantity of salt in the -desert soil is estimated at 2% and this figure is used in his -calculation, which includes the amount of salt which would be -brought into the reservoir, (1) from the Nile during filling and in -the extra water entering to replace that lost by evaporation in the -lake and canals; (2) from the ground forming the bed of the lake -(far the largest item); (3) from the bed and banks of the inlet -canal, both in the desert and in the Nile Valley; and (4) from -infiltration. The figure obtained is 7,500 million kilogrammes, -equal to 0·04 per cent, or almost one twenty-fifth per cent of -salt. This amount is only equivalent to half the salt existing in -many of the well waters used in the country for irrigation. As -Schweinfurth is careful to point out his calculation is based on -maximum and assumed data.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Willcocks’ “Assouan -Reservoir and Lake Mœris”.</span>The question of the utilisation of -the Wadi Rayan as a reservoir has recently been again brought to -the front, notably by Sir William Willcocks in a paper<a id= -"FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> -read before the Khedivial Geographical Society, Cairo. The author, -after pointing out the value of such a lake, working in connection -with the Assuan reservoir, discusses at length the position, -dimensions, and functions of the ancient Lake Moeris. It is -suggested that the main canal should be cut through the desert -opposite Mazana and crossing the so-called wadis Liernur and -Masaigega enter the Wadi Rayan at its easternmost point. These -wadis would in time become covered with alluvium and be converted -into valuable cultivated land. After examining the big ravines of -the Fayûm, where similar beds are exposed, the author comes to the -conclusion that the maintenance of canals in the saliferous marls, -which form part of the desert through which the inlet canal would -pass, would offer no particular difficulties.</p> - -<p>With regard to the questions of leakage into the Fayûm and of -the water of the lake eventually becoming salted, Sir William -Willcocks says, “When the old Lake Moeris, or the present Fayûm, -was full of water and 63 metres higher than the bottom of the Wadi -Rayan and remained so for thousands of years, there was no question -of the waters having become salted or having escaped into the Wadi. -The Wadi was as dry as it is to-day and the great inland sea was -always fresh.” As to the question of leakage into Gharaq the author -considers that if water found its way into that depression it would -be a distinct advantage, as such water could be pumped into the -Nezleh canal and utilized elsewhere; he maintains at the same time -that no leakage will take place. Incidentally it is mentioned that -the Wadi Rayan is separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge, a -statement which, as will be shown later, requires modification.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Wadi Rayan not yet -examined in detail by the Geological Survey of Egypt.</span>Until a -detailed geological examination of the Wadi Rayan and neighbourhood -has been carried out it will not be possible to form reliable -opinions on many of the questions raised in connection with the -prospective reservoir. The writer’s acquaintance with the -area<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> is limited to a -traverse in 1899 from the Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla to Rayan -and thence to Gharaq, and subsequently to a stay of a few days -duration in the neighbourhood of the Rayan springs, after mapping -the extreme south-west of the Fayûm depression. While the -accompanying maps may be taken as representing fairly accurately -the bolder topography of the region, they do not replace the older -contoured maps of the floor of the depression and the country -between it and the Nile Valley to the east, accompanying the report -on “Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt.”</p> - -<p class="space-above15">The following description of this part of -the district is based on a traverse from the Nile Valley through -the wadis Muêla and Rayan to Gharaq; the detailed geological -sections measured and examined along the line of route will be -given later.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Traverse from Nile -Valley through Wadi Muêla to Rayan and Gharaq.</span>Between the -village of El Gayat and the mouth of the Wadi Muêla (16 kilometres -to the north-west) stretches a gradually rising undulating gypseous -plain, superficially covered with loose sand and rounded pebbles of -quartz and flint. In occasional small hills the white limestone -which forms the underlying rock is visible. Near the entrance to -the wadi stands a somewhat prominent conical hill composed of hard -whitish fossiliferous limestone passing down into more sandy and -clayey beds. The bottom of the wadi is cut out in soft green and -brown clays, its surface being covered with blown sand, fragments -of limestone, flints and gypsum. From the mouth of the wadi the -Nile Valley cliffs run north and south in a winding irregular -manner. On entering the valley several outstanding flat-topped -limestone capped hills are passed on the right hand; they are in -part joined to the regular bounding cliff beyond; the eastern cliff -is steep and well-marked, while that on the west only outcrops here -and there, buried as it is in immense accumulations of blown sand, -rising in places into definite dune-ridges. Wadi Muêla has a length -of some 18 kilometres and lies nearly N.W. and S.E. The central -part of its floor is a sandy scrub-covered area, the lowest points -lying at about + 25 metres; just at the southern edge of the scrub -stands a small hill composed of hard shaly clays capped by white -limestone, surrounded by a saline, superficially dry. Holes dug in -this are at once filled with excessively salt water, and by -evaporation of the brine in shallow troughs supplies of white -fairly pure salt can be obtained. The area is known as <span class= -"sidenote">Warshat el Melh in Wadi Muêla.</span>Warshat el Melh. -Banks of reeds were found growing on the north side of the saline, -the surface of the latter being here composed of a soft brown sandy -salty deposit, caking here and there into a hard earthy impure -salt.</p> - -<p>In the lowest spots the saline frequently consists of soft wet -sludge; its area is about half a square kilometre but the depth of -the deposit is unknown. In the middle of the scrub-covered area to -the north lies Ain Warshat el Melh, a pool of water, fairly fresh -and drinkable, although ferruginous, measuring 10 by 5 metres in -size and from 2 to 2½ metres deep. The water evidently rises from a -spring on the west side, round which are fifty square metres of -green rushes, with some larger bushes. The ground around and above -is very saliferous; between the spring and the ruins to the north -the ground is sandy, with many bushes and much scrub. This ground -extends two kilometres<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_21">[21]</span> to the west, whence it gradually passes up -into great masses of drift sand; an occasional small outcrop of the -top of the plateau above the sand is all that serves to locate the -position of the buried cliff. On the east side the sandy ground -with scrub extends about a kilometre, beyond which the plain -gradually rises for another kilometre to the base of the cliff -beyond, which is fairly steep and well-marked, though with an -entire absence of indentations of any kind.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Der el -Galamûn.</span>Close to the north end of the valley, and about 33 -kilometres from El Gayat, lie the ruins known as Der el Galamûn bil -Muêla. At the time of our visit a new square stone building was in -course of erection and five or six persons were inhabiting the -place. There are several small palms scattered about to the south -of the monastery and an excellent running spring of clear water -five hundred paces to the south-west. A new well is being sunk -within the premises. To the north of the monastery the eastern -cliff takes a marked trend to the west for some three kilometres, -whence it resumes a northerly direction, always maintaining its -character of a steep well-marked escarpment rising some 100 metres -above the floor of the wadi. At the corner of the cliffs the lowest -bed exposed is a white limestone; this is overlain by gypseous -clays passing up into sandy beds, the latter being surmounted by -the white limestone capping the escarpment.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Wadi -Rayan.</span>We are here on the summit of the divide between Wadi -Muêla and Wadi Rayan, the height of the floor being about + 105 -metres; to the north stretches a gradually widening bay descending -to the lowest ground of the Rayan depression. Immense accumulations -of sand almost block the defile and stretch away to the east, and -the hitherto well-marked cliff on that side bends back and is lost -to view. On the other side however, the bounding wall gradually -emerges from the dunes, getting more distinct as it is followed -northwards until it becomes quite clear of the sand. The first -glimpse of this cliff is seen a couple of kilometres west of the -pass in an outcropping headland, the next point visible being some -five kilometres further west. Between these portions of the cliff -are one or two outliers, surrounded by quantities of blown sand. A -depression known as Wadi Korif is reported to lie to the west, and -much scrub and some water is said to exist there; such a wadi is -marked on Schweinfurth’s map but apparently has not been -examined.</p> - -<p>Continuing in a N.N.W. direction high rather steep dunes occur -on either flank, running N.N.W. and S.S.E. Between the dunes is a -fairly hard undulating sand-flat affording an easy route; further -on a narrow defile between the dunes leads down to the centre of -the depression. The main areas occupied by blown sand are shown in -the accompanying maps. The most interesting part of the depression -is the bay lying to the south of the narrow well-marked promontory -jutting out from the southern plateau, a huge pointer, as it were, -in the direction of Gharaq; this is the Cape Rayan of -Schweinfurth.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_22">[22]</span><span class="sidenote">Springs in Wadi -Rayan.</span>The bay is on three sides completely enclosed by -cliffs and its floor is thickly covered by a luxurious growth of -wild scrub—chiefly tamarisk and ghardag; numerous isolated palm -trees occur, especially in the neighbourhood of the water which -exists at several points. There are three particularly good -springs,<a id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class= -"fnanchor">[25]</a> the positions of which are shown on the -accompanying <a href="#i17">maps.</a> According to Colonel -Western’s survey the water emerges at about + 20 metres. In 1899 -the water of the northern spring was found to have a temperature of -26°C. On our last visit we found an artificially constructed pool -of two metres diameter and a depth of 30 centimetres; on the west -side of this were two springs, marked by the motion of the grey -sand rising and falling in the vents, down which a stick could be -easily pushed to a depth of two metres. The output of these springs -together amounted to six litres a minute; the water was quite clear -and although soft and rather ferruginous not by any means -unpalatable (see <a href="#Footnote_25">analyses</a> below). The -pool lies on an open bare sandy spot and is surrounded by scattered -bushes, none of which however are within fifteen metres; a sand -dune lies 150 metres to the south-west, with bushes and seven or -eight young palms. The southerly spring has an output of 21 litres -a minute, and its water does not differ essentially from that of -the northern spring. Rising at the foot of a palm tree it forms -pools on either side; thence it flows a distance of 20 metres into -an artificially constructed shallow basin 2 to 3 metres across, -from which it runs away down the slope and disappears after five or -six metres. The east spring, which is situated on the east side of -the dunes bounding the mouth of the bay, consists of a small hole -cut out in soft sand. The water seemed good, although analysis -shows the salts content to be high; this spring does not run, but -if emptied the hole soon refills. The remains of old buildings -occur near the well, in the shape of loose roughly squared -limestone blocks, broken pottery, and remains of old walls; the -latter are nearly level with the ground and very thickly and -solidly built.</p> - -<p>To the south of the promontory lies the so-called Little Rayan. -Here there is a good deal of scrub, and water can be obtained on -the lowest ground at a few metres depth, although there do not -appear to be any surface springs.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Geology of Wadi -Rayan in broad outline.</span>The geological succession of beds -exposed in the cliffs of the promontory is given later. Broadly -speaking it consists of two thirty-metre bands of hard limestone -separated by 68 metres of softer sandy and clayey beds. The lower -of the limestone bands in places forms the floor of the depression -but more frequently the latter is composed of<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_23">[23]</span> the overlying sandy or clayey beds. The -depression is bounded on the north side by the same succession, -and, as far as could be judged from observations made on the -traverse, the bed of limestone capping the ridge, and forming the -plain stretching away to the Birket el Qurûn and to Gar el -Gehannem, is identical with that capping the cliffs to the south, -i.e. is the uppermost of the two thick limestone bands. At the two -points more particularly noticed, namely, the spurs projecting -southwards into the depression, 23 kilometres west and 18 -kilometres W.S.W. of Gharaq basin, the sequence seemed to be the -same as in the southern cliffs, although, owing to the northerly -dip, the upper bed of limestone lies at a much lower level and the -basal beds are not exposed at all. In both these localities, -however, some of the underlying clays were exposed, as well as on -the lowest spots crossed between the most easterly spur (18 kilom. -W.S.W. of Gharaq) and the extensive dunes lying immediately west of -Gharaq cultivation. These dunes, though of no height, have -remarkably steep sides. In crossing Gharaq to the Fayûm cultivation -occasional beds of yellow sandy limestone were noticed, but their -horizon was not determined. Numerous bored blocks, probably -belonging to the marine Pliocene, were observed scattered about. -Apparently the uppermost thirty-metre band of limestone passes -continuously northwards under the cultivated lands of Gharaq and -the Fayûm; in the ravines of the latter this limestone is not -observed, the soft limestones exposed below the alluvial deposits -almost certainly belonging to the overlying Ravine beds. The -country to the east of Gharaq has not been geologically examined -and the exact locality in which the thick bed of limestone dips -underground and is overlain by the succeeding beds is doubtful. -Further north, in the desert ridge east of Qalamsha, we have -observed the Birket el Qurûn beds and a section measured at this -point is given later.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Character of Ridge -separating Wadi Rayan from Gharaq and the Fayûm.</span>As it -appears to have been freely assumed that the ridge separating the -Rayan depression from the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the Fayûm -is formed throughout of solid limestone, it is important to point -out that, on our assumption of the identity of the beds of -limestone capping the cliffs to the south and the plain to the -north of the Wadi Rayan, the dividing ridge would in part be formed -of the underlying arenaceous and argillaceous beds.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Question of leakage -through dividing ridge.</span>The absence of Nile deposit and -freshwater shells in the Wadi Rayan will, when confirmed after a -thorough examination of the area, afford the strongest evidence -that the depression was never directly flooded by Nile water. The -fact that the dividing ridge is probably everywhere above the -highest level attained by Lake Mœris, and by the still more ancient -prehistoric lake, is almost sufficient in itself as a proof of -this. It does not however follow that there was not leakage through -the ridge into the Rayan basin, as such leakage might conceivably -have taken place to a considerable extent without the water ever -having collected in sufficient quantities to form even moderate -sized pools within the depression. The bottom of the depression is -for the most part covered with soft porous sandy deposits overlying -the Eocene bed-rock below, and at the present time the<span class= -"pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> water of the Rayan springs, -though continually running, at once disappears from sight, drains -down to the lowest parts of the depression and is then gradually -lost by evaporation or underground leakage. In the lowest parts of -the depression this water is, as already mentioned, met with on -digging to a very moderate depth.</p> - -<p>A careful examination of the flanks of the ridge separating the -Fayûm and Gharaq cultivated areas from Rayan might prove if such -leakage ever took place. If such was the case the seepage was -probably along the line of junction of the limestone and underlying -clayey or sandy beds. Even if it were proved that there never was -leakage from Lake Mœris into Wadi Rayan, it would not be safe to -assume that the converse would not happen, as the dip of the beds -is from south to north and this fact is one to be reckoned with. -Judging from the nature of the Eocene beds forming the Wadi Rayan, -my opinion is that leakage on a large scale would not take place, -and that owing to the northerly dip any water that escaped from the -reservoir would pass indefinitely northwards and would not find its -way through the overlying limestone to the surface either in Gharaq -or the Fayûm cultivation. A detailed examination of the local -geology would, however, be necessary to prove or disprove this. As -to the question whether the Wadi Rayan as a whole would hold water, -as far as is known there are no faults or other fissures of any -magnitude through which the water could escape. No doubt a good -deal of water would be lost before the smaller joints and passages, -which exist in all rocks, were silted up. Schweinfurth supposes -that the freshness of the Birket el Qurûn is due to the existence -of subterranean outlets, and such might also be found to exist in -the Wadi Rayan. In any case the argillaceous deposits from such a -lake would very soon form a bed to all intents and purposes -impermeable.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Degree of -Salinity.</span>With regard to the extent of salinity of such a -lake Dr. Schweinfurth’s figures are of considerable interest and -value, although based wholly on assumed data. The greater part of -the salt would be derived from the rocks and soil forming the bed -of the reservoir and only by extensive sample collecting and -analysis can reliable figures be obtained. We believe that in the -lowest parts of the basin the salt content of the ground would be -found considerably in excess of the two per cent used by -Schweinfurth in his calculation, although his total estimate would -probably be found well within the mark.</p> - -<h3><a id="s05"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> V.—CENTRAL AREA -OF THE REGION.</h3> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Central Plain at the Fayûm -Depression.</span>The great central plain, forming the floor of the -depression as a whole, is composed of a hard bed of limestone some -thirty metres thick. This limestone, forming the uppermost member -of the Rayan series, is, as already mentioned, almost certainly -identical with that capping the cliffs to the south of the -depression, and in all probability in the eastern extension of the -plain under description underlies the whole of the cultivated lands -of Gharaq and the Fayûm. The feature of the plain as a whole is its -marked and constant, though low, dip to the north; so that its -surface, bared by denudation of the overlying<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_25">[25]</span> soft limestones of the Ravine series, over -a distance of some twenty kilometres, is a true dip-slope, at the -base of which lies a strip of low-lying country extending from -beyond Gar el Gehannem through the Birket el Qurûn to the Nile -Valley ridge east of Tamia. The central and lowest portion of this -low-lying area is occupied by the Birket el Qurûn, the bed of which -lies fifty metres below sea level and is thus the lowest known spot -in the whole of the Libyan desert. Thirty kilometres south-west of -the western end of the lake, at the base of the dip-slope of the -central plain and immediately under the southern scarps of the -great outlying hill-mass west of Gar el Gehannem, lies another low -lying basin, which receives the drainage from a considerable area -of the plain to the south-west. The latter, consisting of the -limestone above-mentioned, is here superficially covered by gravel, -and its dark undulating surface is scored by numerous shallow -winding water-courses marked by an abundant growth of scrubby -vegetation; some of the principal of these drain into the basin -just mentioned and after heavy rainfall the water collects and -forms a pool 600 metres in length by 100 to 150 metres wide. The -base of the basin, at about 80 metres above sea level, is marked by -a level deposit of silt of considerable thickness, the east end of -the site being surrounded by great numbers of luxuriantly growing -tamarisks. Other similar basins exist on the plain to the south, -and under an isolated hill five kilometres W.S.W. several full -grown acacias were noticed. On the low ground to the north-west of -Gar el Gehannem, and at several points between it and the head of -the Birket el Qurûn, similar silt covered areas exist, some being -only from 30 to 40 metres above sea level.</p> - -<p>In the extreme south-west of the region the limestone forming -the central plain is gradually overlain by the succeeding beds, so -that the ground rises imperceptibly to the level of the plateau -separating the depression from that of Baharia, distant some two -days march. On the eastern side, if the superficial alluvial -deposits could be stripped off, the underlying surface of -limestone, sloping from south to north, would not differ materially -from the plain further west, except that here, at any rate north of -Gharaq, the Rayan limestone is overlain by the basal beds of the -Ravine series.</p> - -<h3><a id="s06"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> VI.—RIDGE -SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND THE FAYUM.</h3> - -<p>The desert ridge separating the Nile Valley from the Fayûm has, -to the north of the Bahr Yusef, an average width of some ten -kilometres; further south it narrows, until due east of Gharaq the -ridge is barely 2½ kilometres wide. The highest points are situated -to the east of Sersena and Qalamsha respectively.</p> - -<p>In both these localities the Eocene rocks, consisting of clays -alternating with beds of calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone -(pp. 39, 40) are overlain by thick deposits of conglomerate and -gravel, attaining altitudes of over 100 metres above the cultivated -land below. From these summits the slope is usually very gradual on -the Nile Valley side but much more rapid towards the Fayûm.</p> - -<p>The ridge is cut down, however, to a comparatively low level in -four localities; to the<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_26">[26]</span> north-east of Tamia; to the east of Sêla, -where the railway crosses; between Lahûn and Hawara, where the Bahr -Yusef canal enters; and to the south of Qalamsha, where along the -site of the proposed Wadi Rayan canal the highest point is only -some 40 metres above the Gharaq basin and 27 metres above the -adjoining Nile Valley cultivation.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Outline of earliest -connection of Nile with Fayûm.</span>One of the most interesting -problems connected with the Fayûm may be briefly alluded to -here—When did the waters of the Nile first obtain access to the -depression?</p> - -<p>As will be shown later the Fayûm was occupied by the sea in -Pliocene times, when the great gravel accumulations and gypseous -deposits were formed. Later the area became dry and denudation of -the land surface completed the work of erosion already begun in -earlier times.</p> - -<p>In Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile Valley appears to -have become definitely established and probably the river in the -lower part of its course eventually washed up against and broke -down the separating barrier of gravel between the Fayûm and the -Nile Valley, so that part of its waters obtained access to the -depression, formed a lake on the lowest part, and gradually rose -until the whole basin, up to the level of the channel connecting it -with the Nile Valley, became filled. Every year thousands of tons -of sediment were carried in by the floods and spread out on the -floor in the shape of a fan. Probably later, as the Nile level -fell, the valley and the depression again became disconnected, -until the more modern river, with its gradually rising bed, again -attained the requisite altitude. In early historic times the -alluvial deposits had probably silted up the lake in its southern -central part, and when in the XIIth dynasty the district was first -taken in hand by Amenemhat I this part of it must have had the -character of a huge marsh, nearly surrounded by open water, rapidly -deepening towards the north.</p> - -<h3><a id="s07"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> VII.—THE -NORTHERN DESERT REGION.</h3> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Plateau bounding the Fayûm depression -to the north.</span>All along the north-west and north sides the -ground rises rapidly from the base of the dip-slope of the plain in -a series of escarpments to the summit of the rim of the depression, -averaging 340 metres above sea level. Northwards from the summit -stretches a rolling pebbly desert, the prevailing character of -which is a dark brown, relieved by lighter brown grey and yellow -patches, and especially flecked by the light sandy slopes of the -undulations. Although the latter seldom rise to any considerable -height above the general level of the plain, from the top of the -most modest eminence an immense view in every direction can -frequently be obtained. The monotony of this desert is only -relieved by the occasional belts of sand, which although extremely -narrow in width, run for immense distances in almost absolutely -straight lines, and in a N.N.W.—S.S.E. direction. Although none of -these dunes actually reach the rim of the escarpment we may mention -here the beautiful Ghart el Khanashat, an almost straight and -apparently unbroken ridge of sand, extremely narrow but of great -length. Near its southern extremity the width does not exceed 100 -metres; the slopes on both sides are frequently as much as 30°. The -commencement of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> the -Ghart el Khanashat was observed on a march from Wadi Natrûn to -Mogara; it lay some way to the south of a line joining those two -localities but could not be accurately fixed from the line of -route. The belt dies out 24 kilometres from the rim of the Fayûm -depression, its termination being particularly abrupt, although the -height of the ridge diminishes gradually throughout the last -kilometre or two. The line of the belt if continued would almost -strike the western extremity of the Birket el Qurûn; near its -termination the desert is almost flat, the surface being finely -gravelly, with numerous groups of silicified trees; tufts of coarse -grass grow in some profusion on the sandy ground at the base of the -ridge on either side. A fairly well-marked road from the Birket el -Qurûn to the Wadi Natrûn passes the end of the ridge and continues -northwards at a distance of 200 metres from the east side of the -dunes, although apparently gradually diverging eastwards.</p> - -<p>Except to the north and north-west of Tamia, where a somewhat -extensive and fairly level plain exists, the ground, as already -mentioned, rises from the limits of the central plain in a series -of escarpments to the summit of the rim of the depression. These -cliff lines are broadly speaking three in number and represent the -escarpments of the three great rock-stages which build up the -northern part of the Fayûm, i.e., the Birket el Qurûn series, the -Qasr el Sagha series, and the Fluvio-marine series. It would serve -no useful purpose describing these different cliffs in detail; -their positions and characters are apparent on the accompanying -maps. The intervening plateaux are for the most part dip-slope -plains formed of hard bands of rock, which resisting denudation, -are left protecting the underlying strata while the softer beds -above are cut back at a comparatively rapid rate.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Desert west and -south-west of Gar el Gehannem.</span>In December 1902 and March -1903 a traverse was made through the unexplored country west and -south-west of Gar el Gehannem, finally connecting up with Wadi -Rayan. The highest escarpment, i.e. that of the Fluvio-marine -series, dies out about 20 kilometres west of Gar el Gehannem, -gradually merging into the undulating gravel-covered plain. The -lower escarpments, those of the Qasr el Sagha and Birket el Qurûn -series, continue to a considerable distance in a south-westerly -direction, although gradually losing the characters of well-marked -cliffs. In fact westwards of this the depression gradually -shallows, until at a point some 50 kilometres south-west of Gar el -Gehannem the floor has attained the level of the ordinary desert -plateau, on which the outcrops of the beds of successive -rock-stages follow one another in regular order from south to -north, but without forming well-marked topographical features, as -in the depression.</p> - -<p>Hills, capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and -puddingstone, were met with in the extreme south-west extension of -the depression; these deposits, which will be referred to more -fully later, considered in conjunction with the similar beds -occurring within the oasis of Baharia, and in the hills of Gar el -Hamra, on the plateau immediately to the north-east of that -depression, are of considerable interest and importance, especially -in connection with the question of the position of the early rivers -which in Eocene and later times brought down quantities of trees -and animals, the remains of which are so abundant throughout the -later Fayûm deposits.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_28">[28]</span><span class="sidenote">Jebel el Qatrani and -escarpments north of the Birket el Qurûn.</span>The boldest part of -the region is the area lying between the Birket el Qurûn and the -summit of the depression to the north. All three lines of cliff are -here high and precipitous, and the uppermost escarpment, well known -by the name of Jebel el Qatrani, formed of a highly coloured series -of sandstones and clays and capped for a distance of many -kilometres by a thick bed of hard black basalt, is of a most -striking character. The eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani is -perhaps the most conspicuous point in the whole region; here the -two conical black basalt-capped cliff-outliers, known as Widan el -Faras, stand side by side, and from their summits the eye commands -the whole region from the pyramid of Lahûn on the one side, across -Rayan to the south, up to the extreme limits of the depression to -the south-west. The rim of Jebel el Qatrani has a fairly constant -level of about 340 metres above the sea. From Widan el Faras the -escarpment trends northwards for a few kilometres before again -resuming an easterly direction, which is continued till the -well-marked bluff of Elwat Hialla is reached. From this summit the -pyramids of Dashûr, Saqâra and Giza are visible to the north, as -well as Cairo and the Nile Valley southwards, backed by the bluffs -on the Eastern desert limestone plateau.</p> - -<p>To the south the isolated peaks of Garat el Gindi and Garat el -Faras form conspicuous landmarks on the more or less open plain -which stretches to Tamia and the limits of the Fayûm cultivated -lands. Eastwards the escarpments continue in a broken irregular -manner; the upper ones are gradually lost in an undulating plain, -while the lower eventually join those forming the northern part of -the ridge separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley.</p> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<div class="footnotes" id="ftp1"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class= -"label">[6]</span></a>For fuller details of the cultivated lands, -water-supply, etc., of the Fayûm, the reader is referred to the -excellent description by Sir Hanbury Brown in his work <em>The -Fayum and Lake Moeris</em>, London, 1892.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class= -"label">[7]</span></a>“The Lake of the Horns,” so called from the -narrow horn-like promontories which jut out into the lake on the -north side. Views of the lake are shown in Plates <a href= -"#i01">I,</a> <a href="#i04">IV,</a> <a href="#i16">XVI.</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class= -"label">[8]</span></a>This was the case until a year or two ago. At -the present time a limited amount of freshwater finds its way to -the area immediately north of the east end of the lake and small -plots are cultivated by the arabs.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class= -"label">[9]</span></a><em>Herodotus</em>, Book II; <em>Strabo</em>, -Book XVII; and <em>Diodorus Siculus</em>, Book I, Chap. LI. (See -Brown op. cit. p. 19-22.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class= -"label">[10]</span></a>“<em>Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ</em>,” -1889.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class= -"label">[11]</span></a><span class="sc">Brown</span>, op. cit. p. -95. As mentioned above in some areas the cultivated land was -formerly even more extensive than at present, notably near the -modern villages of Roda, Tamia, etc.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class= -"label">[12]</span></a>For details of evaporation and level-records -of the lake, see Brown, op. cit. pp. 6-9, and P.W.M. annual -reports.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class= -"label">[13]</span></a>See <span class="sc">Willcocks</span>’ -<em>Egyptian Irrigation</em>, 2nd edition, London, 1899.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class= -"label">[14]</span></a>See <em>A Preliminary Investigation of the -Soil and Water of the Fayûm Province</em>, by A. <span class= -"sc">Lucas</span>, Survey Department, Cairo, 1902.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class= -"label">[15]</span></a>See Appendix II, <em>A Note by Dr. -Schweinfurth on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan</em>, in Willcocks’ -<em>Egyptian Irrigation</em>, pp. 460-465.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class= -"label">[16]</span></a>The word “freshness” is used comparatively, -as the amount of salt is sufficient to make the water unpalatable -or unfit for drinking, except near the feeder canals. It is, -however, quite good enough for most culinary purposes, and camels -will usually drink from it, although it is not advisable to water -the latter from the lake either before or after a fatiguing desert -march, as in such cases the salinity of the water may have bad -effects.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class= -"label">[17]</span></a>“Bull. of the American Geographical Society, -1882, pp. 22 and 24.”</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class= -"label">[18]</span></a><em>Mémoires sur les travaux publics en -Egypte</em>, Paris, 1873, pp. 53, 54.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class= -"label">[19]</span></a>G. A. <span class="sc">Liernur</span>, -<span class="sc">Col. Western</span> and <span class="sc">Col. Sir -C. C. Scott Moncrieff, k.c.m.g.</span> <em>Notes on the Wadi -Rayan</em>, Cairo, 1888.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class= -"label">[20]</span></a><em>Note on the Wadi Rayan Project</em>, -Cairo, 1889.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class= -"label">[21]</span></a><em>Perennial Irrigation and Flood -Protection in Egypt</em>, by W. <span class="sc">Willcocks, -m.i.c.e.</span> Dir. Gen. of Reservoirs, with A Note by W. E. -<span class="sc">Garstin</span>, Under Secretary of State, P.W.M., -Cairo, 1894.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class= -"label">[22]</span></a>The engineering details of the Wadi Rayan -reservoir project have since been more fully discussed by Sir -William Garstin in his “<em>Report on the Basin of the Upper -Nile</em>” Cairo, (pp. 6-9 Appendix I).</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class= -"label">[23]</span></a>A Note by Dr. <span class= -"sc">Schweinfurth</span> on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan: an appendix -to <em>Perennial Irrigation</em>, etc.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class= -"label">[24]</span></a><em>The Assuan Reservoir and Lake -Moeris</em>, London, 1904.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class= -"label">[25]</span></a>The following analyses of the chief springs -in the Wadi Rayan, made by Mr. Lucas, Chemist to the Survey -Department, are of interest:—</p> - -<table class="borders padded1 bdless-bot" id="t022"> -<tr> -<th class="bdless-bot"> -</th> -<th class="sc">North Spring.</th> -<th class="sc">South Spring.</th> -<th class="sc">East Spring.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect075">Matter In Solution</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1 sect075">398·8</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1 sect075">350·8</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1 sect075">811·6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Chlorine calculated as Sodium Chloride</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">278·4</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">238·2</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">585·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Sulphur Trioxide calculated as Sodium Sulphate</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">62·9</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">53·9</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">126·2</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The above figures are parts per 100,000 parts of water.</p> - -<p>Although the above analyses prove the water to be of a very poor -quality for drinking purposes, compared with many of the wells and -springs of the oases, the water, which is quite clear, seemed good. -Except for its softness and somewhat ferruginous taste, it is quite -palatable, and on my last visit we used no other for five days. The -south spring was found to yield 21 litres and the north 6 litres -per minute. The water of the third spring does not run.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i04"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate IV.</p> -<a href="images/i04.jpg"><img src='images/i04.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">WESTERN EXTREMITY OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span><a id= -"p2"></a>PART II.</h2> - -<p class="sch letter-spaced01">TECTONICS.</p> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<h3><a id="s08"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> VIII.—FAULTING -AND FOLDING.</h3> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Fayûm Depression formed by subaerial -Erosion.</span>More extended examination of the Fayûm region -supports my original conclusion<a id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> that the depression owes -its origin to the same causes as have given rise to the other -oases-depressions of the Libyan Desert, namely Baharia, Farafra, -Dakhla and Kharga<a id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" -class="fnanchor">[27]</a>. No evidence has as yet been met with -which would suggest that earth-movements have played any important -part in the formation of the Fayûm depression. Local faults, for -the most part of short length and slight throw, occur at certain -points, but the influence of these is strictly limited to their -immediate neighbourhood. In fact, an examination of the desert -margin of the Fayûm conclusively proves that the depression has -been cut out through the action of ordinary subaerial denuding -agents. The somewhat prevalent idea that the central portion of the -depression, that covered by alluvial soil and the water of the -lake, is faulted down, also rests on no foundation, all available -evidence pointing in an opposite direction. Throughout the margin -of the alluvial covered area the Eocene beds forming the surface of -the desert can be observed to pass regularly under the cultivated -lands; moreover, the same strata are frequently exposed in the -bottoms of canals, drains, etc., far within the cultivation. The -big drainage ravines of El Bats and El Wadi are, through a large -part of their courses, cut down to the underlying Eocene rocks -(Ravine beds), and in every locality examined the strata were found -in the position they would be expected to occupy if undisturbed by -tectonic movements.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Deep boring at -Medinet el Fayûm.</span>The evidence yielded by the deep boring at -Medinet el Fayûm is, as far as it goes, to the same effect. The -ground level at the site was at 23·40 metres above sea-level and -the following beds were passed through<a id= -"FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class= -"fnanchor">[28]</a>:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t029"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Alluvial clays, clayey sands -and sands, the latter in part coarse and pebbly</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">18·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow, brown, and grey marls -and marly clays (probably belonging for the most part to the Ravine -beds)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">112·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Cement coloured stone</td> -<td rowspan="5">⎫<br> -⎪<br> -⎬<br> -⎪<br> -⎭</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="tdl hang1 width12">Probably these limestones -and occasional marls and clays belong to the Rayan series.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">43·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Yellowish stone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Light brown solid stone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Cement coloured soft clay</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1·7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Cement coloured stone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">12·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb pad-right1">205·7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdr">Bottom of boring 182·3 metres below -sea-level.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>The method -employed in this boring was such as to bring up the material as a -ground-up paste, an examination of which does not afford absolutely -conclusive evidence as to the age of the rock. The absence, after -the first 18·5 metres, of sand or pebbles, common throughout the -alluvial deposits of the Fayûm, suggests that the base of these -beds was reached at that depth, but from this evidence alone it -would perhaps hardly be satisfactory to conclude that the -underlying 112·5 metres were entirely Eocene. Considering, however -that in the two deep ravines of El Bats and El Wadi the underlying -Eocene is very commonly exposed at an average depth of some 15 -metres below cultivation level, it is highly improbable that in the -centre of the area, at Medinet el Fayûm, the alluvial deposits -greatly exceed the same thickness. To classify the 112·5 metres of -marly clays as alluvium would give the latter a total thickness of -131 metres and would mean that over an extremely restricted area -the Eocene rocks had been denuded to such an extent that the floor -of the depression lay 108 metres below sea-level. The ground-up -samples of rock closely resemble what might be expected from the -clays and marls forming the Ravine beds and in all probability the -greater part of the 112·5 metres belong to that series. The harder -stone met with at 131 metres, which, with the exception of a band -of soft clay, continued down to the bottom, must be regarded as -belonging to the underlying Rayan series.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Dr. Blanckenhorn’s -Fault theory.</span>Dr. Blanckenhorn, in a paper published in -1901<a id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class= -"fnanchor">[29]</a> dealing with the Pliocene and Pleistocene of -Egypt, describes the Fayûm as a triangular depression bounded on -all sides by faults. The position of these bounding faults, as well -as of numerous others more or less parallel to the north shore of -the Birket el Qurûn, is shown on an accompanying map<a id= -"FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> -and in a section drawn from Abshawai to the summit of the plateau -north of the lake.<a id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" -class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Stratigraphical evidence, based on the -supposed identity of certain strata in different localities, is -brought forward in support of these faults, the author finally -stating that the production of the Fayûm is clearly and distinctly -to be referred to tectonic movements.</p> - -<p>Our conclusion, formed after an examination of the region in -some detail, is so diametrically opposed to the above, that it may -be worth while to state here the evidence which we consider -sufficient to refute the existence of the particular faults -described by Blanckenhorn.</p> - -<p>Blanckenhorn’s fault-lines lie for the most part within the area -covered by the alluvial deposits and the water of the lake, so that -for want of exposures it is in most cases impossible to directly -disprove their existence, although strong presumptive evidence -against them can be adduced. The fault along the east side, -however, is shown as closely following the junction line of the -desert and the cultivated land, but everywhere along this line we -found the marls and limestones of the Ravine beds passing regularly -from the desert under the cultivated lands, without any sort of -break or dislocation. Moreover, an examination of the desert ridge -to the east disproved the existence of any faulting on the desert -side, while the appearance of the same beds in the ravine of El -Bats, a few kilometres to the west, proved the continuity of the -beds under the cultivated alluvium in<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_31">[31]</span> this direction. Certainly no fault exists -along this side of the Fayûm. Similarly with regard to the fault -shown as running from the west end of the lake along the west side -of the Fayûm cultivation into the basin of Gharaq; although the -desert margin along this side of the Fayûm cultivation has not been -so closely surveyed as that on the east side, no evidence in favour -of the existence of faults was met with in the particular -localities examined. With regard to the third main bounding fault, -considered by Blanckenhorn to run throughout the length of the -Birket el Qurûn and to be continued eastwards, possibly to the Nile -Valley and at least to join the fault on the east side of the -cultivation, we need only say that an examination of the desert -near Tamia disproves its existence at that end; while it is -difficult to imagine that a fault could traverse the lake from end -to end without revealing its presence in the island Geziret el Qorn -or in one or other of the promontories which jut out so far into -the lake from its northern shore. Everywhere the strata are -undisturbed and occupy their normal stratigraphical level and -position.