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diff --git a/old/74831-0.txt b/old/74831-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3ea903f..0000000 --- a/old/74831-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8071 +0,0 @@ - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 *** - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - -NORTH SIDE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN, LOOKING WEST.] - - - SURVEY DEPARTMENT, - EGYPT. - * * * * * - - THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY - OF THE - FAYUM PROVINCE - OF EGYPT - - BY - H. J. L. BEADNELL, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. - -[Decoration] - - CAIRO - NATIONAL PRINTING DEPARTMENT - 1905. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - * * * * * - - - INTRODUCTION. - - PAGES. - - Surveying operations. Soil survey. History of discovery of - Fayûm vertebrate fauna 9 - - PART I.—TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. - - SECTION I.—CULTIVATED LAND— - - Area. Composition and character of alluvial soil. Connection - with Nile Valley. Bahr Yusef and canal system. Ravines. - Alluvial deposits of Lake Moeris and prehistoric lake. - Increase of cultivated lands 11 - - SECTION II.—THE BIRKET EL QURUN— - - Site, depth and dimensions. Remnant of Lake Moeris. Continual - shrinkage of lake. Deposition of sand in lake at present day. - Salinity of lake. Possible underground outlets. Currents 12 - - SECTION III.—THE SURROUNDING DESERT REGION— - - Area and limits of Libyan Desert described. Rocks forming the - area. Importance of dip. Chief causes of origin of Fayûm 14 - - SECTION IV.—WADI RAYAN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD— - - Colonel Western’s survey. Sir William Willcocks’ report. - Borings. Details of proposed reservoir. Schweinfurth’s - estimate of salt content. Willcocks’ “Assuan Reservoir and - Lake Moeris.” Detailed geological examination not yet - undertaken. Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla and - Rayan to Gharaq. Warshat el Melh and springs of Wadi Muêla. - Der el Galamûn. Pass from Muêla to Rayan. Sand accumulations. - Wadi Korif. Springs of Wadi Rayan. Analyses and output of - water. Geological succession in Wadi Rayan. General geology of - floor and bounding walls. Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq. - Apparent absence of Nile deposit and freshwater shells in Wadi - Rayan. Question of leakage through ridge. Permeability of Rayan - if used as a reservoir. Salinity of water 16 - - SECTION V.—CENTRAL AREA OF THE REGION— - - Area and features. Dip-slope of surface. Drainage basins of - central plain. Pools formed by rainfall. Tamarisk growth. The - eastern area covered by alluvium. The bounding plateau to the - north. Ghart el Khanashat dunes 24 - - SECTION VI.—THE RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND FAYUM— - - Width and highest points. Strata forming ridge. Gravel - terraces. Low points of ridge. Original access of Nile waters - to depression. Formation of lake and deposition of sediment - in Fayûm 25 - - SECTION VII.—THE NORTHERN DESERT REGION— - - Escarpments and plateaux. Extreme west and south-west limits - of area. Ferruginous silicified puddingstone of ancient rivers. - Jebel el Qatrani. Widan el Faras. Elwat Hialla. Garat el Gindi. - Garat el Faras 26 - - PART II.—TECTONICS. - - SECTION VIII.—FAULTING AND FOLDING— - - Origin of depression. Evidence in drainage ravines El Bats and - El Wadi. Deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm. Dr. Blanckenhorn’s - theory that depression owes its origin to extensive fault - system. Fault theory disproved. Fault N.N.E. of Qasr el Sagha. - Numerous local strike faults of small throw. Occasional - influence of fractures in determining escarpments 29 - - PART III.—GEOLOGY. - - SECTION IX.—GENERAL AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA— - - Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks. Local lava flows. - Dip. Oldest beds the Nummulites gizehensis limestones of - Middle Eocene. Fluviomarine series of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene age. Absence of Miocene strata. Pliocene, - Pleistocene and Recent. Table showing succession and - classification of strata 33 - - SECTION X.—MIDDLE EOCENE— - - A.—_Wadi Rayan Series._—Work of Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar. - Section at entrance to Wadi Muêla on Nile Valley side. Strata - of cliffs near Der el Galamûn. Detailed section measured at - Jebel Rayan. Mayer Eymar’s section in Wadi Muêla 35 - - B.—_Ravine Beds._—In ravines of El Bats and El Wadi. Relation - to underlying series seen at Gar el Gehannem. Section at Gar - el Gehannem. Fauna of strata. In ravines unconformably - overlain by Pleistocene, etc. Form plain bordering cultivation - on east side. Extension into Nile Valley. Occurrence at Sersena - and Tamia. Forming base of Geziret el Qorn and lower part of - northern escarpment of Birket el Qurûn. West end of lake. Hard - siliceous bands give rise to horns or promontories of lake. - Ravine Beds in the Medinet el Fayûm boring. Thickness 37 - - C.—_Birket el Qurun Series._—Homotaxial with quarried - limestones of Cairo. Foraminiferal beds. Extension of series. - Section at Ezba Qalamsha. Section north of Lahûn pyramid. East - of Sersena and north-east of Rubiyat. Section 17 kilometres - 28° N. of E. of Tamia. Series characterized by large globular - concretions. Development and fauna in Geziret el Qorn. - Zeuglodon remains. Profile at Geziret el Qorn. Rich molluscan - fauna. Section on mainland opposite Geziret el Qorn. Section at - west end of Birket el Qurûn. Formation of earth-pillars. - Extension west of the lake. Development of the series in the - Zeuglodon Valley. Abundance of skeletons of whales. Molluscan - fauna. Pseudomorphs in celestine. Hill mass south of the - Zeuglodon Valley. Junction of Birket el Qurûn series with - overlying stage 41 - - D.—_Qasr el Sagha Series._—Equivalent of the Upper Mokattam - of Cairo. Greater development in Fayûm. Vertebrate fauna of - series. Schweinfurth’s original discovery of cetacean remains. - Recent discovery of land and marine mammals. Extension of - series generally. N.N.E. of Tamia. At Garat el Faras. In the - cliffs north of the Birket el Qurûn. Detailed section near - ruin of Qasr el Sagha. At Gar el Gehannem and westwards. Land - animals floated out from land by river currents. The series a - littoral deposit. Lignitic beds and thin seams of coal 49 - - SECTION XI.—UPPER EOCENE — LOWER OLIGOCENE— - - E.—_Fluvio-marine Series._—Nature of sediments, Interbedded - basalts in upper part. Character of its invertebrate fauna. - Conditions of deposition of series. Continuance of similar - conditions to Miocene and even Pliocene times. Bone-beds at - base of series. Association of skeletons of animals and forest - trees. Preservation of remains. Analysis of fossil bones. - Relation of Fluvio-marine series to underlying stage. - Characteristics of the group. Its development in the field. - Its slight development at Elwat Hialla. Section near Elwat - Hialla. Constant northerly dip. Organic (molluscan) remains 9 - and 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha. Detailed section - from near Qasr el Sagha to Widan el Faras. Determinations of - mollusca from the series. Tripartite character of the series - west of Widan el Faras and Qasr el Sagha. Occurrence of - calcite, gypsum and chalcedony. Tabular chert and flint. - Ancient workings. Extent of basalt. Silicified trees 53 - - F.—_Age of the Fluvio-Marine Series._—Difficulty in the - determination of age owing to paucity of fossils. Zittel’s - tabulation of “Schichten von Birket el Qurûn” as Oligocene. - Mayer-Eymar’s age determinations. Schweinfurth’s comparison - of the series with the Scutella beds of Der el Beda near - Cairo. Blanckenhorn’s determinations. The stratigraphical - position of the series and relationship to Qasr el Sagha - series. Stratigraphically lower than the Lower Miocene of - Mogara. Whole complex in all probability of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene age, the transition being at or near the basalt - sheets 63 - - G.—_The Position of the Land Mass from which the Mammals - were derived._—Proximity of continental land. Absence of - branches on fossil trees. Massif of Abu Roash perhaps an - island to the north. Extension of Eocene sea. Continual - retreat of the sea northwards. Rivers emerging from the land. - Number and positions of such rivers doubtful. Evidence for - river passing from the modern oasis of Baharia through Gar el - Hamra to the Fayûm. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits along - the course. Huxley’s theory of immigration and invasion of - animals into Africa. Fayûm animals belong to an extinct African - fauna of Tertiary times. Contains the earliest and most - primitive forms of elephants and other groups. Emigration and - immigration. Prof. Osborn’s theory of the African continent as - a centre of radiation. Confirmation by the Fayûm mammal - discoveries. List of new species obtained from the Fayûm 65 - - H.—_The Absence of Miocene deposits in the Fayûm._—The Fayûm a - land area in Miocene times. Miocene deposits of Mogara. - Lithological similarity. Probable persistence of geographical - conditions 71 - - SECTION XII.—PLIOCENE— - - J.—_Marine deposits: Middle Pliocene._—Marine deposits of - Sidmant with typical Middle Pliocene mollusca. Relation of - these deposits to the gravel terraces as yet unknown though - important 71 - - K.—_Borings on Rock Surfaces; of doubtful age._—Apparently - due to marine boring mollusca. No exact evidence as to age. - (α) Low level borings from zero to 20 metres above sea-level. - (β) High level borings at 112 metres above sea-level. Limited - occurrences of borings 71 - - L.—_Gravel Terraces:? Upper Pliocene._—Well marked terraces - of gravel up to 170-180 metres above sea-level. East of Sêla. - Character of deposit. East of Sersena and Roda. N.N.E. of - Tamia, N.N.E. of Garat el Faras, east and north-east of Garat - el Gindi. Relation to different series. Character of gravels - at Elwat Hialla. West of Elwat Hialla gravel terraces almost - completely removed by denudation. Traces near Widan el Faras - and near Garat el Esh. Height of terraces in latter locality - determined as 170 metres above sea-level. Terrace marks shore - line of great sheet of water, whether freshwater or marine. - The great plains of the Fayûm possibly in part plains of marine - denudation 73 - - M.—_Gypseous Deposits: probably dating from the close of the - Pliocene._—Extension in Nile Valley and Fayûm. Section at - Medum. On the east side of the Fayûm. Gypsum cemented - conglomerate. Close connection with upper part of gravel - terraces 77 - - N.—_Summary of Pliocene Period_ 78 - - SECTION XIII.—PLEISTOCENE— - - Earliest existence of a freshwater lake. Probably not a - remnant of the Pliocene sea or lake in which gravel terraces - were formed. Intermediate denudation of area. Date of earliest - entry of Nile waters doubtful. Freshwater lake of Nile Valley. - Drainage down the Nile Valley and establishment of river. - Breaking down of gravel ridge separating the valley and the - Fayûm. Entrance of flood waters. Formation of lake and - deposition of sediment. Subsequent disconnection of Nile Valley - and Fayûm owing to erosion of river bed. Rise of Nile in - prehistoric and historic times. Reconnection. Geological - evidence for the existence of great freshwater Pleistocene - lake. Position and dimensions. Fossil fauna of the lake, and - its difference from all other Egyptian faunas. Blanckenhorn’s - conclusions 79 - - SECTION XIV.—RECENT 81 - - O.—_Prehistoric._—Abundance of worked flints. Shores of lake - inhabited by Neolithic and probably prehistoric man. Tamarisk - remains. Probable age of flints anterior to Egyptian historic - period 82 - - P.—_Historic._—Relations of the Nile Valley river system and - the Fayûm. Lake Moeris a regulator of the Nile floods. Brought - under control in XIIth dynasty. Early references to Lake - Moeris. Its position disputed in modern times. Linant de - Bellefonds’ assertion disproved by Sir Hanbury Brown. - Archæological evidence for the site. Present day fauna of the - Birket el Qurûn. Modern deposits. Blown sand. Erosion 82 - - APPENDICES 87 - - 1. Previous literature relating to the Fayûm 87 - - 2. Fayûm lamellibranchs mentioned in Oppenheim’s “Zur Kenntnis - alttertiärer Faunen in Ægypten.” 89 - - INDEX 91 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - * * * * * - - - PHOTOGRAPHS. - - PLATES. PAGE. - - I. — North side of the Birket el Qurûn, - looking west _Frontispiece._ - - II. — Bahr Yusef at Lahûn before entering - the Fayûm _to face_ 11 - - III. — El Wadi, Ravine near Qasr Gebali „ 19 - - IV. — Western extremity of the Birket el Qurûn „ 29 - - V. — Alluvial deposits overlying marly - limestones (Ravine Beds) in El Wadi, - Ravine near Qasr Gebali „ 37 - - VI. — Escarpment of the Birket el Qurûn series - near the western end of the lake „ 41 - - VII. — Weathered concretionary sandstone - (Birket el Qurûn series) on north shore, - near Geziret el Qorn „ 45 - - VIII. — Middle Eocene escarpment (Qasr el Sagha - series) 12 kilometres west of Qasr el - Sagha „ 49 - - IX. — Upper beds of Fluvio-marine series with - basalt cap, looking west from the - eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani „ 53 - - X. — El Qatrani range from the south-east „ 57 - - XI. — Silicified trees of Fluvio-marine - series, 4½ kilometres north of Qasr el - Sagha „ 63 - - XII. — Raised Beach unconformably overlying - Middle Eocene limestones (Birket el - Qurûn series) in the desert east of - Sersena „ 69 - - XIII. — Borings in false-bedded sandstone, 2 - kilometres south of Dimê „ 73 - - XIV. — Pleistocene lacustrine clays with - tamarisk stumps _in situ_ at 50 metres - above the present surface of the Birket - el Qurûn „ 77 - - XV. — Isolated sand-dune near Gar el Gehannem „ 81 - - XVI. — The Birket el Qurûn near the western end „ 85 - - PLANS. - - XVII. — General Map of the Fayûm depression, with Wadi Rayan - and Wadi Muêla, 1/250000 end - - XVIII. — Map of the area north-west of Qasr el Sagha, showing - principal bone-bearing localities, 1/50000 „ - - SECTIONS. - - XIX. — From the Birket el Qurûn through Dimê and Qasr el - Sagha to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani end - - XX. — From Wadi Rayan to the summit of the escarpment - north of Gar el Gehannem „ - - XXI. — The Desert Ridge separating the Nile Valley and - the Fayûm „ - - XXII. — From Sidmant el Jebel in the Nile Valley through - Medinet el Fayûm to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani, - near Widan el Faras „ - - XXIII. — Middle Eocene escarpment near Qasr el Sagha „ - - XXIV. — From Garat el Esh to summit of Jebel el Qatrani „ - - FIGURES (IN THE TEXT.) - - 1. — Fault near Qasr el Sagha 32 - - 2. — Section at Gar el Gehannem, showing the relation of - the Wadi Rayan series to the Ravine Beds 38 - - 3. — Sketch-section across El Bats, one kilometre west - of Sêla 40 - - 4. — Profile of beds of Geziret el Qorn 44 - - 5. — Section of cliffs, western end of the Birket el-Qurûn 47 - - 6. — Probable course of chief river of Upper Eocene and - Oligocene times 67 - - 7. — Block of sandstone pierced by numerous borings 72 - - 8. — Sketch showing relations of the Eocene to Pliocene - gravel terraces on the east side of the Fayûm 74 - - 9. — Sketch-section through the summit of the Fayûm - escarpment at Elwat Hialla 76 - - 10. — Sketch-map showing approximately the site of - Lake Mœris 83 - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - * * * * * - - -The geological survey of the desert surrounding the Fayûm was -commenced in October 1898. At that time the area, although so near -to Cairo, was little known; the Rohlfs Expedition maps marked the -region as “unexplored,” and in fact with the exception of a -publication by Schweinfurth, who had traversed the region from north -to south, _via_ Qasr el Sagha and Gar el Gehannem to Rayan, there was -little information obtainable. The area being of considerable size -(12,000 sq. kilom.) and almost unexplored, both geologically and -topographically, the primary object was to construct as rapidly as -possible a general map of the depression, at the same time laying down -in broad outline the chief geological formations and trusting to future -opportunity to examine in more detail places of special interest. - -Commencing work at Sêla, on the eastern side of the depression, the -survey was carried northwards along the east side of the cultivated -lands and thence through the northern desert, up to the summit -of the depression. After mapping westwards as far as the isolated -hill-mass of Gar el Gehannem the work was temporarily suspended until, -in the spring, the narrow defile of Wadi Muêla, and the Wadi Rayan, -forming the southern part of the Fayûm depression, were provisionally -examined. - -In January 1901, samples of soil and water from the cultivated lands -were collected as an experimental soil-survey, and the results have -been published.[1] - -During the winter’s work of 1902-03 a traverse was carried from Gar -el Gehannem in a south-west direction through a hitherto unexplored -part of the depression. On reaching a point midway between Cairo -and the oasis of Baharia a connection was made eastwards to Wadi -Rayan. In the winter of 1903-04 further exploration was carried out -in the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem. - -It will be convenient here to briefly relate the history of the -discovery of the remarkable series of new and extinct animal forms, the -recovery of which from the Fayûm deposits has created such widespread -interest in the zoological world. When Schweinfurth crossed the region -in 1879 he obtained fossil bones, which were examined and determined -by Dames to be the remains of cetacea of the genus _Zeuglodon_, -from certain beds of the escarpment west of Qasr el Sagha; these, -it is believed, were the earliest vertebrate remains obtained from -the Fayûm. During the early part of the survey of the district, -remains of fish and crocodiles were frequently found in one of the -beds of the Middle Eocene, probably on the same horizon as that -from which Schweinfurth had collected. Fragments of bone were also -commonly met with on a much higher horizon (_i.e._, near the base -of the Fluvio-marine series) but nothing of particular interest -was obtained, as no detailed search could be made at that time. In -April 1901, during the survey of the western end of the Birket el -Qurûn, some of the localities found to be bone-bearing in 1898 were -re-visited in company with Dr. C. W. Andrews, who was in Egypt at the -time and had accompanied the survey in order to obtain specimens of -jackals, hares, etc., for the British Museum, in connection with the -forthcoming work on Egyptian mammals. In one of these Dr. Andrews -picked up several vertebrae which turned out to belong to a new -species of _Pterosphenus_. - -Further north, when descending the Middle Eocene escarpments at a place -not previously examined, we crossed the outcrop of the bone-beds at a -point where a considerable number of mammalian and reptilian bones lay -exposed on the surface, many in an excellent state of preservation. The -importance of the find was evident, and a short examination of the -material on the spot enabled Dr. Andrews to pronounce the discovery -to be of the highest importance from a palaeontological point of view. - -Some three weeks’ work in the immediate neighbourhood resulted in -a very good collection of vertebrates from the Middle Eocene beds, -including several new genera afterwards described[2] under the names of -_Eosiren_, _Barytherium_, _Mœritherium_, _Gigantophis_, etc. Moreover, -a fossil tooth brought in by one of the camelmen from a point several -kilometres to the north led to a careful examination of the lower beds -of the overlying Upper Eocene formation, which resulted in obtaining -well-preserved remains belonging to a new genus, since described as -_Palaeomastodon_. All the material so far obtained was taken home to -be worked up and determined at the British Museum and a preliminary -description was published by Dr. Andrews in the Geological Magazine. - -In the winter of 1901-02 the survey of the Fayûm was resumed -with the special intention of following up the highest beds, -those in which _Palaeomastodon_ had been found. Continued search -westwards eventually led to the discovery of the remains of a large -and remarkable horned ungulate (_Arsinoitherium_), a preliminary -notice[3] of which was published in the spring of 1902. Shortly after, -the remains of several new smaller mammals and reptiles (_Phiomia_, -_Saghatherium_), including the shell of a large land tortoise -(_Testudo Ammon_), were obtained[4]. Further work in the winters -of 1902-03-04 led to a great deal more material being obtained[5], -mostly of course belonging to the same species, but including some -new genera _Geniohyus_, _Megalohyrax_, _Pterodon_. - -The amount of palaeontological material is now so large that the -Egyptian Government has arranged with the Trustees of the British -Museum for the publication of the whole in a monograph to be issued -by the Trustees. The present report, therefore, deals only with the -geology and topography of the district. - - -[Footnote 1: A. LUCAS, _A preliminary investigation of the Soil and -Water of the Fayum Province_; Survey Dep., P.W.M. Cairo, 1902.] - -[Footnote 2: ANDREWS, _Extinct Vertebrates from Egypt_. Parts I -and II. Geol. Mag. N. 8. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct. 1901, -pp. 400-409 and 436-444.] - -[Footnote 3: BEADNELL, _A Preliminary Note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, -Beadn._ Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. See also _A New Egyptian -Mammal (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm_. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, -Vol. X. Dec. 1903, pp. 529-532.] - -[Footnote 4: ANDREWS and BEADNELL, _A Preliminary Note on Some New -Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt_. Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo, -1902.] - -[Footnote 5: ANDREWS, _Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, -with Description of some New Mammals_. Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV, -Vol. X. Aug. 1903, pp. 337-343. Also _Further Notes on the Mammals -of the Eocene of Egypt_ (Parts I, II, III). Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V., -Vol. I. March, April, May 1904.] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - -BAHR YUSUF AT LAHUN BEFORE ENTERING THE FAYUM.] - - - - - PART I. - - =TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.= - - * * * * * - - -The Fayûm, a large circular depression in the Libyan Desert, is -situated immediately west of that part of the Nile Valley lying -between Kafr el Ayat and Feshn (Plate XVII.) - -The depression, which has an area, roughly speaking, of 12,000 -square kilometres, is primarily divisible into three distinct -parts—cultivated land, lake, and desert. - - - SECTION I.—CULTIVATED LAND. - - -The cultivated land has an area of about 1,800 square kilometres and, -with the exception of the lake and part of the Wadi Rayan, occupies -the lowest part of the depression. Cultivation is necessarily strictly -limited to the area covered with alluvial soil. The latter, for the -most part identical in origin and composition with the river-alluvium -of the Nile Valley, covers a leaf-shaped tract between the bounding -desert on the east side and the lake (the Birket el Qurûn) on -the north-west. The easterly and central part of the cultivated -area forms a more or less level table-land, from which the ground -slopes gently away, especially on the north side, where the slope is -towards the lake and very marked. The cultivated land of the Fayûm -is directly connected with that of the Nile Valley by a narrow strip -of low ground, a natural passage through the desert separating the -Nile Valley and the depression of the Fayûm. Through this gap runs -the natural canal known as the Bahr Yusef, which is practically the -sole source of water in the Fayûm and irrigates the entire district. - -The canal leaves the Nile Valley at Lahûn (Plate II), and follows a -somewhat serpentine course through the desert for about 5 kilometres, -irrigating a narrow strip of land on either side, which at Hawara -rapidly broadens out into the wide cultivated area of the Fayûm. Once -within the latter, the Bahr Yusef gives off numerous subsidiary canals -which traverse the country in all directions, constantly splitting up -into smaller branches until the water-supply is divided throughout the -whole area. With the exception of the self-contained basin of Gharaq, -on the south side of the Fayûm, the entire district drains into the -Birket el Qurûn, which occupies the lowest part of the depression, -to the north of the cultivation. The basin of Gharaq is irrigated by -the Bahr el Gharaq, a canal which takes off from the Bahr Yusef soon -after the latter enters the Fayûm[6]. - -The cultivated land of the Fayûm is traversed by two main ravines, -cut down in many places to the Eocene limestone below the alluvium -(Plates III and V.) At the present time these ravines carry canals -for irrigating the lower parts of the district, and also act largely -as drains to the higher lands. They were probably initiated by the -escape of water through breaches in the Bahr Yusef during flood time, -and have since been deepened to their present dimensions. - -In addition to the main central cultivated area, the soil of which, -as mentioned above, is essentially identical with that of the Nile -Valley, large tracts of the surrounding country, more especially on -the north, north-west, and west sides, are also covered with alluvial -deposits. These latter, which include sands, sandy clays, and clays -of a quite distinct type, represent the slowly formed accumulations -of the quieter and more remote parts of the ancient Lake Moeris (and -the earlier prehistoric lake). The material was mostly derived from -the Eocene strata which formed the shores of the lake, augmented no -doubt by a certain amount of very fine sediment drifted from the Bahr -Yusef, and by sand blown in by wind. - -It is noticeable that the thickest and most sandy deposits occur near -the borders of the lake site; when close under the Eocene cliffs, -as along the north side above the Birket el Qurûn, the deposits -closely resemble those of the latter. The finer more calcareous beds -occur further out and the true marls were accumulated only at some -distance from the shores of the lake. - -When in Ptolemaic times the lake became reduced to a fraction of -its former size, large areas covered by these lacustrine clays were -exposed and some portions were brought under cultivation. Subsequently, -however, all these outlying districts were abandoned and became -absorbed by the surrounding desert, until in modern times the -cultivation was restricted to the central portion of the old lake -bed, a portion almost identical with the area over which true “Nile -Mud” had been deposited. - -The construction during recent years of extensive irrigation works -in the Nile Valley has made it possible to largely augment the -water-supply of the Bahr Yusef to the Fayûm. High level canals are -being cut in various parts of the district and already large areas of -desert covered by these lacustrine deposits have been brought under -cultivation, notably to the north of Tamia and in the neighbourhood -of Qasr Qurûn. The approximate area covered with lacustrine deposits -can be seen on the map and with a sufficiency of water probably the -greater part of this area could be utilized, though the exact value -of the soil compared with Nile deposit remains to be determined. - - - SECTION II.—THE BIRKET EL QURUN. - - -The lowest part of the depression, lying immediately to the north-west -of the cultivation, is occupied by a sheet of water of considerable -size, known as the Birket el Qurûn.[7] The lake, which has a length of -40 kilometres, and a maximum breadth under ten, covers at the present -time an area of about 225 square kilometres. Sir Hanbury Brown obtained -no sounding exceeding 5 metres in crossing the lake to Dimê, but -according to the fishermen the depth increases towards the south-west. - -Its long axis lies nearly east and west, and while on the north it is -entirely[8] bordered by desert, along a large part of the south side -the cultivated land approaches its shore, although even here a large -area actually bordering the lake is waste salty land as yet unfit for -cultivation. As already mentioned, with the exception of the Gharaq -basin, the lake receives the whole drainage from the cultivated lands. - -The Birket el Qurûn is the existing remnant of the ancient prehistoric -lake which covered a large part of the floor of the Fayûm depression, -and which in historic times was converted into an artificially -controlled sheet of water—the celebrated Moeris—by Amenemhat I -and his successors in the XII Dynasty. - -Lake Moeris, being used as a regulator of excessively high and low -Nile floods,[9] was of the greatest importance in connection with -the irrigation of the Nile Valley. In more recent times, apparently -under the Persians or Ptolemies according to Flinders Petrie,[10] -Lake Moeris ceased to perform its function of regulator; since that -time all water, except that required for irrigation of the reclaimed -land, being carefully excluded, the surface of the lake has continually -and gradually sunk to its modern dimensions.[11] - -Lacustrine deposits, showing approximately the actual limits of the -ancient Fayûm lake, can be traced over wide areas of now barren -desert; these will be more fully dealt with later. The present -lake-level is still continually sinking owing to an improved system -of irrigation, by which a constantly decreasing amount of waste -water drains into the lake. Its average annual fall has, during the -last decade, been nearly half a metre,[12] and the slope of the land -being very gradual, large areas have been reclaimed during the last -few years, though whether the advantages derived from this constant -lowering of the lake are not more than balanced by certain drawbacks -is somewhat doubtful.[13] - -With the new areas now being brought under cultivation the amount -of drainage water finding its way into the lake will increase and -the fall be checked. At the beginning of 1904 the level was markedly -higher than in the previous winter, and a difference of even half a -metre alters the shore line to a considerable extent, owing to the -flatness of the land by which the lake is for the most part bounded. - -Although under the present desert conditions practically no material -from the surrounding desert is washed into the lake, doubtless a -considerable amount of fine dust and sand is carried into it by the -wind, especially during the violent sandstorms which occur frequently -in the locality. The high cliffs which bound the northern shore of -the lake throughout a portion of its length probably have the effect -of checking the velocity of both north and south winds, thus causing a -considerable amount of sand, which would otherwise be carried across, -to be dropped on its surface. This material, together with the fine -mud brought down by the canals on the cultivation sides, must have -an appreciable effect in raising the level of the bed of the lake. - -The phenomenon of the extraordinary freshness of the water of the -Birket el Qurûn has been commented on by Schweinfurth, who shows -that the degree of concentration of salt in a lake whose volume -has been continually reduced, and to which salt has constantly -been added, should be many times greater than the actual existing -amount. An analysis[14] of the water at the west end of the lake -(where the concentration is greatest, owing to the distance from the -feeder canals) showed that the total salts amounted to only 1·34%, -of which 0·92% was sodium chloride. Dr. Schweinfurth[15] concludes -that the lake has a subterranean outlet, which alone would enable -it to maintain its comparative freshness.[16] In this connection -it is interesting to note the existence of distinct currents, which -may possibly be caused by such outlets, in certain localities on the -north side of the lake; and it is just possible that a careful survey -of the lake itself would not only prove the existence, but show the -exact position, of such underground outlets. - -Most probably, however, the currents are simply local movements -produced by temporary differences of level, which might conceivably -be caused in such a large and comparatively shallow sheet of water, -varying considerably in salinity in different localities, by wind -and evaporation. - -The comparative freshness of the lake and the possible presence of -underground outlets are of the highest importance in their bearing -directly on two of the most important questions in connection with the -proposed utilization of the Wadi Rayan as a reservoir, i.e. what the -leakage from such a reservoir would be and to what degree of salinity -its water would attain. - - - SECTION III.—THE SURROUNDING DESERT REGION. - - -With the exception of the lake and the cultivated area the depression -is practically entirely desert. The southern and south-western parts -include the wadies Rayan and Muêla, where freshwater springs occur, -surrounded by areas covered by a good deal of wild scrub. Apart from -these, however, no springs occur outside the cultivated land. - -The topography of the region is so intimately connected with its -geological structure that an adequate description of the former is -not possible without constant reference to the latter. Full geological -details will, however, be reserved for later consideration. - -[Sidenote: Area and Limits.] - -The part of the Libyan Desert dealt with in this report has, excluding -the cultivated land and the lake, an area of some ten thousand square -kilometres. While some portions have been examined and mapped in -detail, others are still very imperfectly known, especially on the -south and south-west sides. The irregular cliff-line forming the -southern boundary of Rayan and the adjacent wadis may be taken as our -limit in this direction, beyond lying an almost unbroken limestone -plateau rising gradually and continually to the south. On the north -and north-west the area under description is bounded by the southern -limit of the great undulating high-lying gravelly desert-plateau which -stretches with little change of character to the Mediterranean. On the -east side the Nile Valley forms a convenient though not altogether -natural boundary; while to the south-west our limit practically -coincides with the boundary of the depression, where the floor of -the latter insensibly merges into the general desert plateau. - -[Sidenote: Rocks forming the Area.] - -The rocks forming the area within the above limits are almost entirely -of sedimentary origin, the exception being a band of hard basalt -intercalated at the very top of the series and exposed only on the -extreme northernmost limit of the depression. The total thickness of -sediments, from the lowest beds exposed in the bottom of the Wadi Rayan -to the summit of the escarpments, a day’s march north of Tamia, -is some 700 metres. These beds include every kind of sedimentary -deposit—limestones, marls, clays, sandstones, sands and gravels, -forming an ever-changing succession of rocks, varying considerably in -hardness and capacity for withstanding the agents of denudation. It is -not too much to say that the coming into existence of the Fayûm, with -its plains, lowlying depressions, precipitous cliffs and escarpments, -was largely dependent on the existence of this variable series of -deposits. - -Apart from the presence of sediments varying greatly in hardness -and durability, the fact that the whole of the rocks have an almost -constant northerly dip of two or three degrees is a point of prime -importance. So small a dip may be scarcely noticeable in any one place, -but over the large areas with which we have to deal its influence -on the position and level of any individual bed is very marked and -the topography of the region would have been essentially different -if the strata had been quite horizontal. - -[Sidenote: Origin of the Fayûm.] - -The unique character of the Fayûm is alone sufficient to show -that special causes have acted in its production. Two main causes -stand out:—(1) the presence of thick bands of comparatively -soft arenaceous and argillaceous strata breaking up the usually -continuous hard limestone of the Middle Eocene; (2) the effect of -the Nile Valley fault in lowering the whole of the western desert -(north of Assiut) relatively to the eastern. The former took place -as the result of changed geographical conditions on the continent -to the south at the time in question, with which however we need -not deal here. On a homogeneous mass of rock weathering has little -power to form depressions of any magnitude, and this is the cause of -the continuous unbroken plateau which stretches southwards from the -Fayûm, the underlying rocks being one continuous thick mass of hard -limestone. Wherever softer intercalations are present differential -weathering takes place, and all the great depressions of the Libyan -desert owe their origin to the presence of soft easily denuded strata; -if the great homogeneous mass of Nile Valley limestone had stretched -unchanged westwards, the oases of Farafra and Baharia would never -have existed. They owe their origin entirely to the presence of the -underlying saddle of softer Cretaceous rocks. Similarly if changed -conditions had not led to the deposition of soft beds of clay, marl, -and sandstone, the western plateau would have continued unbroken -northwards. - -A comparison of the two sides of the Nile Valley between Cairo and -Assiut shows that the tectonic movements, which largely determined the -existence of the valley itself, resulted in a considerable lowering -of the rocks forming the western side. This was brought about by -differential movements along the north and south line or lines -of fault, and by the presence of an east to west monoclinal fold -which is especially well marked in the neighbourhood of Heluan. The -depressions of the Fayûm would doubtless have existed irrespective of -this general lowering of the western desert relative to the east, but -denudation would have required an additional period of many thousands -of years before the floor of the depression was low enough to allow -of its actual connection with the Nile river. - -As it has been maintained that the Fayûm is an area let down and -enclosed by faults, it may be mentioned here that all available -evidence points in an opposite direction; this question of faults -will however be dealt with in detail later. The influence of the Nile -Valley fault has been explained above and it must be remembered it -is one affecting not the Fayûm alone but the northern part of the -western desert as a whole. - - -For purposes of description it will be convenient to divide the whole -region into three parts: first, the southern portion, including the -wadis Muêla and Rayan; secondly, the central area, comprising the -extensive plain forming the floor of the depression as a whole, and -including the areas under cultivation and the Birket el Qurûn, as well -as the desert separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley. Thirdly, the -northern portion, embracing all the rising ground between the floor and -the northern rim of the region. These areas will now be taken in order. - - - SECTION IV.