</p> - -<p>Let us finally examine the series of more or less parallel -faults stated to exist between the island and the northern shore of -the lake, and on the mainland to the north and south of Dimê. Dr. -Blanckenhorn publishes a detailed section (op. cit., fig. 2., taf. -XIV) showing the positions of these step faults and their effect on -the various strata through which they cut. Fortunately, in this -neighbourhood the stratigraphical succession is well exposed and -the presence or absence of faults become matters of easy -determination. The sequence of beds from south to north is normal -and uninterrupted and our interpretation of the area is shown in -the accompanying sections (Plates <a href="#i19">XIX,</a> <a href= -"#i22">XXII,</a> and <a href="#fig04">fig. 4</a>). We have no -hesitation in saying that such faults as those shown on -Blanckenhorn’s section do not exist. Their insertion appears to be -the outcome of an error in the correlation of strata at the three -points Abshawai, Geziret el Qorn and Dimê. The bed capping the -island is not identical with that forming the plain to the north of -Dimê, although shown to be such on the section under -discussion.</p> - -<p>In a later publication<a id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Blanckenhorn admits being -in error in his correlation of the different beds in the localities -in question and completely withdraws his former statements that the -depression owes its existence to fracture and subsidence. The -faults shown on his detailed section from Abshawai to Qasr el Sagha -are admitted to be non-existent and in this retraction we may -presumably include the remainder of the faults described by the -same author, as the evidence for them is of a still less -satisfactory nature.</p> - -<p>In a wind-swept desert area like the Fayûm the slightest -dislocations are as a rule markedly obvious, and faults of any -magnitude could scarcely escape detection. Over the greater part of -the region every bed is laid bare on the surface and can be -minutely examined; while the marked irregularity of the escarpments -afford sections cut through the different series in every -direction. Some areas, however, are covered with superficial -deposits, which more or less effectually obscure the underlying -rocks; for instance, on the east side a large part of the central -floor is hidden by the cultivated alluvium and by the water of the -lake; in the south a considerable proportion of the floor of Wadi -Rayan is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> buried under -accumulations of blown sand; and again large areas on the north, -west, and south-west sides are obscured by a superficial covering -of loose gravel. But as already mentioned, there is no reason to -suppose that faults of any importance exist within the areas thus -partly obscured. The cultivated lands and the Birket el Qurûn do -not occupy low areas produced by faulting but, as shown above, owe -their positions entirely to the original northerly dip of the -strata and to subsequent erosion.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Numerous small -faults effects local.</span>We have already stated that small local -faults occur in various parts of the Fayûm and some of these may be -specially mentioned. The most important is about 10 kilometres -N.N.E. of Qasr el Sagha; the line of fault lies nearly north-west -and south-east, has a length of six or seven kilometres, and -affects both middle and upper Eocene beds; at its northern end the -fault passes into a fold before finally dying out. Some of the -Upper Eocene sandstones are hardened and silicified and form a -succession of black knobs along the line of disturbance. To the -south of these the axis of dislocation bends slightly eastwards and -takes the form of a sharp fold; further south it again becomes a -true fault, flanked by a line of highly tilted beds along its -south-west side. The effects of this fault are very marked locally -but entirely restricted to a limited area. The most important is -the breaking of the continuity of the escarpment of the Qasr el -Sagha series; the line of cliffs formed by those beds is a very -marked topographical feature and the fault in question causes a -lateral displacement of seven kilometres.</p> - -<div class="box-float float-left"> -<div class="figcenter iw5"> -<figure id="fig01"><a href="images/fig01.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig01.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Fault near Qasr el -Sagha.</p> -</figure> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of Qasr el Sagha and westwards for a -considerable distance, small strike-faults are of common occurrence -in the beds of the Qasr el Sagha series. As a rule these faults do -not extend more than a few hundred metres in length, while the -down-throw seldom exceeds two or three metres and in almost every -case observed is to the north. The hade may be 65° or more. Fig. 1 -shows an example near Qasr el Sagha. The most marked of these -strike faults is seen to the east of Garat el Esh; commencing a -little to the north-east of that hill it runs in a nearly due -easterly direction till it cuts the cliffs of the Qasr el Sagha -series after some five kilometres. Its down-throw is to the north -and never exceeds a few metres; this small throw is however -sufficient to cause a marked displacement of the highest bed of -limestone forming the dip-slope surface of the plateau at the -summit of the Middle Eocene beds.</p> - -<p>At first sight it might be suspected that the very irregular -trend of the different escarpments throughout the Fayûm was -determined or influenced by fault lines; an extended examination of -the cliffs however gave negative results, with one exception; the -long narrow hill-mass to the north east of Gar el Gahannem is -bounded by faults on both sides and that on the west can be easily -traced for seven or eight kilometres northwards, and throughout its -length its influence on the topography is very conspicuous.</p> - -<div class="footnotes" id="ftp2"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class= -"label">[26]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>. <em>The -Fayûm depression: A Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a District -in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene Vertebrate Fauna</em>. Geol. -Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, p. 540.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class= -"label">[27]</span></a>See reports on Kharga Oasis (1900), Farafra -Oasis (1901), Dakhla Oasis (1901), and Baharia Oasis (1903), issued -by Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class= -"label">[28]</span></a>Public Works Ministry Report. Cairo, -1899.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class= -"label">[29]</span></a><span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>. -<em>Geologie Aegyptens</em>, Berlin 1901, Pt. IV, pp. 339-344.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class= -"label">[30]</span></a><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> p. 341, Fig. 10. Skizze der -Strukturlinien des Fayûm.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class= -"label">[31]</span></a><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> Taf. XIV. Querprofil durch den -Fayûmgraben.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class= -"label">[32]</span></a><span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>, -<em>Neue geologisch-stratigraphische Beobachtungen in -Aegypten</em>, S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe d. kgl. bayer. Ac. d. -Wiss. Bd. XXXII 1902, Heft III, München 1902, pp. 428, 429.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span><a id= -"p3"></a>PART III.</h2> - -<p class="sch letter-spaced01">GEOLOGY.</p> - -<hr class="decor width3"> - -<h3><a id="s09"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> IX.—GENERAL AND -CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA.</h3> - -<p class="nind"><span class="sc">The</span> geology of the -area<a id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class= -"fnanchor">[33]</a> under consideration is almost entirely -stratigraphical, the only igneous rocks being more or less local -lava flows. The sedimentary rocks of the district have yielded an -abundant fauna, both invertebrate and vertebrate; the latter is of -unique interest, including as it does a number of highly -interesting animal types quite new to science. An extended -examination in the field, and comparisons with the stratigraphical -succession in other parts of Egypt, checked by the determinations -of the fossil molluscan fauna, make it possible to form a very fair -estimate of the approximate age of the different rock-stages, -although this may necessarily be subject to modification when the -specific determinations of the entire collection of organic remains -have been completed, and the development of vertebrate life has -been correlated and compared with that in other parts of the -world.</p> - -<p>The depression is cut out in a great series of sedimentary rocks -of Middle Eocene, Upper Eocene, and Oligocene age, and one of the -features of the stratigraphy of the region is the constancy of many -beds over wide areas. The dip of the beds throughout the area is -nearly due north and at a very low angle, averaging 2° or 3°, but -varying from 1° to 5°; this low dip is very constantly maintained -except when locally affected by small faults. The structural -geology and tectonics have already been discussed at some length in -the previous sections.</p> - -<p>The oldest beds found in the depression are the clays, marls, -and limestones with <i>Nummulites gizehensis</i>, of Middle Eocene -age. These are succeeded by a group of white marly limestones and -gypseous clays, which largely underlie the cultivated alluvium of -the Fayûm. They are followed by a series consisting of clays, -sandstones, and calcareous grits, some beds of which are -characterized by the abundance of small nummulites and -<i>Operculina</i>. The latter series is followed by the uppermost -truly marine Eocene beds, a group of alternating clays, sandstones -and limestones, the “Qasr el Sagha Series” (or Carolia beds), -characterized by an abundant invertebrate and vertebrate fauna, and -equivalent to the Upper Mokattam beds of Cairo.</p> - -<p>Above the Qasr el Sagha series, and well marked off from them -both lithologically and palæontologically, is found a great -thickness of variegated sands, sandstones, clays and<span class= -"pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> marls, the “Fluvio-marine -Series” (Jebel el Qatrani beds), divided near the summit by one or -more thick intercalated lava sheets, the latter forming a -convenient junction line. This series of variegated beds is of -Upper Eocene—Lower Oligocene age.</p> - -<p>No Miocene strata have been recognized within the area, but -further north, as at Mogara, Lower Miocene deposits occur;<a id= -"FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> -and it is probable that there is a continuous series of -lithologically similar beds from the summit of the Fayûm -escarpments (Lower Oligocene) to the Mogara Miocene.</p> - -<p>The Pliocene is probably represented by the great terraces of -gravel—raised beaches—which are such a marked feature in the -geology of the district. Fossiliferous Pliocene deposits have also -been recorded from the south part of the area by -Schweinfurth.<a id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class= -"fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<p>Pleistocene and Recent are abundantly represented by lacustrine -clays, both ancient and modern, alluvial land and blown sand, the -formation of which deposits is continuing at the present time.</p> - -<p>The following table will show the sequence of strata and the -classification adopted in the present memoir:—</p> - -<p class="thead">Table showing Succession and Classification of -Strata in the Fayum.</p> - -<table class="borders inner-bd lessvpadding tabw60" id="t034"> -<tr> -<th class="bdless-bot width6"> -</th> -<th class="bdless-bot width6"> -</th> -<th class="bdless-bot width6"> -</th> -<th class="width5">Approximate average thickness in metres, north -part of Fayum.</th> -<th class="bdless-bot"> -</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdc"><span class="less">RECENT AND -PLEISTOCENE</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot">Alluvial soil, clays, sands, -etc.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot">Blown sand.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl hang15">Lacustrine clays, extending to about 23 -metres above sea-level.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdc"><span class="less">(MIDDLE?) -PLIOCENE</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td class="bdless-bot"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot">Gravel Terraces (? -Pleistocene).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="bdless-bot"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot">Shell-borings on rock -surfaces.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">50</td> -<td class="tdl hang15">Fossiliferous deposits of Sidmant.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdc"><span class="less">LOWER -OLIGOCENE</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdc"><span class="sc">Tongrian</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="3"> -</td> -<td class="bdless-bot"> -</td> -<td class="tdl bdless-bot"><em>Fluvio-marine Series (Jebel el -Qatrani beds)</em>.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="bdless-bot tdr pad-right2">30</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot sect03">Sandstones and -sandstone-grits with silicified trees and</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 dotted-bot">Basalt sheets, interbedded and -contemporaneous.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdc"><span class="less">UPPER EOCENE</span> -</td> -<td class="tdc"><span class="sc">Bartonian</span>.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">250</td> -<td class="tdl hang15">Variegated sands, sandstones, clays and -marls, with limestone-grits and thin bands of limestone. The upper -beds contain <i>Unio</i> sp., <i>Lanistes bartonianus</i>, Blanck., -<i>Turritella pharaonica</i>, Cossm., <i>Potamides scalaroides</i>, -Desh., <i>P. tristriatus</i>, Lam., <i>Pleurotoma ingens</i>, -May.-Eym. In the lower beds are large numbers of silicified trees -associated with vertebrate remains including <i>Arsinoitherium -Zitteli</i>, Beadn., <i>A. Andrewsii</i>, Lankester, -<i>Palæomastodon Beadnelli</i>, Andr., <i>P. minor</i>, Andr., -<i>Mœritherium Lyonsi</i>, Andr., <i>M. trigodon</i>, Andr., -<i>Megalohyrax eocænus</i>, Andr., <i>M. minor</i> Andr., -<i>Saghatherium antiquum</i>, Andr. and Beadn., <i>S. minus</i>, -Andr. and Beadn., <i>S. magnum</i>, Andr., <i>Ancodus -Gorringei</i>, Andr. and Beadn., <i>Geniohyus mirus</i>, Andr., -<i>G. fayumensis</i>, Andr., <i>G. major</i>, Andr., <i>Phiomia -serridens</i>, Andr. and Beadn., <i>Pterodon africanus</i>, Andr., -<i>P. macrognathus</i>, Andr., <i>Eremopezus libycus</i>, Andr., -<i>Testudo Ammon</i>, Andr., and frequent crocodilian and chelonian -remains.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="9" class="tdc">MIDDLE EOCENE</td> -<td rowspan="9" class="tdc"><span class="sc">Parisian</span>.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdc"><span class="sc">Upper Mokattam</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">155</td> -<td class="tdl bdless-bot"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_35">[35]</span><em>Qasr el Sagha Series (Carolia -beds)</em>.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl hang15 sect03">Alternating limestones, marls, clays -and sandstones with <i>Qerunia</i> (<i>Hydractinia</i>) -<i>cornuta</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Astrohelia similis</i>, Felix., -<i>Echinolampas Crameri</i>, Loriol., <i>Ostrea Reili</i>, Fraas, -<i>Ostrea elegans</i>, Desh., <i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, -Bellardi, <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, Cantr., <i>Cardita fajumensis</i>, Oppenh., -<i>Macrosolen Hollowaysi</i>, Sowerby, <i>Turritella -pharaonica</i>, Cossm., <i>T. carinifera</i>, Desh., <i>Mesalia -fasciata</i>, Lam., <i>Rimella rimosa</i>, Sol. The vertebrate -remains include <i>Mœritherium Lyonsi</i>, Andr., <i>M. -gracilis</i>, Andr., <i>Barytherium grave</i>, Andr., <i>Eosiren -libyca</i>, Andr., <i>Zeuglodon Osiris</i>, Dames, <i>Gigantophis -Garstini</i>, Andr., <i>Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi</i>, Andr., -<i>Psephophorus eocænus</i>, Andr., <i>Thallassochelys libyca</i>, -Andr., <i>Podocnemis antiqua</i>, Andr., <i>P. Stromeri</i>, v. -Rein., <i>Stereogenys Cromeri</i>, Andr., <i>S. podocnemioides</i>, -v. Rein., <i>Tomistoma africanum</i>, Andr., with siluroids and -<i>Propristis Schweinfurthi</i>, Dames.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="7" class="tdc"><span class="sc">Lower Mokattam</span> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdr pad-right2">50</td> -<td class="tdl bdless-bot"><em>Birket el Qurûn Series -(Operculina-Nummulite beds)</em>.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl hang15 bdless-bot sect03">Sandstones and clays, with -sandy limestones, and one or more well marked concretionary -sandstones weathering into large globular masses.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl hang15"><i>Nummulites Fraasi</i>, de la Harpe, <i>N. -Beaumonti</i>, <i>Operculina discoidea</i>, Schwag., <i>Qerunia -cornuta</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Plicatula polymorpha</i>, Bell., -<i>Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus</i>, Orb., <i>Cardita -Viquesneli</i>, d’Arch., <i>Cardium Schweinfurthi</i>, May.-Eym., -<i>Venus plicatella</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Macrosolen Hollowaysi</i>, -Sow., <i>Lucina pharaonis</i>, Bell., <i>Tellina scalaroides</i>, -Lam., <i>Clavellithes longævus</i>, Sol., <i>Voluta arabica</i>, -May.-Eym., <i>Turritella pharaonica</i>, Cossm., <i>T. -carinifera</i>, Desh., with <i>Zeuglodon Osiris</i>, Dames, and -<i>Z. Isis</i>, Beadn.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="bdless-bot"> -</td> -<td class="tdl bdless-bot"><em>Ravine Beds.</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">70</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 sect03">White marls and marly limestones with -gypseous clays; <i>Nucularia</i> sp. <i>Leda</i> sp., -<i>Corbula</i> aff. <i>pixidicula</i>, Desh., <i>Lucina</i> sp. (? -<i>pharaonis</i>), <i>Tellina tenuistriata</i>, Desh., <i>Zeuglodon -Isis</i>, Beadn., and scales and teeth of fish.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="bdless-bot"> -</td> -<td class="tdl bdless-bot"><em>Wadi Rayan Series (Nummulites -gizehensis beds).</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">130</td> -<td class="tdl hang15 sect03">Limestones, marls, clays, etc., with -<i>Nummulites gizehensis</i>, Ehrbg., <i>N. curvispira</i>, -<i>Carolia placunoides</i>, Cantr.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h3><span class="sc">Section</span> X.—MIDDLE EOCENE -(PARISIAN).</h3> - -<h4 class="space-below03 space-above1"><a id= -"s10a"></a><em>A.</em>—<span class="bold">Wadi Rayan -Series.</span>—(<em>Nummulites Gizehensis Beds</em>).</h4> - -<p class="center less space-below1">(A.I.e. Schweinfurth, I.b. -Mayer-Eymar,<a id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class= -"fnanchor">[36]</a> Lower Mokattam of Cairo).</p> - -<p>Beds of this group are chiefly found in the south of the -depression. The wadis Rayan and Muêla, as already shown by -Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar<a id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>, are cut out in clays and -limestones of Lower Mokattam age; the upper beds of limestone, -containing among other<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_36">[36]</span> fossil<a id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> numerous examples of the -large <i>Nummulites gizehensis</i>, form the greater part of the -floor of the depression west of the Fayûm cultivation, stretching -from Jebel Rayan to the foot of Gar el Gehannem,<a id= -"FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> -28 kilometres west of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn -(<a href="#i20">Section XX</a>). Near the latter hill examples of -<i>N. gizehensis</i> of inordinately large size occur.<a id= -"FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class= -"fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<p>At the conical hill at the southern entrance to Wadi Muêla the -following beds were noticed:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t036a"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><em>Top of hill.</em> -</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard white limestone with small -nummulites, <i>Lucina</i>, <i>Callianassa</i>, and echinids. Salt -occurs in thin deposits along joint-planes. The lower part of this -bed is largely composed of small nummulites and bryozoa. This -generally white limestone passes down into</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown, usually sandy, limestone with -oysters and small nummulites. In it are intercalated thin beds of -greenish brown sandstone and clayey sand with impressions of -bryozoa. Some of the brown sandy limestones are full of small -nummulites. <i>Ostrea</i> and <i>Carolia</i> numerous. The beds are -not constant, the clayey sandstones passing insensibly into sandy -limestones.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Softer beds with large nummulites, -corals, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Nautilus</i>.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft green and brown clays, with -occasional oyster-beds.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>At the corner of the cliff 7½ kilometres N.N.W. of the monastery -of Der el Galamûn, in Wadi Muêla, occur about 80 metres of hard -white nummulitic limestones, with beds of argillaceous sandstone -and sandy clays. Fossils are numerous and include nummulites of -several species (<i>N. gizehensis</i>, etc.), <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, different species of <i>Ostrea</i>, with -gastropods (among others <i>Terebellum sopitum</i>), bryozoa, etc. -It is very noticeable that the nummulites, especially the small -species, occur in remarkable profusion not only in the limestones -but often in the clays.</p> - -<p>The following section will give a good idea of the general -alternations found in this area; it was measured at Jebel -Rayan,<a id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class= -"fnanchor">[41]</a> 24 kilometres west of the western end of the -cultivation of Gharaq basin.</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t036b"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><em>Top of plateau.</em> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard snow-white limestone with occasional -nummulites passing down into hard highly nummulitic limestone; -<i>N. gizehensis</i>, <i>Ostrea</i> sp., <i>Lucina</i> sp., -<i>Mitra</i> sp., and <i>Carolia placunoides</i> occur among -others</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">31</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Vertical-faced bed of greenish clayey -sands and sandy clays (glauconitic) with <i>Carolia</i>, -<i>Ostrea</i> and <i>Nummulites</i>. Near top of bed there is much -gypsum. The nummulites in this bed are often collected together so -as to form hard concretionary masses; these masses, by becoming -more numerous, finally form a hard bed of nummulitic limestone -intercalated in the clays near the top. The junction of the clays -with the limestone of Bed No. 1 is very irregular</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish shelly sands and sandy clayey -bands, interbedded with impure chalky nummulitic limestones with -<i>N. gizehensis</i>, <i>N. curvispira</i>, and a third smaller -species; <i>Ostrea</i> sp. This bed is much obscured by debris</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard slate-blue shales, weathering to -paper-shales</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_37">[37]</span>5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brownish marls passing up into clays</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Limestone band largely made up of small -and large nummulites and echinids</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Glauconitic (?) and clayey sands and -sandy clays, with <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Carolia</i>, and nummulites, -weathering with a vertical face. In some bands large numbers of -small and large nummulites lie embedded in every position, as if -tossed about by currents during the process of becoming buried by -sediment. Gypsum occurs in thin veins and often encloses the -nummulites</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard markedly-white nummulitic limestone -full of <i>N. gizehensis</i> and other species (<i>N. -curvispira</i>, etc.); the rock usually has a dark brown colour -when freshly fractured. A shelly band rich in corals occurs nine -metres from the top. The upper part is more marly and less -nummulitic than the rest of the bed. Base invisible</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdc">Total thickness of beds in the above section</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb pad-right1">129</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i05"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate V.</p> -<a href="images/i05.jpg"><img src='images/i05.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OVERLYING MARLY LIMESTONES (RAVINE -BEDS) IN EL WADI, RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>The following is a section of the beds exposed in Wadi Muêla -compiled from a paper by Mayer-Eymar on this oasis:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t037"> -<tr> -<th class="tdl"><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th class="widthbrace"> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th class="widthbrace"> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="11" class="tdc"><span class="sc">Parisian</span>.</td> -<td class="blt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdc">Id.</td> -<td class="blt"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White siliceous cavernous limestone with -_Lucina globulosa_, Desh., _Gisortia_, _Rostellaria_, _Eschara -Duvali_, Michelin., (Probably ≡ bed No. 1 of our J. Rayan -section)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greyish-yellow marl, rich in places with -_Ostrea Gumbeli_, _Pecten mœlehensis_, May.-Eym., _Vulsella -chamiformis_, May.-Eym., _Velates Schmiedeli_, Chemnitz, _Cerithium -fodicatum_, _Pleurotoma_, _Borsonia_, _Fusus_, _Rostellaria_, -etc.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Yellowish sandy marl, with small -nummulites.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="tdc">Ic.</td> -<td class="blt"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellowish marls, divided by one or two -bands of red clay, with _Nummulites gizehensis_</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard bedded clay</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Vari-coloured gypseous marls</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdc">(Probably ≡ beds 2, 3, 4 at J. Rayan).</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdc">Ib.</td> -<td class="blt"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Very hard, rich greenish-grey, siliceous -limestone with _N. gizehensis_, _Pecten corneus_, J. Sow., and -_Lucina_ (_L. consobrina_, Desh., and _L. Defrancei_, Desh.).</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">4 to 5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdc">(Probably ≡ upper part of bed 5 at J. Rayan.)</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>There is a considerable difference in thicknesses between the -above section and that of Jebel Rayan. Our heights agree closely -with those of Schweinfurth, so that it is probable that Mayer-Eymar -is in error, notwithstanding his challenge of Schweinfurth’s -figures in the paper mentioned.</p> - -<h4><a id="s10b"></a><em>B.</em>—<span class="bold">Ravine -Beds.</span></h4> - -<p>The beds of this series, consisting of gypseous clays, clayey -marls, and white marly limestones, are met with bordering the -cultivation on the east, west and north sides; they pass under the -alluvial soil of the cultivated land and are frequently seen in the -bottoms of canals, and especially in the deep ravines known as El -Bats, and El Wadi (Plates <a href="#i03">III</a> and <a href= -"#i05">V</a>). The relation of these beds to the Rayan series below -is well seen at the prominent outstanding hill Gar el Gehannem -(<a href="#fig02">Fig. 2</a>); here the plain to the east and south -is formed of the uppermost member of the Wadi Rayan series, a -limestone full of <i>Nummulites gizehensis</i>. In the hill itself -the latter is directly overlain by gypseous and -glauconitic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> sandy -clays and marls, with hard intervening beds of yellowish, often -marly, limestone. The upper beds consist of alternating clays, -sandy limestone and sandstone, at the top being a thick bed of the -latter passing up gradually into the sandstones of the Birket el -Qurûn series. The following is the detailed section:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t038"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><em>Summit of Gar el Gehannem.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th colspan="2">Thickness in metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow and white limestone crowded -with shells, chiefly large individuals of <i>Carolia -placunoides</i> and <i>Ostrea Fraasi</i>. Numerous nummulites in -upper part</td> -<td class="brt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td rowspan="8" class="tdc width5">Lower beds of Qasr el Sagha -Series (45 metres)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Limestone full of <i>Turritella -carinifera</i>, <i>Ostrea Clot-Beyi</i></td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Shelly limestone with <i>Carolia</i>, -<i>Turritella</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Cardita</i> and <i>Qerunia</i> -(<i>Hydractinia</i>)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Nummulitic limestone with <i>Carolia</i>, -<i>Qerunia</i> and four species of <i>Turritella</i></td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Light blue clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light green and brown sandstone with -irregular concretions</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">2½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_39">[39]</span>8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown shelly limestone full of <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, <i>Ostrea Reili</i>, <i>O. Fraasi</i>, -<i>Turritella</i>, <i>Balanus</i> and nummulites</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="tdc">Birket el Qurûn Series (50 metres)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sandstone with bands of shelly -limestone crowded with nummulites, oysters, etc. Near top casts of -<i>Cardita</i>, <i>Carolia</i>; also <i>Cerithium</i>, -<i>Teredo</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Pecten</i>, <i>Pinna</i>, and -echinids. Calcareous concretions near base</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with much gypsum</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sandstone with <i>Balanus</i>. -Bands crowded with two species of nummulites and occasional -oysters. In places the foraminiferal bands become highly -calcareous. Below similar, with hard compact grey bands and -occasional fish-spines and teeth</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">24</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Similar to above, with numerous casts of -<i>Cardita</i>, etc., and small <i>Ostrea</i></td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="11" class="tdc">Ravine Beds (10 metres)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">24</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Argillaceous sandstone with thick -stockwork of gypsum and calcareous nodules</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light yellow, brown, and greyish gypseous -clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow-brown sandstones and sandy -limestones, often argillaceous. Fish-scales.</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Brown clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Yellow-white marls and marly -limestone</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">15.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard light yellow shelly limestone, in -part marly, in part sandy</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">16.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ochreous-yellow, grey, and white clays -and marls with gypsum</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">17.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow-white shaly marl with -numerous shell-impressions; much gypsum</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">18.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow marly clays; soft yellow and -grey-brown clays, dark sandy glauconitic, yellow, and black, clays. -<i>Zeuglodon</i> remains fairly common. Shell impressions. Much -gypsum</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang15">Fairly hard yellow-white glauconitic -marl</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang15">Marly limestone with -<i>Nummulites gizehensis</i> forming top of Rayan beds.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig02"><a href="images/fig02.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig02.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Section at Gar el -Gehannem, showing the relation of the Wadi Rayan Series to the -Ravine Beds.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>The clays, marls, and limestones of the Ravine beds are -generally found to contain fairly numerous shell-impressions, -including <i>Nucularia</i> sp., <i>Leda</i> sp., <i>Cardita</i> -sp., <i>Corbula</i> aff. <i>pixidicula</i>, <i>Lucina</i> sp., -<i>Oudardia ovalis</i>, Desh., <i>Tellina tenuistriata</i>,<a id= -"FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> -numerous small fish-scales, and occasional large teeth of sharks; -while the skeletons of the toothed-whale <i>Zeuglodon Isis</i> are -fairly common, although usually in poor preservation.</p> - -<p>In the ravine of El Bats, about one kilometre west of Sêla, -these beds (5-6 metres thick) are seen unconformably overlaid by 12 -metres of false-bedded gypseous sands and clays passing up into the -superficial cultivated loam. The junction of these alluvial -deposits and the underlying Eocene is distinctly unconformable and -an intervening pebble-bed is occasionally present (<a href= -"#fig03">Fig 3</a>).</p> - -<p>In the large ravine known as El Wadi, which traverses the west -side of the cultivation of the Fayûm, these beds are frequently -well exposed; their lithological characters remain very constant. -Here, as in El Bats, they are unconformably overlain by a varying -thickness of Pleistocene and Recent clays. Their surface, a plain -of subaerial denudation, represents the original floor of the -depression before the entry of the sediment-carrying water from the -Nile Valley through the Lahûn gap; its irregularity is seen in -<a href="#i05">Plate V.</a></p> - -<p>The plain bordering the cultivation to the east of Sêla and -Rubiat likewise consists of these same white marls with -fish-scales, etc.; they pass regularly under the cultivated -land.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> Shaly marls, -gypseous clays, and chalky limestones of the same age are seen in, -and to the south of, the railway crossing the desert between Sêla -and Medum. Eastwards they stretch into the Nile Valley, being found -exposed along the desert-edge bordering the cultivation at Medum, -Nawamis and Masaret-Abusia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig03"><a href="images/fig03.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig03.jpg' alt=''></a> -<table class="cptab bd-collapse" id="t040"> -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" colspan="3" class="tdc width6">RECENT AND -PLEISTOCENE</td> -<td class="blt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang1">1. Marsh and poorly cultivated land.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang1">1a Cultivated loam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang1">2. Sands and clays, with gravelly bands; -often concretionary and gypseous beds.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdl hang1">3. Pebble-bed marking unconformable -junction.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -<td class="sectgap"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdc width3">MIDDLE EOCENE</td> -<td class="tdc">⎱<br> -⎰</td> -<td class="tdc width3 sc">Ravine Beds</td> -<td class="tdc">⎰<br> -⎱</td> -<td class="tdl hang1">4. Gypseous saliferous marly clays, white -marls and limestone with fishscales and <i>Tellina Corbula</i>, -etc.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="cp2 space-above1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. -3.—Sketch-Section across <em>El Bats</em>, 1 kilometre West of -Sêla.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>The same beds are exposed immediately to the east of the village -of Sersena, midway between Sêla and Tamia. They are again well seen -in the ravine below the last named village, and forming the narrow -strip of the desert projecting into the cultivation as far as the -northern end of the Tamia lake; they also occur on the shore of the -latter at El Tuba, about 2 kilometres south of the village. At -Tamia their exposure measures 25 metres in thickness.</p> - -<p>At various points along the north side of the Birket el Qurûn -exposures of this series occur, the beds forming the lower sloping -part of the cliffs overlooking the lake, as well as the base of the -island “Geziret el Qorn,” although only the upper beds are visible -above the water of the lake. Both here and along the northern shore -of the lake they are for the most part hidden by the high level -recent lacustrine clays, but where occasionally exposed their -identity is certain, the characteristic small brown fish-scales -being abundant, besides occasional teeth, with shell-impressions of -the different genera enumerated above.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i06"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate VI.</p> -<a href="images/i06.jpg"><img src='images/i06.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">ESCARPMENT OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES NEAR THE -WESTERN END OF THE LAKE.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>At the western end -of the lake the Ravine beds form the lower part of the cliff as -well as the plain to the south; the underlying <i>Nummulites -gizehensis</i> limestone not being exposed. The series consists of -some 45 metres of white and grey shaly marls with harder bands of -siliceous limestone intercalated throughout, one of which usually -forms the uppermost bed. It is, in fact, the development in places -of one or other of these hard beds of limestone near the top of the -series that gives rise to the bold promontories, or horns, which -occur on the north side of the Birket el Qurûn.</p> - -<p>The greater part of the marls and clays met with from 18·5 to -112·5 metres below the surface in the boring at Medinet el Fayûm in -all probability belong to the Ravine beds.</p> - -<p>The maximum thickness of this series is 70 metres, measured at -Gar el Gehannem.</p> - -<h4><a id="s10c"></a><em>C.</em>—<span class="bold">Birket el Qurun -Series</span> (<em>Operculina-Nummulite Beds</em>).</h4> - -<p>The above designation is convenient and applicable to these -beds, which form the escarpment immediately overlooking the lake on -the north side throughout its length.</p> - -<p>The group includes all the beds between those last described and -the well-marked Qasr el Sagha series, homotaxial with the Upper -Mokattam (the brown beds) of Jebel Mokattam, near Cairo. It thus -appears to be the equivalent of the upper part of the white beds -(quarried limestones) of the Mokattam section, although the -lithological characters are entirely different, the massive -limestones of Jebel Mokattam being represented in the Fayûm by an -arenaceous and argillaceous series, deposited probably in water of -far less depth. Where the different members of this series are well -exposed certain beds are found to be characterized by the abundance -of two foraminifera, the one a small thin-shelled <i>Operculina</i> -(<i>O. discoidea</i>)., and the other a small thick -nummulite.<a id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class= -"fnanchor">[43]</a> The tests of these foraminifera sometimes make -up entire bands of rock. In addition, the series includes certain -beds which at times become very fossiliferous, and contain a -well-preserved molluscan fauna.</p> - -<p>The series is well seen in the desert separating the Fayûm from -the Nile Valley; on the south-east and east sides of the former; -along the northern boundary of the cultivation and the Birket el -Qurûn; and westwards in the cliffs to beyond the outlying hill-mass -of Gar el Gehannem.</p> - -<p>The following section was measured on the south-west of the -Fayûm, from Ezba Qalamsha (on the confine of the cultivation) to -the ridge summit 5 kilometres to the south-east.</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t041"> -<tr> -<th><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1">Summit of ridge 5 kilometres -south-east of Ezba Qalamsha.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang15">Pliocene Raised Beach with -occasional <i>Ostrea cucullata</i>, Born., made up of gravels with -blocks of limestone.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="10" class="tdc sc width5">Birket el Qurun Series.</td> -<td class="blt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone and -sandy limestone crowded with foraminifera (<i>Nummulites -Fraasi</i>, etc.), <i>Ostrea</i>, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">38</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy limestone, largely made up of -foraminifera (<i>Operculina discoidea ?</i>)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy shale</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstone, partly calcareous, with much -gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcareous sandstone with concretionary -weathering</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Shale with gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcareous sandstone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Shale with gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="linel"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcareous sandstone, hard and -yellowish</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdr-top">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous shale with numerous small shells -(<i>Tellina</i> sp.) passing down into sandy limestone. (This bed -is the uppermost member of the Ravine beds)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">Total thickness</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right1 bt bbdb">78</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="tdl med"><em>Base, cultivation level.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>To the north of the Lahûn pyramid the beds agree generally with -the above. The following are the chief divisions here:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t042a"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_42">[42]</span><em>Top of Hills.</em> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gravel Terrace (Pliocene) 22 metres -thick.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcareous sandstone and sandy limestones -full of nummulites; also <i>Ostrea</i>, etc.</td> -<td class="tdc-bot pad-right1">31</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone or -sandy limestone, often crowded with <i>Operculina discoidea</i> and -some <i>Nummulites Fraasi</i>, etc.</td> -<td class="tdc-bot pad-right1">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy limestone with small foraminifera -at top and some shells. The upper part of this bed has been -quarried</td> -<td class="tdc-bot pad-right1">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Shales and shaly limestone; gypsum</td> -<td class="tdc">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">Total thickness</td> -<td class="tdc pad-right1 bt bbdb">63</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The foraminiferal sandy limestones of this series are seen at -points in the desert bounding the eastern margin of the -cultivation, notably east of Sersena and at the top of the hill 15 -kilometres north-east of Rubiat.</p> - -<p>The following section was measured at the prominent hills 17 -kilometres 28° N. of E. (magn.) of Tamia:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t042b"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greyish laminated sandy clays with -gypsum; <i>Ostrea</i> band near top</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White sandy limestone with numerous badly -preserved <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Pecten</i>, and other -lamellibranchs</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Dark-brown clayey sands with gypsum and -grey sandy clays with obscure plant-remains. Occasional -<i>Ostrea</i></td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, white, sandy limestone with -numerous <i>Ostrea</i> at top; soft clays with gypsum</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish and brownish sands and sandy -clays with band of sandy limestone near top</td> -<td rowspan="2">⎱<br> -⎰</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greyish-brown, impure, sandy limestone -weathering into large globular concretions. Shell impressions</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy clays and marls alternating with -impure limestones; much gypsum. Occasional fish-remains and small -oysters</td> -<td rowspan="2">⎱<br> -⎰</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">22</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish sandy limestone with traces of -shells</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Finely laminated grey-brown clays with -black carbonaceous matter and fish-remains; saliferous</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White sandy limestone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft yellow sandstones, etc.</td> -<td rowspan="2">⎱<br> -⎰</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White marls with fish-scales, etc.; base -not seen. (This bed, and possibly also 9, 10, 11, should be -reckoned as belonging to the Ravine beds)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">Total thickness</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right1 bt bbdb">70</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>In the north of -the Fayûm the series is characterized by the presence of one or -more very constant well-marked beds of hard calcareous sandstone, -which almost invariably weather into huge globular masses. These -masses should be regarded as huge weathered-out concretions, rather -than as water-rounded blocks, although no doubt in many cases their -roundness has been increased by the action of the waters of Lake -Moeris as the level of the latter gradually fell, and possibly -still earlier during the invasion of the Pliocene sea; from the -latter time also may date the millions of parallel vertical borings -with which these and other exposed rocks are often perforated. In -the various places where one of these beds forms the present -surface of the desert the concretions may be seen in different -stages of exposure, from the initial, where only just the tops are -laid bare, to the final stage where the globes are left completely -weathered out, as seen in the illustration (<a href="#i07">Plate -VII</a>). The appearance of the desert when covered for many square -kilometres with thousands of these blocks is more easily imagined -than described.</p> - -<p>The lower beds of the Birket el Qurûn series form the island -Geziret el Qorn, and consist of clays and sandstones containing a -considerable number of organic remains. These beds were collected -from and examined by Schweinfurth<a id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> in 1879, the mollusca -being subsequently described by Mayer-Eymar,<a id= -"FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> -while the vertebrate remains, which included cetacean bones and -numerous fish-teeth, were submitted to Dames.