—WADI RAYAN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. - - -This part of the Fayûm is of special interest in consequence of -its possible future as a reservoir. Although the area has not yet -been examined in detail by the Geological Survey it will be useful -to bring together all the information that is at present available. - -[Sidenote: Colonel Western’s Survey.] - -In 1882, as a counter-project to other irrigation schemes, Cope -Whitehouse suggested[17] utilising as a reservoir the Wadi Rayan, -a depression which had been referred to by Linant de Bellefonds.[18] -At the request of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff the Government deputed -Colonel Western to make plans of the Wadi Rayan and surrounding country -and to ascertain the capacity of the depression and its capability -of being used as a reservoir. Liernur Bey under his direction -prepared a contoured map, and Colonel Western’s report, plans, and -estimates were published.[19] Some general details of the wadi and -surrounding hills are given and the detailed survey showed that the -30 metre contour line (above sea-level) enclosed an area of 706 square -kilometres (170,000 feddans). The lowest points of the depression were -found at 42 metres below sea-level. The sand, scrub and springs are -briefly referred to and the discharge of the latter is given as equal -to that of a very slow-going four inch hand pipe, the water running -out at about + 20 m. and disappearing in the sand. Wadi Muêla was -found to be separated from the Rayan depression by sandhills and rock -at a mean level of + 50 metres, the lowest point in Muêla being at + -25 metres. A line of levels was run from Rayan through Muêla to the -Nile Valley, the highest point crossed being at + 105 metres; for -fifteen kilometres the level was not below + 75 metres. In order to -find the most suitable passage for a canal to connect the Nile with -the Wadi Rayan two lines of level were made after a reconnaissance of -the hills near Sidmant el Jebel: the southern, from Ezba Menesi Ali, -near the Gharaq canal, to Mazana on the Bahr Yusef, being considered -the best. Along this line the highest point was only at + 44·7 metres -and the average + 35 metres along four kilometres. Borings were not -made here but judging from the surface excavation would be mostly -in soft limestone, sand, and conglomerate. A much shorter route is -from Deshasleh on the Bahr Yusef over the hills about 5 kilometres -to the south of Mazana or Sidmant into the Wadi Gharaq, a distance -of 30 kilometres. This route was not however levelled but is fairly -straight and apparently not much higher than the Mazana passage. - -The survey of the + 30 metre contour line of the Wadi Rayan proved -that there were only two outlets into the Fayûm, both on the northern -side: these two openings are only from 400-500 metres wide and their -lowest points are not below + 25 or + 26 metres. - -[Sidenote: Later Government Publications by Scott Moncrieff and -Willcocks.] - -In 1889 Sir C. Scott Moncrieff published[20] a further note, in which -he briefly discussed the probable cost and benefits to be derived -from the suggested reservoir, concluding that at least the project -was one worthy of being thoroughly examined. - -In 1894 the plans and designs in connection with the Wadi Rayan -were published[21] and the possibility of utilizing the Wadi Rayan -was examined by Sir William Willcocks, then Director General of -Reservoirs, from an engineering point of view, and the questions of -its probable cost and future utility were discussed. In this report -it is stated that the routes proposed by Colonel Western in 1888 pass -through salty marls and clays unsuitable for holding canals. Another -route is suggested, which after leaving the Nile Valley crosses the -high desert ridge in a straight line, passing through the so-called -Wadi Liernur (Wadi Lulu of Cope Whitehouse); this depression is 12 -kilometres long and has its bed some 24 metres below the general -level of the desert. Plate 15 of the report shows the Wadi Rayan, the -deserts between it and the Nile Valley and the cultivated land. The -map was begun by Col. Western and completed by Willcocks. The lowest -point of Wadi Rayan is shown as − 42 metres and the depression is -separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge generally from + 34 to + -60 metres, except at two places where it falls to + 26 metres above -sea level on a length of 600 metres. Within the + 27 metre contour -line the wadi has an area of 673 square kilometres and a capacity of -18,743,000,000 cubic metres. Between it and the Nile Valley lie 30 -kilometres of desert, of which 11 are occupied by a marked depression -discovered by Liernur Bey in 1887. At the extreme western edge of the -Nile Valley (here 20 kilometres wide) runs the Bahr Yusef. Comparing -the proposed Wadi Rayan reservoir and the ancient Mœris and allowing -for a difference of 4·5 metres between the levels of the Nile Valley -in B.C. 2,000 and to-day, Willcocks assumes that the high water mark of -Lake Mœris was at + 22·5 metres and its area 2,500 square kilometres, -against 673 square kilometres of the Wadi Rayan at + 27 metres. It -is pointed out that the ancient lake had the great advantage that in -those days the Bahr Yusef was an important branch of the Nile, if not -the main river itself, and the reservoir was connected with the Nile -by a natural ravine of great length and short breadth, across which -a massive embankment was thrown and destroyed annually, the surplus -water of high floods being stored for the deficiency of low floods. - -The published sections along the lines of borings put down show the -different strata cut through by the proposed canal. The Nile Valley, -along the line of the inlet canal, consists of hard clay 6 to 10 -metres thick, lying on coarse sand. Along the outlet canal sandy -clays and clays alternate to a depth of 10 metres. On entering the -desert sands and sandy conglomerate, with gypsum and salt, are met -with below the surface, then a yellow marl with salts, and finally a -plastic black clay overlying the Parisian limestone. These beds are -most extensive in the narrow neck of land between the Nile Valley and -the Fayûm and to some 10 kilometres to the south of it. They rise -to + 70 metres. There are some other marls inside the Wadi Rayan or -in the adjacent depressions and as they have to be traversed by the -canals form a serious factor, being easily dissolved in water; in -consequence Willcocks chose the alignment of the inlet canal along -the Bahr Belama where the extent of these beds would only be 2·5 -kilometres against 9 kilometres on the alternative route marked on -the plan. A narrow neck of land, some 15 kilometres in length, runs -between the Fayûm and the depressions traversed by the proposed -Wadi Rayan canal; this neck is the continuation of the salty marls -and clays, but the limestone is near the surface and is overlain by -a thin deposit of sand and pebbles, with freshwater shells on its -northern slope at + 22·50 metres; the southern slope is entirely -devoid of them. Willcocks points out that it is evident the ancient -Mœris rose to + 22·50 metres but its water never penetrated into the -Wadi Rayan. The report goes into details of inlet and outlet canals, -discharge, necessary masonry works, cost, and compares the different -reservoir schemes. - -After a careful review of the whole question, the scheme, while -considered perfectly feasible as far as available data went, was -abandoned by Sir William Garstin[22] in favour of the less costly -and more useful Nubian reservoir. - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - -EL WADI, RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.] - -[Sidenote: Schweinfurth’s report on the probable salt-content in -Wadi Rayan Reservoir.] - -In an appendix[23] to the above report Schweinfurth discusses the -question as to how salt the water of such a reservoir would become. He -points out that the exact valuation of the salt which would be -contained in this reservoir when the water had risen to + 27 metres -cannot be accurately determined, owing to the absence of information -on certain points. The maximum quantity of salt in the desert soil -is estimated at 2% and this figure is used in his calculation, -which includes the amount of salt which would be brought into the -reservoir, (1) from the Nile during filling and in the extra water -entering to replace that lost by evaporation in the lake and canals; -(2) from the ground forming the bed of the lake (far the largest item); -(3) from the bed and banks of the inlet canal, both in the desert and -in the Nile Valley; and (4) from infiltration. The figure obtained -is 7,500 million kilogrammes, equal to 0·04 per cent, or almost one -twenty-fifth per cent of salt. This amount is only equivalent to half -the salt existing in many of the well waters used in the country for -irrigation. As Schweinfurth is careful to point out his calculation -is based on maximum and assumed data. - -[Sidenote: Willcocks’ “Assouan Reservoir and Lake Mœris”.] - -The question of the utilisation of the Wadi Rayan as a reservoir has -recently been again brought to the front, notably by Sir William -Willcocks in a paper[24] read before the Khedivial Geographical -Society, Cairo. The author, after pointing out the value of such a -lake, working in connection with the Assuan reservoir, discusses at -length the position, dimensions, and functions of the ancient Lake -Moeris. It is suggested that the main canal should be cut through -the desert opposite Mazana and crossing the so-called wadis Liernur -and Masaigega enter the Wadi Rayan at its easternmost point. These -wadis would in time become covered with alluvium and be converted -into valuable cultivated land. After examining the big ravines of -the Fayûm, where similar beds are exposed, the author comes to the -conclusion that the maintenance of canals in the saliferous marls, -which form part of the desert through which the inlet canal would pass, -would offer no particular difficulties. - -With regard to the questions of leakage into the Fayûm and of the -water of the lake eventually becoming salted, Sir William Willcocks -says, “When the old Lake Moeris, or the present Fayûm, was full -of water and 63 metres higher than the bottom of the Wadi Rayan and -remained so for thousands of years, there was no question of the waters -having become salted or having escaped into the Wadi. The Wadi was -as dry as it is to-day and the great inland sea was always fresh.” -As to the question of leakage into Gharaq the author considers that -if water found its way into that depression it would be a distinct -advantage, as such water could be pumped into the Nezleh canal and -utilized elsewhere; he maintains at the same time that no leakage -will take place. Incidentally it is mentioned that the Wadi Rayan is -separated from the Fayûm by a limestone ridge, a statement which, -as will be shown later, requires modification. - -[Sidenote: Wadi Rayan not yet examined in detail by the Geological -Survey of Egypt.] - -Until a detailed geological examination of the Wadi Rayan and -neighbourhood has been carried out it will not be possible to form -reliable opinions on many of the questions raised in connection with -the prospective reservoir. The writer’s acquaintance with the area -is limited to a traverse in 1899 from the Nile Valley through Wadi -Muêla to Rayan and thence to Gharaq, and subsequently to a stay -of a few days duration in the neighbourhood of the Rayan springs, -after mapping the extreme south-west of the Fayûm depression. While -the accompanying maps may be taken as representing fairly accurately -the bolder topography of the region, they do not replace the older -contoured maps of the floor of the depression and the country between -it and the Nile Valley to the east, accompanying the report on -“Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt.” - - -The following description of this part of the district is based on a -traverse from the Nile Valley through the wadis Muêla and Rayan to -Gharaq; the detailed geological sections measured and examined along -the line of route will be given later. - -[Sidenote: Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla to Rayan -and Gharaq.] - -[Sidenote: Warshat el Melh in Wadi Muêla.] - -Between the village of El Gayat and the mouth of the Wadi Muêla -(16 kilometres to the north-west) stretches a gradually rising -undulating gypseous plain, superficially covered with loose sand and -rounded pebbles of quartz and flint. In occasional small hills the -white limestone which forms the underlying rock is visible. Near -the entrance to the wadi stands a somewhat prominent conical hill -composed of hard whitish fossiliferous limestone passing down into -more sandy and clayey beds. The bottom of the wadi is cut out in soft -green and brown clays, its surface being covered with blown sand, -fragments of limestone, flints and gypsum. From the mouth of the wadi -the Nile Valley cliffs run north and south in a winding irregular -manner. On entering the valley several outstanding flat-topped -limestone capped hills are passed on the right hand; they are in -part joined to the regular bounding cliff beyond; the eastern cliff -is steep and well-marked, while that on the west only outcrops here -and there, buried as it is in immense accumulations of blown sand, -rising in places into definite dune-ridges. Wadi Muêla has a length -of some 18 kilometres and lies nearly N.W. and S.E. The central part -of its floor is a sandy scrub-covered area, the lowest points lying -at about + 25 metres; just at the southern edge of the scrub stands -a small hill composed of hard shaly clays capped by white limestone, -surrounded by a saline, superficially dry. Holes dug in this are -at once filled with excessively salt water, and by evaporation of -the brine in shallow troughs supplies of white fairly pure salt can -be obtained. The area is known as Warshat el Melh. Banks of reeds -were found growing on the north side of the saline, the surface of -the latter being here composed of a soft brown sandy salty deposit, -caking here and there into a hard earthy impure salt. - -In the lowest spots the saline frequently consists of soft wet sludge; -its area is about half a square kilometre but the depth of the deposit -is unknown. In the middle of the scrub-covered area to the north lies -Ain Warshat el Melh, a pool of water, fairly fresh and drinkable, -although ferruginous, measuring 10 by 5 metres in size and from 2 -to 2½ metres deep. The water evidently rises from a spring on the -west side, round which are fifty square metres of green rushes, with -some larger bushes. The ground around and above is very saliferous; -between the spring and the ruins to the north the ground is sandy, -with many bushes and much scrub. This ground extends two kilometres -to the west, whence it gradually passes up into great masses of drift -sand; an occasional small outcrop of the top of the plateau above the -sand is all that serves to locate the position of the buried cliff. On -the east side the sandy ground with scrub extends about a kilometre, -beyond which the plain gradually rises for another kilometre to the -base of the cliff beyond, which is fairly steep and well-marked, -though with an entire absence of indentations of any kind. - -[Sidenote: Der el Galamûn.] - -Close to the north end of the valley, and about 33 kilometres from -El Gayat, lie the ruins known as Der el Galamûn bil Muêla. At -the time of our visit a new square stone building was in course of -erection and five or six persons were inhabiting the place. There are -several small palms scattered about to the south of the monastery and -an excellent running spring of clear water five hundred paces to the -south-west. A new well is being sunk within the premises. To the north -of the monastery the eastern cliff takes a marked trend to the west -for some three kilometres, whence it resumes a northerly direction, -always maintaining its character of a steep well-marked escarpment -rising some 100 metres above the floor of the wadi. At the corner -of the cliffs the lowest bed exposed is a white limestone; this is -overlain by gypseous clays passing up into sandy beds, the latter -being surmounted by the white limestone capping the escarpment. - -[Sidenote: Wadi Rayan.] - -We are here on the summit of the divide between Wadi Muêla and Wadi -Rayan, the height of the floor being about + 105 metres; to the north -stretches a gradually widening bay descending to the lowest ground -of the Rayan depression. Immense accumulations of sand almost block -the defile and stretch away to the east, and the hitherto well-marked -cliff on that side bends back and is lost to view. On the other side -however, the bounding wall gradually emerges from the dunes, getting -more distinct as it is followed northwards until it becomes quite -clear of the sand. The first glimpse of this cliff is seen a couple of -kilometres west of the pass in an outcropping headland, the next point -visible being some five kilometres further west. Between these portions -of the cliff are one or two outliers, surrounded by quantities of blown -sand. A depression known as Wadi Korif is reported to lie to the west, -and much scrub and some water is said to exist there; such a wadi is -marked on Schweinfurth’s map but apparently has not been examined. - -Continuing in a N.N.W. direction high rather steep dunes occur -on either flank, running N.N.W. and S.S.E. Between the dunes is a -fairly hard undulating sand-flat affording an easy route; further -on a narrow defile between the dunes leads down to the centre of -the depression. The main areas occupied by blown sand are shown in -the accompanying maps. The most interesting part of the depression -is the bay lying to the south of the narrow well-marked promontory -jutting out from the southern plateau, a huge pointer, as it were, -in the direction of Gharaq; this is the Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth. - -[Sidenote: Springs in Wadi Rayan.] - -The bay is on three sides completely enclosed by cliffs and its -floor is thickly covered by a luxurious growth of wild scrub—chiefly -tamarisk and ghardag; numerous isolated palm trees occur, especially in -the neighbourhood of the water which exists at several points. There -are three particularly good springs,[25] the positions of which are -shown on the accompanying maps. According to Colonel Western’s -survey the water emerges at about + 20 metres. In 1899 the water of -the northern spring was found to have a temperature of 26°C. On our -last visit we found an artificially constructed pool of two metres -diameter and a depth of 30 centimetres; on the west side of this -were two springs, marked by the motion of the grey sand rising and -falling in the vents, down which a stick could be easily pushed to -a depth of two metres. The output of these springs together amounted -to six litres a minute; the water was quite clear and although soft -and rather ferruginous not by any means unpalatable (see analyses -below). The pool lies on an open bare sandy spot and is surrounded by -scattered bushes, none of which however are within fifteen metres; -a sand dune lies 150 metres to the south-west, with bushes and -seven or eight young palms. The southerly spring has an output of -21 litres a minute, and its water does not differ essentially from -that of the northern spring. Rising at the foot of a palm tree it -forms pools on either side; thence it flows a distance of 20 metres -into an artificially constructed shallow basin 2 to 3 metres across, -from which it runs away down the slope and disappears after five or -six metres. The east spring, which is situated on the east side of -the dunes bounding the mouth of the bay, consists of a small hole cut -out in soft sand. The water seemed good, although analysis shows the -salts content to be high; this spring does not run, but if emptied -the hole soon refills. The remains of old buildings occur near the -well, in the shape of loose roughly squared limestone blocks, broken -pottery, and remains of old walls; the latter are nearly level with -the ground and very thickly and solidly built. - -To the south of the promontory lies the so-called Little Rayan. Here -there is a good deal of scrub, and water can be obtained on the lowest -ground at a few metres depth, although there do not appear to be any -surface springs. - -[Sidenote: Geology of Wadi Rayan in broad outline.] - -The geological succession of beds exposed in the cliffs of the -promontory is given later. Broadly speaking it consists of two -thirty-metre bands of hard limestone separated by 68 metres of softer -sandy and clayey beds. The lower of the limestone bands in places -forms the floor of the depression but more frequently the latter -is composed of the overlying sandy or clayey beds. The depression -is bounded on the north side by the same succession, and, as far -as could be judged from observations made on the traverse, the bed -of limestone capping the ridge, and forming the plain stretching -away to the Birket el Qurûn and to Gar el Gehannem, is identical -with that capping the cliffs to the south, i.e. is the uppermost of -the two thick limestone bands. At the two points more particularly -noticed, namely, the spurs projecting southwards into the depression, -23 kilometres west and 18 kilometres W.S.W. of Gharaq basin, the -sequence seemed to be the same as in the southern cliffs, although, -owing to the northerly dip, the upper bed of limestone lies at a -much lower level and the basal beds are not exposed at all. In both -these localities, however, some of the underlying clays were exposed, -as well as on the lowest spots crossed between the most easterly spur -(18 kilom. W.S.W. of Gharaq) and the extensive dunes lying immediately -west of Gharaq cultivation. These dunes, though of no height, have -remarkably steep sides. In crossing Gharaq to the Fayûm cultivation -occasional beds of yellow sandy limestone were noticed, but their -horizon was not determined. Numerous bored blocks, probably belonging -to the marine Pliocene, were observed scattered about. Apparently -the uppermost thirty-metre band of limestone passes continuously -northwards under the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the Fayûm; -in the ravines of the latter this limestone is not observed, the -soft limestones exposed below the alluvial deposits almost certainly -belonging to the overlying Ravine beds. The country to the east of -Gharaq has not been geologically examined and the exact locality in -which the thick bed of limestone dips underground and is overlain by -the succeeding beds is doubtful. Further north, in the desert ridge -east of Qalamsha, we have observed the Birket el Qurûn beds and a -section measured at this point is given later. - -[Sidenote: Character of Ridge separating Wadi Rayan from Gharaq and -the Fayûm.] - -As it appears to have been freely assumed that the ridge separating -the Rayan depression from the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the -Fayûm is formed throughout of solid limestone, it is important to -point out that, on our assumption of the identity of the beds of -limestone capping the cliffs to the south and the plain to the north -of the Wadi Rayan, the dividing ridge would in part be formed of the -underlying arenaceous and argillaceous beds. - -[Sidenote: Question of leakage through dividing ridge.] - -The absence of Nile deposit and freshwater shells in the Wadi Rayan -will, when confirmed after a thorough examination of the area, afford -the strongest evidence that the depression was never directly flooded -by Nile water. The fact that the dividing ridge is probably everywhere -above the highest level attained by Lake Mœris, and by the still more -ancient prehistoric lake, is almost sufficient in itself as a proof of -this. It does not however follow that there was not leakage through -the ridge into the Rayan basin, as such leakage might conceivably -have taken place to a considerable extent without the water ever -having collected in sufficient quantities to form even moderate -sized pools within the depression. The bottom of the depression is -for the most part covered with soft porous sandy deposits overlying -the Eocene bed-rock below, and at the present time the water of the -Rayan springs, though continually running, at once disappears from -sight, drains down to the lowest parts of the depression and is then -gradually lost by evaporation or underground leakage. In the lowest -parts of the depression this water is, as already mentioned, met with -on digging to a very moderate depth. - -A careful examination of the flanks of the ridge separating the Fayûm -and Gharaq cultivated areas from Rayan might prove if such leakage -ever took place. If such was the case the seepage was probably -along the line of junction of the limestone and underlying clayey -or sandy beds. Even if it were proved that there never was leakage -from Lake Mœris into Wadi Rayan, it would not be safe to assume -that the converse would not happen, as the dip of the beds is from -south to north and this fact is one to be reckoned with. Judging from -the nature of the Eocene beds forming the Wadi Rayan, my opinion is -that leakage on a large scale would not take place, and that owing -to the northerly dip any water that escaped from the reservoir would -pass indefinitely northwards and would not find its way through the -overlying limestone to the surface either in Gharaq or the Fayûm -cultivation. A detailed examination of the local geology would, -however, be necessary to prove or disprove this. As to the question -whether the Wadi Rayan as a whole would hold water, as far as is known -there are no faults or other fissures of any magnitude through which -the water could escape. No doubt a good deal of water would be lost -before the smaller joints and passages, which exist in all rocks, -were silted up. Schweinfurth supposes that the freshness of the -Birket el Qurûn is due to the existence of subterranean outlets, -and such might also be found to exist in the Wadi Rayan. In any case -the argillaceous deposits from such a lake would very soon form a -bed to all intents and purposes impermeable. - -[Sidenote: Degree of Salinity.] - -With regard to the extent of salinity of such a lake Dr. Schweinfurth’s -figures are of considerable interest and value, although based wholly -on assumed data. The greater part of the salt would be derived from -the rocks and soil forming the bed of the reservoir and only by -extensive sample collecting and analysis can reliable figures be -obtained. We believe that in the lowest parts of the basin the salt -content of the ground would be found considerably in excess of the two -per cent used by Schweinfurth in his calculation, although his total -estimate would probably be found well within the mark. - - - SECTION V.—CENTRAL AREA OF THE REGION. - - -[Sidenote: Central Plain at the Fayûm Depression.] - -The great central plain, forming the floor of the depression as a -whole, is composed of a hard bed of limestone some thirty metres -thick. This limestone, forming the uppermost member of the Rayan -series, is, as already mentioned, almost certainly identical with -that capping the cliffs to the south of the depression, and in all -probability in the eastern extension of the plain under description -underlies the whole of the cultivated lands of Gharaq and the -Fayûm. The feature of the plain as a whole is its marked and -constant, though low, dip to the north; so that its surface, bared -by denudation of the overlying soft limestones of the Ravine series, -over a distance of some twenty kilometres, is a true dip-slope, -at the base of which lies a strip of low-lying country extending -from beyond Gar el Gehannem through the Birket el Qurûn to the Nile -Valley ridge east of Tamia. The central and lowest portion of this -low-lying area is occupied by the Birket el Qurûn, the bed of which -lies fifty metres below sea level and is thus the lowest known spot in -the whole of the Libyan desert. Thirty kilometres south-west of the -western end of the lake, at the base of the dip-slope of the central -plain and immediately under the southern scarps of the great outlying -hill-mass west of Gar el Gehannem, lies another low lying basin, which -receives the drainage from a considerable area of the plain to the -south-west. The latter, consisting of the limestone above-mentioned, -is here superficially covered by gravel, and its dark undulating -surface is scored by numerous shallow winding water-courses marked -by an abundant growth of scrubby vegetation; some of the principal -of these drain into the basin just mentioned and after heavy rainfall -the water collects and forms a pool 600 metres in length by 100 to 150 -metres wide. The base of the basin, at about 80 metres above sea level, -is marked by a level deposit of silt of considerable thickness, the -east end of the site being surrounded by great numbers of luxuriantly -growing tamarisks. Other similar basins exist on the plain to the -south, and under an isolated hill five kilometres W.S.W. several full -grown acacias were noticed. On the low ground to the north-west of -Gar el Gehannem, and at several points between it and the head of -the Birket el Qurûn, similar silt covered areas exist, some being -only from 30 to 40 metres above sea level. - -In the extreme south-west of the region the limestone forming the -central plain is gradually overlain by the succeeding beds, so that the -ground rises imperceptibly to the level of the plateau separating the -depression from that of Baharia, distant some two days march. On the -eastern side, if the superficial alluvial deposits could be stripped -off, the underlying surface of limestone, sloping from south to north, -would not differ materially from the plain further west, except that -here, at any rate north of Gharaq, the Rayan limestone is overlain -by the basal beds of the Ravine series. - - - SECTION VI.—RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND THE FAYUM. - - -The desert ridge separating the Nile Valley from the Fayûm has, to -the north of the Bahr Yusef, an average width of some ten kilometres; -further south it narrows, until due east of Gharaq the ridge is barely -2½ kilometres wide. The highest points are situated to the east of -Sersena and Qalamsha respectively. - -In both these localities the Eocene rocks, consisting of clays -alternating with beds of calcareous sandstone and sandy limestone -(pp. 39, 40) are overlain by thick deposits of conglomerate and -gravel, attaining altitudes of over 100 metres above the cultivated -land below. From these summits the slope is usually very gradual on -the Nile Valley side but much more rapid towards the Fayûm. - -The ridge is cut down, however, to a comparatively low level in -four localities; to the north-east of Tamia; to the east of Sêla, -where the railway crosses; between Lahûn and Hawara, where the Bahr -Yusef canal enters; and to the south of Qalamsha, where along the -site of the proposed Wadi Rayan canal the highest point is only some -40 metres above the Gharaq basin and 27 metres above the adjoining -Nile Valley cultivation. - -[Sidenote: Outline of earliest connection of Nile with Fayûm.] - -One of the most interesting problems connected with the Fayûm may -be briefly alluded to here—When did the waters of the Nile first -obtain access to the depression? - -As will be shown later the Fayûm was occupied by the sea in Pliocene -times, when the great gravel accumulations and gypseous deposits were -formed. Later the area became dry and denudation of the land surface -completed the work of erosion already begun in earlier times. - -In Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile Valley appears to have -become definitely established and probably the river in the lower -part of its course eventually washed up against and broke down the -separating barrier of gravel between the Fayûm and the Nile Valley, -so that part of its waters obtained access to the depression, formed a -lake on the lowest part, and gradually rose until the whole basin, up -to the level of the channel connecting it with the Nile Valley, became -filled. Every year thousands of tons of sediment were carried in by -the floods and spread out on the floor in the shape of a fan. Probably -later, as the Nile level fell, the valley and the depression again -became disconnected, until the more modern river, with its gradually -rising bed, again attained the requisite altitude. In early historic -times the alluvial deposits had probably silted up the lake in its -southern central part, and when in the XIIth dynasty the district -was first taken in hand by Amenemhat I this part of it must have -had the character of a huge marsh, nearly surrounded by open water, -rapidly deepening towards the north. - - - SECTION VII.—THE NORTHERN DESERT REGION. - - -[Sidenote: The Plateau bounding the Fayûm depression to the north.] - -All along the north-west and north sides the ground rises rapidly from -the base of the dip-slope of the plain in a series of escarpments to -the summit of the rim of the depression, averaging 340 metres above sea -level. Northwards from the summit stretches a rolling pebbly desert, -the prevailing character of which is a dark brown, relieved by lighter -brown grey and yellow patches, and especially flecked by the light -sandy slopes of the undulations. Although the latter seldom rise to -any considerable height above the general level of the plain, from the -top of the most modest eminence an immense view in every direction can -frequently be obtained. The monotony of this desert is only relieved by -the occasional belts of sand, which although extremely narrow in width, -run for immense distances in almost absolutely straight lines, and in -a N.N.W.