</p> - -<p>The following species were determined by Mayer-Eymar, who -indicated that the fauna as a whole had a Bartonian aspect<a id= -"FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class= -"fnanchor">[46]</a>:—</p> - -<p class="thead">Upper Bed.</p> - -<ul class="simple1"> -<li><i>Ostrea plicata</i>, Defr.</li> - -<li><i>Arca Edwardsi</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Lucina pomum</i>, Duj.<a id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></li> - -<li><i>Lucina</i> cfr. <i>tabulata</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Cardium Schweinfurthi</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Cytherea Newboldi</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Tellina pellucida</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Mactra compressa</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Corbula pyxidicula</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Calyptræa trochiformis</i>, Lam.</li> - -<li><i>Turritella angulata</i>, Sow.</li> - -<li><i>Ficula tricarinata</i>, Lam.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="thead">Lower Bed.</p> - -<ul class="simple1"> -<li><i>Astrohelia similis</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Goniastræa cocchii</i>, d’Achiardi.</li> - -<li><i>Heliastræa acervularia</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Heliastræa Ellisi</i>, Defr. (<i>Astræa</i>).</li> - -<li><i>Heliastræa flattersi</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Ostrea digitalina</i>, Dubois.</li> - -<li><i>Ostrea gigantea</i>, Sol.</li> - -<li><i>Ostrea longirostris</i>, Lam.</li> - -<li><i>Ostrea producta</i>, Delb. et Raul.</li> - -<li><i>Isocardia cyprinoides</i>, Braun.</li> - -<li><i>Turritella carinifera</i>, Desh.</li> - -<li><i>Turritella transitoria</i>, May.-Eym.</li> - -<li><i>Turritella turris</i>, Bast.</li> - -<li><i>Turbo Parkinsoni</i>, Defr.</li> - -<li><i>Pleurotoma</i>, sp.</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>The cetacean -remains, belonging to the genus <i>Zeuglodon</i>, were described by -W. Dames,<a id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class= -"fnanchor">[48]</a> who compared them with the American species -<i>Z. macrospondylus</i> and <i>Z. brachyspondylus</i>, but did not -then consider them to represent a new species; in a later -publication,<a id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class= -"fnanchor">[49]</a> however, the same author described similar but -more complete remains, also collected by Schweinfurth (from beds -belonging to our Qasr el Sagha series), as a new species, <i>Z. -Osiris</i>. A considerable number of fish-remains from Geziret el -Qorn are also described in the earlier publication. Although the -difference in size of the bones of separate individuals was -considered by Dames to be sexual, it seems probable that there are -two distinct species of <i>Zeuglodon</i>, as the smaller type -appears to have a much greater upward range than the larger<a id= -"FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>; -both species, <i>Z. Osiris</i>, and <i>Z. Isis</i> occur in the -Birket el Qurûn series, and a very fine mandible of the larger was -obtained from these beds in the cliffs near the west end of the -lake.<a id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class= -"fnanchor">[51]</a> More recently a third species has been -discovered by Stromer and described under the name of <i>Z. -Zitteli</i>.<a id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class= -"fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter iw1"> -<figure id="fig04"><a href="images/fig04.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig04.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—Profile of beds of -Geziret el Qorn.</p> - -<p class="cp3 space-above1">1. Hard brown sand-rock with large -concretions of weathered globular sandstone on the summit; -ferruginous nodular bands containing shell-casts occur near top. 2. -Soft gypseous clays with bands of sand-rock and sandstone with -<i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Cardium Schweinfurthi</i>, <i>Turritella</i>, -corals, <i>Zeuglodon</i>, chelonian and fish-remains. 3. Brown -sand-rock. 4. Soft gypseous clays and harder brown sandstones. 5. -White shaly marl with fish-scales; hard band at top and soft sandy -shaly clays below.</p> - -<p class="cp3">The surface-slope is much less than shown in sketch -and is generally covered by a deposit of lacustrine clays -containing freshwater shells and fish-bones.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>The accompanying profile (Fig. 4), measured during a hurried -visit to the island for the purpose of correlating these beds with -those of the mainland, shows the character of the lower beds of the -Birket el Qurûn series at this point.<a id= -"FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class= -"fnanchor">[53]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i07"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate VII.</p> -<a href="images/i07.jpg"><img src='images/i07.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">WEATHERED CONCRETIONARY SANDSTONE (BIRKET EL QURUN -SERIES) ON NORTH SHORE OF LAKE NEAR GEZIRET EL QORN.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>The upper beds of -the Birket el Qurûn series in this part of the Fayûm are -lithologically similar to those just described, consisting of -alternating clays and sandstones, about 37 metres thick. They are, -however, generally much richer in fossil remains, which are -likewise usually better preserved than in the lower beds. Some of -the brown sandstones of this series are literally crowded with -perfect examples of many of the typical mollusca; and further west, -near the end of the lake, foraminiferal bands again become -noticeable. Near Dimê the escarpment of these and the lower beds is -gentle and inconspicuous, but followed westwards it becomes a bold -precipitous cliff, increasing in height towards the western end of -the lake, where it is capped by the lower beds of the Qasr el Sagha -series.</p> - -<p class="space-above15">The following section was measured on the -mainland<a id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class= -"fnanchor">[54]</a> opposite the island Geziret el Qorn.</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t045"> -<tr> -<th><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous clays, separated by a band of -brown sandstone crowded with white well-preserved shells, including -numerous individuals of <i>Plicatula polymorpha</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, -<i>Turritella</i> and <i>Lucina pharaonis</i>. Large vertebrae of -<i>Zeuglodon Isis</i> occur on this horizon further to the -north-east</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstones and gypseous clays. Although -here the sandstones are not hard or predominant, this bed is -equivalent to the hard sandstone full of borings capping the plain -between the ruins of Dimê and the top of the escarpment overlooking -the lake. Further north this bed often contains numerous <i>Carolia -placunoides</i> and <i>Ostrea</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous clays</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays, brown sandstones, and occasional -beds of limestone, often very fossiliferous, containing <i>Ostrea -Reili</i>, <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, <i>Cardita Viquesneli</i>, -d’Arch., <i>Lucina</i> sp., <i>Turritella pharaonica</i>,<a id= -"FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> -<i>Clavelithes longævus</i>, <i>Qerunia cornuta</i>, etc., -etc.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with fossils as in last bed, capped -by hard band of shelly sandstone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Alternating yellow-brown sandstones and -gypseous clays</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2">Total thickness</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right1 bt bbdb">37</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td colspan="3">Bed with weathered-out sandstone concretions at -top—upper bed of section at Geziret el Qorn.<a id= -"FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class= -"fnanchor">[56]</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>At the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the series is well -marked, the sandstone beds forming the steep face of the bold -precipitous cliffs which are so marked a feature at this end of the -lake. The group has a thickness of some 50 metres and is overlain -by the lower beds of the Qasr el Sagha series; it is more -convenient here to give the entire section of the cliffs down to -the base of the series under discussion:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t046"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_46">[46]</span><em>Top of Cliffs.</em> -</th> -<th class="widthbrace"> -</th> -<th class="width1"> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard grey sandstone and shelly limestone -passing up into calcareous sandstone (forming surface of plain -dipping north).</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="tdc width3">Lower part (42 metres) of Qasr -el Sagha Series.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Impure sandstone with numerous -fossils:—<i>Qerunia cornuta</i>, corals, <i>Ostrea Reili</i>, <i>O. -Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, <i>Plicatula -polymorpha</i>, <i>Cardita</i> (? <i>fajumensis</i>) sp., -<i>Clavelithes longævus</i>, <i>Serpula</i>, etc.</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3,</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">4. Clays with band of argillaceous -sandstone. Septaria bed near base. Fish-remains.</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Earthy limestone crowded with <i>Ostrea -Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>O.</i> sp., <i>Plicatula polymorpha</i>, -<i>Pecten</i> sp., <i>Lucina</i> sp., <i>Cytherea</i> sp., -<i>Turritella</i> sp., <i>Nonionina</i> sp., <i>Oliva</i> sp., -<i>Pleurotoma</i> sp., <i>Vermetus</i> sp., <i>Nautilus</i> -sp.</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thin-bedded clays, grey with yellowish -band, sandy clays interbedded with soft whitish sandstones with -small irregular concretions. Clays, gypseous and sometimes -carbonaceous.</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Shelly sandstone, hard on upper surface -and very fossiliferous (forms similar to Bed 9).</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous clays.</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thin (·25 to ·5 metre) hard dark -reddish-brown, very ferruginous, concretionary-weathering sandstone -with nummulites and <i>Operculina</i> and well-preserved examples -of <i>Qerunia cornuta</i>, <i>Pecten</i> sp., <i>Pectunculus</i> -sp., <i>Venus</i> sp., <i>Cardita Viquesneli</i>, <i>Astarte</i> -sp., <i>Macrosolen Hollowaysi</i>, <i>Lucina</i> sp., <i>Natica</i> -sp., <i>Cerithium</i> sp., <i>Clavelithes longævus</i>, -<i>Voluta</i> sp., <i>Dentalium</i> sp.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard purplish clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft yellowish sandstone with -<i>Ostrea</i> sp., <i>Cardita ægyptiaca</i>, <i>Lucina</i> sp., -<i>Turritella</i> sp., and sharks’ teeth. Upper surface tends to -become dark, ferruginous, and concretionary</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Purple clays, with strings of gypsum</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft light-yellow sandstones with harder -shelly bands and occasional concretionary beds, forming vertical -cliff-wall</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey and brown clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl med"><em>Ravine Beds.</em> -</td> -<td colspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">Total</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb pad-right1">50</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the cliffs west of the end of the lake the upper bed No. 9 -continues highly fossiliferous and yields the most perfectly -preserved molluscan remains to be found in the Fayûm and probably -in Egypt.</p> - -<p>A few kilometres east of the end of the lake a band of large -globular concretions occurs in the thick brown sandstone forming -the vertical face of the cliff. In many places the effect of -weathering of these rocks is of some interest, numerous -“earth-pillars” having been formed; these are largely the result of -the action of blown sand, assisted by rain, the concretions being -left capping pillars of brown sandstone, the sides of which are -sculptured by the wearing action of sand. The curious perforate or -cellular appearance which the weathered surfaces of this sandstone -assume after long exposure are particularly noticeable in this -neighbourhood and in the Zeuglodon Valley further west.</p> - -<p>In the well-marked hill distant 17 kilometres to the north-east -of Gar el Gehannem, the soft fossiliferous sandstones of this -series are crowded with <i>Operculina</i>, <i>Nummulites</i>, and -many species of mollusca beautifully preserved.</p> - -<p>At Gar el Gehannem the series is seen (<a href="#fig02">Fig. -2</a> and detailed section <a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>) forming -part of the slope of the hill, underlain by the Ravine beds, and -capped by part of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> -Qasr el Sagha series. It here consists of yellow sandstones divided -by a bed of clay; the sandstones are often crowded with nummulites -(of two species); also <i>Operculina</i> (<i>discoidea?</i>), -echinids, <i>Balanus</i> sp., <i>Ostrea Reili</i>, <i>O. -Fraasi</i>, <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, and species of -<i>Pecten</i>, <i>Pinna</i>, <i>Cardita</i>, <i>Teredo</i>, -<i>Turritella</i>, and <i>Cerithium</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig05"><a href="images/fig05.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig05.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Section of cliffs, -western end of the Birket el Qurun.</p> - -<p class="cp3 space-above1">Pleistocene.—(<em>a</em>) Lacustrine -clays and sands with freshwater shells and fish-remains; <em>Middle -Eocene</em>, 1. 14 Clays, sandstones and impure limestones; 15 -White shaly clays and marly limestones.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilometres W.S.W. of Gar el -Gehannem, the brown sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series are -divided by a narrow band of fine-bedded grey clay. Most of the -fantastically shaped hills on the south-west slope of the valley -are carved out of the lower division of the sandstone. The -concretionary beds of the Birket el-Qurûn series are not developed -in this neighbourhood. Remains of <i>Zeuglodon</i> of both species -(<i>Z. Osiris</i> and <i>Z. Isis</i>) are remarkably abundant and -the skeletons of these cetaceans may be found in every stage of -weathering. The larger species, <i>Z. Isis</i>, is the more common, -and series of vertebrae, twelve to fifteen in number, can -frequently be counted in situ. The remains are most abundant -enclosed in the hard brown nodular bands of the series but in such -cases it is almost impossible to extract specimens of any value. In -one instance an almost complete skull of <i>Z. Isis</i>, measuring -116 cm. in length, was found enclosed in a large block of the -nodular rock.<a id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class= -"fnanchor">[57]</a> Bones are frequently to be observed protruding -from the wind-worn sides of the small hills, while those portions -of the skeleton already weathered out litter the ground below. -Exposed they break up with rapidity, although where the enclosing -rock is softer than the bone itself, parts of the skeleton -beautifully preserved and perfectly free from matrix may sometimes -be obtained.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>The molluscan -fauna is represented by very large numbers of pseudomorphs in -sulphate of strontium (celestine) of the genera <i>Lucina</i>, -<i>Turritella</i>, <i>Fusus</i> and <i>Nautilus</i>, the profusion -of individuals of a species of the latter being very marked. In the -case of lamellibranchs the radiating bundles of crystals of -celestine are seen to originate from a point placed centrally on -one of the valves, so that on this side (of a slightly weathered -example) a radiating mass of crystals is seen, while on the other -appear numerous contiguous circular areas, representing the -terminal ends of the bundles of crystalline fibres or needles. -Apart from the quantities of organic pseudomorphs, masses of -crystalline celestine occur in the sandstones throughout the -valley, and altogether the quantity of sulphate of strontium -present must be very great. The gigantic oysters and other fossils -which occur in some of the overlying higher beds, and the numerous -individuals of nummulites in the sandstone itself, never seem to be -replaced by celestine.</p> - -<p>Nummulites of two species are very abundant in some bands and -the presence in the Zeuglodon Valley of occasional individuals of -the large <i>N. gizehensis</i> shows that in favourable localities -this species persisted throughout the time represented by the -deposition of the Ravine beds and ranged upward into the basal -members of the Birket el Qurûn series.</p> - -<p>In the higher hills within the valley, and in the hill-mass on -the south side, the yellow sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series -pass up into the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha series. In -their upper limits the sandstones become very nummulitic in places -and at the top bands made up of <i>Carolia</i> and <i>Ostrea</i> -occur. Above these, in the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha -series, huge oysters and finely preserved specimens of <i>Qerunia -cornuta</i> are conspicuous.</p> - -<p>The dip in the valley is 2° north.</p> - -<p>The southern face of the hill-mass lying immediately to the -south of the Zeuglodon Valley is an almost sheer cliff of over 100 -metres, descending to the silt covered basin below which has -already been noticed (<a href="#Page_23">page 23</a>). On this -escarpment the hard nodular marly limestones of the Ravine beds are -seen near the base, overlain by a mass of grey shaly gypseous beds; -above, forming as a rule a vertical wall of rock, lies the hard -massive brown sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series, here -undivided by clays; at the top, highly fossiliferous alternating -clays and limestones are found forming the summit of the hills.</p> - -<p>The exact junction between the Birket el Qurûn series and the -overlying Qasr el Sagha beds is naturally perfectly arbitrary, many -of the fossils being common to both groups. <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, which is perhaps the most abundant fossil in the -Qasr el Sagha series, is sometimes very common in the upper beds of -the underlying group, and, as shown before, is common enough in the -still lower <i>Nummulites gizehensis</i> beds of Wadi Rayan. So -that, though this fossil itself is no criterion, its relative -abundance in the upper series justifies those beds being called the -“Carolia beds,” the additional name of the Qasr el Sagha series -being taken from the old ruin of that name where these beds are -fully seen.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i08"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate VIII.</p> -<a href="images/i08.jpg"><img src='images/i08.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT (QASR EL SAGHA SERIES) 12 -KILOM. WEST OF QASR EL SAGHA.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<h4><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span><a id= -"s10d"></a><em>D.</em>—<span class="bold">Qasr el Sagha -Series</span> (<em>Carolia Beds</em>).</h4> - -<p>This division is strikingly developed in the north of the Fayûm, -where it forms a bold escarpment of great length, consisting of an -alternating series of very fossiliferous clays and limestones, with -sands and sandstone in the upper beds, of a total thickness of 175 -metres.</p> - -<p>This series is the equivalent of the well known Upper Mokattam -beds of Jebel Mokattam, immediately to the east of Cairo. The -cliffs of this hill are among the best known in Egypt and have been -studied by many geologists, including Zittel, Schweinfurth, -Mayer-Eymar, etc.; these authors have classified the whole of the -Upper Mokattam of Cairo as equivalent to the Upper Parisian (Middle -Eocene) of Western Europe. The series is far better developed in -the Fayûm than at Jebel Mokattam, where the total thickness is only -some 70 to 80 metres.</p> - -<p>In consequence of the discovery in these beds of a highly -interesting vertebrate fauna, including land animals, the series -becomes of the greatest importance. As already mentioned, as long -ago as 1879, Schweinfurth, during a journey across the Fayûm, -obtained remains of <i>Zeuglodon</i> in the underlying series from -the island in the Birket el Qurûn. Subsequently<a id= -"FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -he obtained additional remains of the same cetacean in a violet -marl belonging to the present series, from a locality 12½ -kilometres west of Qasr el Sagha<a id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>; these remains, as already -mentioned, were described by Dames as <i>Z. Osiris</i>. Since then -important finds of land and marine mammals and reptiles have been -made in different beds of this series; these will be referred to -later.</p> - -<p>The outcrop of the Qasr el Sagha series occupies a large part of -the northern desert of the Fayûm. The beds are, however, best seen -in the cliffs about 8 kilometres north of the Birket el Qurûn, -where they form a steep double escarpment, running east and west, -nearly parallel to the northern shore of the lake. The dip of the -series being northward at a very low angle, and the upward slope of -the ground being in the same direction, this cliff dies out a few -kilometres north-east of Qasr el Sagha. A little further north, -however, a N.W.-S.E. fold and fault again exposes nearly the whole -of the beds of the series, forming prominent cliffs as before.</p> - -<p>In the conspicuous hill 17½ kilometres 28° N. of E. (magnetic) -of Tamia the series consists of innumerable alternations of clays -and sandy limestone. The calcareous beds nearly always contain -numerous examples of <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, <i>Ostrea</i> and -<i>Turritella</i> of several species, but other well-preserved -fossils are rare. The exposed beds here have a thickness of about -55 metres, and are underlain by the Birket el Qurûn beds with a -well-marked band of concretionary sandstone, the thickness of the -two series together being 127 metres. The upper beds of the former -series are not here exposed, the top of the hill being<span class= -"pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> formed of well-rounded flint and -quartz pebbles embedded in a base of finely crystalline gypsum (2 -metres thick), a deposit of Pleistocene times.</p> - -<p>To the north of Tamia a large area of desert is occupied by the -beds of this series; the district has the character of an -undulating plain with occasional groups of hills and low irregular -escarpments. At the groups of hills 12 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia, -and just to the east of Garat el Faras, the Qasr el Sagha beds are -found to consist as usual of an alternating series of sands, -sandstones, clays, marls and limestones, with numerous individuals -of <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Carolia</i> and <i>Turritella</i>, besides -vertebræ, teeth and spines of large fish.</p> - -<p>We may pass now to the locality where this series shows its best -development and exposure, the beds being all concentrated in one -bold escarpment, generally divisible into an upper and a lower -cliff. These cliffs overlook the Birket el Qurûn, although distant -usually about 8 kilometres, being separated from the lower -escarpment of the Birket el Qurûn series (immediately above the -lake shore) by a broad plain, the surface of which is usually the -dip-slope of a hard bed of sandstone. From Qasr el Sagha (6½ -kilometres N.N.E. of Dimê) these cliffs trend westward, keeping -approximately the same distance from the north shore of the lake; -they have been followed and mapped for a distance of 70 kilometres -to a point 13 kilometres N.N.W. of Gar el Gehannem, whence they -could be seen still trending in a direction slightly south of west -(see <a href="#i17">Plate XVII</a>).</p> - -<p>Small faults are of frequent occurrence along these escarpments, -but are not of other than local interest; they almost invariably -have their downthrow to the north, and it seldom exceeds a few -metres. <a href="#fig05">Fig. 5</a> shows a section through one of -these faults near Qasr el Sagha.</p> - -<p>The following detailed section (<a href="#i23">Plate XXIII</a>) -will show the character of the beds forming this division. As might -be expected in such a series, although the calcareous bands are -fairly constant, there is a continuous change of character among -the sandy and clayey sediments from point to point; the -false-bedding is in places very striking.</p> - -<p>The main part of the section was measured 3½ kilometres -north-east of Qasr el Sagha, but the lower beds not being exposed -at that point, they were added from the cliffs at the ruin itself. -The total thickness is 154 metres.</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t050"> -<tr> -<th class="tdl"><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th class="width5">Thickness in metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, white, grey-weathering, sandy -limestone with numerous shell-casts: <i>Echinolampas Crameri</i>, -Loriol, <i>Plicatula Bellardi</i>, May.-Eym.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">False-bedded sand and sand-rock with grey -and green clays; concretions and bands of ironstone.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, dark-brown or purplish ferruginous -sandstone band. Occasional vertebrae of <i>Zeuglodon Osiris</i>, -Dames, <i>Pterosphenus</i> (<i>Mœriophis</i>) <i>Schweinfurthi</i>, -Andr., crocodilian and fish-remains; coprolites</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, calcareous, ferruginous, clayey -sandstone with brown ironstone concretions. Occasional -fish-spines.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with massive veins of gypsum -forming a stock-work, and left weathered out above surface. -<i>Cardium Schweinfurthi</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Cardita fajumensis</i>, -Oppenh., (<i>Cossmannella ægyptiaca</i>, May.-Eym<a id= -"FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class= -"fnanchor">[60]</a>), <i>Crassatellithes</i> sp.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, yellow, gypseous sandy limestone or -calcareous sandstone</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy, glauconitic clays with gypsum; -oyster-bed at base in places. <i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, -Bellardi, <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, May.-Eym.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_51">[51]</span><em>2nd escarpment.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard or friable limestone, sometimes -sandy, full of <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, Cantr., and <i>Exogyra -Fraasi</i>, also <i>Ostrea</i> aff. <i>heteroclyta</i>, Defr., -<i>Ostrea Reili</i>, Fraas., <i>O. elegans</i>, Desh., <i>Plicatula -Bellardi</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Pectunculus (?) ægyptiacus</i>, -Oppenh., <i>Qerunia</i> (<i>Hydractinia</i>) <i>cornuta</i>, -May.-Eym.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Purplish clays interbedded and remarkably -current-bedded with ash-grey sands, with both ferruginous and -highly carbonaceous bands with plant-remains, lignite and natural -charcoal. Vertebrate remains fairly common, the mammalian including -<i>Zeuglodon Osiris</i>, <i>Eosiren libyca</i>, Andr., -<i>Mœritherium Lyonsi</i>, <i>Barytherium?</i> Andr.; the reptilian -<i>Stereogenys Cromeri</i>, Andr., and <i>Tomistoma africanum</i>, -Andr., with numerous coprolites; also frequent remains of siluroid -and other fish. Masses of coral, <i>Astrohelia similis</i>, Felix, -in places</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard grey, close-grained, concretionary -sandstone, frequently weathering into huge elongated rounded -masses; <i>Turritella pharaonica</i>, Cossm.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard, purplish clays with grey sandy -clays, sandrock, etc. Occasional crocodile and fish-remains</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard ripple-marked sandstone. -False-bedded sandstones with clay partings; ferruginous and -lignitic bands with lumps of lignite. Occasionally coprolites and -remains of Sirenia and Crocodilia are numerous</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard or friable brown sandy limestone -with shell-casts filled with scalenohedra of calcite. <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, <i>Turritella</i> sp.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous clays, with red ferruginous -band; weathering to paper-shales below</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">4½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light-yellow limestone and calcareous -sandstone with sharks’ teeth, <i>Mesalia fasciata</i>, Lam., -<i>Cassidaria</i> sp., <i>Rimella rimosa</i>, Sol., -<i>Trachelochetus bituberculatus</i>, Cossm., <i>Turritella -carinifera</i>, Desh., <i>T. Lessepsi</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Cardita -fajumensis</i>, Oppenh. <i>Goniopora?</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Slate-blue and brown gypseous clays with -band containing <i>Mesalia</i> sp., <i>Cassidaria nilotica</i>, -Bell., <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i> and <i>Goniaræa elegans</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstone and sandrock, light yellow</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">15.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sandy friable limestone with casts -of shells and <i>Mesalia fasciata</i>, <i>M. oxycrepis</i>, -May.-Eym., <i>Turritella Lessepsi</i>, <i>T. pharaonica</i>, -Cossm., <i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>Ostrea Reili</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">16-17.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sands, sandy clays and clays with a -double band of limestone containing <i>Ampullina hybrida</i>, Lam., -<i>Melongena nilotica</i>, var. <i>bicarinata</i>, May.-Eym., -<i>Tudicla</i> aff. <i>umbilicaris</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Turritella -Lessepsi</i>, <i>T. parisiana</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Solarium</i> sp., -<i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>Plicatula polymorpha</i> -(occasional), <i>Lucina fortisiana</i>, Defr., <i>L. pharaonis</i>, -Bell., <i>Mytilus affinis?</i> J. and C. Sowerby, <i>Astrohelia -similis</i>, <i>Goniaræa elegans</i>, Mich.; numerous vertebrate -remains both above and between limestones including <i>Zeuglodon -Osiris</i>, <i>Eosiren libyca</i>, <i>Barytherium grave</i>, Andr., -<i>Moeritherium Lyonsi</i>, <i>M. gracile</i>, Andr., -<i>Gigantophis Garstini</i>, Andr., <i>Pterosphenus -Schweinfurthi</i> and <i>Tomistoma africanum</i>, Andr. The remains -of a siluroid fish are abundant; also <i>Propristis -Schweinfurthi</i>, Dames. Large numbers of coprolites. Silicified -wood</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">18.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown sandy limestone with casts of -shells, <i>Akera</i> aff. <i>striatella</i>, Lam., -<i>Ampullaria</i>, n. sp., <i>Gisortia gigantea</i>, Munst., -<i>Lanistes antiquus</i>, Blanck., <i>Melongena nilotica</i>, var. -<i>bicarinata</i>, <i>Mesalia</i> sp., <i>Cassidaria nilotica</i>, -<i>C.</i> aff. <i>nodosa</i>, <i>Solarium</i> aff. -<i>bistriatum</i>, Desh., <i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>Cardium -Schweinfurthi</i>, <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, <i>Lucina pharaonis</i>, -Bell., <i>Macrosolen Hollowaysi</i>, J. Sowerby, <i>Meretrix -nitidula</i>, Lam., <i>M. parisiensis</i>, Desh., <i>Ostrea -flabellula</i>, Lam., <i>Tellina</i> sp., overlying clays with -gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">19.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy limestone with numerous <i>Carolia -placunoides</i> and <i>Turritella imbricataria</i>, Lam.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">20.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greyish-blue and brown ferruginous, -sandy, and other clays. Plant remains</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">21.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Friable shelly limestone with occasional -small calcite veins</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">22.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_52">[52]</span>23.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow sandy limestone with -<i>Ostrea</i> and <i>Anisaster</i> (<i>Agassizia</i>) -<i>gibberulus</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">24.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with thin bands of fibrous -gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">25.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard friable shelly limestone with -numerous fossils, including <i>Dictyopleurus Haimi</i>, Dunc. and -Slad.; <i>Akera</i> aff. <i>striatella</i>, <i>Turritella -carinifera</i>, <i>T. imbricataria</i>, <i>T. pharaonica</i>, -<i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>, <i>Arca tethyis</i>, Oppenh., -<i>Cardita</i> aff. <i>carinata</i>, J. Sowerby, <i>C.</i> aff. -<i>depressa</i>, Locard., <i>C.</i> aff. <i>triparticostata</i>, -Cossm., <i>C.</i> cf. <i>gracilis</i> and <i>depressa</i>, Locard., -<i>Cardita fajumensis</i>, <i>Cucullæa</i> aff. <i>crassatina</i>, -Lam., <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, <i>Glycimeris</i> (<i>Pectunculus</i>) -<i>pulvinatus</i>, Lam., <i>Ostrea</i> aff. <i>Reili</i>, -<i>Spondylus ægyptiacus</i>, Bull. Newt., <i>Pecten solariolum</i>, -May.-Eym., <i>P. moelehensis</i>, May.-Eym., <i>Qerunia -cornuta</i>, <i>Euspatangus cairensis</i>, Loriol, <i>Linthia</i> -sp., <i>Anisaster gibberulus</i>, <i>Schizaster</i> aff. -<i>africanus</i>, Loriol; bryozoa</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">26.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy clays with gypsum</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">27.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Friable, gypseous, impure limestone with -<i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, <i>Carolia placunoides</i>, -<i>Turritella</i> sp., <i>Qerunia cornuta</i>, <i>Alectryonia -Clot-Beyi</i></td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">28.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy gypseous clays</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">29.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Friable sandy limestone with <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>, <i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>, <i>Turritella</i> sp. (The -ruin of Qasr el Sagha is built on this bed)</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">30.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gypseous sandy clays with occasional -oyster-limestone with <i>Qerunia cornuta</i>; ferruginous sandstone -band, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>Total</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right2 bt bbdb">154</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="tdl pad1">Hard grey sandstone with -<i>Zeuglodon</i> and numerous <i>Carolia</i>, <i>Ostrea</i>, etc., -in places, capping plain to south of Qasr el Sagha and forming the -top of the “Birket el Qurun series.”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The chief divisions of the series remain fairly constant and can -be recognized and followed for many kilometres westwards.<a id= -"FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -The lower beds form the summits of Gar el Gehannem and the -neighbouring hills (see <a href="#fig02">Fig. 2</a> and section -<a href="#Page_36">p. 36</a>), the upper beds of the series being -exposed in the higher escarpments to the north.</p> - -<p>Although vertebrate remains are more common on some -horizons<a id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class= -"fnanchor">[62]</a> than on others, they are occasionally met with -in most of the beds. The most prolific bone horizon is, however, -about half-way down, i.e., those beds numbered 16 and 17 in the -above section; bed 7 also yielded a number of remains. At the point -where the upper part of the section was measured, 3½ kilometres -north-east of Qasr el Sagha, the beds 16 and 17 yielded a -considerable number of land-animal remains, all of which occurred -within a fairly confined space, suggesting that they had been -carried out from the land to this point by a strong river-current -and deposited when the latter became too feeble to carry them -further out to sea. The same beds were also examined in the faulted -bay 8 kilometres to the north, but no bones, or at most a very -occasional fragment or two, were obtained here. This is easily -explained by the greater distance of this locality from the -land-mass to the south. Westwards the same beds were always found -more or less bone-bearing, isolated detached mandibles, limb-bones -and vertebræ of <i>Mœritherium</i>, being of frequent occurrence, -although no such complete remains were found as those from near -Qasr el Sagha. Reptilian and fish<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_53">[53]</span> bones are very widespread throughout the -area. An extensive and detailed examination of these beds over a -large area can hardly fail to yield important results, as other -localities where skeleton-carrying currents came out from the land -would very likely be discovered.</p> - -<p>That the Qasr el Sagha series was deposited in fairly shallow -water at no great distance from land seems certain, not only from -the general lithological character of the beds but from the number -of land-animal remains and the frequency of river and -shore-frequenting whales, dugongs, crocodiles and turtles. The -clays, moreover, are found to abound with impressions of plants, -and in some cases are highly lignitic, being made up of compressed -masses of vegetation including solid twigs, now found in a state -more resembling charcoal than ordinary dense lignites; some bands -approximate to an impure brown coal. In certain beds of the series -further to the west, very thin seams of true coal occur; they were, -however, never seen to exceed one or two millimetres. The -intercalated bands of limestone are generally impure and do not -indicate any great conditions of depth, but only rather a temporary -cessation in the supply of sand and clay. Corals, moreover, abound -along many horizons.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i09"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate IX.</p> -<a href="images/i09.jpg"><img src='images/i09.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">UPPER BEDS OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES WITH BASALT CAP, -LOOKING WEST FROM THE EASTERN EXTREMITY OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<h3><span class="sc">Section</span> XI.—UPPER EOCENE -(BARTONIAN)—LOWER OLIGOCENE.</h3> - -<h4 class="space-above1"><a id="s11e"></a><em>E.</em>—<span class= -"bold">Fluvio-Marine Series</span> (<em>Jebel el Qatrani -Beds</em>).</h4> - -<p>Throughout the north of the Fayûm depression the Qasr el Sagha -beds, forming the uppermost Middle Eocene, are followed by an -unique series<a id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class= -"fnanchor">[63]</a> of variegated<a id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> sands and sandstones, with -alternating beds of clay and clayey marl. The ever-recurring bands -of limestone, so common to the underlying marine beds, have now -almost completely disappeared, being represented by only an -occasional bed of calcareous grit, marl, or thin band of limestone. -In the upper part of the series occurs a horizontal sheet of -basalt,<a id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class= -"fnanchor">[65]</a> in all probability contemporaneously -interbedded; this forms a convenient datum line and may perhaps be -provisionally taken as an arbitrary junction between the Eocene and -Oligocene. Although as a rule remarkably barren of organic remains, -certain bands, especially in the upper part, yield numerous -individuals of a few species of mollusca, including <i>Lucina</i>, -<i>Arca</i>, <i>Mutela</i>, <i>Spatha</i>, <i>Unio</i>, -<i>Lanistes</i>, <i>Turritella</i>, <i>Melania</i>, -<i>Potamides</i>, <i>Cerithium</i> and <i>Pleurotoma</i>. From such -an assemblage we may without doubt conclude that the conditions -under which the series was deposited were estuarine or -fluvio-marine, and this is further proved by the non-marine -lithological character of the beds. The enormous quantities of -silicified wood which occur in certain beds, in the shape of -hundreds of trees of great length and girth, together with the -numerous remains of land-animals, crocodiles, tortoises and -turtles, indicate that rivers of considerable size emerged from the -land to the south, the coast-line of which was probably<span class= -"pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> not far distant. In fact the -retreat of the sea, which as already mentioned, had probably -already begun in Middle Eocene times, was now still further -continued, although the cause of this was apparently not so much -due to elevation of the land as to the continued deposition of -sediment from south to north beyond the land-shore. We may in fact -regard the series as a huge delta deposit in an area of local -depression, in which the great accumulation of sediment brought -down from the land continually caused the gradual retreat of the -sea to the north.</p> - -<p>The same conditions would even appear to have continued on to -Pliocene times, as from the Fayûm northwards stretches an immense -plain of lithologically similar rocks, evidently accumulated under -similar conditions, and which appear to contain newer and newer -faunas from south to north. Thus, while in the Fayûm the remains -are of Middle and Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene age, when the -latitude of Mogara is reached, some 70 kilometres further north, a -fauna distinctly Lower Miocene in aspect occurs; further north -again, as at Wadi Natrûn, Pliocene remains are abundant. We may -hope therefore that this otherwise barren desert, when carefully -and systematically explored, will yield us a continuous record of -the vertebrate life of the northern part of the African continent -from Eocene to Pleistocene times.</p> - -<p>In the Fayûm, over a length of 80 to 90 kilometres, the basal -beds of the Fluvio-marine series, at a height of only a few metres -above the top of the Qasr el Sagha series, are frequently found to -contain the remains of land-animals, often in sufficient quantities -to form in places a true “bone-bed.” Besides land-mammals, remains -of large tortoises, turtles and crocodiles, are very common, some -of the latter being identical with those of the Qasr el Sagha -series below. Chelonian and crocodilian remains are to be found on -various horizons, but so far none but fragmentary mammal remains -have been observed in the higher parts of the series. It is -interesting to note that the bones in these beds appear to be most -common near the accumulations of fossil trees, thus suggesting that -they were floated out from the land at the same time and by the -same river-currents. The porous character of the sands and -sandstones of this group has resulted in the remains not being in -nearly so hard or durable a condition, except when coated with -ferruginous sand, as those in the series below, although the actual -state of preservation is even more perfect.</p> - -<p>Analysis shows that these bones, with the exception of the loss -of all organic matter, have undergone very little change. A sample -examined by Mr. Lucas was taken from a typically preserved pelvis -of <i>Arsinoitherium</i> and gave the following result:—</p> - -<table class="tless padded4cols2" id="t054"> -<tr> -<th><span class="sc">Determined</span>.</th> -<th> -</th> -<th><span class="sc">Calculated</span>.</th> -<th> -</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Silica</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">0·57</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Silica</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">0·57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Oxide of Iron</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1·98</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Oxide of Iron</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1·98</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Lime</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">51·40</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcium Phosphate</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">76·11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Magnesia</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">trace</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Magnesium Phosphate</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">trace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Phosphoric Acid</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">34·86</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcium Sulphate</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">4·64</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sulphuric Acid</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">2·74</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Calcium Carbonate</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">14·75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Loss on ignition, being Carbon -dioxide</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">6·13</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Organic Matter</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">nil</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Chlorine</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">trace</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sodium Chloride</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">trace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Not determined</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">2·32</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Not determined</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1·95</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt">100·00</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt">100·00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>The following -composition of the bones of an ox, from an analysis by Berzelius, -is appended for comparison:—</p> - -<table class="tless padded1" id="t055"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th>%</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Phosphate and Fluoride of Calcium</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">57·35</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Carbonate of Calcium</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">3·85</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Phosphate of Magnesium</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">2·05</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soda and a little Sodium Chloride</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">3·45</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Organic Matter</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">33·30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb">100·00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>It is curious that these Eocene bones should have so completely -preserved their original composition considering the almost -universal silicification of the trees deposited in the same -beds.