—S.S.E. direction. Although none of these dunes actually -reach the rim of the escarpment we may mention here the beautiful -Ghart el Khanashat, an almost straight and apparently unbroken ridge -of sand, extremely narrow but of great length. Near its southern -extremity the width does not exceed 100 metres; the slopes on both -sides are frequently as much as 30°. The commencement of the Ghart -el Khanashat was observed on a march from Wadi Natrûn to Mogara; it -lay some way to the south of a line joining those two localities but -could not be accurately fixed from the line of route. The belt dies out -24 kilometres from the rim of the Fayûm depression, its termination -being particularly abrupt, although the height of the ridge diminishes -gradually throughout the last kilometre or two. The line of the belt if -continued would almost strike the western extremity of the Birket el -Qurûn; near its termination the desert is almost flat, the surface -being finely gravelly, with numerous groups of silicified trees; -tufts of coarse grass grow in some profusion on the sandy ground at -the base of the ridge on either side. A fairly well-marked road from -the Birket el Qurûn to the Wadi Natrûn passes the end of the ridge -and continues northwards at a distance of 200 metres from the east -side of the dunes, although apparently gradually diverging eastwards. - -Except to the north and north-west of Tamia, where a somewhat extensive -and fairly level plain exists, the ground, as already mentioned, rises -from the limits of the central plain in a series of escarpments to the -summit of the rim of the depression. These cliff lines are broadly -speaking three in number and represent the escarpments of the three -great rock-stages which build up the northern part of the Fayûm, -i.e., the Birket el Qurûn series, the Qasr el Sagha series, and the -Fluvio-marine series. It would serve no useful purpose describing -these different cliffs in detail; their positions and characters are -apparent on the accompanying maps. The intervening plateaux are for -the most part dip-slope plains formed of hard bands of rock, which -resisting denudation, are left protecting the underlying strata while -the softer beds above are cut back at a comparatively rapid rate. - -[Sidenote: Desert west and south-west of Gar el Gehannem.] - -In December 1902 and March 1903 a traverse was made through the -unexplored country west and south-west of Gar el Gehannem, finally -connecting up with Wadi Rayan. The highest escarpment, i.e. that of -the Fluvio-marine series, dies out about 20 kilometres west of Gar -el Gehannem, gradually merging into the undulating gravel-covered -plain. The lower escarpments, those of the Qasr el Sagha and Birket el -Qurûn series, continue to a considerable distance in a south-westerly -direction, although gradually losing the characters of well-marked -cliffs. In fact westwards of this the depression gradually shallows, -until at a point some 50 kilometres south-west of Gar el Gehannem -the floor has attained the level of the ordinary desert plateau, -on which the outcrops of the beds of successive rock-stages follow -one another in regular order from south to north, but without forming -well-marked topographical features, as in the depression. - -Hills, capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and -puddingstone, were met with in the extreme south-west extension of the -depression; these deposits, which will be referred to more fully later, -considered in conjunction with the similar beds occurring within the -oasis of Baharia, and in the hills of Gar el Hamra, on the plateau -immediately to the north-east of that depression, are of considerable -interest and importance, especially in connection with the question -of the position of the early rivers which in Eocene and later times -brought down quantities of trees and animals, the remains of which -are so abundant throughout the later Fayûm deposits. - -[Sidenote: Jebel el Qatrani and escarpments north of the Birket -el Qurûn.] - -The boldest part of the region is the area lying between the Birket el -Qurûn and the summit of the depression to the north. All three lines -of cliff are here high and precipitous, and the uppermost escarpment, -well known by the name of Jebel el Qatrani, formed of a highly coloured -series of sandstones and clays and capped for a distance of many -kilometres by a thick bed of hard black basalt, is of a most striking -character. The eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani is perhaps the -most conspicuous point in the whole region; here the two conical black -basalt-capped cliff-outliers, known as Widan el Faras, stand side by -side, and from their summits the eye commands the whole region from -the pyramid of Lahûn on the one side, across Rayan to the south, up -to the extreme limits of the depression to the south-west. The rim of -Jebel el Qatrani has a fairly constant level of about 340 metres above -the sea. From Widan el Faras the escarpment trends northwards for a -few kilometres before again resuming an easterly direction, which is -continued till the well-marked bluff of Elwat Hialla is reached. From -this summit the pyramids of Dashûr, Saqâra and Giza are visible to -the north, as well as Cairo and the Nile Valley southwards, backed -by the bluffs on the Eastern desert limestone plateau. - -To the south the isolated peaks of Garat el Gindi and Garat el -Faras form conspicuous landmarks on the more or less open plain -which stretches to Tamia and the limits of the Fayûm cultivated -lands. Eastwards the escarpments continue in a broken irregular -manner; the upper ones are gradually lost in an undulating plain, -while the lower eventually join those forming the northern part of -the ridge separating the Fayûm from the Nile Valley. - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 6: For fuller details of the cultivated lands, water-supply, -etc., of the Fayûm, the reader is referred to the excellent description -by Sir Hanbury Brown in his work _The Fayum and Lake Moeris_, London, -1892.] - -[Footnote 7: “The Lake of the Horns,” so called from the narrow -horn-like promontories which jut out into the lake on the north -side. Views of the lake are shown in Plates I, IV, XVI.] - -[Footnote 8: This was the case until a year or two ago. At the -present time a limited amount of freshwater finds its way to the -area immediately north of the east end of the lake and small plots -are cultivated by the arabs.] - -[Footnote 9: _Herodotus_, Book II; _Strabo_, Book XVII; and _Diodorus -Siculus_, Book I, Chap. LI. (See Brown op. cit. p. 19-22.)] - -[Footnote 10: “_Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ_,” 1889.] - -[Footnote 11: BROWN, op. cit. p. 95. As mentioned above in some areas -the cultivated land was formerly even more extensive than at present, -notably near the modern villages of Roda, Tamia, etc.] - -[Footnote 12: For details of evaporation and level-records of the lake, -see Brown, op. cit. pp. 6-9, and P.W.M. annual reports.] - -[Footnote 13: See WILLCOCKS’ _Egyptian Irrigation_, 2nd edition, -London, 1899.] - -[Footnote 14: See _A Preliminary Investigation of the Soil and Water -of the Fayûm Province_, by A. LUCAS, Survey Department, Cairo, 1902.] - -[Footnote 15: See Appendix II, _A Note by Dr. Schweinfurth on the -Salt in the Wadi Rayan_, in Willcocks’ _Egyptian Irrigation_, -pp. 460-465.] - -[Footnote 16: The word “freshness” is used comparatively, as -the amount of salt is sufficient to make the water unpalatable or -unfit for drinking, except near the feeder canals. It is, however, -quite good enough for most culinary purposes, and camels will usually -drink from it, although it is not advisable to water the latter from -the lake either before or after a fatiguing desert march, as in such -cases the salinity of the water may have bad effects.] - -[Footnote 17: “Bull. of the American Geographical Society, 1882, -pp. 22 and 24.”] - -[Footnote 18: _Mémoires sur les travaux publics en Egypte_, Paris, -1873, pp. 53, 54.] - -[Footnote 19: G. A. LIERNUR, COL. WESTERN and COL. SIR C. C. SCOTT -MONCRIEFF, K.C.M.G. _Notes on the Wadi Rayan_, Cairo, 1888.] - -[Footnote 20: _Note on the Wadi Rayan Project_, Cairo, 1889.] - -[Footnote 21: _Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt_, -by W. WILLCOCKS, M.I.C.E. Dir. Gen. of Reservoirs, with A Note by -W. E. GARSTIN, Under Secretary of State, P.W.M., Cairo, 1894.] - -[Footnote 22: The engineering details of the Wadi Rayan reservoir -project have since been more fully discussed by Sir William Garstin -in his “_Report on the Basin of the Upper Nile_” Cairo, (pp. 6-9 -Appendix I).] - -[Footnote 23: A Note by Dr. SCHWEINFURTH on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan: -an appendix to _Perennial Irrigation_, etc.] - -[Footnote 24: _The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Moeris_, London, 1904.] - -[Footnote 25: The following analyses of the chief springs in the -Wadi Rayan, made by Mr. Lucas, Chemist to the Survey Department, -are of interest:— - - -------------------------+---------------+--------------+------------- - | NORTH SPRING.| SOUTH SPRING.| EAST SPRING. - -------------------------+---------------+--------------+------------- - Matter In Solution | 398·8 | 350·8 | 811·6 - | | | - Chlorine calculated as | | | - Sodium Chloride | 278·4 | 238·2 | 585·5 - | | | - Sulphur Trioxide | | | - calculated as | | | - Sodium Sulphate | 62·9 | 53·9 | 126·2 - -The above figures are parts per 100,000 parts of water. - -Although the above analyses prove the water to be of a very poor -quality for drinking purposes, compared with many of the wells -and springs of the oases, the water, which is quite clear, seemed -good. Except for its softness and somewhat ferruginous taste, it -is quite palatable, and on my last visit we used no other for five -days. The south spring was found to yield 21 litres and the north 6 -litres per minute. The water of the third spring does not run.] - - - - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - -WESTERN EXTREMITY OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.] - - PART II. - - =TECTONICS.= - - * * * * * - - - SECTION VIII.—FAULTING AND FOLDING. - - -[Sidenote: The Fayûm Depression formed by subaerial Erosion.] - -More extended examination of the Fayûm region supports my original -conclusion[26] that the depression owes its origin to the same causes -as have given rise to the other oases-depressions of the Libyan Desert, -namely Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga[27]. No evidence has as yet -been met with which would suggest that earth-movements have played -any important part in the formation of the Fayûm depression. Local -faults, for the most part of short length and slight throw, occur -at certain points, but the influence of these is strictly limited to -their immediate neighbourhood. In fact, an examination of the desert -margin of the Fayûm conclusively proves that the depression has been -cut out through the action of ordinary subaerial denuding agents. The -somewhat prevalent idea that the central portion of the depression, -that covered by alluvial soil and the water of the lake, is faulted -down, also rests on no foundation, all available evidence pointing -in an opposite direction. Throughout the margin of the alluvial -covered area the Eocene beds forming the surface of the desert can -be observed to pass regularly under the cultivated lands; moreover, -the same strata are frequently exposed in the bottoms of canals, -drains, etc., far within the cultivation. The big drainage ravines -of El Bats and El Wadi are, through a large part of their courses, -cut down to the underlying Eocene rocks (Ravine beds), and in every -locality examined the strata were found in the position they would -be expected to occupy if undisturbed by tectonic movements. - -[Sidenote: Deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm.] - -The evidence yielded by the deep boring at Medinet el Fayûm is, -as far as it goes, to the same effect. The ground level at the site -was at 23·40 metres above sea-level and the following beds were -passed through[28]:— - - Metres. - - Alluvial clays, clayey sands and sands, the latter in - part coarse and pebbly 18·5 - - Yellow, brown, and grey marls and marly clays (probably - belonging for the most part to the Ravine beds) 112·5 - - Cement coloured stone } 43·5 - } - Yellowish stone } Probably these 6·5 - } limestones and - Light brown solid stone } occasional marls 10·5 - } and clays belong - Cement coloured soft clay } to the Rayan series. 1·7 - } - Cement coloured stone } 12·5 - ----- - 205·7 - ----- - Bottom of boring 182·3 metres below sea-level. - -The method employed in this boring was such as to bring up the -material as a ground-up paste, an examination of which does not afford -absolutely conclusive evidence as to the age of the rock. The absence, -after the first 18·5 metres, of sand or pebbles, common throughout -the alluvial deposits of the Fayûm, suggests that the base of these -beds was reached at that depth, but from this evidence alone it would -perhaps hardly be satisfactory to conclude that the underlying 112·5 -metres were entirely Eocene. Considering, however that in the two deep -ravines of El Bats and El Wadi the underlying Eocene is very commonly -exposed at an average depth of some 15 metres below cultivation level, -it is highly improbable that in the centre of the area, at Medinet el -Fayûm, the alluvial deposits greatly exceed the same thickness. To -classify the 112·5 metres of marly clays as alluvium would give -the latter a total thickness of 131 metres and would mean that over -an extremely restricted area the Eocene rocks had been denuded to -such an extent that the floor of the depression lay 108 metres below -sea-level. The ground-up samples of rock closely resemble what might -be expected from the clays and marls forming the Ravine beds and -in all probability the greater part of the 112·5 metres belong to -that series. The harder stone met with at 131 metres, which, with -the exception of a band of soft clay, continued down to the bottom, -must be regarded as belonging to the underlying Rayan series. - -[Sidenote: Dr. Blanckenhorn’s Fault theory.] - -Dr. Blanckenhorn, in a paper published in 1901[29] dealing with -the Pliocene and Pleistocene of Egypt, describes the Fayûm as a -triangular depression bounded on all sides by faults. The position -of these bounding faults, as well as of numerous others more or less -parallel to the north shore of the Birket el Qurûn, is shown on an -accompanying map[30] and in a section drawn from Abshawai to the summit -of the plateau north of the lake.[31] Stratigraphical evidence, based -on the supposed identity of certain strata in different localities, -is brought forward in support of these faults, the author finally -stating that the production of the Fayûm is clearly and distinctly -to be referred to tectonic movements. - -Our conclusion, formed after an examination of the region in some -detail, is so diametrically opposed to the above, that it may be worth -while to state here the evidence which we consider sufficient to refute -the existence of the particular faults described by Blanckenhorn. - -Blanckenhorn’s fault-lines lie for the most part within the area -covered by the alluvial deposits and the water of the lake, so that for -want of exposures it is in most cases impossible to directly disprove -their existence, although strong presumptive evidence against them can -be adduced. The fault along the east side, however, is shown as closely -following the junction line of the desert and the cultivated land, -but everywhere along this line we found the marls and limestones -of the Ravine beds passing regularly from the desert under the -cultivated lands, without any sort of break or dislocation. Moreover, -an examination of the desert ridge to the east disproved the existence -of any faulting on the desert side, while the appearance of the -same beds in the ravine of El Bats, a few kilometres to the west, -proved the continuity of the beds under the cultivated alluvium in -this direction. Certainly no fault exists along this side of the -Fayûm. Similarly with regard to the fault shown as running from the -west end of the lake along the west side of the Fayûm cultivation -into the basin of Gharaq; although the desert margin along this side -of the Fayûm cultivation has not been so closely surveyed as that on -the east side, no evidence in favour of the existence of faults was met -with in the particular localities examined. With regard to the third -main bounding fault, considered by Blanckenhorn to run throughout -the length of the Birket el Qurûn and to be continued eastwards, -possibly to the Nile Valley and at least to join the fault on the east -side of the cultivation, we need only say that an examination of the -desert near Tamia disproves its existence at that end; while it is -difficult to imagine that a fault could traverse the lake from end -to end without revealing its presence in the island Geziret el Qorn -or in one or other of the promontories which jut out so far into the -lake from its northern shore. Everywhere the strata are undisturbed -and occupy their normal stratigraphical level and position. - -Let us finally examine the series of more or less parallel faults -stated to exist between the island and the northern shore of the lake, -and on the mainland to the north and south of Dimê. Dr. Blanckenhorn -publishes a detailed section (op. cit., fig. 2., taf. XIV) showing -the positions of these step faults and their effect on the various -strata through which they cut. Fortunately, in this neighbourhood the -stratigraphical succession is well exposed and the presence or absence -of faults become matters of easy determination. The sequence of beds -from south to north is normal and uninterrupted and our interpretation -of the area is shown in the accompanying sections (Plates XIX, XXII, -and fig. 4). We have no hesitation in saying that such faults as -those shown on Blanckenhorn’s section do not exist. Their insertion -appears to be the outcome of an error in the correlation of strata at -the three points Abshawai, Geziret el Qorn and Dimê. The bed capping -the island is not identical with that forming the plain to the north -of Dimê, although shown to be such on the section under discussion. - -In a later publication[32] Blanckenhorn admits being in error in -his correlation of the different beds in the localities in question -and completely withdraws his former statements that the depression -owes its existence to fracture and subsidence. The faults shown on -his detailed section from Abshawai to Qasr el Sagha are admitted to -be non-existent and in this retraction we may presumably include the -remainder of the faults described by the same author, as the evidence -for them is of a still less satisfactory nature. - -In a wind-swept desert area like the Fayûm the slightest dislocations -are as a rule markedly obvious, and faults of any magnitude could -scarcely escape detection. Over the greater part of the region -every bed is laid bare on the surface and can be minutely examined; -while the marked irregularity of the escarpments afford sections cut -through the different series in every direction. Some areas, however, -are covered with superficial deposits, which more or less effectually -obscure the underlying rocks; for instance, on the east side a large -part of the central floor is hidden by the cultivated alluvium and -by the water of the lake; in the south a considerable proportion of -the floor of Wadi Rayan is buried under accumulations of blown sand; -and again large areas on the north, west, and south-west sides are -obscured by a superficial covering of loose gravel. But as already -mentioned, there is no reason to suppose that faults of any importance -exist within the areas thus partly obscured. The cultivated lands and -the Birket el Qurûn do not occupy low areas produced by faulting but, -as shown above, owe their positions entirely to the original northerly -dip of the strata and to subsequent erosion. - -[Sidenote: Numerous small faults effects local.] - -We have already stated that small local faults occur in various parts -of the Fayûm and some of these may be specially mentioned. The most -important is about 10 kilometres N.N.E. of Qasr el Sagha; the line -of fault lies nearly north-west and south-east, has a length of six -or seven kilometres, and affects both middle and upper Eocene beds; -at its northern end the fault passes into a fold before finally dying -out. Some of the Upper Eocene sandstones are hardened and silicified -and form a succession of black knobs along the line of disturbance. To -the south of these the axis of dislocation bends slightly eastwards and -takes the form of a sharp fold; further south it again becomes a true -fault, flanked by a line of highly tilted beds along its south-west -side. The effects of this fault are very marked locally but entirely -restricted to a limited area. The most important is the breaking of -the continuity of the escarpment of the Qasr el Sagha series; the -line of cliffs formed by those beds is a very marked topographical -feature and the fault in question causes a lateral displacement of -seven kilometres. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Fault near Qasr el Sagha.] - -In the neighbourhood of Qasr el Sagha and westwards for a considerable -distance, small strike-faults are of common occurrence in the beds -of the Qasr el Sagha series. As a rule these faults do not extend -more than a few hundred metres in length, while the down-throw seldom -exceeds two or three metres and in almost every case observed is to the -north. The hade may be 65° or more. Fig. 1 shows an example near Qasr -el Sagha. The most marked of these strike faults is seen to the east -of Garat el Esh; commencing a little to the north-east of that hill -it runs in a nearly due easterly direction till it cuts the cliffs of -the Qasr el Sagha series after some five kilometres. Its down-throw -is to the north and never exceeds a few metres; this small throw -is however sufficient to cause a marked displacement of the highest -bed of limestone forming the dip-slope surface of the plateau at the -summit of the Middle Eocene beds. - -At first sight it might be suspected that the very irregular trend -of the different escarpments throughout the Fayûm was determined -or influenced by fault lines; an extended examination of the cliffs -however gave negative results, with one exception; the long narrow -hill-mass to the north east of Gar el Gahannem is bounded by faults -on both sides and that on the west can be easily traced for seven or -eight kilometres northwards, and throughout its length its influence -on the topography is very conspicuous. - - -[Footnote 26: BEADNELL. _The Fayûm depression: A Preliminary Notice -of the Geology of a District in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene -Vertebrate Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, -p. 540.] - -[Footnote 27: See reports on Kharga Oasis (1900), Farafra Oasis -(1901), Dakhla Oasis (1901), and Baharia Oasis (1903), issued by -Survey Dept. P.W.M., Cairo.] - -[Footnote 28: Public Works Ministry Report. Cairo, 1899.] - -[Footnote 29: BLANCKENHORN. _Geologie Aegyptens_, Berlin 1901, Pt. IV, -pp. 339-344.] - -[Footnote 30: „ p. 341, Fig. 10. Skizze der Strukturlinien des -Fayûm.] - -[Footnote 31: „ Taf. XIV. Querprofil durch den Fayûmgraben.] - -[Footnote 32: BLANCKENHORN, _Neue geologisch-stratigraphische -Beobachtungen in Aegypten_, S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe -d. kgl. bayer. Ac. d. Wiss. Bd. XXXII 1902, Heft III, München 1902, -pp. 428, 429.] - - - - - PART III. - - =GEOLOGY.= - - * * * * * - - - SECTION IX.—GENERAL AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA. - - -The geology of the area[33] under consideration is almost entirely -stratigraphical, the only igneous rocks being more or less local lava -flows. The sedimentary rocks of the district have yielded an abundant -fauna, both invertebrate and vertebrate; the latter is of unique -interest, including as it does a number of highly interesting animal -types quite new to science. An extended examination in the field, -and comparisons with the stratigraphical succession in other parts of -Egypt, checked by the determinations of the fossil molluscan fauna, -make it possible to form a very fair estimate of the approximate -age of the different rock-stages, although this may necessarily -be subject to modification when the specific determinations of the -entire collection of organic remains have been completed, and the -development of vertebrate life has been correlated and compared with -that in other parts of the world. - -The depression is cut out in a great series of sedimentary rocks of -Middle Eocene, Upper Eocene, and Oligocene age, and one of the features -of the stratigraphy of the region is the constancy of many beds over -wide areas. The dip of the beds throughout the area is nearly due north -and at a very low angle, averaging 2° or 3°, but varying from 1° to -5°; this low dip is very constantly maintained except when locally -affected by small faults. The structural geology and tectonics have -already been discussed at some length in the previous sections. - -The oldest beds found in the depression are the clays, marls, and -limestones with _Nummulites gizehensis_, of Middle Eocene age. These -are succeeded by a group of white marly limestones and gypseous clays, -which largely underlie the cultivated alluvium of the Fayûm. They are -followed by a series consisting of clays, sandstones, and calcareous -grits, some beds of which are characterized by the abundance of small -nummulites and _Operculina_. The latter series is followed by the -uppermost truly marine Eocene beds, a group of alternating clays, -sandstones and limestones, the “Qasr el Sagha Series” (or Carolia -beds), characterized by an abundant invertebrate and vertebrate fauna, -and equivalent to the Upper Mokattam beds of Cairo. - -Above the Qasr el Sagha series, and well marked off from them both -lithologically and palæontologically, is found a great thickness of -variegated sands, sandstones, clays and marls, the “Fluvio-marine -Series” (Jebel el Qatrani beds), divided near the summit by -one or more thick intercalated lava sheets, the latter forming a -convenient junction line. This series of variegated beds is of Upper -Eocene—Lower Oligocene age. - -No Miocene strata have been recognized within the area, but further -north, as at Mogara, Lower Miocene deposits occur;[34] and it is -probable that there is a continuous series of lithologically similar -beds from the summit of the Fayûm escarpments (Lower Oligocene) -to the Mogara Miocene. - -The Pliocene is probably represented by the great terraces of -gravel—raised beaches—which are such a marked feature in the -geology of the district. Fossiliferous Pliocene deposits have also -been recorded from the south part of the area by Schweinfurth.[35] - -Pleistocene and Recent are abundantly represented by lacustrine clays, -both ancient and modern, alluvial land and blown sand, the formation -of which deposits is continuing at the present time. - -The following table will show the sequence of strata and the -classification adopted in the present memoir:— - - TABLE SHOWING SUCCESSION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA IN THE FAYUM. - - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | |Approximate| - | | | average | - | | | thickness | - | | | in metres,| - | | | north part| - | | | of Fayum. | - | | +-----------| - | | | | Alluvial soil, clays, - | | | | sands, etc. - RECENT | | | | - AND | | | | Blown sand. - PLEISTOCENE| | | | - | | | | Lacustrine clays, - | | | | extending to about 23 - | | | | metres above sea-level. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | | Gravel Terraces (? - | | | | Pleistocene). - | | | | - (MIDDLE?) | | | | Shell-borings on rock - PLIOCENE | | | | surfaces. - | | | | - | | | 50 | Fossiliferous deposits of - | | | | Sidmant. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Fluvio-marine Series - | | | |(Jebel el Qatrani beds)_. - | | | | - LOWER | | | 30 | Sandstones and - OLIGOCENE |TONGRIAN | | | sandstone-grits with - | | | | silicified trees and - | | | | - | | | | Basalt sheets, - | | | | interbedded and - | | | | contemporaneous. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - | | | | Variegated sands, - | | | | sandstones, clays and - | | | | marls, with - | | | | limestone-grits and thin - | | | | bands of limestone. The - | | | | upper beds contain _Unio_ - | | | | sp., _Lanistes - | | | | bartonianus_, Blanck., - | | | | _Turritella pharaonica_, - | | | | Cossm., _Potamides - | | | | scalaroides_, Desh., _P. - | | | | tristriatus_, Lam., - | | | | _Pleurotoma ingens_, - | | | | May.-Eym. In the lower - | | | | beds are large numbers of - | | | | silicified trees - | | | | associated with - | | | | vertebrate remains - | | | | including _Arsinoitherium - | | | | Zitteli_, Beadn., _A. - | | | | Andrewsii_, Lankester, - UPPER | | | | _Palæomastodon - EOCENE |BARTONIAN| | 250 | Beadnelli_, Andr., _P. - | | | | minor_, Andr., - | | | | _Mœritherium Lyonsi_, - | | | | Andr., _M. trigodon_, - | | | | Andr., _Megalohyrax - | | | | eocænus_, Andr., _M. - | | | | minor_ Andr., - | | | | _Saghatherium antiquum_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., _S. - | | | | minus_, Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _S. magnum_, Andr., - | | | | _Ancodus Gorringei_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _Geniohyus mirus_, Andr., - | | | | _G. fayumensis_, Andr., - | | | | _G. major_, Andr., - | | | | _Phiomia serridens_, - | | | | Andr. and Beadn., - | | | | _Pterodon africanus_, - | | | | Andr., _P. macrognathus_, - | | | | Andr., _Eremopezus - | | | | libycus_, Andr., _Testudo - | | | | Ammon_, Andr., and - | | | | frequent crocodilian and - | | | | chelonian remains. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Qasr el Sagha Series - | | | |(Carolia beds)_. - | | | | - | | | | Alternating limestones, - | | | | marls, clays and - | | | | sandstones with _Qerunia_ - | | | | (_Hydractinia_) - | | | | _cornuta_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Astrohelia similis_, - | | | | Felix., _Echinolampas - | | | | Crameri_, Loriol., - | | | | _Ostrea Reili_, Fraas, - | | | | _Ostrea elegans_, Desh., - | | | | _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - | | | | Bellardi, _Exogyra - | | | | Fraasi_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Carolia placunoides_, - | | | | Cantr., _Cardita - | | | | fajumensis_, Oppenh., - | | UPPER | | _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, - | |MOKATTAM| 155 | Sowerby, _Turritella - | | | | pharaonica_, Cossm., _T. - | | | | carinifera_, Desh., - | | | | _Mesalia fasciata_, Lam., - | | | | _Rimella rimosa_, Sol. - | | | | The vertebrate remains - | | | | include _Mœritherium - | | | | Lyonsi_, Andr., _M. - | | | | gracilis_, Andr., - | | | | _Barytherium grave_, - | | | | Andr., _Eosiren libyca_, - | | | | Andr., _Zeuglodon - | | | | Osiris_, Dames, - | | | | _Gigantophis Garstini_, - | | | | Andr., _Pterosphenus - | | | | Schweinfurthi_, Andr., - | | | | _Psephophorus eocænus_, - | | | | Andr., _Thallassochelys - | | | | libyca_, Andr., - | | | | _Podocnemis antiqua_, - | | | | Andr., _P. Stromeri_, v. - | | | | Rein., _Stereogenys - | | | | Cromeri_, Andr., _S. - | | | | podocnemioides_, v. - | | | | Rein., _Tomistoma - | | | | africanum_, Andr., with - | | | | siluroids and _Propristis - MIDDLE | | | | Schweinfurthi_, Dames. - EOCENE |PARISIAN |--------+-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Birket el Qurûn Series - | | | |(Operculina-Nummulite - | | | |beds)_. - | | | | - | | | | Sandstones and clays, - | | | | with sandy limestones, - | | | | and one or more well - | | | | marked concretionary - | | | | sandstones weathering - | | | | into large globular - | | | | masses. - | | | | - | | | | _Nummulites Fraasi_, de - | | | | la Harpe, _N. Beaumonti_, - | | | 50 | _Operculina discoidea_, - | | | | Schwag., _Qerunia - | | | | cornuta_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Plicatula polymorpha_, - | | | | Bell., _Pectunculus - | | | | pseudopulvinatus_, Orb., - | | | | _Cardita Viquesneli_, - | | | | d’Arch., _Cardium - | | | | Schweinfurthi_, - | | | | May.-Eym., _Venus - | | | | plicatella_, May.-Eym., - | | | | _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, - | | | | Sow., _Lucina pharaonis_, - | | | | Bell., _Tellina - | | | | scalaroides_, Lam., - | | | | _Clavellithes longævus_, - | | | | Sol., _Voluta arabica_, - | | | | May.-Eym., _Turritella - | | | | pharaonica_, Cossm., _T. - | | | | carinifera_, Desh., with - | | | | _Zeuglodon Osiris_, - | | | | Dames, and _Z. Isis_, - | | | | Beadn. - | | LOWER +-----------+--------------------------- - | |MOKATTAM| |_Ravine Beds._ - | | | | - | | | 70 | White marls and marly - | | | | limestones with gypseous - | | | | clays; _Nucularia_ sp. - | | | | _Leda_ sp., _Corbula_ - | | | | aff. _pixidicula_, Desh., - | | | | _Lucina_ sp. (? - | | | | _pharaonis_), _Tellina - | | | | tenuistriata_, Desh., - | | | | _Zeuglodon Isis_, Beadn., - | | | | and scales and teeth of - | | | | fish. - | | |-----------+--------------------------- - | | | |_Wadi Rayan Series - | | | |(Nummulites gizehensis - | | | |beds)._ - | | | | - | | | 130 | Limestones, marls, clays, - | | | | etc., with _Nummulites - | | | | gizehensis_, Ehrbg., _N. - | | | | curvispira_, _Carolia - | | | | placunoides_, Cantr. - -----------+---------+--------+-----------+--------------------------- - - - SECTION X.—MIDDLE EOCENE (PARISIAN). - - - _A._—=Wadi Rayan Series.=—(_Nummulites Gizehensis Beds_). - - (A.I.e. Schweinfurth, I.b. Mayer-Eymar,[36] Lower Mokattam of Cairo). - - -Beds of this group are chiefly found in the south of the -depression. The wadis Rayan and Muêla, as already shown by -Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar[37], are cut out in clays and limestones -of Lower Mokattam age; the upper beds of limestone, containing -among other fossil[38] numerous examples of the large _Nummulites -gizehensis_, form the greater part of the floor of the depression -west of the Fayûm cultivation, stretching from Jebel Rayan to the -foot of Gar el Gehannem,[39] 28 kilometres west of the western end -of the Birket el Qurûn (Section XX). Near the latter hill examples -of _N. gizehensis_ of inordinately large size occur.[40] - -At the conical hill at the southern entrance to Wadi Muêla the -following beds were noticed:— - - _Top of hill._ - - 1. Hard white limestone with small nummulites, _Lucina_, - _Callianassa_, and echinids. Salt occurs in thin deposits along - joint-planes. The lower part of this bed is largely composed of - small nummulites and bryozoa. This generally white limestone - passes down into - - 2. Brown, usually sandy, limestone with oysters and small nummulites. - In it are intercalated thin beds of greenish brown sandstone and - clayey sand with impressions of bryozoa. Some of the brown sandy - limestones are full of small nummulites. _Ostrea_ and _Carolia_ - numerous. The beds are not constant, the clayey sandstones passing - insensibly into sandy limestones. - - 3. Softer beds with large nummulites, corals, _Ostrea_, _Nautilus_. - - 4. Soft green and brown clays, with occasional oyster-beds. - -At the corner of the cliff 7½ kilometres N.N.W. of the monastery of -Der el Galamûn, in Wadi Muêla, occur about 80 metres of hard white -nummulitic limestones, with beds of argillaceous sandstone and sandy -clays. Fossils are numerous and include nummulites of several species -(_N. gizehensis_, etc.), _Carolia placunoides_, different species -of _Ostrea_, with gastropods (among others _Terebellum sopitum_), -bryozoa, etc. It is very noticeable that the nummulites, especially -the small species, occur in remarkable profusion not only in the -limestones but often in the clays. - -The following section will give a good idea of the general alternations -found in this area; it was measured at Jebel Rayan,[41] 24 kilometres -west of the western end of the cultivation of Gharaq basin. - - _Top of plateau._ Metres. - - 1. Hard snow-white limestone with occasional nummulites - passing down into hard highly nummulitic limestone; - _N. gizehensis_, _Ostrea_ sp., _Lucina_ sp., _Mitra_ sp., - and _Carolia placunoides_ occur among others 31 - - 2. Vertical-faced bed of greenish clayey sands and sandy - clays (glauconitic) with _Carolia_, _Ostrea_ and - _Nummulites_. Near top of bed there is much gypsum. The - nummulites in this bed are often collected together so as - to form hard concretionary masses; these masses, by - becoming more numerous, finally form a hard bed of - nummulitic limestone intercalated in the clays near the - top. The junction of the clays with the limestone of Bed - No. 1 is very irregular 16 - - 3. Greenish shelly sands and sandy clayey bands, interbedded - with impure chalky nummulitic limestones with _N. - gizehensis_, _N. curvispira_, and a third smaller species; - _Ostrea_ sp. This bed is much obscured by debris 11 - - 4. Hard slate-blue shales, weathering to paper-shales 2 - - 5. Brownish marls passing up into clays 2 - - Limestone band largely made up of small and large - nummulites and echinids 1 - - Glauconitic (?) and clayey sands and sandy clays, - with _Ostrea_, _Carolia_, and nummulites, weathering - with a vertical face. In some bands large numbers of - small and large nummulites lie embedded in every - position, as if tossed about by currents during the - process of becoming buried by sediment. Gypsum occurs - in thin veins and often encloses the nummulites 36 - - 6. Hard markedly-white nummulitic limestone full of _N. - gizehensis_ and other species (_N. curvispira_, etc.); - the rock usually has a dark brown colour when freshly - fractured. A shelly band rich in corals occurs nine - metres from the top. The upper part is more marly and - less nummulitic than the rest of the bed. Base invisible 30 - --- - Total thickness of beds in the above section 129 - --- - -[Illustration: PLATE V. - -ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OVERLYING MARLY LIMESTONES (RAVINE BEDS) IN EL WADI, -RAVINE NEAR QASR GEBALI.] - -The following is a section of the beds exposed in Wadi Muêla compiled -from a paper by Mayer-Eymar on this oasis:— - - _Top._ Metres. - - { { White siliceous cavernous limestone with - { { _Lucina globulosa_, Desh., _Gisortia_, - { { _Rostellaria_, _Eschara Duvali_, - { { Michelin., (Probably ≡ bed No. 1 of our - { { J. Rayan section) 10 - { { - { { Greyish-yellow marl, rich in places with - { Id. { _Ostrea Gumbeli_, _Pecten mœlehensis_, - { { May.-Eym., _Vulsella chamiformis_, - { { May.-Eym., _Velates Schmiedeli_, Chemnitz, - { { _Cerithium fodicatum_, _Pleurotoma_, - { { _Borsonia_, _Fusus_, _Rostellaria_, etc. 6 - { { - { { Yellowish sandy marl, with small - { { nummulites. - PARISIAN. { - { { Yellowish marls, divided by one or two - { { bands of red clay, with _Nummulites - { { gizehensis_ 7 - { { - { Ic. { Hard bedded clay 1 - { { - { { Vari-coloured gypseous marls 4 - { { - { { (Probably ≡ beds 2, 3, 4 at J. Rayan). - { - { { Very hard, rich greenish-grey, siliceous - { { limestone with _N. gizehensis_, _Pecten - { { corneus_, J. Sow., and _Lucina_ (_L. - { Ib. { consobrina_, Desh., and _L. Defrancei_, - { { Desh.). 4 to 5 - { { - { { (Probably ≡ upper part of bed 5 at J. - { { Rayan.) - -There is a considerable difference in thicknesses between the above -section and that of Jebel Rayan. Our heights agree closely with those -of Schweinfurth, so that it is probable that Mayer-Eymar is in error, -notwithstanding his challenge of Schweinfurth’s figures in the -paper mentioned. - - - _B._—=Ravine Beds.