</p> - -<p>Most frequently the vertebrate remains are found in an -unconsolidated false-bedded clean quartz sand, the grains of which -are semi-rounded or angular; in some layers the sand is very coarse -and polished, and mixed with fine gravel. These deposits of sand, -apparently brought down by river floods, are not continuous along -any particular horizon, but are intercalated here and there in the -ordinary sandstones, clays and marls of the series; they occur -chiefly, however, as local lenticular masses along a more or less -constant horizon near the base of the series. The bone-remains are -not absolutely confined to these deposits of river-sand, but like -the silicified trees are far more common in them than elsewhere. -Scattered mammal bones occur in the lower clays, marls, and hard -concretionary sandstones, while the remains of aquatic animals, -such as turtles and crocodiles, may be found almost anywhere.</p> - -<p>From an examination of the series in the field, there is no -doubt that, in at least the centre of the area, the deposition of -the lowest beds was continuous with those of the Qasr el Sagha -(Middle Eocene) series below. Followed away from the centre (i.e. -the district round Widan el Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel -el Qatrani) the series gradually thins out, and eastwards, at Elwat -Hialla, some 23 kilometres north of Tamia, has a thickness of only -40 metres, the basal beds being apparently laid on to a bed of -limestone of the Qasr el Sagha series about the horizon of Bed 12 -in <a href="#i23">Section XXIII.</a> The junction here is -apparently one of perfect conformity as far as the individual beds -go, and the peculiar sequence does not seem to be due to ordinary -overlap; it appears as if the change from marine to estuarine -conditions had set in earlier here than further to the west, with -the result that the upper Qasr el Sagha beds are wanting. Moreover, -the accumulation of estuarine beds went on so slowly in this -locality that the series does not attain to nearly its normal -thickness, while further east it dies out altogether. The slight -dip to the north is identical in both series, their lithological -characters being, however, very different.</p> - -<p>Although the Qasr el Sagha series contains numerous bands of -clay and sandstone, the continual recurrence of thick beds of -limestone at once gives it a distinguishing feature from the group -under discussion; the latter is in fact characterized by the -highly-coloured sandy, and to less extent clayey, character of its -beds. While the Middle Eocene is essentially marine, the succeeding -formation marks the retreat of the sea and the incoming of -estuarine and brackish water conditions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>Before discussing -the age of the Fluvio-marine series it will be well to describe its -development in the field. The beds of the complex are throughout -the district always found following on above the Qasr el Sagha -beds, although their thickness varies considerably, as might be -expected in a series of this nature. The most easterly locality to -which the formation was mapped is the scarp 23 kilometres due north -of Tamia, known as Elwat Hialla. Here the beds form a separate -escarpment, consisting of only about 40 metres of sands and -sandstone grit (sometimes silicified) with pieces of silicified -wood: some of the beds of sandstone have a concretionary stem-like -weathering. From this point these beds extend westwards far beyond -the western end of the lake, always forming the highest escarpments -of the Fayûm depression. A kilometre or two from our most easterly -point the first basalt sheets are seen, and these, preserving the -same level as far as can be observed, continue some 60 kilometres -further west, to a point nearly due north of the western end of the -Birket el Qurûn. The series, only 40 metres thick at the eastern -end, gradually thickens as it is followed westward, until it -reaches its maximum development in the cliffs of Jebel el Qatrani, -north-west of the temple of Qasr el Sagha, where a thickness of -some 210 metres is attained.</p> - -<p>Just 29 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia (6 kilometres N.W. of the -prominent western scarp of Elwat Hialla), a long hill offers a good -section of these beds, which consist of a variegated group of green -sands, red clays, coarse sandstones, red and yellow sand and -sandstone, etc., capped by a band of hard impure yellowish -limestone with numerous enclosed sand-grains (calcareous grit). -Near the same place is an interbedded sheet of basalt, which is -sometimes followed by another band of impure limestone and the -latter by false-bedded sandstone. Huge logs of weathered-out -silicified trees are seen strewn about.</p> - -<p>The following is a detailed section of the series, measured from -a point 3½ kilometres W.N.W. of Elwat Hialla, and about 28 -kilometres N.N.W. of Tamia, to the top of the escarpment 4 -kilometres further north:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t056"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl pad1">Undulating sandy, gravel-covered -desert<a id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class= -"fnanchor">[66]</a> stretching northwards.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><em>Top of escarpment.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">False-bedded sandstones</td> -<td class="brt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="tdr pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Band of impure limestone</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Interbedded basalt sheet</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstone</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl med"><em>(Section continued in hill ¾ -kilometre further north-east).</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow limestone with enclosed -sand-grains; cavities full of calcite</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish-white sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard reddish-brown stem-weathering -sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish or white sand and sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Variegated sandy clays; sand-rock with -occasional fragments of bone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_57">[57]</span>11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Rose-coloured sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard grey white marly clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">2½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse yellow sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Reddish, white, and variegated sands and -sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">15.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey, reddish and yellowish clays, with -bands full of plant-remains</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">3½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">16.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown clayey, sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">17.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">18.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy grey clay</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">19.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard grey sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">20.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish sand-rock and clayey -sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">21.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Dark red clay</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">22.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sands, etc.; outcrop of bed covered with -silicified trees of large dimensions, 12-15 metres long</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">23.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with hard grey false-bedded -sandstone and showing fine mammilary weathering at top. Silicified -logs on surface</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">24.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clays, sandy clays and argillaceous -sands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">25.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Reddish sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">26.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellowish sand-rock, in part -false-bedded</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">27.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clays with thin sandy bands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">28.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse grey sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">29.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red and green sandy clays with thin band -of hard white sandstone at top</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">30.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Bright red clay</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">31.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clays with thin green sandy -bands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">32.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish sand-rock with thin red clayey -bands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">33.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Reddish white mottled clayey sandstones -passing up into red and white mottled clays and sandy clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">34.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Fine white sand</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">35.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Black ferruginous silicified -sandstone</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr">Total thickness</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb pad-right1">90</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl med"><em>Base.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl pad1">Junction with Middle Eocene (Qasr -el Sagha series).</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i10"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate X.</p> -<a href="images/i10.jpg"><img src='images/i10.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">EL QATRANI RANGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>A little further west, at a point 25 kilometres north of the -eastern end of the Birket el Qurûn, thick beds of white coarse -sandstone form the upper part of the escarpment. Below comes a bed -of yellowish impure limestone and below this an interbedded sheet -of basalt 21 metres thick, underlaid by more white sandstone.</p> - -<p>The series has almost always a constant dip of two or three -degrees to the north. Silicified trees are very commonly found -strewn over the surface both near the base and high up in the -series.</p> - -<p>At a point about 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha definite -organic remains other than bone-fragments were for the first time -met with in the series. Here a fragment of ochreous-coloured grit -containing numerous specimens of a small <i>Melania</i> was picked -up and similar rocks were afterwards found <em>in situ</em>. -Calcareous grits and impure limestones occurred at the same spot, -and one of the harder more compact bands of limestone was found to -contain casts of <i>Cerithium</i>.</p> - -<p>Also at a point 9 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha hard grey -limestones, generally compact and cherty, and sometimes -semi-crystalline, are present, containing casts of -<i>Melania</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> -frequently filled with calcite. These overlie variegated -sandstones, and occur at about 40 metres below the basalt near the -top of the escarpment.</p> - -<p>Blanckenhorn has determined my fossils from these localities as -follows:—</p> - -<p><i>Melania</i> nov. sp., allied to <i>M. Nysti</i> of the -Oligocene.</p> - -<p><i>Potamides scalaroides</i>, Desh., an important guiding form -of the Middle Beauchamp Sands of the Paris Basin, and thus Upper -Eocene.</p> - -<p><i>Potamides tristriatus</i>, Lam., of the Parisian -(<i>Cerithium crispum</i>, Desh.,) is nearly related to the -frequent Middle and Upper Eocene <i>C. perditum</i>, Bay, between -which, according to Cossmann, transitions exist.</p> - -<p><i>Cerithium tiarella</i>, Desh., of the Middle and Upper -Eocene, but more especially in the latter.</p> - -<p>Blanckenhorn considers these determinations as certain, and thus -marking the complex as Upper Eocene, on the level of the “Beauchamp -Sands” of the Paris Basin, and consequently of the Lower Headon -Hill beds and Barton Clay of the South of England.</p> - -<p>The following section was measured from the base of the series, -2½ kilometres N.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, to the summit of the -escarpments, 2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. The series has -its maximum thickness at this point.</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t058"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1 pad1">Summit of escarpment of -Fayûm depression, 2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="tdl"><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstones with band of coarse dark -ferruginous grit; silicified logs occur weathered-out of this -bed</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse sandstone-grit with yellowish -calcareous base</td> -<td class="brt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greyish clay, possibly a product of -decomposed basalt</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Basalt sheet, soft friable, grey or -bright green, and decomposed at base</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow calcareous-grit with -calcite-filled cavities, passing into semi-compacted yellowish -sand, hardened at junction with basalt</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White and red sands</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish sandstones and yellow -concretionary sands with 2·5 cm. layer of calcareous grit, with -gastropods including large <i>Cerithium</i>, <i>Melania</i> sp., -<i>Turritella pharaonica</i>, <i>Pleurotoma ingens</i>, May.-Eym., -occasional lamellibranchs and also <i>Callianassa</i></td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White, green and brown sands and -sand-rock</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow calcareous grit</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red and white clayey sand and sandy -clays; some pebbly bands; <i>Lucina</i> sp., <i>Unio</i> sp.,<a id= -"FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> -preserved in brown ironstone, common in places on this horizon</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse grey and white sand (2 -metres)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdr pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clayey sands (1 metre)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White and yellow sand and sand-rock</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">15.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy ferruginous band with -lamellibranchs and gastropods of genera <i>Unio</i>, -<i>Pseudodon</i>, <i>Mutela</i>, <i>Spatha</i> and <i>Lanistes</i>, -indicating fluviatile or fresh water conditions of deposition</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_59">[59]</span>16.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Green clay (1 metre) passing into a red -variety</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="tdr pad-right1">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">17.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White sandy clay (2 metres)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">18.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">19.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White, brown, and red sands, partly -consolidated</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">20.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Bright red clay</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">21.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard coarse sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">22.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard compact light yellow limestone -enclosing sand-grains (½ metre)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="tdr pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">23.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White and yellow sands</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">24.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish clays (1 metre)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">25.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse white sands with <i>Unio</i> and -<i>Cardium</i>-like lamellibranchs preserved in brown -ironstone</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">26.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey clay</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">27.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow impure limestone (forms a -small platform)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">28.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey clays</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">29.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red and yellow sands with hard base of -grey sandstone</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">30.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey sandstones. Base of basalt-capped -escarpment</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl med hang1"><em>(Section continued ¾ -kilometre south-east).</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">31.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard blue-grey compact cherty limestone -(½ metre) with casts of <i>Melania</i>; hollows often filled with -calcite</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">32.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Variegated (red, white and yellow) sands, -sand-rock and sandy clays</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdr pad-right1">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">33.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard compact close-grained limestone</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">34.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Red and white variegated sands and -sand-rock, with some bands of red clay</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">35.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow impure limestone (⅓)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="tdr pad-right1">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">36.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey clays</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">37.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse white sand</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">38.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown calcareous sandstones</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">39.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Greenish and grey sandy clays (3 -metres)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">40.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Alternating white and red sands</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">41.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse yellow calcareous grit (½ -metre)</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="tdr pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">42.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light green sandstone</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">43.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Reddish clays</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">44.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White sand</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">45.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Alternating white and bright red -sands</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right1">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">46.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey sandstone with silicified wood; -occasional crocodilian and other bones</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">47.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard red clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">48.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey and brown clays, sandy clays, and -thin beds of sandstone with some silicified wood</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">49.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey sandstones and loose false-bedded -sandy clays with many silicified trees and remains<a id= -"FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> -of <i>Arsinoitherium Zitteli</i>, Bead., <i>Palæomastodon -Beadnelli</i>, Andr., <i>Mœritherium</i> sp., <i>Phiomia -serridens</i>, Andr. and Beadn., <i>Saghatherium antiquum</i>, -Andr. and Beadn., <i>S. minus</i>, Andr. and Beadn., <i>Megalohyrax -eocænus</i>, Andr., <i>Ancodus Gorringei</i>, Andr. and Beadn., -<i>Pterodon africanus</i>, Andr., <i>Crocodilus</i> sp., -<i>Tomistoma africanum</i>, Andr., and large and numerous tortoises -(<i>Testudo Ammon</i>, Andr.)<a id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> and turtles<a id= -"FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>, -and very rarely fragmentary fish-remains</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_60">[60]</span>50.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thin bands of limestone</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="tdr pad-right1">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">51.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sand-rock</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">52.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Grey sandstone with fragments of bone (½ -metre)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">53.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Brown calcareous-grit (½ metre)</td> -<td class="liner"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">54.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light green sand-rock and sandstone</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -<td class="sect03"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr pad-right1">Approximate total thickness in -metres</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr bt bbdb pad-right1">271</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The specimens collected from Bed 15, on about the same horizon -as the fossils mentioned from the locality 14 kilometres north of -Qasr el Sagha, were examined by Blanckenhorn, who has published the -following notice of them:—</p> - -<p>“I should first mention the fresh-water shells found by Beadnell -in brown sandstone 1 kilometre north of Camp 19 (i.e. at Widan el -Faras), which, in the absence of special literature on the -Palaeogene fresh-water shells of North Africa and nearer Asia, I -have compared with the fauna of to-day, in which I was most kindly -helped by Professor v. Martens, Director of the Conchological -Collection of the Natural History Museum. The greater number of the -forms have a distinctly tropical, and more especially Central -African, character.</p> - -<p><i>Unio</i> sp., small, related to the recent <i>U. -Nyassænsis</i> of Lake Nyassa.</p> - -<p><i>Unio</i>, related to <i>U. Homsensis</i><a id= -"FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> -Lea, from Syria, and <i>U. Bonneaudi</i> from Cochin China, with -many radial folds behind the umbo which run obliquely from the -blunt edge backwards towards the hinge-border.</p> - -<p><i>Unio</i>, related to <i>U. teretiusculus</i>, Phil. -(<i>Caillaudi</i>, Fer., <i>lithophagus</i>, Ziegli.) of the -Nile.</p> - -<p><i>Pseudodon?</i> sp.</p> - -<p><i>Mutela</i> (a genus of tropical Africa) sp., long, with a -straight finely-toothed hinge-border which very much recalls that -of <i>Barbatia</i> (a sub-genus of <i>Arca</i>).</p> - -<p><i>Spatha</i> sp. related to <i>S. dahomeyensis</i> and <i>S. -Droueti</i> of Assinia in West Africa.</p> - -<p><i>Lanistes carinatus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> scarcely distinguishable -from the Nile form.</p> - -<p>The <i>Melania</i> occurring in mass in the uppermost calcareous -bed appears to be a new species<a id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> whose nearest relation -must in any case be <i>M. Nysti</i> of the Oligocene, not <i>M. -muricata</i> of the Eocene, amongst forms at present known.</p> - -<p><i>Turritella angulata</i>, Sow. A marine form, occurring below -the basalt and indubitably this species, as it is well preserved -and easily determined<a id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" -class="fnanchor">[74]</a>; <i>T. angulata</i> ranges from the -Middle Eocene to the Lower Oligocene of the East and occurs in the -Upper Mokattam of Syria.”</p> - -<p>From Widan el Faras the series continues westwards, forming -several escarpments, the uppermost that of Jebel el Qatrani, and -maintaining the same general characters. The tripartite character -of the series, already noticeable between Qasr el Sagha and Widan -el Faras (see foregoing section) becomes still more marked. The -lowest division is very<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_61">[61]</span> largely composed of fluviatile sands and -sandstones, frequently coarse-grained and usually markedly -current-bedded, divided by clays and containing an abundance of -silicified trees and quantities of vertebrate remains. These soft -beds, some 60 metres in thickness, have as a rule an extensive -outcrop, forming an undulating plain averaging two or three -kilometres in width. They are overlaid by some 17 metres of harder -dark red sandstones, which invariably form a well-marked escarpment -capped by a very constant two or three metres band of hard white or -pinkish calcareous grit. This grit varies in composition, -frequently passing into a marl; and one of the characteristics of -this and the underlying red beds is the abundance of nodular masses -of calcite and gypsum. In some localities, as for instance 3 -kilometres W.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, numerous spherical nodules of -beekitic chalcedony occur in the beds of this division, and some of -these when broken are found to be geodes lined with beautiful -crystals of quartz and calcite.</p> - -<p>The next division consists of some 60 metres of alternating -sandstones and clays with occasional thin calcareous bands in the -upper part, and capped by a well-marked hard cherty limestone, -frequently passing into a dense tabular chert or flint. This -exceptionally hard band generally forms a dip-slope plain of some -width, before the softer basal members of the third and highest -division overlie it. The siliceous bed caps many of the most -notable hills in the district; among others may be mentioned the -big isolated hill 9 kilometres north-west of Garat el Esh, and the -hills five kilometres N.N.E. of the same point. This is the only -horizon throughout the Eocene succession of the Fayûm on which an -abundance of flint is met with; that it was well known and -exploited in early times is evident from the old pits met with on -the summits of the hills overlooking the main bone-pits, a few -kilometres north of Garat el Esh. As no worked flints were noticed -round the workings it is probable that the material was excavated -and carried away to the borders of the lake, there to be fashioned -into the harpoons, saws and other implements which are so commonly -found scattered at the present day near the margin of the old lake -site.</p> - -<p>The uppermost division of the Fluvio-marine series consists of -over 100 metres of variegated sediments and forms the escarpment of -Jebel el Qatrani itself, capped by the conspicuous band of hard -black basalt, which is itself overlain by a further 20 metres of -similar sediments. The basalt has a thickness of over 20 metres in -places, though its average is considerably less; at the base it is -frequently decomposed, soft, and of a brown colour.</p> - -<p>At a point due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn -the interbedded basalt sheet terminates, and no further flows were -seen as far as the point up to which the series was mapped, nearly -due north of Gar el Gehannem. As far as could be seen on a traverse -through the Zeuglodon Valley to the south-western limits of the -depression no further basalt flows occur.</p> - -<p class="space-above15">Section from the base of the Fluvio-marine -series, 2 kilometres north of Garat el Esh, to the summit of Jebel -el Qatrani 5½ kilometres north of the bone-pits. (See Plates -<a href="#i18">XVIII</a> and <a href="#i24">XXIV</a>).</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t062"> -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_62">[62]</span><em>Summit of plateau.</em> -</th> -<th class="widthbrace"> -</th> -<th class="width6">Approximate thickness in metres</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">1.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse sandstones and grits</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">2.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Basalt</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">3.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sands and sandstones, capped by 3 -m. of hard concretionary grey sandstone with occasional mammalian -bones (underlying basalt in scarp and capping outlying hill)</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">4.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard sandstones with clayey bands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">5.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy and clayey beds</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">6.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard yellow calcareous grit</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">7.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays and clayey marls</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">8.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy beds</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">9.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard sandstone (forms connecting ridge -between hill and escarpment)</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right1">½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">10.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clays with thin sandstone bands</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">11.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Variable sandy and marly red clays with a -hard yellowish sandstone band ten metres from base</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1 med sect075"><em>Base of isolated -hill.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">12.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft sands with chelonian and crocodilian -remains</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">13.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandy clays with chelonian and mammalian -(<i>Arsinoitherium</i>) bones, capped by coarse grit, in part -ferruginous silicified grit and quartzite</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White calcareous grit and marly -limestone. Band of flint in places</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1 med sect075"><em>Summit of hill -overlooking bone-pits.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">14.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Sandstone, becoming calcareous and -passing up into 3 m. of hard white calcareous grit, and yellowish -white bedded marly limestone with calcite druses. Capped by ¼ m. -hard tabular chert and flint</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">15.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Finely laminated grey shaly clays, sandy -and marly clays, capped by 2 m. of mottled yellow and red sandstone -and sandstone-grit</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">16.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard red, green, and brown sandstone</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">17.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Variegated grey, green and red clays, -marly clays and sandy beds, with thin bands of sandstone. More -arenaceous towards top</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">21</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">18.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard grey sandstone; greenish sandy -clays; hard dark red marls and marly clays at top</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">19.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thin band of hard yellow limestone, -capping salty red clays and sandy clays</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">20.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft greenish clayey sandstone capped by -½ m. of hard false-bedded concretionary sandstone with numerous -enclosed coprolites</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1 med sect075"><em>Base of hill -overlooking bone-pits.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">21.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pink calcareous grit (forming summit of -lowest escarpment), with small flint and quartz pebbles in some -layers. An abundance of calcite and gypsum</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">22.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Mottled red and green clayey sandstone, -clays and clayey marls. Passing up into a hard sandy (or clayey) -dark red marl with greenish mottlings</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">23.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Light yellow finely-laminated sandrock -passing up into dark red sandrock. Some clayey bands</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">24.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Coarse unconsolidated false-bedded sands, -with occasional bands of clay and consolidated sandstone bands. -Numerous silicified trees and abundant mammalian and reptilian -remains. (See list in Bed 49 of Widan el Faras <a href= -"#t058">section</a>). Bone-pits are in this bed</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">25.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thin band (½ m.) of hard sandstone with -sometimes impure calcareous grit</td> -<td class="brt"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdr pad-right2">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">26.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Hard light yellow sandstone, often very -coarse, and with red bands</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr-top pad1">27.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Soft brick red and light yellow sands and -sandstones, (seen on plain and overlying uppermost limestone of the -Middle Eocene)</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdr-bot pad-right2">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdl hang1 med sect075"><em>Base of -Fluvio-marine Series.</em> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i11"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XI.</p> -<a href="images/i11.jpg"><img src='images/i11.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">SILICIFIED TREES OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES, 4½ -KILOMETRES NORTH OF QASR EL SAGHA.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>In some localities -pebbly bands occur in the sandstone-grits, especially in some of -the beds above the basalt: the pebbles are mostly quartz or flint, -subangular or rounded, the layer averaging perhaps two cm. in -diameter, although occasional specimens three or four times that -size are met with. Silicified trees of two distinct types<a id= -"FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> -occur, and they are met with chiefly on two horizons; usually large -numbers of trees occur together, completely covering the surface in -places; they lie as a rule scattered about in every direction, -although occasionally a large proportion may show considerable -parallelism of deposition, as if arranged by the direction of the -current which floated them to the spot. They always occur in a -horizontal position or parallel to the dip of the bed, and it seems -quite certain that none of them ever grew near where they are now -found. The trees never bear attached branches, the latter having -always been broken off at or near the point of junction with the -trunk, where the scars are often plainly seen; this points to the -trees having been drifted a considerable distance. Many trees over -25 metres<a id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class= -"fnanchor">[76]</a> in length have been met with, but this by no -means represents the original height, as the trunks have lost -considerably in length during transport to their present -localities. Although, as a rule, found completely weathered-out and -exposed on the surface, in numerous localities these silicified -trees are to be observed firmly embedded in the sandstones in which -they were deposited, many being met with in our excavations for -bones.</p> - -<p>As the Fluvio-marine series is followed westwards from the -central part of the area, the different divisions become more and -more attenuated and the outcrops more and more obscured by -superficial gravel. North-west of the Zeuglodon Valley an -escarpment capped by a conspicuous bed of white calcareous grit -occurs and perhaps represents the lower beds of the series. The -higher are lost on the gravelly undulating plateau above.</p> - -<h4><a id="s11f"></a><em>F.</em>—<span class="bold">Age of the -“Fluvio-Marine Series”.</span></h4> - -<p>The beds in question being as a whole remarkably -unfossiliferous, a determination of their exact age on -palaeontological grounds is an undertaking of some difficulty. The -series, however, in certain beds is very rich in vertebrate -remains; a considerable number of new and important forms have -already been obtained and further additions are probable. Until the -survey of the area in 1898 it appears that the only fossils -obtained from these rocks were a few casts and badly-preserved -specimens of mollusca from the highest beds above the basalt, -collected by one or two observers from localities between the -summit of the Fayûm escarpments and the Pyramids of Giza.</p> - -<p>The Rohlfs Expedition did not visit this part of Egypt, and -Zittel<a id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class= -"fnanchor">[77]</a> tabulated the beds, which he called the -“Schichten von Birket el Qurûn” as doubtfully Oligocene; probably -the beds referred to are those of the island Geziret el Qorn, -which, as already mentioned,<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_64">[64]</span> belong to the lower division of the Birket el -Qurûn series, and are therefore of Middle Eocene age. -Mayer-Eymar<a id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class= -"fnanchor">[78]</a> states that he was able to subdivide the series -under discussion into Upper and Lower Ligurian and Lower Tongrian. -Schweinfurth<a id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class= -"fnanchor">[79]</a> considered the series as Miocene, comparing -them with the lithologically similar <i>Scutella</i> beds of Der el -Beda to the east of Cairo. Blanckenhorn, on the evidence of the -writer’s fossil collections, states, as already mentioned, that the -upper part is certainly to be regarded as Lower Oligocene and the -lower part as Upper Eocene.</p> - -<p>First as to the stratigraphical position of the series. There is -no doubt that the lowest beds of the group were deposited (at any -rate in the central part of the area) in practical continuity with -the Qasr el Sagha series, which, as shown, is certainly of Middle -Eocene age. A great change in the lithology of the beds, however, -makes the junction a perfectly natural one. We pass from a truly -marine series into an estuarine or fluvio-marine set of beds, and -such a change near the summit of the Eocene is not an uncommon one -in some parts of Europe. The stratigraphical position in the field, -therefore, favours an Upper Eocene age for the lower beds. The dip -being northwards, newer and newer beds are met with from south to -north on the great undulating, but more or less level, desert north -of the escarpment summit. The occurrence of Lower Miocene beds at -Mogara, some 100 kilometres north or north-west, also points to a -somewhat younger, or Oligocene, age for the underlying beds, (i.e., -those between the Fayûm escarpment and Mogara). The actual -relations, however, of the beds in the two localities have not yet -been determined, but it is probable younger beds are continually -met with from south to north.</p> - -<p>Until the entire collection of fossils has been examined and -determined, it is somewhat premature to attempt to fix the age of -the series on palaeontological grounds. Up to the present the -foregoing lists show the species which have been provisionally or -finally determined. Some of these appear to be identical with -species which have been recorded from Upper Eocene deposits of -Europe, such as <i>Potamides scalaroides</i>, <i>P. tiarella</i>, -while others, such as <i>Melania</i> cf. <i>Nysti</i>, <i>Natica -crassatina</i> (found below the basalt in the so-called Sandberger -Hills north-east of the Fayûm escarpment), are typically Lower -Oligocene. Other forms, such as <i>Turritella angulata</i>, are -common to both Eocene and Oligocene elsewhere.</p> - -<p>If Blanckenhorn’s determinations of these forms are confirmed, -we may regard the upper beds, i.e., those immediately above the -basalt, as undoubtedly of Lower Oligocene age. The beds below the -basalt mark the transition from the Eocene to Oligocene, while the -base of the series, so far unfossiliferous as far as molluscan -remains are concerned, must be regarded as of Upper Eocene -(Bartonian) age.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>We may hope that -when the important vertebrate fauna occurring chiefly in the basal -part of the series has been thoroughly exploited, and the remains -systematically determined, confirmatory evidence will be obtained. -At present the only forms described and determined, beyond pointing -to a pre-Miocene age, do not indicate any definite horizon. -Probably most of the animals will prove to be new, and although on -that account more interesting from one point of view, will probably -not assist us greatly in the exact determination of the age of the -beds in question.</p> - -<h4><a id="s11g"></a><em>G.</em>—<span class="bold">The Position of -the Land-mass from which the Mammal Remains were -Derived.</span></h4> - -<p>The existence of remains of land animals throughout the larger -part of the Qasr el Sagha series and in still greater quantity in -the basal beds of the overlying Fluvio-marine series, and -occasionally in the highest beds also, points to the presence of -continental land within no great distance of the area in which -these deposits were laid down. That the animal-remains were carried -out from the land by river currents is almost certain, and although -in some cases such currents are known to persist to great distances -from their points of emergence, it seems probable from the quantity -and mode of distribution that the Fayûm bones were deposited within -a moderate distance of land. Moreover, the silicified trees, by -which the bones are so often accompanied, occur together in very -great quantities, and we should imagine that the individual trees -would have been far more scattered if they had been floated to -considerable distances from land. On the other hand the fact that -among the hundreds of trees examined, in no single case were -branches found attached to the trunk, points to the conclusion that -these trees had travelled great distances; probably the branches -were lost during their river journey, from constant jamming -together of a great number in a more or less constricted space, and -not after they had left the river mouth.</p> - -<p>The exact position of this land-mass is a highly interesting and -important question. There is no reason to suppose that land of any -extent occurred to the north, except possibly an occasional island, -such as that of the Cretaceous massif of Abu Roash,<a id= -"FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> -west of Cairo, which probably formed an island in the sea at that -time; without doubt the great Eocene sea which covered the area -stretched northwards, and was continuous with that in which the -southern European deposits of this period were laid down. To the -west also there was certainly no land-mass within approximate -distances. Eastwards, possibly part of the Red Sea Hills igneous -range may have formed a restricted land-area, but even this is not -probable; in fact, it seems certain that we must look to the south -for the nearest land of any extent. In supposing the land lay in -this direction we are confronted at the outset with the fact that -the Lower Eocene limestones stretch southwards for several hundred -kilometres. In Egypt the Lower Eocene consists of a great mass of -nummulitic limestones, some 400-500 metres thick, with no -intercalated clays or sandstones except at the base, and was -evidently formed in water of considerable depth. The thickness of, -and superficial area covered by, these<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_66">[66]</span> limestones show that they were formed in a -truly open sea, in contra-distinction to a littoral area; the -nummulitic sea in fact covered an enormous part of Europe, North -Africa and Asia. To the south of this sea lay the African -continent, a land-mass dating possibly from Palæozoic times. Since, -and possibly partly during, the deposition of the Lower and Middle -Eocene formations, a gradual elevation of the land or lowering of -the sea, resulting in a retreat of the latter, took place; this -continually brought the shore-line further northwards until, during -the deposition of the beds of the Qasr el Sagha series of the -Middle Eocene, we may surmise that it was not very far to the -south, though the exact distance is extremely doubtful; while in -Upper Eocene times it was still further north. We may assume -therefore that the Upper Eocene bone-bearing strata of the Fayûm -represent sediments transported by rivers and currents from a -fairly adjacent continental land-mass to the south and laid down as -littoral and delta deposits beyond the margin of the land. That at -least one large river emerged from the land in the neighbourhood of -the Fayûm is certain; drainage was then, as now, from south to -north, although not probably confined to a single channel like the -present Nile.</p> - -<p>Apart from broader considerations a minute examination of the -more typically fluviatile beds favours the conclusion that the -currents were from the south or south-west. The general dip of the -strata, probably the natural inclination of the sediments at the -time of deposit, is from south to north; the most frequent -lamination in the current-bedded arenaceous deposits is also from -south to north. In our excavations for fossil bones it was noted -that of seven tortoise shells exposed at the same time in different -parts of the pit, six lay with their long axes similarly orientated -and were distinctly tilted to the north-east, or exactly away from -the point of the compass from which, as will presently be shown, -the main river probably came. As a rule, however, the scattered -fossil bones and trees in these beds give no definite clue as to -the direction from which they were floated. The existence of -separate accumulations of fluviatile sand at different horizons, -but lying one above the other in the series and along a north and -south line, is of importance as indicating the continued appearance -of a river current from the same quarter.