= - - -The beds of this series, consisting of gypseous clays, clayey marls, -and white marly limestones, are met with bordering the cultivation -on the east, west and north sides; they pass under the alluvial -soil of the cultivated land and are frequently seen in the bottoms -of canals, and especially in the deep ravines known as El Bats, -and El Wadi (Plates III and V). The relation of these beds to the -Rayan series below is well seen at the prominent outstanding hill -Gar el Gehannem (Fig. 2); here the plain to the east and south is -formed of the uppermost member of the Wadi Rayan series, a limestone -full of _Nummulites gizehensis_. In the hill itself the latter is -directly overlain by gypseous and glauconitic sandy clays and marls, -with hard intervening beds of yellowish, often marly, limestone. The -upper beds consist of alternating clays, sandy limestone and sandstone, -at the top being a thick bed of the latter passing up gradually into -the sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series. The following is the -detailed section:— - - _Summit of Gar el Gehannem._ Thickness in metres. - - 1. Hard yellow and white limestone crowded with } - shells, chiefly large individuals of _Carolia } - placunoides_ and _Ostrea Fraasi_. Numerous } - nummulites in upper part } 25 - } - 2. Limestone full of _Turritella carinifera_, } - _Ostrea Clot-Beyi_ } 1 - } - 3. Brown clays } Lower 6 - } beds of - 4. Shelly limestone with _Carolia_, _Turritella_, } Qasr el - _Ostrea_, _Cardita_ and _Qerunia_ } Sagha - (_Hydractinia_) } Series 1 - } (45 - 5. Greenish clays } metres) 6 - } - 6. Nummulitic limestone with _Carolia_, _Qerunia_ } - and four species of _Turritella_ } 1½ - } - Light blue clays } 2 - } - 7. Light green and brown sandstone with irregular } - concretions } 2½ - - 8. Brown shelly limestone full of _Carolia } - placunoides_, _Ostrea Reili_, _O. Fraasi_, } - _Turritella_, _Balanus_ and nummulites } 2 - } - 9. Yellow sandstone with bands of shelly } - limestone crowded with nummulites, oysters, } Birket - etc. Near top casts of _Cardita_, _Carolia_; } el Qurûn - also _Cerithium_, _Teredo_, _Ostrea_, } Series - _Pecten_, _Pinna_, and echinids. Calcareous } (50 - concretions near base } metres) 18 - } - 10. Clays with much gypsum } 6 - } - 11. Yellow sandstone with _Balanus_. Bands } - crowded with two species of nummulites and } - occasional oysters. In places the } - foraminiferal bands become highly } - calcareous. Below similar, with hard } - compact grey bands and occasional fish-spines } - and teeth } 24 - - 12. Similar to above, with numerous casts of } - _Cardita_, etc., and small _Ostrea_ } 24 - } - Argillaceous sandstone with thick stockwork } - of gypsum and calcareous nodules } 6 - } - 13. Light yellow, brown, and greyish gypseous clays } 3 - } - 14. Yellow-brown sandstones and sandy limestones, } - often argillaceous. Fish-scales. } - } - Brown clays } - } - Yellow-white marls and marly limestone } Ravine 5 - } Beds - 15. Hard light yellow shelly limestone, in part } (10 - marly, in part sandy } metres) 10 - } - 16. Ochreous-yellow, grey, and white clays and } - marls with gypsum } 9 - } - 17. Hard yellow-white shaly marl with numerous } - shell-impressions; much gypsum } 3 - } - 18. Yellow marly clays; soft yellow and grey-brown } - clays, dark sandy glauconitic, yellow, and } - black, clays. _Zeuglodon_ remains fairly } - common. Shell impressions. Much gypsum } - } - Fairly hard yellow-white glauconitic marl } 10 - - Marly limestone with _Nummulites gizehensis_ forming top of - Rayan beds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Section at Gar el Gehannem, showing the -relation of the Wadi Rayan Series to the Ravine Beds.] - -The clays, marls, and limestones of the Ravine beds are generally found -to contain fairly numerous shell-impressions, including _Nucularia_ -sp., _Leda_ sp., _Cardita_ sp., _Corbula_ aff. _pixidicula_, _Lucina_ -sp., _Oudardia ovalis_, Desh., _Tellina tenuistriata_,[42] numerous -small fish-scales, and occasional large teeth of sharks; while the -skeletons of the toothed-whale _Zeuglodon Isis_ are fairly common, -although usually in poor preservation. - -In the ravine of El Bats, about one kilometre west of Sêla, these beds -(5-6 metres thick) are seen unconformably overlaid by 12 metres of -false-bedded gypseous sands and clays passing up into the superficial -cultivated loam. The junction of these alluvial deposits and the -underlying Eocene is distinctly unconformable and an intervening -pebble-bed is occasionally present (Fig 3). - -In the large ravine known as El Wadi, which traverses the west side -of the cultivation of the Fayûm, these beds are frequently well -exposed; their lithological characters remain very constant. Here, -as in El Bats, they are unconformably overlain by a varying thickness -of Pleistocene and Recent clays. Their surface, a plain of subaerial -denudation, represents the original floor of the depression before -the entry of the sediment-carrying water from the Nile Valley through -the Lahûn gap; its irregularity is seen in Plate V. - -The plain bordering the cultivation to the east of Sêla and Rubiat -likewise consists of these same white marls with fish-scales, -etc.; they pass regularly under the cultivated land. Shaly marls, -gypseous clays, and chalky limestones of the same age are seen in, -and to the south of, the railway crossing the desert between Sêla -and Medum. Eastwards they stretch into the Nile Valley, being found -exposed along the desert-edge bordering the cultivation at Medum, -Nawamis and Masaret-Abusia. - - { 1. Marsh and poorly cultivated land. - { - RECENT { 1a Cultivated loam. - AND { - PLEISTOCENE { 2. Sands and clays, with gravelly bands; - { often concretionary and gypseous beds. - { - { 3. Pebble-bed marking unconformable junction. - - MIDDLE } RAVINE { 4. Gypseous saliferous marly clays, white - EOCENE } BEDS { marls and limestone with fishscales and - } { _Tellina Corbula_, etc. - -FIG. 3.—Sketch-Section across _El Bats_, 1 kilometre West of Sêla.] - -The same beds are exposed immediately to the east of the village of -Sersena, midway between Sêla and Tamia. They are again well seen -in the ravine below the last named village, and forming the narrow -strip of the desert projecting into the cultivation as far as the -northern end of the Tamia lake; they also occur on the shore of the -latter at El Tuba, about 2 kilometres south of the village. At Tamia -their exposure measures 25 metres in thickness. - -At various points along the north side of the Birket el Qurûn -exposures of this series occur, the beds forming the lower sloping -part of the cliffs overlooking the lake, as well as the base of the -island “Geziret el Qorn,” although only the upper beds are visible -above the water of the lake. Both here and along the northern shore of -the lake they are for the most part hidden by the high level recent -lacustrine clays, but where occasionally exposed their identity is -certain, the characteristic small brown fish-scales being abundant, -besides occasional teeth, with shell-impressions of the different -genera enumerated above. - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - -ESCARPMENT OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES NEAR THE WESTERN END OF -THE LAKE.] - -At the western end of the lake the Ravine beds form the lower part -of the cliff as well as the plain to the south; the underlying -_Nummulites gizehensis_ limestone not being exposed. The series -consists of some 45 metres of white and grey shaly marls with harder -bands of siliceous limestone intercalated throughout, one of which -usually forms the uppermost bed. It is, in fact, the development in -places of one or other of these hard beds of limestone near the top -of the series that gives rise to the bold promontories, or horns, -which occur on the north side of the Birket el Qurûn. - -The greater part of the marls and clays met with from 18·5 to 112·5 -metres below the surface in the boring at Medinet el Fayûm in all -probability belong to the Ravine beds. - -The maximum thickness of this series is 70 metres, measured at Gar -el Gehannem. - - - _C._—=Birket el Qurun Series= (_Operculina-Nummulite Beds_). - - -The above designation is convenient and applicable to these beds, -which form the escarpment immediately overlooking the lake on the -north side throughout its length. - -The group includes all the beds between those last described and -the well-marked Qasr el Sagha series, homotaxial with the Upper -Mokattam (the brown beds) of Jebel Mokattam, near Cairo. It thus -appears to be the equivalent of the upper part of the white -beds (quarried limestones) of the Mokattam section, although -the lithological characters are entirely different, the massive -limestones of Jebel Mokattam being represented in the Fayûm by an -arenaceous and argillaceous series, deposited probably in water of -far less depth. Where the different members of this series are well -exposed certain beds are found to be characterized by the abundance -of two foraminifera, the one a small thin-shelled _Operculina_ -(_O. discoidea_)., and the other a small thick nummulite.[43] The -tests of these foraminifera sometimes make up entire bands of rock. In -addition, the series includes certain beds which at times become very -fossiliferous, and contain a well-preserved molluscan fauna. - -The series is well seen in the desert separating the Fayûm from the -Nile Valley; on the south-east and east sides of the former; along -the northern boundary of the cultivation and the Birket el Qurûn; -and westwards in the cliffs to beyond the outlying hill-mass of Gar -el Gehannem. - -The following section was measured on the south-west of the Fayûm, -from Ezba Qalamsha (on the confine of the cultivation) to the ridge -summit 5 kilometres to the south-east. - - _Top._ Metres. - - Summit of ridge 5 kilometres south-east of Ezba - Qalamsha. - - Pliocene Raised Beach with occasional _Ostrea - cucullata_, Born., made up of gravels with - blocks of limestone. - - { 1. Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone and sandy - { limestone crowded with foraminifera - { (_Nummulites Fraasi_, etc.), _Ostrea_, etc. 38 - { - { 2. Sandy limestone, largely made up of - { foraminifera (_Operculina discoidea ?_) 2 - { - { 3. Sandy shale 2 - { - { 4. Sandstone, partly calcareous, with much - { gypsum 3 - { - { 5. Calcareous sandstone with concretionary - BIRKET { weathering 17 - EL QURUN { - SERIES. { 6. Shale with gypsum 2 - { - { 7. Calcareous sandstone 4 - { - { 8. Shale with gypsum 2 - { - { 9. Calcareous sandstone, hard and yellowish 2 - { - { 10. Gypseous shale with numerous small shells - { (_Tellina_ sp.) passing down into sandy - { limestone. (This bed is the uppermost member - { of the Ravine beds) 6 - -- - Total thickness 78 - -- - _Base, cultivation level._ - -To the north of the Lahûn pyramid the beds agree generally with the -above. The following are the chief divisions here:— - - _Top of Hills._ Metres. - - Gravel Terrace (Pliocene) 22 metres thick. - - 1. Calcareous sandstone and sandy limestones full of - nummulites; also _Ostrea_, etc. 31 - - 2. Ochre-coloured calcareous sandstone or sandy limestone, - often crowded with _Operculina discoidea_ and some - _Nummulites Fraasi_, etc. 12 - - 3. Sandy limestone with small foraminifera at top and - some shells. The upper part of this bed has been - quarried 20 - - 4. Shales and shaly limestone; gypsum — - -- - Total thickness 63 - -- - -The foraminiferal sandy limestones of this series are seen at points -in the desert bounding the eastern margin of the cultivation, notably -east of Sersena and at the top of the hill 15 kilometres north-east -of Rubiat. - -The following section was measured at the prominent hills 17 kilometres -28° N. of E. (magn.) of Tamia:— - - Metres. - - 1. Greyish laminated sandy clays with gypsum; _Ostrea_ - band near top 7 - - 2. White sandy limestone with numerous badly preserved - _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, and other lamellibranchs 1 - - 3. Dark-brown clayey sands with gypsum and grey sandy - clays with obscure plant-remains. Occasional _Ostrea_ 14 - - 4. Hard, white, sandy limestone with numerous _Ostrea_ - at top; soft clays with gypsum 1 - - 5. Greenish and brownish sands and sandy clays with } - band of sandy limestone near top } - } 14 - 6. Greyish-brown, impure, sandy limestone weathering } - into large globular concretions. Shell impressions } - - 7. Sandy clays and marls alternating with impure } - limestones; much gypsum. Occasional fish-remains and } - small oysters } 22 - } - 8. Greenish sandy limestone with traces of shells } - - 9. Finely laminated grey-brown clays with black - carbonaceous matter and fish-remains; saliferous 3 - - 10. White sandy limestone 1 - - 11. Soft yellow sandstones, etc. } - } - 12. White marls with fish-scales, etc.; base not seen. } 7 - (This bed, and possibly also 9, 10, 11, should be } - reckoned as belonging to the Ravine beds) } - -- - Total thickness 70 - -- - -In the north of the Fayûm the series is characterized by the -presence of one or more very constant well-marked beds of hard -calcareous sandstone, which almost invariably weather into huge -globular masses. These masses should be regarded as huge weathered-out -concretions, rather than as water-rounded blocks, although no doubt -in many cases their roundness has been increased by the action of the -waters of Lake Moeris as the level of the latter gradually fell, and -possibly still earlier during the invasion of the Pliocene sea; from -the latter time also may date the millions of parallel vertical borings -with which these and other exposed rocks are often perforated. In -the various places where one of these beds forms the present surface -of the desert the concretions may be seen in different stages of -exposure, from the initial, where only just the tops are laid bare, -to the final stage where the globes are left completely weathered out, -as seen in the illustration (Plate VII). The appearance of the desert -when covered for many square kilometres with thousands of these blocks -is more easily imagined than described. - -The lower beds of the Birket el Qurûn series form the island Geziret -el Qorn, and consist of clays and sandstones containing a considerable -number of organic remains. These beds were collected from and examined -by Schweinfurth[44] in 1879, the mollusca being subsequently described -by Mayer-Eymar,[45] while the vertebrate remains, which included -cetacean bones and numerous fish-teeth, were submitted to Dames. - -The following species were determined by Mayer-Eymar, who indicated -that the fauna as a whole had a Bartonian aspect[46]:— - - UPPER BED. - - _Ostrea plicata_, Defr. - - _Arca Edwardsi_, Desh. - - _Lucina pomum_, Duj.[47] - - _Lucina_ cfr. _tabulata_, Desh. - - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, May.-Eym. - - _Cytherea Newboldi_, May.-Eym. - - _Tellina pellucida_, Desh. - - _Mactra compressa_, Desh. - - _Corbula pyxidicula_, Desh. - - _Calyptræa trochiformis_, Lam. - - _Turritella angulata_, Sow. - - _Ficula tricarinata_, Lam. - - LOWER BED. - - _Astrohelia similis_, May.-Eym. - - _Goniastræa cocchii_, d’Achiardi. - - _Heliastræa acervularia_, May.-Eym. - - _Heliastræa Ellisi_, Defr. (_Astræa_). - - _Heliastræa flattersi_, May.-Eym. - - _Ostrea digitalina_, Dubois. - - _Ostrea gigantea_, Sol. - - _Ostrea longirostris_, Lam. - - _Ostrea producta_, Delb. et Raul. - - _Isocardia cyprinoides_, Braun. - - _Turritella carinifera_, Desh. - - _Turritella transitoria_, May.-Eym. - - _Turritella turris_, Bast. - - _Turbo Parkinsoni_, Defr. - - _Pleurotoma_, sp. - -The cetacean remains, belonging to the genus _Zeuglodon_, were -described by W. Dames,[48] who compared them with the American species -_Z. macrospondylus_ and _Z. brachyspondylus_, but did not then consider -them to represent a new species; in a later publication,[49] however, -the same author described similar but more complete remains, also -collected by Schweinfurth (from beds belonging to our Qasr el Sagha -series), as a new species, _Z. Osiris_. A considerable number of -fish-remains from Geziret el Qorn are also described in the earlier -publication. Although the difference in size of the bones of separate -individuals was considered by Dames to be sexual, it seems probable -that there are two distinct species of _Zeuglodon_, as the smaller -type appears to have a much greater upward range than the larger[50]; -both species, _Z. Osiris_, and _Z. Isis_ occur in the Birket el Qurûn -series, and a very fine mandible of the larger was obtained from these -beds in the cliffs near the west end of the lake.[51] More recently -a third species has been discovered by Stromer and described under -the name of _Z. Zitteli_.[52] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Profile of beds of Geziret el Qorn. - -1. Hard brown sand-rock with large concretions of weathered globular -sandstone on the summit; ferruginous nodular bands containing -shell-casts occur near top. 2. Soft gypseous clays with bands of -sand-rock and sandstone with _Ostrea_, _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, -_Turritella_, corals, _Zeuglodon_, chelonian and fish-remains. 3. Brown -sand-rock. 4. Soft gypseous clays and harder brown sandstones. 5. White -shaly marl with fish-scales; hard band at top and soft sandy shaly -clays below. - -The surface-slope is much less than shown in sketch and is generally -covered by a deposit of lacustrine clays containing freshwater shells -and fish-bones.] - -The accompanying profile (Fig. 4), measured during a hurried visit -to the island for the purpose of correlating these beds with those -of the mainland, shows the character of the lower beds of the Birket -el Qurûn series at this point.[53] - -[Illustration: PLATE VII. - -WEATHERED CONCRETIONARY SANDSTONE (BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES) ON NORTH -SHORE OF LAKE NEAR GEZIRET EL QORN.] - -The upper beds of the Birket el Qurûn series in this part of the -Fayûm are lithologically similar to those just described, consisting -of alternating clays and sandstones, about 37 metres thick. They are, -however, generally much richer in fossil remains, which are likewise -usually better preserved than in the lower beds. Some of the brown -sandstones of this series are literally crowded with perfect examples -of many of the typical mollusca; and further west, near the end of -the lake, foraminiferal bands again become noticeable. Near Dimê the -escarpment of these and the lower beds is gentle and inconspicuous, -but followed westwards it becomes a bold precipitous cliff, increasing -in height towards the western end of the lake, where it is capped by -the lower beds of the Qasr el Sagha series. - - -The following section was measured on the mainland[54] opposite the -island Geziret el Qorn. - - _Top._ Metres. - - 1. Gypseous clays, separated by a band of brown sandstone - crowded with white well-preserved shells, including - numerous individuals of _Plicatula polymorpha_, _Ostrea_, - _Turritella_ and _Lucina pharaonis_. Large vertebrae of - _Zeuglodon Isis_ occur on this horizon further to the - north-east 8 - - 2. Sandstones and gypseous clays. Although here the - sandstones are not hard or predominant, this bed is - equivalent to the hard sandstone full of borings capping - the plain between the ruins of Dimê and the top of the - escarpment overlooking the lake. Further north this bed - often contains numerous _Carolia placunoides_ and _Ostrea_ 3 - - 3. Gypseous clays 3 - - 4. Clays, brown sandstones, and occasional beds of limestone, - often very fossiliferous, containing _Ostrea Reili_, - _Carolia placunoides_, _Cardita Viquesneli_, d’Arch., - _Lucina_ sp., _Turritella pharaonica_,[55] _Clavelithes - longævus_, _Qerunia cornuta_, etc., etc. 10 - - 5. Clays with fossils as in last bed, capped by hard band of - shelly sandstone 3 - - 6. Alternating yellow-brown sandstones and gypseous clays 10 - -- - Total thickness 37 - -- - Bed with weathered-out sandstone concretions at top—upper bed of - section at Geziret el Qorn.