</p> - -<p>Blanckenhorn has published<a id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> diagrams showing what he -supposes to have been the relative areas occupied by land and sea -in Upper Mokattam, Lower Oligocene, Middle Pliocene and Pleistocene -times. Various lines of drainage are shown, the main river, which -he calls the Ur-Nil, being placed some 70 kilometres to the west of -the modern Nile, although closely following the trend of the -latter. We have been unable to ascertain on what evidence -Blanckenhorn relies for assuming rivers in Upper Mokattam and Lower -Oligocene times to have occupied the positions shown on his -diagrams; the number and positions of such rivers must remain more -or less problematical. In this connection however it is interesting -to recall<a id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class= -"fnanchor">[82]</a> the lacustrine ferruginous grits which were -brought to notice by the writer in 1900<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_67">[67]</span> as having been deposited in a lake, occupying -in post-Middle Eocene times a shallow depression in that part of -the Libyan desert now occupied by the oasis-depression of Baharia. -Similar deposits were found forming the hills of Gar el Hamra a few -kilometres east of the extreme north end of the depression. -Finally, during a traverse through the unexplored country -south-west of Gar el Gehannem in the winter of 1902-1903, hills -capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and puddingstone -were met with in the extreme south-west of the Fayûm depression at -a point nearly midway, and in the direct line, between the hills of -Gar el Hamra and the chief bone-bearing localities in the north of -the Fayûm. The deposits in question—at Baharia, at Gar el Hamra and -in the hills to the south-west of the Fayûm—are evidently of -lacustrine and fluviatile origin; and we may infer, with some -degree of probability, that they were laid down along the course of -a river which flowed in a north-easterly direction and formed -extensive delta deposits in what is now the northern part of the -Fayûm. That this river had its origin in the interior of a -well-wooded continent hundreds of miles to the south of Baharia is -not to be questioned; its size, length and exact position must -remain matters of doubt, but of its existence we can be as certain -as if in times of flood we had stood on its banks and watched the -passage northwards of its turbid swollen waters, laden with matted -rafts of forest trees and bearing seawards the carcases of those -curious Eocene animals, the remains of which are so abundant in the -Fayûm of to-day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw3"> -<figure id="fig06"><a href="images/fig06.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig06.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—Probable Course of -chief river of Upper Eocene and Oligocene times.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>In the Middle and Upper Eocene beds we first obtain an idea of -the animals which inhabited Africa in Tertiary times, and the -collecting and working out of this fauna will<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_68">[68]</span> throw much light, not only on our actual -knowledge of the African vertebrata of the Eocene period, which was -practically nil until the discovery of the remains here described, -but also on other wider biological questions, such as the origin of -certain groups of animals, some of which were evolved in this part -of the world.</p> - -<p>As recently pointed out by a writer in the Field (No. 2605, Nov. -29, 1902) many years ago the late Prof. Huxley, to account for the -present distribution of the mammalian fauna of Africa and -Magadascar, advanced the theory that in the early part of the -Tertiary period Madagascar was connected with Africa, and Africa -with Europe or Asia, a connection which allowed of the immigration -into Africa and Madagascar of numerous small types of European and -Asian mammals. Madagascar later becoming separated from the -mainland, its fauna, undisturbed by the larger carnivora, was able -to develop to its present remarkable extent. Subsequently to the -isolation of Madagascar the ancestors of the modern fauna were -presumed to have invaded the African continent from the north.</p> - -<p>The extinct fauna of the Fayûm, however, shows that in early -Tertiary times Africa already had its own mammalian fauna, which, -besides containing some remarkable large types of somewhat doubtful -position, such as <i>Arsinoitherium</i>, <i>Barytherium</i>, etc., -certainly in <i>Mœritherium</i> and <i>Palæomastodon</i> included -the earliest known elephants, the forbears of the Mastodon and the -modern elephants. There is little doubt therefore that in Upper -Eocene and Oligocene times these early members of the elephant -group ranged northward and eastwards into Asia and India, and since -in the Upper Tertiary deposits of India and eastern Asia the -extinct transitional types between the mastodons and modern -elephants appear to have been found, it is not unlikely that during -the later phases of the evolution of this group of animals the -radiation was back towards Africa, so that the African elephant may -be, as it has usually been regarded, an immigrant from the Oriental -region. Further research among the later deposits of the Fayûm and -the deserts to the north may, however, throw an entirely new light -on the subject and it is somewhat premature to theorise at -present.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i12"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XII.</p> -<a href="images/i12.jpg"><img src='images/i12.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">RAISED BEACH UNCONFORMABLY OVERLYING MIDDLE EOCENE -LIMESTONES (BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES) IN THE DESERT EAST OF -SIRSENA.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>In this connection it is interesting to notice the observation -of so eminent a palæontologist as Prof. H. F. Osborn. In two recent -addresses<a id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class= -"fnanchor">[83]</a> to the New York Academy of Sciences he -pertinently points out his belief that the African continent has -been a great centre of radiation of certain groups of the mammalia, -and especially mentions the Proboscidea as likely to have been -evolved in the Ethiopian region. Our discoveries in the Fayûm and -Andrews’s determinations, made subsequently to these addresses, so -completely confirm this view, at any rate with regard to the -elephants, that it may not be out of place to give here a somewhat -lengthy extract of his “<em>Theory of Successive Invasions of an -African Fauna into Europe</em>” (op. cit. pp. 56-58). “In Europe -there are in the Upper Eocene two classes of animals, first those -which have their ancestors in the older rocks; second, the class -including certain highly specialized animals which have no -ancestors in the older rocks, among these, perhaps, are the -peculiar flying rodents or <i>Anomaluridæ</i>, now confined to -Africa, and secondly the highly specialized even-toed ruminant -types the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> -anoplotheres, xiphodonts and others, the discovery of which in the -gypse near Paris Cuvier has made famous. It is tempting to imagine -that these animals did not evolve in Europe but that they represent -what may be called the first invasion of Europe by African types -from the Ethiopian region.</p> - -<p>“It is a curious fact that the African continent as a great -theater of adaptive radiation of Mammalia has not been sufficiently -considered. It is true that it is the dark continent of -palæontology for it has no fossil mammal history; but it by no -means follows that the Mammalia did not enjoy there an extensive -evolution.<a id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class= -"fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<p>“Although it is quite probable that this idea has been advanced -before, most writers speak mainly or exclusively of <em>the -invasion of Africa by European types</em>. Blanford and Allen, it -is true, have especially dwelt upon the likeness of the Oriental -and Ethiopian fauna, but not in connection with its antecedent -cause. This cause I believe to have been mainly an invasion from -south to north, correlated with the northern extension of Ethiopian -climate and flora during the Middle Tertiary. It is in a less -measure due to a migration from north to south. Let us therefore -clearly set forth the hypothesis of <em>the Ethiopian region or -South Africa as a great center of independent evolution</em> and as -the source of successive northward migrations of animals, some of -which ultimately reached even the extremity of South America, I -refer to the Mastodons. This hypothesis is clearly implied if not -stated by Blanford in 1876 in his paper upon the African element in -the fauna of India.</p> - -<p>“The first of these migrations we may suppose brought in certain -highly specialized ruminants of the Upper Eocene, the anomalures or -peculiar flying rodents of Africa; with this invasion may have come -the pangolins and ard varks, and possibly certain armadillos, -<i>Dasypodidæ</i>, if M. Filhol’s identification of -<i>Necrodasypus</i> is correct. A second invasion of great -distinctness may be that which marks the beginning of the Miocene -when the mastodons and dinotheres first appear in Europe, also the -earliest of the antelopes. A third invasion may be represented in -the base of the Pliocene by the increasing number of antelopes, the -great giraffes of the Ægean plateau and in the upper Pliocene by -the hippopotami. With these forms came the rhinoceroses with no -incisor or cutting teeth, similar to the smaller African -rhinoceros, <i>R. bicornis</i>. Another recently discovered African -immigrant upon the Island of Samos in the Ægean plateau is -<i>Pliohyrax</i> or <i>Leptodon</i>, a very large member of the -Hyracoidea, probably aquatic in its habits, indicating that this -order enjoyed an extensive adaptive radiation in Tertiary -times.</p> - -<p>“It thus appears that the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, certain -edentata, the antelopes, the giraffes, the hippopotami, the most -specialized ruminants, and among the rodents, the anomalures, -dormice and jerboas, among monkeys the baboons, may all have -enjoyed their original adaptative radiation in Africa; that they -survived after the glacial period, only in the Oriental or -Indo-Malayan region, and that this accounts for the marked -community of fauna between this region and the Ethiopian as -observed by Blanford and Allen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>“Against the -prevalent theory of Oriental origin of these animals are: first, -the fact observed by Blanford and Lydekker in the Bugti Beds (Sind) -that the Oligocene or lower Miocene fauna of the Orient is markedly -European in type; second, that if these animals had originated in -Asia some of them would have found their way to North America; -third, the fact that all these animals appear suddenly and without -any known ancestors in older geological formations. These are the -main facts in favor of the Ethiopian migration hypothesis.”</p> - -<p>That Professor Osborn’s main contention has already been partly -proved by the Fayûm mammal discoveries is apparent, and how far his -detailed remarks are confirmed will be seen when the new fauna has -been more completely explored and examined.</p> - -<p>The following is a list of the new species already -obtained:—</p> - -<table class="borders bdtop-thicker tabw40" id="t070"> -<colgroup> -<col class="width-half"> -<col class="width-half"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<th><span class="sc">Upper Eocene</span>.</th> -<th><span class="sc">Middle Eocene</span>.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect075 bt"><em>Mammalia</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadnell.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Barytherium grave, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced14"> „ </span> Andrewsii, Lankester.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Mœritherium Lyonsi., Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Palæomastodon Beadnelli, Andrews.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> gracile,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced14"> „ </span> minor,<span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span></td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> sp.,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Mœritherium Lyonsi,<span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span></td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Eosiren libyca,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> trigodon,<span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span></td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Zeuglodon Osiris, Dames.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Megalohyrax eocænus,<span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span></td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> Zitteli, v. Stromer.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> minor,<span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span></td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> Isis, Beadn. (M.S.).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Saghatherium antiquum, Andr. and -Beadn.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> minus,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span> <span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> magnum, Andr.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Ancodus Gorringei, Andr. and Beadn.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Geniohyus mirus, Andr.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> fayumensis, Andr.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> major,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Phiomia serridens, Andr. and Beadn.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pterodon africanus, Andr.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span> macrognathus, Andr. and another -much smaller and imperfectly known creodont.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect075 bt"><em>Birds.</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Eremopezus libycus, Andr.</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect075 bt"><em>Reptiles.</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Testudo Ammon, Andr.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Gigantophis Garstini, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pelomedusa progaleata, v. Reinach.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pterosphenus (Mœriophis) Schweinfurthi, -Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Podocnemis fayumensis, Andr.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Psephophorus eocænus, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> Blanckenhorni, v. -Reinach.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Thalassochelys libyca, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> <span class= -"word-spaced12"> „ </span> var. ovata, v. Reinach.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Podocnemis antiqua,<span class= -"word-spaced6"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Stereogenys libyca. Andr.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> Stromeri, v. Reinach.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tomistoma sp.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> <span class= -"word-spaced8"> „ </span> var. major, v. Reinach.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Crocodilus sp.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Stereogenys Cromeri, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span> podocnemioides, v. -Reinach.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Tomistoma africanum, Andr.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect075 bt"><em>Fish.</em> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Occasional fragments of siluroids and -rays.</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Propristis Schweinfurthi, Dames.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h4><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span><a id= -"s11h"></a><em>H.</em>—<span class="bold">The absence of Miocene -deposits in the Fayûm.</span></h4> - -<p>No traces of deposits of this age having been met so far south -as the Fayûm we may presume that in Miocene times the area had -become land, the sea margin having receded northwards. The slight -depression of Mogara, some 100 kilometres further north-west, is -however cut out in Lower Miocene beds, lithologically somewhat -similar to the Upper Eocene and Oligocene deposits of the Fayûm. -Probably similar conditions obtained throughout, and the existence -of vertebrate remains indicates the persistence of river-currents -from the south. The fauna of the Mogara beds has only as yet been -very incompletely examined, the locality being rather -inaccessible.<a id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class= -"fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<h3><a id="s12"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> -XII.—PLIOCENE.</h3> - -<p>We have presumed that in Miocene times the Fayûm remained land, -no traces of deposits of that age having been recorded; possibly -the area underwent considerable denudation during the Miocene and -early Pliocene periods, but of this it is difficult to adduce -definite evidence. The records of Pliocene times in the Fayûm may -be classed as follows:—</p> - -<table class="tab-p" id="t071"> -<tr> -<td class="tab-p">(J). <em>Marine deposits</em> of Middle Pliocene -age.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tab-p">(K). <em>Borings</em> on rock surfaces, exact age -doubtful.</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tab-p">(L). <em>Gravel Terraces</em>, probably late -Pliocene.</td> -<td rowspan="2">⎱<br> -⎰</td> -<td rowspan="2">(or early Pleistocene).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tab-p">(M). <em>Gypseous Deposits</em>, probably latest -Pliocene.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h4><a id="s12j"></a><em>J.</em>—<span class="bold">Marine -Deposits: Middle Pliocene.</span></h4> - -<p>In Middle Pliocene times the area, which had probably undergone -considerable denudation, was again invaded by the sea, and we find -at Sidmant el Jebel, on the south-east side, definite evidence of -deposits of this age in the shape of sands containing such well -known forms as <i>Ostrea cucullata</i> and <i>Pecten -benedictus</i>.</p> - -<p>The beds in question reach an altitude of from 60 to 70 metres -and were first brought to notice by Schweinfurth. Although they are -in reality on the Nile Valley side of the separating ridge or -saddle, there is little doubt that the same beds will, when looked -for, be found within the Fayûm depression in places where they have -been preserved. As has already been mentioned this south-eastern -side of the Fayûm yet remains to be examined and mapped in detail, -and the determination of the relation of these marine sands to the -gravel terraces shortly to be described is a matter of primary -importance for the proper interpretation of their relative -ages.</p> - -<h4><a id="s12k"></a><em>K.</em>—<span class="bold">Borings on Rock -surfaces; of doubtful age.</span></h4> - -<p>There are within the Fayûm depression numerous rock-surfaces -pierced by borings, apparently the work of marine boring mollusca -but naturally offering no exact evidence as<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_72">[72]</span> to their age and origin. These borings are -found at two distinct levels, approximately from zero to 20 metres -above sea-level, and at 112 metres above sea-level.</p> - -<h5>(α) <em>Low level borings.</em></h5> - -<p>Between Tamia and Dimê, near the eastern end of the Birket el -Qurûn, the lowest ground, consisting of poor sandy land with -tamarisk scrub, bordering the lake and cultivation, is bounded by a -low escarpment of beds of the Birket el Qurûn series. Along certain -horizons one or more beds of calcareous sandstone weather into -large globular masses, which as already pointed out are in reality -huge concretions, but which may have been further rounded by -water-action. The chief point is, however, the fact that these -blocks are honey-combed in the most remarkable way by beautiful -examples of borings; their presence was first noticed by -Schweinfurth. The globular masses of sandstone, often several feet -in diameter, are worn on the surface into a number of parallel -ledges, each of which is perforated with countless numbers of -vertical holes, averaging 10 millimetres in diameter (maximum 15 -millimetres), placed at right angles to the ledges; these holes are -not, as a rule, connected from one ledge to another. They occur in -every stage of perfection, from hollows as small as the finger tips -and only a few millimetres deep, to long completed chambers which -generally show considerable tapering, and are often placed so close -together that the dividing wall is pierced.</p> - -<p>Fig. 7 and <a href="#i13">Plate XIII</a> show the appearance of -these bored rocks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw4"> -<figure id="fig07"><a href="images/fig07.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig07.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.—Block of sandstone -pierced by numerous borings.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>At El Kenîsa, a promontory jutting out into the lake, sandstones -showing shell-borings occur at a height of 14 metres above -sea-level. Between Dimê and the lake a calcareous sandstone -contains many borings, 66 metres above the lake-level, or about 22 -metres above sea-level.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i13"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XIII.</p> -<a href="images/i13.jpg"><img src='images/i13.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">BORINGS IN FALSE-BEDDED SANDSTONE, TWO KILOMETRES -SOUTH OF DIMÊ.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<h5><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>(β) <em>High -level borings.</em></h5> - -<p>Further west, but at a considerably higher level, borings are -again met with. In this case a hard compact limestone, forming a -dip-slope surface on the top of the lower cliff of the Qasr el -Sagha series, was found pierced with borings, similar in character -to those of the lower level. The exact locality where these high -level borings were observed is 14 kilometres west of the western -end of the lake and 16 kilometres north-east of the eastern -extremity of Gar el Gehannem. The height was determined as 156 -metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 112 metres above sea-level, -and we have every reason to believe these figures to be -approximately correct. Up to the present time borings at this -altitude have not been met with in any other locality.</p> - -<p>At first sight it seems surprising that the occurrences should -be so limited, but it should be remembered that only in those cases -where borings were made in the very hardest and most durable rocks -could they have been preserved to the present time. Considering the -amount of denudation which has taken place in the area since the -Pliocene period it is surprising that any of the rocks which formed -the actual surface of the country at that date should still be -preserved; and in all probability the comparatively few records -that exist to-day owe their preservation to the protection afforded -by superficial deposits. Under the present rigorous desert -conditions, when the whole surface is subjected to continual and -rapid changes of temperature, and every exposed rock is being worn -down by the natural sandblast, it must be admitted that in a -comparatively short time every trace of the borings now exposed -will have been removed. At the same time the denudation of -superficial deposits will probably lay bare other bored -rock-surfaces, and the conserving nature of drift sand itself where -accumulated to even a limited degree must not be forgotten.</p> - -<h4><a id="s12l"></a><em>L.</em>—<span class="bold">Gravel -Terraces: ? Upper Pliocene.</span></h4> - -<p>On the north, east, and south-east sides of the Fayûm, well -marked terraces of gravel are found at certain levels up to a -maximum of about 170-180 metres above sea-level. Nine kilometres -east of Sêla the summit of the ridge separating the Fayûm and the -Nile Valley is formed of thick deposits of gravel, laid irregularly -and unconformably on the top of limestones belonging to the Birket -el Qurûn series. The lowest terrace occurs only 15 metres above the -canal<a id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class= -"fnanchor">[86]</a> running along the outside of the cultivation. -The main deposit of gravel is laid on the top of the limestones and -marls at 70 metres above the canal; it is some 50 metres thick -(summit 120 metres above canal) and consists of a mass of -well-rolled flint and quartz pebbles, with blocks of limestone -(frequently full of well-known Eocene fossils such as <i>Carolia -placunoides</i>). Large well rounded blocks of grey quartzite and -pebbles of black quartzite also occur, besides rounded blocks of -silicified wood. A certain amount of false-bedding occurs and -false-bedded sand was noticed in places. Numerous derived rolled -fossils are present, but no contemporaneous remains<span class= -"pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> were found. On the summit of the -ridge is situated the remnant of an old pyramid-like building.</p> - -<p>Fig. 8 shows the relation of these gravels to the underlying -rocks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig08"><a href="images/fig08.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig08.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.—<em>Sketch showing -relations of Middle Eocene to Pliocene Gravel Terraces on the east -side of the Fayûm.</em></p> - -<p class="cp4 space-above1"><em>Birket el Qurun -series.</em>—(<em>a</em>) Clays, marls and limestone; (<em>b</em>) -Limestones with <i>Operculina</i> (<i>O. discoidea?</i>). Pliocene -(to Pleistocene); (<em>c</em>) Coarse deposits of gravel, etc., -with huge blocks of derived Eocene limestone with <i>Carolia</i>, -etc.; (<em>d</em>) sands and sandrock with leaves of hard -sandstone; (<em>e</em>) sand, gravel and conglomerate.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>At the spur of the cliff immediately to the east the terrace is -laid on to limestones of the Birket el Qurûn series at a height of -32 metres above the canal. Enormous blocks of -<i>Carolia</i>-limestone, some exceeding 3 × 2 × 1·5 metres in -measurement, are included in this deposit; such blocks cannot have -been transported far, and were doubtless derived from -formerly-existing higher beds in the immediate neighbourhood. The -matrix of the deposit is usually crushed limestone with sand and -gravel. Occasional fragments of silicified wood (and further west -large logs), evidently derived from the Fluvio-marine beds, also -occur.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>In favoured -localities the relation of the gravels to the Eocene is still -better seen; the lower beds of the terrace here are sometimes -formed of sands and sandy beds dipping 10° eastward.</p> - -<p>At the little promontory 9 kilometres east of Sersena the same -deposits reach an altitude of 157 metres above the canal below.</p> - -<p>Further north another cake of gravel caps the summit, attaining -here 60-70 metres above the canal-level. Probably these deposits -were originally more or less connected and continuous, but since -their deposition denudation must have removed the greater part, as -they are now only found here and there capping the highest points -of the escarpment along the east side of the Fayûm. Such isolated -gravel-capped hills occur notably 12 kilometres east of Roda, 16½ -kilometres east and 17½ kilometres north-east of Tamia.</p> - -<p>Along the north side of the Fayûm the same deposits are found, -in some cases covering large areas.</p> - -<p>Twenty-five kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia the Eocene beds, here an -alternating series of clays and limestones, are capped by a deposit -consisting of coarse rolled gravel, with blocks of silicified wood -enclosed in a sandy gypseous base, some 10 metres thick. A larger -and similar deposit caps the next high ground four kilometres to -the west, and about 9 kilometres N.N.E. of Garat el Faras; in this -case it forms a round-topped gravelly hill-range, attaining a -height of about 165 metres above the canal to the south-east. The -loose gravel at many points passes into hard conglomerate, notably -in the hills 9 kilometres east and 4 kilometres north-east of Garat -el Gindi. At the former spot the conglomerate is composed of blocks -of limestone, with round pebbles of flint and quartz, sandstone and -quartzite, and fragments of silicified wood, cemented by sand and -calcareous material. Blocks of silicified wood also occur strewn on -the surface of these gravel deposits.</p> - -<p>In the hills north-east of Garat el Gindi the gravel deposits do -not occupy the summit of the escarpment but occur laid on to a -platform of beds belonging to the Qasr el Sagha series. Behind, -another escarpment, that of the Fluvio-marine series, rises to the -plateau summit.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig09">Fig. 9</a> will show the general relation of -the different formations in this part of the district.</p> - -<p>Near Elwat Hialla the deposits contain numerous blocks of basalt -in addition to the usual constituents. The basalt is derived from -the sheets interbedded at the base of the Oligocene a little to the -north. As these gravels are here close to that formation, blocks of -sandstone, basalt, and silicified wood now form a large proportion -of the constituents.</p> - -<p>Along the north side of the Fayûm depression, to the west of -Elwat Hialla, the gravel terraces are almost absent, having been -removed nearly completely by denudation. That the terraces once -existed throughout this region is however shown by the small -patches met with to the north-east of Widan el Faras, the eastern -extremity of Jebel el Qatrani, and at several points high up on the -escarpments as far west as the western end of the lake. Beyond the -latter point these terrace gravels have not been noticed; the -slopes of the depression<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_76">[76]</span> become more and more obscured by loose -superficial flints washed down from the plateau, and the existence -of underlying terrace gravels could only be shown by detailed -mapping.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig09"><a href="images/fig09.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig09.jpg' alt=''></a> -<table class="cptab" id="t076"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">PLIOCENE (<span class="sc">to -Pleistocene</span>)</td> -<td class="no-wrap">—1.</td> -<td class="tdl pad1">Terrace of gravel and conglomerate.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">UPPER EOCENE-OLIGOCENE</td> -<td class="no-wrap">—2.</td> -<td class="tdl pad1">Sands and sandstones.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">MIDDLE EOCENE</td> -<td class="no-wrap">—3.</td> -<td class="tdl pad1">Clays, marls and limestones of the Upper -Mokattam.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="cp2 space-above1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. -9.—Sketch-Section through summit of Fayûm Escarpment at Elwat -Hialla.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>Near Widan el Faras the terrace occurs at a level of about 220 -metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 175 metres above sea-level, -and consists of a 10-metre thickness of a semi-consolidated mass of -boulders and pebbles of sandstone, limestone, and basalt, with fine -gravel and sand, unconformably laid on to the variegated sandstones -of the Fluvio-marine series.</p> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of the Survey’s main excavations for fossil -bones, to the north of Garat el Esh, several local remnants of the -formerly more or less continuous gravel terrace were detected<a id= -"FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>. -The height was probably more accurately determined here than -elsewhere and the upper limit of the deposits was found to lie at -approximately 170 metres above sea-level; this figure may indeed be -taken as the average height of the Pliocene terraces throughout the -Fayûm.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i14"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XIV.</p> -<a href="images/i14.jpg"><img src='images/i14.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">PLEISTOCENE LACUSTRINE CLAYS WITH TAMARISK STUMPS IN -SITU AT 50 METRES ABOVE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>Briefly then we -have shown the existence of the well marked remains of a gravel -terrace 170-180 metres above sea-level, throughout the south-east, -east, and north sides of the Fayûm depression, and the first -question that suggests itself with regard to these deposits is, -whether they are of marine or of freshwater origin? From their -position in part capping and in part perched on the flanks of the -escarpments, it is evident that the depression of the Fayûm must -have been partly formed before their deposition; probably it had -approximately obtained to its present form and dimensions, except -as to depth. The terrace certainly marks the shoreline of the sheet -of water in which its constituents were deposited, and the surface -of this water must have attained a height of nearly 200 metres -above present sea-level. It is not unlikely that some of the -extensive plains of the Fayûm may owe their existence in part to -the presence in Pliocene times of the sea or of a large inland -lake, that they may in fact be plains of denudation. The plain -above the escarpment of the Qasr el Sagha series, lying between 150 -and 200 metres above sea-level, and stretching throughout a large -part of the north of the Fayûm, has characters which tend to -support this idea.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately the gravels are entirely barren of contemporaneous -organic remains, with one exception; near Ez. Qalamsha some -examples of <i>Ostrea cucullata</i> were discovered, and these we -believe to have truly belonged to the lower beds of the terraces -and not to have been derived from the undoubted marine Middle -Pliocene beds of Sidmant. If the existence of <i>O. cucullata</i> -in these terraces could be confirmed we should undoubtedly class -them as marine and of Middle Pliocene age. But the single evidence -of the Qalamsha shells is not sufficient, and confirmatory -occurrences must be obtained and, if possible, the relation of the -terraces to Schweinfurth’s marine Sidmant beds determined, which -has not been yet done.</p> - -<h4><a id="s12m"></a><em>M.</em>—<span class="bold">Gypseous -deposits, probably dating from the close of the Pliocene -Period.</span></h4> - -<p>Of distinctly later date than the gravel-terraces are the widely -distributed gypseous deposits of the Fayûm and Nile Valley. These -deposits are found covering the plain which separates the Nile -Valley cultivation from the Fayûm depression, gradually rising from -the level of the former until they overlie the gravels capping the -summit overlooking the Fayûm (<a href="#i21">Section XXI</a>).</p> - -<p>Near the Pyramid of Medum the following beds are seen at the -edge of the desert plain:—</p> - -<table class="bedsect" id="t077"> -<tr> -<th><em>Top.</em> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th> -</th> -<th>Metres.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Pure, gravelly, or marly gypsum</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-bot pad1">1-2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Clayey shales with gypsum and salt</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-bot pad1">1-1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">White marly limestone with much salt and -fish-remains (fish-scales, etc.)</td> -<td class="brt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="tdc pad1 pad-right1">probable part of Ravine -beds.</td> -<td class="blt widthbrace"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-bot pad1">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td class="tdl-top hang1">Yellow sandstone with fish-scales, -etc.</td> -<td class="brb"> -</td> -<td class="blb"> -</td> -<td class="tdl-bot pad1">3</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The gravel deposits along the east side of the Fayûm are always -capped by a gypseous bed. The latter is often 2 metres thick and -frequently occurs as solid and almost pure white crystalline -gypsum; sometimes it is calcareous and is frequently deposited in a -tufaceous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> manner, -especially resembling a tufa on the weathered surface. At other -times it passes into a yellowish compact mass and may be very -saliferous.</p> - -<p>Frequently the deposit is full of rounded pebbles, the latter -being often in the greater proportion and forming a sort of -gypsum-cemented conglomerate. Not unfrequently it is impossible to -draw any divisional line between the terrace gravels and the -gypseous gravels above. Probably they are both closely connected -and of Upper Pliocene age.</p> - -<h4><a id="s12n"></a><em>N.</em>—<span class="bold">Summary of the -Pliocene Period.</span></h4> - -<p>From the above descriptions it is probable that the Pliocene -period is represented in the Fayûm by the following:—</p> - -<p>(1) Marine beds of Sidmant, undoubtedly of Middle Pliocene age -and reaching a level of from 60 to 70 metres above present -sea-level.</p> - -<p>(2) Borings on exposed rock-surfaces at two distinct levels, the -lower 0-20 metres, the higher some 112 metres, above sea-level. -These borings appear to be the work of marine boring mollusca, and -although those on the lower level may perhaps be of Middle Pliocene -age with the Sidmant beds, the similar examples discovered at a -much higher altitude (112 metres), point to the sea having attained -a much higher level in later, perhaps Upper Pliocene, times.</p> - -<p>(3) An extensive beach or terrace of gravel on the south-east, -east, and north sides of the Fayûm, attaining a maximum level of -about 170 to 180 metres above sea-level.</p> - -<p>All the known facts seem to be satisfied if we imagine that in -the Middle Pliocene the sea occupied the area, depression probably -continuing until the 112 metre level with the highest borings was -reached. Perhaps the lowest part of the terraces was formed during -this time. In the later Pliocene times we may infer that the area -was occupied, up to 180 metres above present sea-level, by a vast -inland lake, perhaps of brackish water, connected with the sea on -the one hand and the fiord or lakes of the Nile Valley on the -other, the deposits of which have been described elsewhere<a id= -"FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class= -"fnanchor">[88]</a>.</p> - -<p>Along the margins of this gigantic lake, these great -accumulations of gravel might well have been formed, chiefly of -material derived from the immediate shores, augmented perhaps by a -certain amount of sediment brought by river-currents from the -south.</p> - -<p>Finally, from the way in which the gypsum and gypseous deposits -are laid on the terrace gravels, and from their extension and -thickness, we may presume that they were deposited on the bottom of -just such a lake on evaporation of its water, when the sulphate of -lime in solution, becoming more and more concentrated, may have -been finally precipitated.<a id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> - -<h3><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span><a id= -"s13"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> XIII.—PLEISTOCENE.</h3> - -<p>The course of events in Pleistocene times is at present obscure. -As far as can be judged it was during this period that a freshwater -lake, the precursor of the great Mœris, came into existence. It -might be thought that the early Pleistocene prehistoric lake was a -relic of the still older body of water of Pliocene times, in which -the gravel terraces and gypseous deposits were laid down. But such -a remnant would have been of a high degree of salinity and could -not have given rise to the fresh water Mœris. Most probably at the -close of the Pliocene period, after the formation of the gypseous -deposits, the area became elevated and cut off from the sea and -from the Nile Valley marine fiord; probably an extensive body of -water remained as an isolated lake, but this, cut off from external -supply, would have gradually evaporated, its salt being left as a -superficial deposit on the dried up bed. In early Pleistocene times -we may presume the area became dry and was gradually eroded to its -present shape and depth. The superficial deposits of salt and -gypsum were for the most part removed as the depression was -deepened, while the continuous terrace of gravel laid round the -greater part of the rim was broken through, except where protected -in favourable localities, the constituents being washed down and -spread out over the lower ground. In course of time the region was -moulded to its present form and dimensions, or rather to what it -would be if the local alluvial deposits were stripped off and the -water of the lake baled out. The area was an inland depression, -probably sparsely vegetated like the rest of the higher country and -separated from the Nile Valley by a low rocky ridge surmounted by a -more of less continuous terrace of gravel of considerable height -and thickness. In our opinion desert conditions had already set in -before the early Nile broke down the ridge and formed a lake in the -Fayûm; the date when this important event first took place is a -matter of considerable doubt, as has already been mentioned (pp. -<a href="#Page_24">24,</a> <a href="#Page_25">25</a>). We know that -at the close of the Pliocene period the Nile Valley was a marine -fiord (connected with the Fayûm and the Mediterranean) which was -replaced in Pleistocene times, probably in consequence of slight -elevation, by a series of fresh water lakes throughout the valley. -These lakes were probably two or three in number and drained one -into the other; the exact position of the barriers is as yet a -matter of conjecture. Within these lakes thick lacustrine deposits -were accumulated, so that the basins eventually became to a great -extent silted up. In later Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile -Valley appears to have become more pronounced, the barriers between -the lakes were broken down and the river cut for itself a channel -through the lacustrine beds, filling up the old lake basins. From -this time onwards to early prehistoric times the bed of the river -would appear to have steadily fallen, as it eroded its channel -deeper and deeper. That this early Nile was a river of considerable -size is evident from the amount of erosion it accomplished in the -trough of the valley, whence the older lacustrine beds have been -almost completely removed. Probably in the lower part of its course -it swept against the base of the dividing ridge between the Nile -Valley and the Fayûm depression. If, as we imagine, the river was -at that time flowing some<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_80">[80]</span> 20 metres higher than at present its currents -would have met with little resistance from the loosely cemented -terrace of gravel which formed the upper part of the dividing -ridge. Once this was broken down the waters must have poured into -the depression behind, until a lake of considerable size was -formed. The sediment spread out over the floor in the shape of a -fan, while at the same time deposits of sands and fine clays, blown -and washed into the waters from the surrounding shores, were being -slowly accumulated in the quieter and more remote parts of the -lake.</p> - -<p>For some time subsequent to the first connection between the -Fayûm depression and the Nile, the latter continued to fall in -level owing to continued erosion along its course, possibly the -Fayûm again became completely isolated for a time. Subsequently in -the earliest historic times under changed conditions the river -commenced to carry and lay down the modern alluvial deposit of -“Nile mud”, and from this time to the present day its bed has -gradually risen. This is shown by the high Nile flood-readings on -the early gauges of the Nile Valley; the nilometer at Roda shows a -difference of 1·22 metres in 1026 years, or an annual rise of 0·12 -centimetre, which is equivalent to 12 metres in 10,000 years<a id= -"FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>. -Whether there was ever complete disconnection between the Nile and -the originally formed lake in Pleistocene times is uncertain, but -even so it was probably only during a comparatively short period: -in early historic times the rise of the Nile bed must have brought -about a reconnection.</p> - -<p>The geological evidence for the existence of a great freshwater -lake in Pleistocene and prehistoric times is afforded by the -well-marked lacustrine clays and sands which are found over such a -large area of the northern and western deserts of the Fayûm; the -great extent of this lake will be seen by an examination of the -accompanying maps. Its area must have been about 2250 square -kilometres or about ten times the size of the modern Birket el -Qurûn. The western limit may even have been further west than shown -on <a href="#fig10">fig. 10.,</a><a id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> as some of the desert in -the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem is very low-lying; or there -may have existed subsidiary lakes in that direction. The upper -limit of these ancient lacustrine clays is between 22 and 23 metres -above sea-level, which exactly agrees with the figure adduced by -Sir Hanbury Brown as the height of the more modern Lake Moeris from -the evidence of levels. That Lake Moeris was simply the older -prehistoric lake placed under artificial control admits of no -doubt; the difficult question being as to when the lake first came -into existence in prehistoric times.</p> - -<p>The clays abound in freshwater shells and semi-fossil fish-bones -of exactly the same species of fish (siluroid, etc) as still -inhabit the Birket el Qurûn; probably some are even hardly -different specifically from the Middle Eocene forms of the -district. In addition remains of large animals are common, and -include <i>Hippopotamus</i>, <i>Elephas</i>, <i>Bubalis</i>, sheep -or goat, and <i>Canis</i>, with crocodiles and turtles, etc.<a id= -"FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class= -"fnanchor">[92]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i15"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XV.</p> -<a href="images/i15.jpg"><img src='images/i15.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">ISOLATED SAND-DUNE NEAR GAR EL GEHANNEM.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>Martens<a id= -"FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> -has described the following species of mollusca from Schweinfurth’s -collections:—</p> - -<ul class="simple1"> -<li><i>Unio abyssinicus</i>, Mart.</li> - -<li><i>U. Schweinfurthi</i>, Mart.</li> - -<li><i>Corbicula fluminalis</i>, var. <i>consobrina</i> Caill.</li> - -<li><i>Neritina nilotica</i>, Reev.</li> - -<li><i>Valvata nilotica</i>, Jick.</li> - -<li><i>Cleopatra pirothi</i>, Jick.</li> - -<li><i>C. pirothi</i>, var., <i>unicarinata</i>, Mart.</li> - -<li><i>Bithynia</i> aff. <i>Boissieri</i>, Charp.</li> - -<li><i>Melania tuberculata</i>, Müll.</li> - -<li><i>Limnaea natalensis</i>, Krauss.</li> - -<li><i>L. mœris</i>, Mart.</li> - -<li><i>L. palustris</i>, Müll.</li> - -<li><i>Planorbis subangulata</i>, Phil.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Blanckenhorn has pointed out<a id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> that this fauna is of -special interest and differs from all fossil and living faunas in -Egypt. It might be compared with the <i>Melanopsis</i>-fauna of the -Nile Valley if the exceptional <i>Limnaea</i> were replaced by -<i>Melanopsis</i> or <i>Paludina</i>. Its <i>Unio Schweinfurthi</i> -recalls the youngest alluvial deposits of the Nile Valley, 2nd -Cataract, Kom Ombo and Silsila; at these places, however, the beds -containing the species in question are at least 20 metres above -mean water level of the present day.</p> - -<p>The sub-fossil fauna of the Fayûm alluvium, in addition to those -forms everywhere met with in the Nile Valley, includes <i>Neritina -nilotica</i> and <i>Melania tuberculata</i>, which are common forms -of the <i>Melanopsis</i> stage, as well as <i>Unio abyssinicus</i> -and <i>Valvata nilotica</i>. In common with the present fauna of -the Birket el Qurûn it has the five forms belonging to the genera -<i>Corbicula</i>, <i>Neritina</i>, <i>Valvata</i>, <i>Melania</i>, -and <i>Planorbis</i>. The sub-fossil fauna, which passes into the -modern fauna of the Birket el Qurûn, shows connection with the -Mediterranean and Blue Nile, but has a total absence of White Nile -forms such as <i>Ampullaria</i>, <i>Lanistes</i>, <i>Cleopatra -bulimoides</i>, <i>Spatha</i> and <i>Aetheria</i>. Moreover -<i>Limnæa palustris</i>, although identical with the form found on -other Mediterranean coasts, is as yet entirely unknown from the -Nile Valley. Blanckenhorn concludes that the diluvial subfossil -deposits of the Fayûm were produced when the climate of Egypt was -damper and more Europæan, the Nile carrying more arenaceous -sediment in place of the mud of to-day and running at higher level, -as it did when the shells of <i>Unio Schweinfurthi</i> were -enclosed in the deposits of Jebel Silsila. Blanckenhorn thinks the -Nile obtained access to the depression during the last European ice -period. This last supposition, coupled with the above comparison of -the Fayûm fresh-water fauna with the Melanopsis stage of the Nile -Valley Pleistocene series, shows that in regarding the early Fayûm -lake as dating from prehistoric times Blanckenhorn and the writer -are in agreement.</p> - -<h3><a id="s14"></a><span class="sc">Section</span> -XIV.—RECENT.</h3> - -<p>We may divide the Recent period into two epochs, Prehistoric and -Historic, always remembering that the line of demarcation is not -much more distinct than that between Recent and Pleistocene.</p> - -<h4><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span><a id= -"s14o"></a><em>O.</em>—<span class="bold">Prehistoric.</span></h4> - -<p>The abundance of worked flints on the desert just within and -around the site occupied by the Fayûm lake in late Pleistocene and -prehistoric times, shows that the shores were eventually inhabited -by people who made and used these primitive tools. That the edge of -the lake was abundantly wooded is shown by the thousands of well -preserved tamarisk stumps met with at the present day in situ -(<a href="#i14">Plate XIV</a>) in the clays throughout the former -margin of the lake.</p> - -<p>The implements occur chiefly along the margin of the highest -level of the old lake, and have probably in many cases been buried -in the lake clays until the present time, which would account for -their beautiful state of preservation. We have not, however, yet -actually detected them enclosed within the clays, although commonly -found lying on the clean wind-worn surface. From the fine degree of -workmanship we may undoubtedly refer these flint implements to the -Neolithic or later stone-age, although the exact date is doubtful. -That they were made and used while the lake still stood at its -highest level seems certain, but as we have shown above, the lake, -as a sheet of water up to 23 metres above sea-level or thereabouts, -probably existed far anterior to the Egyptian historic period. They -might, on the other hand, as far as the evidence from the position -of the lake goes, have been used by the inhabitants of the -lake-margin down to the great reclamation which took place in -Ptolemaic times. As it seems impossible to date them by comparison -with flints of known age from any Egyptian period, we may perhaps -conclude that they are at least of older date than the earliest -Egyptian records.<a id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" -class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> - -<h4><a id="s14p"></a><em>P.</em>—<span class= -"bold">Historic.</span></h4> - -<p>In historical times, under conditions almost identical with -those of the Nile of to-day, there would have been an annual inflow -during the flood and outflow back to the Nile when the latter -subsided; during the inflow a constant supply of Nile mud was -brought into the lake and deposited on the surface of the earlier -alluvium, continually augmenting the thickness of the latter and -raising its surface, until in the central area marshy land began to -appear. In the XII Dynasty this natural backwater of the Nile, -which acted as a more or less efficient regulator of high and low -floods, was brought under human control by Amenemhat I, and a -considerable area of land reclaimed from the shallowest part of the -lake, or that part of the country now lying near Edwa, Medinet el -Fayûm, etc. The new artificially controlled lake was called Moeris, -and its wonders are mentioned by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, -Strabo and Pliny.</p> - -<p>The actual position of Lake Moeris has been the subject of much -discussion, the late<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> -Linant de Bellefonds<a id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" -class="fnanchor">[96]</a> having asserted that it was a high-level -lake, quite distinct from the Birket el Qurûn, occupying the gap in -the hills by which the Bahr Yusef enters the Fayûm, its encircling -bank commencing at Edwa and passing through Biahmu, Medinet, etc. -Sir Hanbury Brown has,<a id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> however, completely -demolished Linant’s theory, which is shown to be absolutely -untenable; and has proved conclusively that the ancient Mœris -occupied the greater part of what is now the cultivated land, as -well as the area covered by the present lake and a considerable -part of the surrounding desert, the reclaimed land being in fact -part of the very district Linant supposed the lake to have -occupied. Since the publication of Brown’s work complete -corroborative evidence has been forthcoming from two distinct -sources, one archæological, the other geological. The latter has -already been mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter iw2"> -<figure id="fig10"><a href="images/fig10.jpg"><img src= -'images/fig10.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.—Sketch Map showing -approximately the site of Lake Moeris.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<p>It was clear from the map of Claudius Ptolemy that the route -through the Fayûm to the Oasis Parva left Bacchias near the north -end of the lake, and passing between Arsinœ and Lake Mœris, reached -Dionysias near the other end. The archæological researches of -Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt<a id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href= -"#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> have shown that Bacchias -occupied the site of the modern Um<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_84">[84]</span> el Atl close to one end of the Birket el -Qurûn, while Dionysias was probably in the neighbourhood of Qasr el -Banat or Qasr el Qurûn. Thus the Ptolemaic Lake Mœris was almost -identical with the modern Birket el Qurûn. Neither did the sites -excavated yield a trace of anything older than the third century -B.C. Theadelphia and Philoteris were founded in the reign of the -second Ptolemy, when a great reclamation of the land from the lake -took place, and probably Euhemeria, Dionysias, Karanis and Bacchias -date from the same reign.</p> - -<p>The archæological evidence is thus briefly summed up by Grenfell -and Hunt: “Originally the lake filled the whole basin of the Fayûm, -the first reclamation being carried out by Amenemhat I, who built -the great dam at El Lahûn, where the Bahr Yusef enters the -province, and recovered the high ground near the entrance as far as -Biahmu, and a point between Abshawai and Agamiin. This remained the -Pharaonic province until the time of Herodotus, when the water -still came up to the colossi at Biahmu. Subsequently all the land -now cultivated below the level of the Pharaonic province was -reclaimed, chiefly in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, when Lake -Mœris was reduced nearly to the size of its modern representative, -the Birket el Qurûn”.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Present day Fauna -of the Birket el Qurûn.</span>As mentioned above, the Pleistocene -fauna of the Fayûm differs in one or two particulars from the fauna -of the present day. The commonest living molluscan forms include -the following:—</p> - -<ul class="simple1"> -<li><i>Corbicula fluminalis</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Neritina nilotica</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Cleopatra bulimoides</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Hydrobia stagnalis</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Valvata nilotica</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Melania tuberculata</i>.</li> - -<li><i>Planorbis Ehrenbergi</i>.</li> - -<li><i>P. marginatus</i> var. <i>subangulata</i>.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Blanckenhorn<a id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" -class="fnanchor">[99]</a> has pointed out that in this fauna -<i>Hydrobia stagnalis</i>, as a typical brackish water form is of -special interest. The species appears to have established itself in -the Birket el Qurûn in modern times, as it has not been found in -the youngest alluvium of the lake, nor is it known in the modern -Nile fauna.</p> - -<p class="space-above15"><span class="sidenote">Modern Deposits: -Blown Sand and Erosion.</span>Except for the gradual accumulation -of silt over the bed of the Birket el Qurûn—sand and clay carried -in by the wind and the fine sediment borne by the feeder canals—the -only modern deposits of any importance are those of blown sand. The -extensive arenaceous deposits of younger Tertiary age, forming the -greater part of the continent from the latitude of the Fayûm to the -Mediterranean shores, yield as a result of the action of denudation -a constant and abundant supply of the raw material. The sand -carried southwards by the prevailing winds accumulates as dunes in -the lowest parts of the depressions, on the slopes of cliffs, and -in all the less exposed localities. Wind swept areas remain free or -are only gradually encroached on by slowly growing linear dunes -originating in the wind-shadow of<span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_85">[85]</span> some protecting hill or ridge. An unique -example of such a dune is to be seen at the south end of the -well-marked ridge a few kilometres east of Gar el Gehannem -(<a href="#i15">Plate XV</a>).</p> - -<p>The main accumulations of blown sand are in the southern part of -the Fayûm; large areas of the floors of Wadis Rayan and Moêla are -covered with dunes, while in their immediate neighbourhood the -material has accumulated to such an extent as to blot out entire -cliffs and valleys; immediately to the west of Gharaq a -considerable area is covered with small but steep dunes; and -finally must be mentioned the great linear belt of sand, known as -the Ghart el Khanashat, which starting from a point about midway -between the Wadi Natrûn and Mogara comes to an abrupt termination -some 24 kilometres before gaining the northern escarpment of the -Fayûm depression (see <a href="#Page_23">page 23</a>).</p> - -<p>As might be expected in an area like the Fayûm, where -sedimentary rocks of every type are met with, and where the wind -never wants for a sufficient supply of the necessary sand, -superficial erosion is everywhere well marked. We do not propose to -study here the action of wind-borne sand and it will be sufficient -to mention two localities where the effects are best seen; one is -in the neighbourhood of Garat el Esh, where the most remarkable -scoring and grooving is to be seen on the two beds of limestone -capping the upper and lower cliffs of the Middle Eocene; the other -is the Zeuglodon Valley, and here the sculpturing of the sandstone -of the Birket el Qurûn series is of the finest and most unique -description.</p> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> -<figure id="i16"> -<p class="platelabel sc">Plate XVI.</p> -<a href="images/i16.jpg"><img src='images/i16.jpg' alt=''></a> -<p class="cp1">THE BIRKET EL QURUN NEAR THE WESTERN END.</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<div class="footnotes" id="ftp3"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class= -"label">[33]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>The -Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a district -in Egypt containing a new Palæogene Vertebrate Fauna</em>. Geol. -Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, pp. 540-546.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class= -"label">[34]</span></a><span class="sc">Andrews</span>, <em>Fossil -Mammalia from Egypt</em>, Geol. Mag. 1899, No. 425, pp. 481, 482; -and <span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>, <em>Neues zur Geologie -und Paleontologie Ægyptens</em>, III, “Das Miocän,” Zeitschr. d. -Deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft. Jahrg. 1901, pp. 98-101.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class= -"label">[35]</span></a><span class="sc">Schweinfurth</span>, -<em>Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise des Fayum</em>, -Zeitschr., Ges. f. Erdkunde, Berlin, No. 122, 1886, p. 100.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class= -"label">[36]</span></a>Op. cit. pp. 108-110.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class= -"label">[37]</span></a><em>L’Oasis de Moëleh</em>, Bull. de -l’Institut Égypt., Fasc. 3, Ap. 1892.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class= -"label">[38]</span></a>The following may be mentioned; -<i>Euspatangus</i> (<i>formosus?</i> and <i>Blanckenhorni</i>), -<i>Schizaster</i>, <i>Lobocarcinus</i> (? <i>Paulino -Wurtembergicus</i>), <i>Nautilus</i> sp. etc.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class= -"label">[39]</span></a>El Haram el Bahrl of Schweinfurth.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class= -"label">[40]</span></a>Individuals of 60 mm. diameter are not -uncommon.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class= -"label">[41]</span></a>Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class= -"label">[42]</span></a><span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>, -<em>Neues zur Geologie und Palæntologie Ægyptens</em> (II. Das -Palæogen) Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellschaft, Jahrg. 1900, -p. 446, has determined this as <i>T. tenuistriata</i>. He refers to -these beds as corresponding to the Tafla of Jebel Mokattam, but I -regard them as probably representing a considerably lower -horizon.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class= -"label">[43]</span></a>The nummulites from the Birket el Qurûn -series have not yet been critically examined. There appear to be -several species present, including <i>N. Beaumonti</i>, <i>N. -Sub-Beaumonti</i>, <i>N. Fraasi</i> and <i>N. Schweinfurthi</i>. In -the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilom. W.S.W. of Gar el Gehannem, -occasional individuals of <i>N. gizehensis</i> occur in the basal -beds. As there appears to be some doubt whether the four smaller -nummulites mentioned above are specifically distinct we shall not -attempt to discriminate too closely in the present report.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class= -"label">[44]</span></a><span class="sc">Schweinfurth</span>, op. -cit. p. 139.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class= -"label">[45]</span></a><span class="sc">Zittel</span>, -Palæontographica N.F.X. 3 (XXX) <em>Die Versteinerungen der -tertiäre Schichten von der westlichen Insel im Birket el Qurun -See</em>, von Prof. Karl Mayer-Eymar.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class= -"label">[46]</span></a>It must be mentioned here, however, that -more recently Mayer-Eymar speaks (<em>Nouvelles Recherches sur le -Ligurien et le Tongrien d’Égypte</em>, Bull. Inst. Égypt., April, -1894, p. 216) of the Mokattam beds above Qasr el Sagha, some 100 -metres higher in the series, as Parisian, but does not explain -these two conflicting determinations. It seems quite certain, -however, that these island beds are of Parisian age, and not -Bartonian as stated by him.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class= -"label">[47]</span></a><i>Lucina pharaonis</i>, Bell., (<i>L. -pomum</i>, May. Eym. not Dujardin) see Oppenheim, <em>Zur Kenntnis -alttertiärer Faunen in Ægypten</em>, Palaeontographica, Bd. XXX, -III, p. 124.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class= -"label">[48]</span></a><span class="sc">Dames</span>, <em>Uber eine -Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna von der westlichen Insel des Birket el -Qurun in Fayum (Ægypten)</em>, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., -Berlin, 1883.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class= -"label">[49]</span></a><em>Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die -Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den übrigen Cetacean</em>, -Palæontologische Abhandlungen von W. Dames und Kayser, I. V. 5, -Jena, 1894.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class= -"label">[50]</span></a>We propose to refer to this species as <i>Z. -Isis</i>. See Geol. Mag. No. 479, Dec. V, Vol I, No. V, May 1904, -p. 214.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class= -"label">[51]</span></a>See also, Stromer von Reichenbach, -<em>Zeuglodonten-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum</em>, -Bayer Akad. Wissensch. Bd. XXXII, 1902, pp. 341-352.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class= -"label">[52]</span></a><span class="sc">Ernest von Stromer</span>. -<em>Zeuglodon-reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum</em>, -Beiträge zur Paläontologie und Geologie Osterreich-Ungarns und des -Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III, p. 82.</p> - -<p>Also <em>Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten</em>, -Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr. 1903.</p> - -<p>Compare Fraas <em>Neue Zeuglodonten aus dem Unteren Mitteleocän -vom Mokattam bei Cairo</em>, Geol. u. Palæont. Abhand. Neue Folge -Band VI Heft 3. Jena 1904.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class= -"label">[53]</span></a>As the fossils occurring in these beds had -been collected and described by Schweinfurth, Dames, and -Mayer-Eymar, the writer did not spend further time on the island -than was necessary for correlating the beds with his -classification.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class= -"label">[54]</span></a>Cossmann has recently described some Middle -Eocene shells collected from the same locality, near Dimê, in a -publication entitled <em>Additions à la Faune Nummulitique -d’Égypte</em>, le Caire, 1901.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class= -"label">[55]</span></a><i>T. pharaonica</i>, Cossmann. A new -species; apparently this is the form quoted by Blanckenhorn and -Mayer-Eymar as <i>T. angulata</i>. According to Cossmann, however, -<i>T. pharaonica</i> differs from <i>T. angulata</i> in several -particulars, especially in being more thickset.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class= -"label">[56]</span></a>Blanckenhorn, thinking that the bed capping -the island of Geziret el Qorn is identical with that forming the -plain around and to the north of Dimê, has, in a section recently -published (<em>Neues zur Geol. u. Palænt. Ægyptens, IV. Das -Pliocän</em>, etc., Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., Jahrg. -1901, Taf. XIV, fig. 2), inserted a number of faults letting the -beds down continually to the south. The beds however are not -identical, and no faults occur.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class= -"label">[57]</span></a>This block was far too large to transport by -camel, but it may be feasible to effect its removal to Cairo by -cart when opportunity offers.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class= -"label">[58]</span></a><span class="sc">Schweinfurth</span>, op. -cit. p. 139.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class= -"label">[59]</span></a>A ruin discovered by Schweinfurth in 1886 -and hence often spoken of as “Schweinfurth’s Temple.” Nothing -certain is known as to its age or former use, but we may infer from -its situation just beyond the limits of the high-level lacustrine -clays, that it was built and inhabited only while Lake Mœris stood -at its highest level.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class= -"label">[60]</span></a>See <span class="sc">Oppenheim</span>, op. -cit. p. 105.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class= -"label">[61]</span></a>Details of a section of the lower beds of -this group near the end of the lake have already been given on -<a href="#Page_44">p. 44.</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class= -"label">[62]</span></a>As might be expected, vertebrate remains -occur chiefly in the sandy and clayey beds. Skeletons of marine -animals such as <i>Zeuglodon</i> and <i>Eosiren</i> may, however, -be frequently observed embedded in the hard intercalated -limestones. Limestone cranial-casts of these animals are thus -sometimes found, and one of these has already been figured and -described (Elliot Smith, <em>The Brain of the Archæoceti</em>, -Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. 71, pp. 322-331. Some most -beautifully formed casts from one of the limestone beds were -eventually determined by Andrews to be casts of the air passages of -crocodile skulls.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class= -"label">[63]</span></a>Schweinfurth appears to have been the first -to examine these beds.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class= -"label">[64]</span></a>One would imagine that there must have been -a considerable amount of ferruginous matter in the water at the -time of deposition of the Fluvio-marine series, the prevailing -colours of the deposits being red and yellow.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class= -"label">[65]</span></a>Mayer-Eymar appears to believe the -depression of the Fayûm is the result of the volcanic activity -which produced these basalt flows. He says (op. cit. <em>Nouvelles -recherches, etc.</em>, p. 218.) “Or, de cette extension -extraordinaire du phénomène volcanique dans l’ouest du grand -désert, il est, en premier lieu, permis de conclure que c’est par -suite de son action excavante qu’a eu lieu l’effondrement rempli de -nos jours, en partie par le lac de Fayum.”</p> - -<p>Personally, we cannot see the slightest evidence in support of -this. Where the basalt occurs as a hard band it usually causes -steep cliffs as at Widan el Faras, owing to its protecting the -underlying beds from denudation. To the west, in Jebel el Qatrani, -its thickness and hardness determine the character and steepness of -the escarpment below.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class= -"label">[66]</span></a>Pebble bands are occasionally met with in -the coarser sandstones of the Fluvio-marine series, and it would -seem that from them are derived the pebbles of quartz and flint -which so invariably strew the desert-surface to the north to beyond -the latitude of Cairo. Those flints on the surface are largely -broken up and flaked by changes of temperature, but show -comparatively little shaping by blown sand; the white quartz -pebbles on the other hand, while seldom or never broken or flaked, -are invariably more or less facetted, frequently into typical -“dreikanter” or pyramid-pebbles; below the surface both varieties -are perfectly water-rounded.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class= -"label">[67]</span></a>Many of the fossils mentioned in this -profile were only discovered after long search, and had to be -inserted in the measured section afterwards. Their position -therefore is only approximate, as individual beds could not always -be correlated at the different points where fossils were -collected.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class= -"label">[68]</span></a>It is not intended to convey the impression -that remains of all these vertebrates were found at the point where -the actual line of section runs. As a matter of fact at that -particular point only <i>Palæomastodon</i> remains were observed, -while most of the others were obtained some distance further west. -Remains of <i>Mœritherium</i>, probably identical with <i>M. -Lyonsi</i>, of the Qasr el Sagha series, in the shape of a -beautifully-preserved and almost complete skull, associated with -<i>Palæomastodon</i> and <i>Arsinoitherium</i> in these same beds, -I only discovered in January 1903, at a point nearly due north of -the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. A preliminary description -of this skull has been published by Andrews, <em>Further Notes on -the Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt</em>; Geol. Mag. Dec. V. Vol. I. -N<sup>o</sup> III. March 1904, pp. 109-115.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class= -"label">[69]</span></a><span class="sc">Andrews</span> and -<span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>A preliminary notice of a -Land Tortoise from the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt</em>, -P.W.M. report, Cairo, 1903.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class= -"label">[70]</span></a>In addition to those described from the -Survey and British Museum collections, some additional species are -described by von Reinach from von Stromer’s collection: -<em>Schildkrötenreste aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär</em>; -Sonderabdruck aus den Abhandlungen der Sendeenbergischen -naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Band XXIX, Heft I. Frankfurt -1903.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class= -"label">[71]</span></a>Op. cit., p. 455-456. Vide Blanckenhorn, -<em>Zur Kentniss der Süsswasserablag. u. Mollusken Syriens</em>. -Palaeontographica XLIV, 1897, S. 97, t. 8, f. 2.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class= -"label">[72]</span></a>More recently Blanckenhorn in a paper -entitled <em>Nachträge zur Kentniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten</em>, -(Centralbl. f. Mineralogie ch. 1901, No. 9, p. 272) has named this -species <i>Lanistes bartonianus</i> (spelled <i>bartoninus</i> in -same paper).</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class= -"label">[73]</span></a>It has 4-5 flat spiral rows, the uppermost -of which on the last whorls is often more strongly developed but -not keel-shaped as in <i>M. muricata</i>. There are longitudinal -ribs to the number of 8-12 over the whorls; the largest example was -9 millimetres long and had 8 whorls.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class= -"label">[74]</span></a>See Note 2, <a href="#Footnote_45">p. -43.</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class= -"label">[75]</span></a>The majority belong to the genus -<i>Nicolia</i>, but more rarely specimens, apparently referable to -a species of conifer, are met with.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class= -"label">[76]</span></a>The largest trunk noticed had a length of 28 -metres.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class= -"label">[77]</span></a><span class="sc">Zittel</span>, <em>Beitr. -z. Geol. u. Palaeont. d. Libysch. Wüste</em>, I Th. -(Palaeontographica, Vol. XXX) p. XCIII.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class= -"label">[78]</span></a><span class="sc">Mayer-Eymar</span>, -<em>Quelques mots sur les nouvelles recherches relatives au -Ligurien et au Tongrien d’Egypte</em>. Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt. (3) -N. 4, 1894. Mayer-Eymar’s division of the lower beds into -<em>Ligurien inférieur</em> and <em>Ligurien supérieur</em> is -hardly convincing, especially as no fossils were found by that -observer. The correlation of strata in widely separate areas by -their lithological similarity is at least open to question, -especially with beds of this type, which can indeed be exactly -matched again and again at many levels in the same vertical -succession. His diagnosis of the beds immediately below the basalt -as <em>Tongrien inférieur</em>, rests, however, on firmer grounds, -as this basalt sheet can be traced across the desert to beyond the -latitude of Cairo, and is probably everywhere of approximately the -same age.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class= -"label">[79]</span></a><span class="sc">Schweinfurth</span>, op. -cit., <em>Reise in das Depression Gebiet</em>, etc.) p. 41.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class= -"label">[80]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>The -Cretaceous Region of Abu Roash, near the Pyramids of Giza</em>. -Geol. Survey, Egypt, Report 1900, Pt. II. 1902, p. 44.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class= -"label">[81]</span></a><em>Zur Geologie Aegypten</em>, Pt. II, p. -458; <em>Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär und -Quartärperiode</em>, etc., Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902, -Tafel 10.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class= -"label">[82]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, -<em>Découvertes Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le -Désert Libyen</em>, Compte rendu. VIII<sup>e</sup> Congr. Géol. -Internat. 1900, Paris, 1901, p. <span class= -"word-spaced2em"> </span>; also <span class="sc">Ball</span> -and <span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, <em>Baharia Oasis: Its -Topography and Geology</em>; Survey Depart. P.W.M. report. Cairo. -1903, pp. 61-62.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class= -"label">[83]</span></a><em>Correlations between Tertiary Mammal -Horizons of Europe and America</em>, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. -XIII, No. 1, July 21, 1900, pp. 1-72.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class= -"label">[84]</span></a>Compare <em>Afrika als Entstehungszentrum -für Säugetiere</em>, Stromer, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. -Gesellsch. Jahr 1903. Also <em>Betrachtungen über die Geologische -geschichte Aethiopiens</em>, do. do., 1901.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class= -"label">[85]</span></a>The locality has been briefly examined by -Dr. Blanckenhorn and more recently by Mr. T. Barron, who was -accompanied by Dr. Andrews; the writer spent a few days collecting -in the neighbourhood in April, 1903.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class= -"label">[86]</span></a>Approximately 10 metres above sea-level.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class= -"label">[87]</span></a>It is worth recording here that a single -worn specimen of <i>Chicoreus anguliferus</i>, Lam., was found on -the desert surface in the neighbourhood of the bone-pits and at -about the level of the highest gravel terrace. This determination -was made by Bullen Newton, who informs me the species occurs in the -marine Pleistocene beach deposits of the Red Sea.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class= -"label">[88]</span></a><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, -<em>Découvertes Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le -Désert Libyen</em>, VIII<sup>e</sup> Congrès Géol. Intern. 1900. -Paris 1901, pp. 25-27.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class= -"label">[89]</span></a>Doubt has recently been thrown by American -writers on the possibility of large or thick deposits of gypsum -being formed by precipitation. See R. S. <span class= -"sc">Sherwin</span>. <em>Notes on the theories of origin of gypsum -deposits</em>, Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans. Vol. 18. 1903, pp. -85-88.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class= -"label">[90]</span></a>Egyptian Irrigation (1899), p. 32.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class= -"label">[91]</span></a>The southern limits of the site (broken -line) are taken from the maps of Brown and Willcocks.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class= -"label">[92]</span></a>The mammalian remains collected from these -lacustrine clays have not yet been systematically examined. Dr. -Andrews has however determined some of the genera present: see, -“<em>Notes on an Expedition to the Fayum, Egypt</em>”, Geol. Mag. -No. 470 Aug. 1903, pp. 337-343.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class= -"label">[93]</span></a><span class="sc">Martens</span> -<em>Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem Fajum</em>, Sitz. Ber. -Gesell. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin July, 1879, S. 100 u. Oct. -1886, S. 126.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class= -"label">[94]</span></a><em>Geologie Ægyptens</em>, pp. 444-446.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class= -"label">[95]</span></a>For figures and details of these flints see -a paper by the writer, <em>Neolithic Flint Implements from the -Northern Desert of the Fayûm, Egypt</em>, Geol. Mag., Dec. IV., -Vol. X., pp. 53-59, Febr. 1903.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class= -"label">[96]</span></a><em>Mémoires sur les principaux travaux -d’utilité publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute -antiquité jusqu’à nos jours</em>. 1872-1873, Chap. II.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class= -"label">[97]</span></a>Op. cit. pp. 28-40.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class= -"label">[98]</span></a>“<em>The disposition of the Lake -Mœris</em>,” in the Archæological Report of the Egypt Explor. Fund -1898-1899, Pt. I. D., pp. 13-15.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class= -"label">[99]</span></a><span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>, op. -cit. p. 463.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span><a id= -"app1"></a>APPENDIX I.</h2> - -<p class="sch2">PREVIOUS LITERATURE RELATING TO THE FAYUM.</p> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<ul class="simple2"> -<li><span class="sc">Andrews</span> C. W.—<em>Extinct Vertebrates -from Egypt</em>. Parts I, II, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII, -Sept. and Oct, 1901.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, -with description of some new Mammals</em>, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. -Vol. X. Aug. 1903.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of -Egypt</em>, (Pts I, II, III), Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V. Vol. I. -March, April, May, 1904.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>A note on the occurrence of a Ratite Bird in -the Upper Eocene beds of the Fayûm, Egypt</em>. Proc. Zool. Soc. -London, 1904, Vol. I.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Andrews, C. W. and Beadnell</span>, H. J. -L.—<em>A preliminary note on Some New Mammals from the Upper Eocene -of Egypt</em>, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>A preliminary Notice of a Land Tortoise from -the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt</em>. Survey Dept., P.W.M., -Cairo, 1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Beadnell</span>, H. J. L.—<em>Découvertes -Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert -Libyen</em>, VIII. Congr. Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris, 1901.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of -the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene -Vertebrate Fauna</em>. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII No. 450, Dec. -1901.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>A preliminary note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, -Beadn.</em>, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern -Desert of the Fayûm, Egypt</em>. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Febr. -1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Blanckenhorn</span>, M.—<em>Geologie -Ægyptens</em> (Pts I-IV) Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Berlin, -1901.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Neue geologisch-stratigraphische Beobachtungen -in Ægypten</em>, S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe d. Kgl. bayer. Ac. -d. Wiss. Bd. XXXII, 1902, Heft III, München, 1902.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär- -und Quartär periode, sowie des Palaeolithischen Menschen in -Ægypten</em>. Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Nachträge zur Kenntniss des Palaeogens in -Ægypten</em>, Centralb. f. Mineral. No. 9. 1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Brown, Sir Hanbury</span>.—<em>The Fayûm and -Lake Mœris</em>, London, 1892.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cossmann</span>, M.—<em>Additions a la Faune -Nummulitique d’Egypte</em>, Cairo, 1901.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dames</span>, W.—<em>Uber eine Tertiäre -Wirbelthier Fauna von der westlichen Insel des Birket-el-Qurûn in -Fayûm (Ægypten)</em>. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, -1883.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dames, W. and Kayser</span>.—<em>Uber -Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den -übrigen Cetacean</em>. Palaeont. Abhand. I. V. 5, Jena, 1894.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Editor Geological Magazine</span>.—<em>A New -Egyptian Mammal (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm</em>. Geol. Mag. -N.S., Dec. IV, Vol. X, Dec. 1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Elliot Smith</span>, G.—<em>The Brain of the -Archaeoceti</em>, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. 71.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Flinders Petrie</span>.—<em>Hawara, Biahmu and -Arsinœ</em>, Egypt. Explor. Fund Reports, 1889.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Garstin, Sir William</span>.—<em>Report upon -the Basin of the Upper Nile</em>, Cairo, 1904.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Grenfell and Hunt</span>.—<em>The disposition -of the Lake Mœris</em>, Archaeol. Rep. Egypt. Exploration Fund. -1898-99. Pt. I. D.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Liernur, Western and Scott Moncrieff, Sir -Colin</span>.—<em>Notes on the Wadi Rayan</em>, Cairo, 1888.</li> - -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span><span class= -"sc">Linant de Bellefonds</span>.—<em>Mémoires sur les travaux -publics en Egypte</em>, Paris, 1873.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité -publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à -nos jours</em>, 1872-1873.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lucas</span>, A.—<em>A preliminary -Investigation of the Soil and Water of the Fayûm Province</em>, -Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Martens. E. v.</span>—<em>Subfossile -Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem Fajum</em>. Sitz. Ber. Gesell. -naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1879.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mayer-Eymar</span>,—<em>L’oasis de -Moëleh</em>, Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt., April, 1892.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le -Tongrien d’Egypte</em>, Bull. de l’Instit. Egypt., April, -1894.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Die Versteinerungen der tertiären Schichten von -der westlichen Insel im Birket-el-Qurûn See</em>, Paleontogr. -N.F.X., 3, (XXX).</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Oppenheim</span>, P.—<em>Zur Kenntnis -alttertiärer Faunen in Aegypten</em>, (I). Palaeontographica, -Dreif. Band. III, Public Works Ministry reports, 1889-1904. Abt. -Erst. Lief. Stuttgart, 1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Reinach, v.</span>—<em>Schildkrötenreste aus -dem ägyptischen Tertiär</em>. Sonderabd. aus d. Abhand. d. -Senckenb. natur. Gesellsch. XXIX, I. Frankfurt, 1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Schweinfurth</span>, G.—<em>Reise in das -Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise des Fajûm</em>, Zeitschr. Ges. F. -Erdkunde, Berlin, 1886.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>A note on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan</em>, -Appendix II, Egyptian Irrigation (Willcocks), London, 1899.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Scott Moncrieff, Sir Colin</span>—<em>Note on -the Wadi Raian Project</em>, Cairo, 1889.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stromer</span>, E.—<em>Zeuglodonten-Reste aus -dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayûm</em>, Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., Bd. -XXXII, 1902.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Einiges über Bau und Stellung der -Zeuglodonten</em>, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. -See also Beiträge zur Paläont. u. Geol. Osterr.-Ungarins u. des -Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für -Säugetiere</em>, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. -1903.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Whitehouse, Cope</span>.—<em>Bull. of the -American Geographical Society</em>, 1882.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Willcocks, Sir William</span>.—<em>Perennial -Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt</em>, P.W.M. Report, -Cairo, 1894.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>Egyptian Irrigation</em>, 2nd Edit. London, -1899.</li> - -<li class="sub"><em>The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Mœris</em>, -London, 1904.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Zittel, K. v.</span>—<em>Geologie u. -Palaeontologie der Libyschen Wüste</em>, Cassel, 1883.</li> -</ul> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span><a id= -"app2"></a>APPENDIX II.</h2> - -<hr class="decor width4"> - -<p class="hang1"><em>Paul Oppenheim has recently published<a id= -"FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class= -"fnanchor">[100]</a> a description of a large collection of -Egyptian lamellibranchs; the following is a list of the species of -which examples have been collected in the Fayûm (including Rayan -and Moêla). Figured species are marked by an asterisk.</em> -</p> - -<table class="tless padded4cols1" id="t089"> -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Gryphaea pharaonum, Oppenh</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Ostrea (Gryphaea) Whitehousei, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. <span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -Edmondstonei, May-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. <span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> histris, -May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Gryphaea (?) arabica, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. elegans, Desh.</td> -<td>Upper (and intermediate) Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. Fraasi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. Stanleyi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> <span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. Cailliaudi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. ramosa, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. plicata, Sol.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. paucicostata, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. Reili, Fraas.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. Sickenbergeri, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. Hessi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. qeruniana, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. gigantica, Sol.</td> -<td>Upper (and intermediate) Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. (Alectryonia) Clot-Beyi, Bell.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. (<span class="word-spaced12"> „ </span> ) -Bellardi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>O. (<span class="word-spaced12"> „ </span> ) -semipectinata, Schafh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>O. (<span class="word-spaced12"> „ </span> ) -Mehemeti, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>Carolia placunoides, Cantraine</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Pecten moëlehensis, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>P. Cailliaudi, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>Plicatula pyramidarum, Fraas</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>P. Bellardi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>P. indigena, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>P. Schweinfurthi, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Spondylus ægyptiacus, Newton</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>S. Rouaulti, d’Arch.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>S. perhorridus, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Vulsella crispata, Fischer</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>V. lignaria, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Lower Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>V. moëlehensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>V. chamiformis, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Nucula Mœridis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Cucullaea dimehensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>*</td> -<td>Arca subplanicostata, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>A. Tethyis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>A. uniformis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>A. tenuifilosa, Cossm.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Pectunculus juxtadentatus, Cossm.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>P. aegyptiacus, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Cardita Viquesneli, d’Arch.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>C. acuticostata, Lk.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> <span class= -"word-spaced10"> „ </span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. mokattamensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. fayumensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. fidelis, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. Mosis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Crassatella fajumensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>C. Junkeri, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> -</td> -<td>C. puellula, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. trigonata, Lk.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Lucina pharaonis, Bell.</td> -<td>Lower and Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. Rai, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. polythele, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. calliste, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. gibbosula, Lk.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. fajumensis, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>L. sinuosa, Bell.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Diplodonta cycloidea, Bell.</td> -<td>Mokattam Series.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>D. inflata, Bell.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Lucina (Diplodonta) corpusculum, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Cardium desertorum, Oppenh.</td> -<td>Upper Mokattam.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>C. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Cyrena (Corbicula) Blanckenhorni, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>*</td> -<td>Cyprina aegyptiaca, Oppenh.</td> -<td><span class="word-spaced14"> „ </span> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<div class="footnotes" id="ftapp2"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class= -"label">[100]</span></a><em>Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in -Ägypten</em>. Pt. I. <em>Der Bivalven, erster Teil</em>. -Palaeontographica Bd. XXX, III.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<h2 class="large letter-spaced02"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_91">[91]</span><a id="ind"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<hr class="decor width3"> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">A</li> - -<li class="indx">Abshawai—<a href="#Page_30">30</a>-31, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abu Roash as an island—<a href= -"#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acacias—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adaptive radiation of Hyracoidea, &c.—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aegean plateau, Giraffes, &c. of—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Aetheria</i>—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Africa with Europe or Asia, Connection of—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Africa as centre of mammalian radiation—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agamiin—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Agassizia gibberulus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ain Warshat el Melh—<a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Air passages of crocodile skulls, as -casts—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Akera</i> aff. <i>striatella</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Alectryonia Clot-Beyi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Allen—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alluvial deposits—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, -<a href="#Page_25">25</a>-26, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-81.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alluvial soil, Composition of—<a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>-12.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alluvium covering eastern area—<a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amenemhat I—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ampullina hybrida</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ampullaria</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, -<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Analyses of water—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, -<a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Analysis of fossil bones—<a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Analysis of ox bone—<a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ancodus Gorringei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andrews, Dr. C. W.—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Anisaster gibberulus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anomaluridae—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anoplotheres—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antelopes—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aquatic animals—<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aquatic hyracoid—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca Edwardsi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca subplanicostata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca tenuifilosa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca tethyis</i>—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, -<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arca uniformis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Archæoceti—<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ard varks—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area of Birket el Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area of cultivated land—<a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area of desert in depression—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area of Fayûm depression—<a href= -"#Page_9">9</a>-11.</li> - -<li class="indx">Area of Fayûm freshwater lake—<a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arenaceous deposits—<a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arenaceous sediments of Nile—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argillaceous sandstone—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argillaceous sands—<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Armadillos—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arsinœ—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arsinoitherium</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-87.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arsinoitherium Andrewsii</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arsinoitherium Zitteli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Assuan Reservoir—<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Astarte</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Astrohelia similis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">B</li> - -<li class="indx">Baboons—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bacchias—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baharia Oasis—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href= -"#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bahr Belama—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bahr Yusef—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>-12, <a href= -"#Page_17">17</a>-18, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-26, <a href= -"#Page_83">83</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Balanus</i>—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ball, Dr. J.—<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Barbatia</i>—<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barriers between Nile lakes—<a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barron, T.—<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barton Clay—<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bartonian beds—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Barytherium</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Barytherium grave</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basalt sheet—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-64, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>-76 (derived).</li> - -<li class="indx">Basins receiving drainage—<a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bats, Ravine of El—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30, -<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beadnell, H. J. L.—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-60, <a href= -"#Page_65">65</a>-66, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beauchamp sands—<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beekite—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Biahmu—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_83">83</a>-84, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, Fossil—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>-87.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birket el Qurûn—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, -<a href="#Page_12">12</a>-14, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>-25, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-28, <a href= -"#Page_30">30</a>-32, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_40">40</a>-41, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-47, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>-50, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-73, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>-81, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>-88.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birket el Qurun Schichten—<a href= -"#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birket el Qurûn Series—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, -<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>-50, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-74.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bithynia</i> aff. <i>Boissieri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blanford—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_92">[92]</span>Blanckenhorn, Dr. M.—<a href= -"#Page_30">30</a>-31, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blue Nile fauna—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bone horizons & pits—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, -<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borings, Artesian—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borings at Medinet el Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>-30, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borings by molluscs—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>-73, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borings by shells at two levels—<a href= -"#Page_72">72</a>-73.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Borsonia</i>—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boulders in gravel terraces—<a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brackish-water shells—<a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brain of archæoceti—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Branches wanting on fossil trees—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>-65.</li> - -<li class="indx">British Museum collections—<a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown coal—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, Sir Hanbury—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, -<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= -"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bryozoa—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bubalis</i>—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bugti beds (Sind)—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bullen Newton, R.—<a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">C</li> - -<li class="indx">Cairo—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calcareous beds in lake—<a href= -"#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calcareous grits—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-63.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calcareous sandstone—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, -<a href="#Page_42">42</a>-43, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calcite—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>-59, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Callianassa</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Calyptræa trochiformis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canals—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>-12, <a href= -"#Page_18">18</a>-19, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canals, Mud brought to lake by—<a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Canis</i>—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Rayan—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonaceous clays—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonaceous matter—<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita acuticostata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita</i> aff. <i>carinata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita</i> aff. <i>depressa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita ægyptiaca</i>—<a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita fidelis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita fajumensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-52, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita</i> cf. <i>gracilis</i> and -<i>depressa</i>—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita mokattamensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita Mosis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita</i> aff. -<i>triparticostata</i>—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardita Viquesneli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardium</i>—<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardium desertorum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cardium Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-44, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Carolia</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carolia Beds—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>-53, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> (rolled -blocks).</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Carolia placunoides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>-36, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, <a href= -"#Page_45">45</a>-49, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cassidaria</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cassidaria nilotica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cassidaria</i> aff. <i>nodosa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casts of crocodilian skull air passages—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casts of shells—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavernous limestone—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celestine—<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cellular weathering of sandstone—<a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Central African character of Fayûm shells—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Central Area of Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_24">24</a>-25.</li> - -<li class="indx">Centres of independent evolution—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerithium</i>—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>-47, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>-58.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerithium crispum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerithium fodicatum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerithium perditum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cerithium tiarella</i>—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cetacea—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>-44, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chalcedony—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chalky limestones—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charcoal, Natural—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, -<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chelonians—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chert, Tabular—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cherty limestones—<a href="#Page_57">57</a>, -<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chicoreus anguliferus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Claudius Ptolemy—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Clavellithes longævus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clays—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-25, <a href= -"#Page_28">28</a>-30, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-53, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>-59, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62, <a href= -"#Page_74">74</a>-76, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clays, Variegated—<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clayey marls—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clayey sands—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>-37, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clayey sandstones—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clayey shales—<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cleopatra pirothi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cleopatra pirothi</i> var. -<i>unicarinata</i>—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cleopatra bulimoides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cliffs—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>-15, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-24, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-41, <a href= -"#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-50, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-74, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climate, Variations in Egyptian—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal, Thin seam of—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coast-line of old continent—<a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colossi at Biahmu—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concretions—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>-36, <a href= -"#Page_38">38</a>-40, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concretionary sands—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concretionary sandstones—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>-56, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concretionary weathering—<a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conglomerate—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= -"#Page_74">74</a>-76, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conical hill near Wadi Muêla—<a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_93">[93]</span>Coniferous fossil trees—<a href= -"#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Constancy of beds over wide areas—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Continental land in Oligocene times—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Continuance of Oligocene continental -conditions—<a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cope Whitehouse—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>-17.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coprolites—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corals—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corbicula Blanckenhorni</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corbicula fluminalis</i>, var. -<i>consobrina</i>—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corbula</i>—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corbula</i> aff. <i>pixidicula</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cossmann, M.—<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cossmannella ægyptiaca</i>—<a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cranial casts in limestone—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crassatella fajumensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crassatella Junkeri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crassatella puellula</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crassatella trigonata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crassatellithes</i>—<a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creodonts—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodiles—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-55, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crocodilus</i>—<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, -<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crystals of quartz, calcite &c.—<a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cucullæa</i> aff. <i>crassatina</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cucullæa dimehensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cultivated lands—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>-14, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Currents in Birket el Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Currents in ancient river—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_65">65</a>-66, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-78, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Current-bedded clays, sands, &c.—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuvier—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cyprina ægyptiaca</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cyrena Blanckenhorni</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cytherea</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cytherea Newboldi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">D</li> - -<li class="indx">Dakhla Oasis—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dam at El Lahûn—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dames—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>-44, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Damp climate formerly in Egypt—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dashûr, Pyramids of—<a href= -"#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dasypodidae—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Defile of Wadi Muêla—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delta, Ancient—<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>-67.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dentalium</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denudation, Effects of—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deposition of sediments in Eocene times—<a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depression, Origin of Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depression, Fayûm—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_11">11</a>-16, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href= -"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-30, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>-36, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>-81, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-85, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>-88.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depression, Mogara—<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depression, Wadi Rayan &c.—<a href= -"#Page_17">17</a>-19, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-24.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depressions of Libyan Desert—<a href= -"#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Depth of Birket et Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Der el Beda—<a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Der el Galamûn—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desert conditions—<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, -<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desert region—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>-28.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deshasleh—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dictyopleurus Haimi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diluvial deposits—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dimê—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dinotheres—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diodorus Siculus—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, -<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dionysias—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dip, Importance and nature of—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>-49, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Diplodonta corpusculum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Diplodonta cycloidea</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Diplodonta inflata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dip-slopes of central area &c., of -Fayûm—<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, -<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dormice—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Downthrow of faults—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drainage basins—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, -<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drains—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dreikanter—<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Druses of calcite—<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dugongs—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dunes—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href= -"#Page_21">21</a>-23, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-27, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>-85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dunes, Slope of—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dunes, Straight-lined character of—<a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">E</li> - -<li class="indx">Earth-pillars—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Earthy limestone—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Echinids—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Echinolampas Crameri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edentata—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edwa—<a href="#Page_82">82</a>-83.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptian irrigation—<a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elephants, Early—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Elephas</i>—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">El-Gayat, village—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elliot Smith, Dr.—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elwat Hialla—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>-56, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-76.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emigration of African animals—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_94">[94]</span>Eocene sea, Extension of—<a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eosiren</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eosiren libyca</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eremopezus libycus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Erosion by Nile—<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, -<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Erosion, Superficial—<a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Escarpments—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-28, <a href= -"#Page_31">31</a>-32, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>-58, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>-77.</li> - -<li class="indx">Escarpments determined by fractures—<a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eschara Duvali</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Estuarine conditions of upper beds—<a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ethiopian faunal region—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ethiopian region centre of independent -evolution—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euhemeria—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Euspatangus Blanckenhorni</i>—<a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Euspatangus cairensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Euspatangus formosus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evaporation of late Pliocene lake—<a href= -"#Page_78">78</a>-79.</li> - -<li class="indx">Even-toed ruminants—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Exogyra Fraasi</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">F</li> - -<li class="indx">Facetted quartz pebbles—<a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">False-bedding—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51, -<a href="#Page_55">55</a>-57, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farafra Oasis—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faulting and folding—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, -<a href="#Page_29">29</a>-32, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-50.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fault near Qasr el Sagha—<a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fault, Nile Valley—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fayûm beds shallower water than those of -Mokattam—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fayûm, Causes of origin of—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferruginous bands—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52, -<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferruginous clays—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferruginous grits—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, -<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>-67.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferruginous sand—<a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferruginous sandstone—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Feshn—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fibrous gypsum—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ficula tricarinata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Filhol, M.—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fiord, Nile Valley—<a href= -"#Page_78">78</a>-79.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish remains—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>-44, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-47, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-52, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish-scales—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish-spines—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish-teeth—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish-vertebrae—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flat-topped hills—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flinders, Petrie—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flint implements—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, -<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flint pebbles—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>-63, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>-76.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flint, Tabular—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floods—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flood protection—<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flood-readings—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floor of depression—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluviatile conditions of deposition—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluviatile sands, etc.—<a href="#Page_60">60</a>, -<a href="#Page_66">66</a>-67.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluviomarine conditions of deposition—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fluviomarine Series—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>-65, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-76.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flying rodents—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fold near Qasr el Sagha—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, -<a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foraminiferal beds—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_35">35</a>-39, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-42, -<a href="#Page_45">45</a>-48, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Formation of Fayûm lake—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, -<a href="#Page_78">78</a>-80, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fractures determining escarpments—<a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshness of Birket el Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshwater conditions of deposition—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshwater lake before Mœris—<a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>-80.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshwater lakes of Nile Valley—<a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshwater shells—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-81, <a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshwater shells absent in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fusus</i>—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">G</li> - -<li class="indx">Gar el Gehannem—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>-39, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>-47, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= -"#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gar el Hamra—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href= -"#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garat el Esh—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garat el Faras—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garat el Gindi—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garstin, Sir W.—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gasteropods—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Geniohyus</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Geniohyus fayumensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Geniohyus major</i>—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, -<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Geniohyus mirus</i>—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, -<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geodes—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geological Succession in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geological Magazine—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geology of Fayûm—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geziret el Qorn—<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, -<a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-45, <a href= -"#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gharaq, Bahr el—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, -<a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gharaq Basin—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-20, <a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>-26, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gharaq, Wadi—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ghardag bushes—<a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ghart el Khanashat—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>-27, -<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gigantophis</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gigantophis Garstini</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Giraffes—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gisortia</i>—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gisortia gigantea</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_95">[95]</span>Giza, Pyramids of—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, -<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glacial period—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glauconitic clays—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glauconitic marl—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glauconitic sands—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Globular concretions—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_42">42</a>-46, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Glycimeris pulvinatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goat remains—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Goniastræa cocchii</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Goniaræa elegans</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Goniopora</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grass in desert—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gravels—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>-27, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-78.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gravel-capped hills—<a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gravel terraces—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-80.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gravelly gypsum—<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grenfell, Mr.—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grits—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>-34, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-63, <a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grooving due to blown sand—<a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gryphæa arabica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gryphæa Edmonstonei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gryphæa histris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gryphæa pharaonum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gryphæa Whitehousei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gauges, Nile—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous clays—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-40, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>-46, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous deposits—<a href="#Page_71">71</a>, -<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous limestone—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, -<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous marls—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>-39.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous plain—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>-21.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous sands—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypseous shale—<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypsum—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-52, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>-79.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gypsum of Paris, Animals in—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">H</li> - -<li class="indx">Hade of fault—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Haram el Bahrl, El—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harpoons, Flint—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hawara—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Headon Hill beds—<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Height of Pliocene terraces—<a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Heliastræa acervularia</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Heliastræa Ellisi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Heliastræa flattersi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heluan—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herodotus—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">High-level lake—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hippopotamus</i>—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, -<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Historic epoch—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>-85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to siliceous -bands—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hunt, Mr.—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>-84, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huxley, Prof.—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hydractinia</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hydractinia cornuta</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hydrobia stagnalis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyracoidea—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">I</li> - -<li class="indx">Ice periods—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Immigration of animals into Africa—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Implements, Flint—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">India, Fauna of—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indo-Malayan faunal region—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Invasion of Africa by European animals—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Invasion of Europe by African animals—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ironstone—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>-59.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irrigation works, Result of—<a href= -"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Isocardia cyprinoides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">J</li> - -<li class="indx">Jerboas—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Joint-planes—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">K</li> - -<li class="indx">Kafr el Ayat—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Karanis—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kayser—<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kenîsa, El—<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kharga Oasis—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knobs along line of fault—<a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kom Ombo—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Korif, Wadi—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">L</li> - -<li class="indx">Lacustrine deposits—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>-13, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-67, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>-80, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lahûn—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lahûn Pyramid—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake deposits—<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake in Fayûm—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>-14, -<a href="#Page_78">78</a>-80.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake Mœris—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>-13, <a href= -"#Page_18">18</a>-19, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-24, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>-80, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-84, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>-88.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake, Nile Valley—<a href= -"#Page_78">78</a>-79.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake of the Horns—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamellibranchs—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>-59, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamination of arenaceous deposits—<a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land-animal remains—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>-54.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land-areas, Ancient—<a href="#Page_65">65</a>-67, -<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lanistes</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, -<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_96">[96]</span><i>Lanistes antiquus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lanistes bartonianus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lanistes carinatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lava Flows—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>-34, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>-58, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leakage through ridge of Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Leda</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lenticular sand-beds—<a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Leptodon</i>—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Levels made from Rayan to Nile Valley—<a href= -"#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libyan Desert, Area, etc., of—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liernur Bey—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>-18, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liernur, Wadi—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href= -"#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lignite—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ligurian beds—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limb-bones of vertebrates—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limestones—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>-16, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-25, <a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_45">45</a>-53, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-57, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>-62, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-66, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-77.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Limnæa mœris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Limnæa natalensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Limnæa palustris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Linant de Bellefonds—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, -<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Linthia</i>—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Little Rayan—<a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Littoral deposits—<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Loam—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lobocarcinus -Paulino-Wurtembergicus</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lower Headon Hill beds—<a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lower Oligocene—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lucas, A.—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina calliste</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina consobrina</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina Defrancei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina fajumensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina fortisiana</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina gibbosula</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina globulosa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina pharaonis</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina polythele</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina pomum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina Rai</i>—<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina sinuosa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lucina</i> cf. <i>tabulata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lulu, Wadi—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lydekker, R.—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">M</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Macrosolen Hollowaysi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mactra compressa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madagascar and Africa, Connection of—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mammalia, Fossil—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>-35, -<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_38">38</a>-70, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mammillary weathering—<a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mandibles of vertebrates—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marls—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>-30, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-35, <a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>-50, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-62, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-74, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marls in lake—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marls, Saliferous—<a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marly clays—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marly gypsum—<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marly limestones—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-39, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>-48, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marsh land—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href= -"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martens, Prof. von.—<a href="#Page_60">60</a>, -<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Masaigega, Wadi—<a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Masaret-Abusia—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mastodons—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mayer-Eymar, K.—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, -<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mazana—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href= -"#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medinet el Fayûm—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30, -<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-83.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mediterranean fauna—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medum—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a> (pyramid).</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Megalohyrax</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Megalohyrax eocænus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Megalohyrax minor</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melania</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>-60.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melania muricata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melania</i> cf. <i>Nysti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melania tuberculata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melanopsis</i>—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melanopsis</i> fauna—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melongena nilotica</i>, var. -<i>bicarinata</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Menesi Ali, Ezba—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Meretrix nitidula</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Meretrix parisiensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mesalia</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mesalia fasciata</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mesalia oxycrepis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Middle Eocene—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>-10, <a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-33, <a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>-53, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-55, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>-58, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>-67, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Migrations of mammalia—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miocene beds suggested—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miocene, Lower—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miocene, Lower, of Orient European in -type—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miocene strata, Absence of—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mitra</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mœriophis Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mœris (see Lake Mœris).</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mœritherium</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mœritherium gracilis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mœritherium Lyonsi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mœritherium trigodon</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mogara—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mokattam beds, Lower—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_89">89</a>-90.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mokattam beds, Upper—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>-90.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_97">[97]</span>Mokattam beds deeper water than Fayûm -beds—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mokattam, Jebel—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monastery in Wadi Muêla—<a href= -"#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moncrieff, Sir C. S.—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>-17, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monkeys—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monoclinal fold—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monograph of Fayûm vertebrates—<a href= -"#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monotony of desert—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Muêla, Wadi—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-17, <a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>-21, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>-89.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mutela</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mytilus affinis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">N</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Natica</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Natica crassatina</i>—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Natrûn, Wadi—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nautilus</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nawamis—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Necrodasypus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neolithic implements—<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Neritina nilotica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nezleh Canal—<a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nicolia</i>—<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile deposit absent in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile mud—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>-82.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile Valley, Connection with—<a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_17">17</a>-18, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-82.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile Valley, History of—<a href="#Page_79">79</a>, -<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile waters enter depression—<a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-80, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nilometer—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nodular bands—<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nodular limestones—<a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nodules, Calcareous—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nonionina</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Northern Desert Region—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_26">26</a>-28, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nucula Mœridis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nucularia</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nummulites—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-48.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites Beaumonti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites curvispira</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>-37.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites Fraasi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-42.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites gizehensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites gizehensis</i> limestones—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nummulites sub-Beaumonti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nummulitic limestones—<a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>-39, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">O</li> - -<li class="indx">Oases depressions—<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oases, Origin of—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oasis, Parva—<a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oldest beds in Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oligocene beds—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oligocene of Orient European in type—<a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Oliva</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Operculina</i>—<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Operculina discoidea</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Operculina-Nummulite</i> Beds—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-48, <a href= -"#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oppenheim, Dr. P.—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-89.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oriental faunal region—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Origin of Fayûm, Causes of—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Original floor of depression—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Osborn, Prof. H. F.—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, -<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>-50, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Bellardi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Caillaudi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Clot-Beyi</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea cucullata</i>—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, -<a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea digitalina</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Edmonstonei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea elegans</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea flabellula</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Fraasi</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea gigantea</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea gigantica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Gumbeli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Hessi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea</i> aff. <i>heteroclyta</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea histris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea longirostris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Mehemeti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea paucicostata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea plicata</i>—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, -<a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea producta</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea qeruniana</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea ramosa</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Reili</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-47, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>-52, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea semipectinata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Sickenbergeri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Stanleyi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Ostrea Whitehousei</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Oudardia ovalis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outlets, Subterranean, to lake—<a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outliers—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= -"#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Output of water from springs—<a href= -"#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oysters—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_98">[98]</span>Oyster-beds—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oyster-limestone—<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">P</li> - -<li class="indx">Palæogene freshwater shells—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palæogene vertebrate fauna—<a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palæontographica—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, -<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Palæomastodon</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Palæomastodon Beadnelli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Palæomastodon minor</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palms—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>-22.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Paludina</i>—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pangolins—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper-shales—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paris basin—<a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parisian beds—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>-53.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pass from Muêla to Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pebble deposits—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten</i>—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-47.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten benedictus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten Caillaudi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten corneus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten moëlehensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pecten solariolum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pectunculus</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pectunculus juxtadentatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pectunculus ægyptiacus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pectunculus pulvinatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pelomedusa progaleata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pelvis of <i>Arsinoitherium</i>—<a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perforate weathering of sandstone—<a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Permeability of Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perennial irrigation in Egypt—<a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pharaonic province—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philotera—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phiomia</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phiomia serridens</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pinna</i>—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plains—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plain of subaerial denudation—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Planorbis Ehrenbergi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Planorbis marginatus</i> var. -<i>subangulata</i>—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Planorbis subangulata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plant-remains—<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plateau bounding Fayûm to north—<a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><em>Plateaux</em>—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, -<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>-28, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pleistocene Beds—<a href="#Page_30">30</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-81, <a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pleurotoma</i>—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, -<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pleurotoma ingens</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plicatula Bellardi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plicatula indigena</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plicatula polymorpha</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plicatula pyramidarum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plicatula Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pliny—<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pliocene Beds—<a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>-78.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pliocene sea, Invasion of—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href= -"#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pliohyrax</i>—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis antiqua</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis Blanckenhorni</i>—<a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis Blanckenhorni</i> var. -<i>ovata</i>—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis fajumensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis Stromeri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Podocnemis Stromeri</i> var. -<i>major</i>—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pools formed by rainfall—<a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pools produced by springs—<a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Potamides</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Potamides scalaroides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Potamides tiarella</i>—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Potamides tristriatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric epoch—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>-82.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric lake—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, -<a href="#Page_79">79</a>-82.</li> - -<li class="indx">Preservation of fossil remains—<a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Proboscidea—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Promontories of Birket el Qurûn, Origin -of—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Propristis Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Psephophorus eocænus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pseudodon</i>—<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, -<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pterodon</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pterodon africanus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pterodon macrognathus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pterosphenus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemaic lake—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemaic period—<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemy Philadelphus—<a href= -"#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemy the second—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puddingstone of ancient rivers—<a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramid-like building—<a href= -"#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramid pebbles—<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Q</li> - -<li class="indx">Qalamsha, Ezba—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>-26, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qasr el Banat—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qasr el Qurûn—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qasr el Sagha—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_31">31</a>-32, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>-58, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qasr el Sagha Series—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, -<a href="#Page_32">32</a>-33, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href= -"#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>-57, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-66, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qatrani, Jebel El—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, -<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Qatrani beds—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>-70.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Qerunia</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_99">[99]</span><i>Qerunia cornuta</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quartz pebbles—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>-63, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quartz sand—<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quartzite—<a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-75.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">R</li> - -<li class="indx">Radiation of Mammalia from Africa—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Railway to Fayûm—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raised beaches—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ratite bird—<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ravine Beds—<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30, <a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-42, <a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ravines—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rayan, Jebel—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rayan, Geology of Wadi—<a href= -"#Page_22">22</a>-23.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rayan, Little—<a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rayan Series—<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-39, <a href= -"#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rayan, Wadi—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-24, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>-28, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-89.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rays—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Recent Beds—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>-85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reclamation of Fayûm lake—<a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>-84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reeds—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Regulator of floods, Fayûm as—<a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reinach, Von—<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reptiles, Fossil—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reservoir at Assuan—<a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reservoir proposed in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_16">16</a>-19.</li> - -<li class="indx">Retreat of Eocene sea—<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, -<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rhinoceros bicornis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ridge separating Nile Valley and Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>-26, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>-74, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-80.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq—<a href= -"#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rimella rimosa</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ripple-marked sandstone—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rise of Nile bed—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">River, Ancient—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>-55, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-67, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">River-currents—<a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href= -"#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">River-sand—<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roads in desert—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rocks forming Libyan Desert—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roda—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rodents, Flying—<a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rohlfs’ Expedition—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_63">63.</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rolled fossils—<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rostellaria</i>—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Round-topped hill-ranges—<a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rubiat—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>-42.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ruins—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>-22, <a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>-50, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ruminants, Even-toed—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>-69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rushes—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">S</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saghatherium</i>—<a href= -"#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saghatherium antiquum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saghatherium magnum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saghatherium minus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salines—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salinity of lake—<a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salinity of water in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salt—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href= -"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salt in Wadis Rayan & Muêla—<a href= -"#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samos, Island of—<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sands—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-34, <a href= -"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-59, <a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>-62, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href= -"#Page_74">74</a>-76, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand accumulations, Wind-blown—<a href= -"#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-21, <a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand, &c., deposited in Birket el -Qurûn—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, -<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandberger Hills—<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandblast action—<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand-rock—<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-60, <a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sands, Variegated—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, -<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstones—<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href= -"#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-36, <a href= -"#Page_38">38</a>-39, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-63, <a href= -"#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-77.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstone, Concretionary—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstone-grit—<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-63.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstones, Mottled—<a href= -"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandstones, Variegated—<a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy clays—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href= -"#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>-59, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy conglomerate—<a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy limestones—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, -<a href="#Page_35">35</a>-36, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy marl—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy shale—<a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saqâra, Pyramid of—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saws, Flint—<a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scalenohedra of calcite—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Schizaster</i>—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Schizaster</i> aff. <i>africanus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schweinfurth, Dr.—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, -<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href= -"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-37, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>-44, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-72, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>-80, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schweinfurth’s Temple—<a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scoring due to blown sand—<a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scott Moncrieff, Sir C.—<a href= -"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sculpturing of sandstone—<a href= -"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Scutella</i> beds—<a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Second Cataract—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sections, Geological—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>-42, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>-47, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-52, -<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-62.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sediment deposited in Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sêla—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Septaria—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Serpula</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sersena—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_100">[100]</span>Shales—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shaly Clays—<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shaly marl—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>-41, <a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sharks—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sharks’ teeth—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheep remains—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shell-borings—<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shell-impressions—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, -<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shelly limestone—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shelly sands—<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shelly sandstone—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, -<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sherwin, R. S.—<a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shore-line, Ancient—<a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shore-line, Movements of—<a href= -"#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shrinkage of Birket el Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sidmant el Jebel—<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href= -"#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siliceous bands, Horns of Birket el Qurûn due -to—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siliceous beds capping hills—<a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siliceous limestone—<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, -<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silicified grits—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, -<a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silicified sandstones—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, -<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silicified trees—<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-59, <a href= -"#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= -"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-75.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silicified trees, Size of—<a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silsila—<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siluroid fish—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sirenia—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sites, Excavated—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skeleton-carrying currents—<a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soil, Character of—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>-12, -<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soil survey—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Solarium</i>—<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Solarium</i> aff. <i>bistriatum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South Africa as centre of evolution—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South America, Migrations to—<a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spatha</i>—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href= -"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spatha dahomeyensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spatha Droueti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spondylus ægyptiacus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spondylus perhorridus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spondylus Ruaulti</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Springs in Wadi Muêla—<a href= -"#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Springs of Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stem-weathering in sandstone—<a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Step-faults—<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Stereogenys Cromeri</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Stereogenys libyca</i>—<a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Stereogenys podocnemioides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stock-work—<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stone Age, Neolithic—<a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strabo—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strata, Classification of—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strike faults—<a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stromer von Reichenbach, E.—<a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strontium sulphate pseudomorphs—<a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Subaerial denudation—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sub-fossil fauna of Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Successive faunal invasions, Theory of—<a href= -"#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphate of lime—<a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sulphate of strontium pseudomorphs—<a href= -"#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Survey collections—<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Surveying operations—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Surveying by Colonel Western—<a href= -"#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">T</li> - -<li class="indx">Table-land of cultivated area—<a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tafla beds—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tamarisk growth—<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, -<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href= -"#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tamia—<a href="#Page_12">12</a>-13, <a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= -"#Page_27">27</a>-28, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href= -"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>-50, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-56, <a href= -"#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tamia lake—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tectonics—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href= -"#Page_29">29</a>-32.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tellina</i>—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href= -"#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tellina pellucida</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tellina scalaroides</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tellina tenuistriata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature changes in desert—<a href= -"#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature effects on pebbles—<a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature of springs in Wadi Rayan—<a href= -"#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temple of Qasr el Sagha—<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, -<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Terebellum sopitum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Teredo</i>—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= -"#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Testudo Ammon</i>—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Thallassochelys libyca</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theadelphia—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thickness of beds in section—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>-29, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= -"#Page_45">45</a>-46, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-52, <a href= -"#Page_56">56</a>-60, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>-77.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thickness of sediments in Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thinning of Fluvio-marine series—<a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tomistoma</i>—<a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tomistoma africanum</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tongrian beds—<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href= -"#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toothed whales—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Topography and structural geology—<a href= -"#Page_11">11</a>-28.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tortoises, Large—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_53">53</a>-54, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= -"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Trachelochetus bituberculatus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tropical shells in Fayûm—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tuba, El—<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tudicla</i> aff. <i>umbilicaris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tufaceous gypsum—<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turbo Parkinsoni</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella</i>—<a href="#Page_38">38</a>-39, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>-53.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id= -"Page_101">[101]</span><i>Turritella angulata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella carinifera</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella imbricataria</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>-52.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella Lessepsi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella parisiana</i>—<a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella pharaonica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_34">34</a>-35, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href= -"#Page_51">51</a>-52, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella transitoria</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Turritella turris</i>—<a href= -"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turtles—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>-55, <a href= -"#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Twelfth Dynasty—<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, -<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Twigs preserved in clays—<a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">U</li> - -<li class="indx">Um el Atl—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Unconformable junctions—<a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Underground outlets of Birket el Qurûn—<a href= -"#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ungulate, Horned—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio</i>—<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= -"#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-60.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio abyssinicus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio Bonneaudi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio Caillaudi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio Homsensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio lithophagus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio Nyassænsis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio Schweinfurthi</i>—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Unio teretiusculus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Upper Eocene—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href= -"#Page_32">32</a>-34, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-70, <a href= -"#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Upper Mokattam beds—<a href= -"#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Upper Nile basin—<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ur-Nil—<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">V</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Valvata nilotica</i>—<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, -<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetation in water-courses—<a href= -"#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Velates Schmiedeli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Venus</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Venus plicatella</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vermetus</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vertebrae of <i>Mœritherium</i>—<a href= -"#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vertebrae of <i>Zeuglodon</i>—<a href= -"#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vertebrate fauna, Discovery of—<a href= -"#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vertebrates, Extinct—<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, -<a href="#Page_34">34</a>-35, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-52, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= -"#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href= -"#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Voluta</i>—<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Voluta arabica</i>—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vulsella chamiformis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vulsella crispata</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vulsella lignaria</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vulsella moëlehensis</i>—<a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">W</li> - -<li class="indx">Wadi, Ravine of El—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30, -<a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wadi Rayan, Muêla, etc. (see under Rayan, -Muêla).</li> - -<li class="indx">Wadi Rayan series—<a href= -"#Page_35">35</a>-37.</li> - -<li class="indx">Warshat el Melh—<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water analyses—<a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water-courses—<a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water-rounded pebbles—<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, -<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water-supply of Fayûm—<a href="#Page_11">11</a>, -<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weathering—<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wells—<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Western, Colonel—<a href="#Page_16">16</a>-18, -<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whales, Frequency of river and -shore-frequenting—<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whales, Toothed—<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitehouse, Cope—<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">White Nile fauna, Absence of—<a href= -"#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Widan el Faras—<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href= -"#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href= -"#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_75">75</a>-76.</li> - -<li class="indx">Willcocks, Sir William—<a href= -"#Page_13">13</a>-14, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-19, <a href= -"#Page_80">80</a>-88.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wind-shadow—<a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">X</li> - -<li class="indx">Xiphodonts—<a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Z</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon</i>—<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href= -"#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href= -"#Page_87">87</a>-88.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon brachyspondylus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon Isis</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>-45, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon macrospondylus</i>—<a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon Osiris</i>—<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= -"#Page_49">49</a>-51, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon Zitteli</i>—<a href= -"#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeuglodon Valley—<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>-49, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= -"#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zittel, Prof. K.—<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, -<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= -"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<hr class="decor width6"> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> -<figure id="i17"> -<p class="cpm letter-spaced">GEOLOGICAL MAP<br> -OF<br> -<span class="letter-spaced01">THE FAYUM DEPRESSION</span></p> - -<p class="platelabel sserif letter-spaced">PL. XVII.</p> -<a href="images/i17_large.jpg"><img src='images/i17.jpg' alt= -''></a> -<p class="ipubl"><em>Survey Dept. Cairo.</em> -</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> -<figure id="i18"> -<p class="cpm letter-spaced"><span class= -"letter-spaced02">MAP</span> SHOWING<br> -PRINCIPAL BONE-BEARING LOCALITIES</p> - -<p class="platelabel sserif letter-spaced">PL. XVIII.</p> -<a href="images/i18_large.jpg"><img src='images/i18.jpg' alt= -''></a> -<p class="ipubl"><em>Survey Dept. Cairo.</em> -</p> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> -<figure id="i19"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XIX.</p> - -<p class="cpm">SECTION FROM THE BIRKET EL QURÛN THROUGH DIMÊ AND -QASR EL SAGHA TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.</p> -<a href="images/i19_large.jpg"><img src='images/i19.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> -<figure id="i20"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XX.</p> - -<p class="cpm">SECTION FROM WADI RAYAN TO THE SUMMIT OF THE -ESCARPMENT NORTH OF GAR EL GEHANNEM.</p> -<a href="images/i20_large.jpg"><img src='images/i20.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> -<figure id="i21"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XXI.</p> - -<p class="cpm">SECTION OF THE DESERT RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE -VALLEY AND THE FAYÛM.</p> -<a href="images/i21_large.jpg"><img src='images/i21.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> -<figure id="i22"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XXII.</p> - -<p class="cpm">SECTION FROM SIDMANT EL JEBEL IN THE NILE VALLEY -THROUGH MEDINET EL FAYÛM TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI, NEAR -WIDAN EL FARAS.</p> -<a href="images/i22_large.jpg"><img src='images/i22.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> -<figure id="i23"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XXIII.</p> - -<p class="cpm">MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT NEAR QASR EL SAGHA.</p> -<a href="images/i23_large.jpg"><img src='images/i23.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> -<figure id="i24"> -<p class="platelabel letter-spaced01">Plate XXIV.</p> - -<p class="cpm">FROM GARAT EL ESH TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL -QATRANI.</p> -<a href="images/i24_large.jpg"><img src='images/i24.jpg' alt= -''></a> -</figure> -</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h2>Transcriber's note:</h2> - -<ul> -<li>pg <a href="#Page_4">4</a> Changed: "Homotoxial with quarried" -to: "Homotaxial"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_6">6</a> Changed: "M.—<em>Gyseous -Deposits</em>" to: "<em>Gypseous</em>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_30">30</a> Absent references to footnotes -<a href="#Footnote_30">30</a> and <a href="#Footnote_31">31</a> -added after "an accompanying map" and "plateau north of the lake." -respectively.</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, footnote <a href= -"#Footnote_32">32</a> Changed: "Bd. XXX I 1902" to: "Bd. XXXII -1902"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, footnote <a href= -"#Footnote_34">34</a> Changed: "III, Das Miocân,”" to: "III, “Das -Miocän,”"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_58">58</a> Changed: "<i>Potamides -tristiatus</i>" to: "<i>tristriatus</i>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, footnote <a href= -"#Footnote_84">84</a> Changed: "für Saügetiere" to: -"Säugetiere"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_79">79</a> Changed: "matter or considerable -doubt" to: "of"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_80">80</a> Changed: "with little resistence" -to: "resistance"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_87">87</a> Changed: "<em>Eocene beds of the -Fayûm, Egypi</em>" to: "<em>Egypt</em>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_88">88</a> Changed: "<em>Versteinerungen der -tertiāren</em>" to: "tertiären"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_88">88</a> Changed: "<em>für Saugetiere</em>" -to: "<em>Säugetiere</em>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_88">88</a> Changed: "<em>der Libyschen -Wūste</em>" to: "<em>Wüste</em>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_89">89</a> Changed: "Nacula Mœridis" to: -"Nucula"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_91">91</a> Changed: "<i>Arca -tethyis</i>—52-90." to: "52, 90."</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_97">97</a> Changed: "Muêla, Wadi— [. . .] -21-21," to: "20-21,"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_97">97</a> Changed: "<i>Mytilus affinus</i>" -to: "<i>affinis</i>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_98">98</a> Changed: "Perrenial irrigation" -to: "Perennial"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_98">98</a> Changed: "<i>Plonorbis -subangulata</i>" to: "<i>Planorbis</i>"</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_98">98</a> Changed: "<i>Pectunculus -pseudopulvinatus—</i>" to: "<i>Pectunculus -pseudopulvinatus</i>—35."</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_99">99</a> Changed: "Rohlfs’ -Expedition—9-63." to: "9, 63."</li> - -<li>pg <a href="#Page_100">100</a> Changed: "Thickness of beds in -section—37-29" to: "37-39"</li> - -<li>Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently.</li> - -<li>Typographical errors changing æ for œ and vice versa have been -fixed silently.</li> - -<li>Placenames commonly spelled with diacritics (Fayûm, Qurûn, -Lahûn, etc.) were also accented elsewhere except illustration -captions, headers and titles of cited works.</li> - -<li>Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged.</li> - -<li>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to -the public domain.</li> -</ul> -</div> -</div> -<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 ***</div> -</body> -</html> - diff --git a/old/74831-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/74831-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9ec66bb..0000000 --- a/old/74831-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/74831-h/images/fig01.jpg b/old/74831-h/images/fig01.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1eaf5ce..0000000 --- a/old/74831-h/images/fig01.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/74831-h/images/fig02.jpg b/old/74831-h/images/fig02.jpg 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