[56] - -At the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the series is well marked, -the sandstone beds forming the steep face of the bold precipitous -cliffs which are so marked a feature at this end of the lake. The group -has a thickness of some 50 metres and is overlain by the lower beds -of the Qasr el Sagha series; it is more convenient here to give the -entire section of the cliffs down to the base of the series under -discussion:— - - _Top of Cliffs._ Metres. - - 1. Hard grey sandstone and shelly limestone } - passing up into calcareous sandstone } - (forming surface of plain dipping north). } - } - 2. Impure sandstone with numerous fossils:— } - _Qerunia cornuta_, corals, _Ostrea Reili_, } - _O. Clot-Beyi_, _Carolia placunoides_, } - _Plicatula polymorpha_, _Cardita_ } - (? _fajumensis_) sp., _Clavelithes } - longævus_, _Serpula_, etc. } - } - 3, 4. Clays with band of argillaceous } Lower part - sandstone. Septaria bed near base. }(42 metres) - Fish-remains. } of Qasr - } el Sagha - 5. Earthy limestone crowded with _Ostrea } Series. - Clot-Beyi_, _O._ sp., _Plicatula } - polymorpha_, _Pecten_ sp., _Lucina_ sp., } - _Cytherea_ sp., _Turritella_ sp., } - _Nonionina_ sp., _Oliva_ sp., _Pleurotoma_ } - sp., _Vermetus_ sp., _Nautilus_ sp. } - } - 6. Thin-bedded clays, grey with yellowish band, } - sandy clays interbedded with soft whitish } - sandstones with small irregular concretions. } - Clays, gypseous and sometimes carbonaceous. } - } - 7. Shelly sandstone, hard on upper surface and } - very fossiliferous (forms similar to Bed 9). } - } - 8. Gypseous clays. } - - 9. Thin (·25 to ·5 metre) hard dark - reddish-brown, very ferruginous, - concretionary-weathering sandstone with - nummulites and _Operculina_ and - well-preserved examples of _Qerunia - cornuta_, _Pecten_ sp., _Pectunculus_ sp., - _Venus_ sp., _Cardita Viquesneli_, _Astarte_ - sp., _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, _Lucina_ sp., - _Natica_ sp., _Cerithium_ sp., _Clavelithes - longævus_, _Voluta_ sp., _Dentalium_ sp. 1 - - 10. Hard purplish clays 7 - - 11. Soft yellowish sandstone with _Ostrea_ - sp., _Cardita ægyptiaca_, _Lucina_ sp., - _Turritella_ sp., and sharks’ teeth. Upper - surface tends to become dark, ferruginous, - and concretionary 1 - - 12. Purple clays, with strings of gypsum 6 - - 13. Soft light-yellow sandstones with harder - shelly bands and occasional concretionary - beds, forming vertical cliff-wall 17 - - 14. Grey and brown clays 18 - -- - _Ravine Beds._ Total 50 - -- - - -In the cliffs west of the end of the lake the upper bed No. 9 continues -highly fossiliferous and yields the most perfectly preserved molluscan -remains to be found in the Fayûm and probably in Egypt. - -A few kilometres east of the end of the lake a band of large globular -concretions occurs in the thick brown sandstone forming the vertical -face of the cliff. In many places the effect of weathering of these -rocks is of some interest, numerous “earth-pillars” having been -formed; these are largely the result of the action of blown sand, -assisted by rain, the concretions being left capping pillars of -brown sandstone, the sides of which are sculptured by the wearing -action of sand. The curious perforate or cellular appearance which -the weathered surfaces of this sandstone assume after long exposure -are particularly noticeable in this neighbourhood and in the Zeuglodon -Valley further west. - -In the well-marked hill distant 17 kilometres to the north-east of -Gar el Gehannem, the soft fossiliferous sandstones of this series are -crowded with _Operculina_, _Nummulites_, and many species of mollusca -beautifully preserved. - -At Gar el Gehannem the series is seen (Fig. 2 and detailed section -page 36) forming part of the slope of the hill, underlain by the -Ravine beds, and capped by part of the Qasr el Sagha series. It here -consists of yellow sandstones divided by a bed of clay; the sandstones -are often crowded with nummulites (of two species); also _Operculina_ -(_discoidea?_), echinids, _Balanus_ sp., _Ostrea Reili_, _O. Fraasi_, -_Carolia placunoides_, and species of _Pecten_, _Pinna_, _Cardita_, -_Teredo_, _Turritella_, and _Cerithium_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Section of cliffs, western end of the Birket -el Qurun. - -Pleistocene.—(_a_) Lacustrine clays and sands with freshwater shells -and fish-remains; _Middle Eocene_, 1. 14 Clays, sandstones and impure -limestones; 15 White shaly clays and marly limestones.] - -In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilometres W.S.W. of Gar el Gehannem, -the brown sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series are divided by a -narrow band of fine-bedded grey clay. Most of the fantastically shaped -hills on the south-west slope of the valley are carved out of the -lower division of the sandstone. The concretionary beds of the Birket -el-Qurûn series are not developed in this neighbourhood. Remains of -_Zeuglodon_ of both species (_Z. Osiris_ and _Z. Isis_) are remarkably -abundant and the skeletons of these cetaceans may be found in every -stage of weathering. The larger species, _Z. Isis_, is the more -common, and series of vertebrae, twelve to fifteen in number, can -frequently be counted in situ. The remains are most abundant enclosed -in the hard brown nodular bands of the series but in such cases it is -almost impossible to extract specimens of any value. In one instance -an almost complete skull of _Z. Isis_, measuring 116 cm. in length, -was found enclosed in a large block of the nodular rock.[57] Bones are -frequently to be observed protruding from the wind-worn sides of the -small hills, while those portions of the skeleton already weathered -out litter the ground below. Exposed they break up with rapidity, -although where the enclosing rock is softer than the bone itself, -parts of the skeleton beautifully preserved and perfectly free from -matrix may sometimes be obtained. - -The molluscan fauna is represented by very large numbers of -pseudomorphs in sulphate of strontium (celestine) of the genera -_Lucina_, _Turritella_, _Fusus_ and _Nautilus_, the profusion of -individuals of a species of the latter being very marked. In the case -of lamellibranchs the radiating bundles of crystals of celestine are -seen to originate from a point placed centrally on one of the valves, -so that on this side (of a slightly weathered example) a radiating mass -of crystals is seen, while on the other appear numerous contiguous -circular areas, representing the terminal ends of the bundles of -crystalline fibres or needles. Apart from the quantities of organic -pseudomorphs, masses of crystalline celestine occur in the sandstones -throughout the valley, and altogether the quantity of sulphate of -strontium present must be very great. The gigantic oysters and other -fossils which occur in some of the overlying higher beds, and the -numerous individuals of nummulites in the sandstone itself, never -seem to be replaced by celestine. - -Nummulites of two species are very abundant in some bands and the -presence in the Zeuglodon Valley of occasional individuals of the -large _N. gizehensis_ shows that in favourable localities this species -persisted throughout the time represented by the deposition of the -Ravine beds and ranged upward into the basal members of the Birket -el Qurûn series. - -In the higher hills within the valley, and in the hill-mass on the -south side, the yellow sandstones of the Birket el Qurûn series -pass up into the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha series. In their -upper limits the sandstones become very nummulitic in places and at -the top bands made up of _Carolia_ and _Ostrea_ occur. Above these, -in the basal members of the Qasr el Sagha series, huge oysters and -finely preserved specimens of _Qerunia cornuta_ are conspicuous. - -The dip in the valley is 2° north. - -The southern face of the hill-mass lying immediately to the south of -the Zeuglodon Valley is an almost sheer cliff of over 100 metres, -descending to the silt covered basin below which has already been -noticed (page 23). On this escarpment the hard nodular marly limestones -of the Ravine beds are seen near the base, overlain by a mass of grey -shaly gypseous beds; above, forming as a rule a vertical wall of rock, -lies the hard massive brown sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series, -here undivided by clays; at the top, highly fossiliferous alternating -clays and limestones are found forming the summit of the hills. - -The exact junction between the Birket el Qurûn series and the -overlying Qasr el Sagha beds is naturally perfectly arbitrary, many -of the fossils being common to both groups. _Carolia placunoides_, -which is perhaps the most abundant fossil in the Qasr el Sagha series, -is sometimes very common in the upper beds of the underlying group, -and, as shown before, is common enough in the still lower _Nummulites -gizehensis_ beds of Wadi Rayan. So that, though this fossil itself is -no criterion, its relative abundance in the upper series justifies -those beds being called the “Carolia beds,” the additional name -of the Qasr el Sagha series being taken from the old ruin of that -name where these beds are fully seen. - -[Illustration: PLATE VIII. - -MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT (QASR EL SAGHA SERIES) 12 KILOM. WEST OF -QASR EL SAGHA.] - - - _D._—=Qasr el Sagha Series= (_Carolia Beds_). - - -This division is strikingly developed in the north of the Fayûm, -where it forms a bold escarpment of great length, consisting of -an alternating series of very fossiliferous clays and limestones, -with sands and sandstone in the upper beds, of a total thickness of -175 metres. - -This series is the equivalent of the well known Upper Mokattam beds of -Jebel Mokattam, immediately to the east of Cairo. The cliffs of this -hill are among the best known in Egypt and have been studied by many -geologists, including Zittel, Schweinfurth, Mayer-Eymar, etc.; these -authors have classified the whole of the Upper Mokattam of Cairo as -equivalent to the Upper Parisian (Middle Eocene) of Western Europe. The -series is far better developed in the Fayûm than at Jebel Mokattam, -where the total thickness is only some 70 to 80 metres. - -In consequence of the discovery in these beds of a highly interesting -vertebrate fauna, including land animals, the series becomes of -the greatest importance. As already mentioned, as long ago as 1879, -Schweinfurth, during a journey across the Fayûm, obtained remains of -_Zeuglodon_ in the underlying series from the island in the Birket -el Qurûn. Subsequently[58] he obtained additional remains of the -same cetacean in a violet marl belonging to the present series, from -a locality 12½ kilometres west of Qasr el Sagha[59]; these remains, -as already mentioned, were described by Dames as _Z. Osiris_. Since -then important finds of land and marine mammals and reptiles have been -made in different beds of this series; these will be referred to later. - -The outcrop of the Qasr el Sagha series occupies a large part of -the northern desert of the Fayûm. The beds are, however, best seen -in the cliffs about 8 kilometres north of the Birket el Qurûn, -where they form a steep double escarpment, running east and west, -nearly parallel to the northern shore of the lake. The dip of the -series being northward at a very low angle, and the upward slope -of the ground being in the same direction, this cliff dies out a -few kilometres north-east of Qasr el Sagha. A little further north, -however, a N.W.-S.E. fold and fault again exposes nearly the whole -of the beds of the series, forming prominent cliffs as before. - -In the conspicuous hill 17½ kilometres 28° N. of E. (magnetic) of -Tamia the series consists of innumerable alternations of clays and -sandy limestone. The calcareous beds nearly always contain numerous -examples of _Carolia placunoides_, _Ostrea_ and _Turritella_ of -several species, but other well-preserved fossils are rare. The -exposed beds here have a thickness of about 55 metres, and are -underlain by the Birket el Qurûn beds with a well-marked band of -concretionary sandstone, the thickness of the two series together -being 127 metres. The upper beds of the former series are not here -exposed, the top of the hill being formed of well-rounded flint -and quartz pebbles embedded in a base of finely crystalline gypsum -(2 metres thick), a deposit of Pleistocene times. - -To the north of Tamia a large area of desert is occupied by the beds -of this series; the district has the character of an undulating plain -with occasional groups of hills and low irregular escarpments. At -the groups of hills 12 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia, and just to the -east of Garat el Faras, the Qasr el Sagha beds are found to consist -as usual of an alternating series of sands, sandstones, clays, marls -and limestones, with numerous individuals of _Ostrea_, _Carolia_ -and _Turritella_, besides vertebræ, teeth and spines of large fish. - -We may pass now to the locality where this series shows its best -development and exposure, the beds being all concentrated in one -bold escarpment, generally divisible into an upper and a lower -cliff. These cliffs overlook the Birket el Qurûn, although distant -usually about 8 kilometres, being separated from the lower escarpment -of the Birket el Qurûn series (immediately above the lake shore) -by a broad plain, the surface of which is usually the dip-slope of a -hard bed of sandstone. From Qasr el Sagha (6½ kilometres N.N.E. of -Dimê) these cliffs trend westward, keeping approximately the same -distance from the north shore of the lake; they have been followed -and mapped for a distance of 70 kilometres to a point 13 kilometres -N.N.W. of Gar el Gehannem, whence they could be seen still trending -in a direction slightly south of west (see Plate XVII). - -Small faults are of frequent occurrence along these escarpments, but -are not of other than local interest; they almost invariably have their -downthrow to the north, and it seldom exceeds a few metres. Fig. 5 -shows a section through one of these faults near Qasr el Sagha. - -The following detailed section (Plate XXIII) will show the character -of the beds forming this division. As might be expected in such a -series, although the calcareous bands are fairly constant, there is -a continuous change of character among the sandy and clayey sediments -from point to point; the false-bedding is in places very striking. - -The main part of the section was measured 3½ kilometres north-east -of Qasr el Sagha, but the lower beds not being exposed at that point, -they were added from the cliffs at the ruin itself. The total thickness -is 154 metres. - - Thickness - _Top._ in metres. - - 1. Hard, white, grey-weathering, sandy limestone with - numerous shell-casts: _Echinolampas Crameri_, - Loriol, _Plicatula Bellardi_, May.-Eym. 2 - - 2. False-bedded sand and sand-rock with grey and - green clays; concretions and bands of ironstone. - - Hard, dark-brown or purplish ferruginous sandstone - band. Occasional vertebrae of _Zeuglodon Osiris_, - Dames, _Pterosphenus_ (_Mœriophis_) - _Schweinfurthi_, Andr., crocodilian and fish- - remains; coprolites 16 - - 3. Hard, calcareous, ferruginous, clayey sandstone - with brown ironstone concretions. Occasional fish- - spines. - - Clays with massive veins of gypsum forming a - stock-work, and left weathered out above surface. - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, May.-Eym., _Cardita - fajumensis_, Oppenh., (_Cossmannella ægyptiaca_, - May.-Eym[60]), _Crassatellithes_ sp. 9 - - 4. Hard, yellow, gypseous sandy limestone or - calcareous sandstone 1½ - - 5. Sandy, glauconitic clays with gypsum; oyster-bed - at base in places. _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - Bellardi, _Exogyra Fraasi_, May.-Eym. 10 - - _2nd escarpment._ - - 6. Hard or friable limestone, sometimes sandy, full - of _Carolia placunoides_, Cantr., and _Exogyra - Fraasi_, also _Ostrea_ aff. _heteroclyta_, Defr., - _Ostrea Reili_, Fraas., _O. elegans_, Desh., - _Plicatula Bellardi_, May.-Eym., _Pectunculus (?) - ægyptiacus_, Oppenh., _Qerunia_ (_Hydractinia_) - _cornuta_, May.-Eym. 2 - - 7. Purplish clays interbedded and remarkably current- - bedded with ash-grey sands, with both ferruginous - and highly carbonaceous bands with plant-remains, - lignite and natural charcoal. Vertebrate remains - fairly common, the mammalian including _Zeuglodon - Osiris_, _Eosiren libyca_, Andr., _Mœritherium - Lyonsi_, _Barytherium?_ Andr.; the reptilian - _Stereogenys Cromeri_, Andr., and _Tomistoma - africanum_, Andr., with numerous coprolites; also - frequent remains of siluroid and other fish. - Masses of coral, _Astrohelia similis_, Felix, in - places 12 - - 8. Hard grey, close-grained, concretionary sandstone, - frequently weathering into huge elongated rounded - masses; _Turritella pharaonica_, Cossm. - - Hard, purplish clays with grey sandy clays, - sandrock, etc. Occasional crocodile and fish- - remains 4 - - 9. Hard ripple-marked sandstone. False-bedded - sandstones with clay partings; ferruginous and - lignitic bands with lumps of lignite. Occasionally - coprolites and remains of Sirenia and Crocodilia - are numerous 7 - - 10. Hard or friable brown sandy limestone with shell- - casts filled with scalenohedra of calcite. - _Carolia placunoides_, _Turritella_ sp. ½ - - 11. Gypseous clays, with red ferruginous band; - weathering to paper-shales below 4½ - - 12. Light-yellow limestone and calcareous sandstone - with sharks’ teeth, _Mesalia fasciata_, Lam., - _Cassidaria_ sp., _Rimella rimosa_, Sol., - _Trachelochetus bituberculatus_, Cossm., - _Turritella carinifera_, Desh., _T. Lessepsi_, - May.-Eym., _Cardita fajumensis_, Oppenh. - _Goniopora?_ 1 - - 13. Slate-blue and brown gypseous clays with band - containing _Mesalia_ sp., _Cassidaria nilotica_, - Bell., _Exogyra Fraasi_ and _Goniaræa elegans_ 3 - - 14. Sandstone and sandrock, light yellow 1 - - 15. Yellow sandy friable limestone with casts of - shells and _Mesalia fasciata_, _M. oxycrepis_, - May.-Eym., _Turritella Lessepsi_, _T. pharaonica_, - Cossm., _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, _Ostrea Reili_ ½ - - 16-17. Sands, sandy clays and clays with a double band of - limestone containing _Ampullina hybrida_, Lam., - _Melongena nilotica_, var. _bicarinata_, - May.-Eym., _Tudicla_ aff. _umbilicaris_, - May.-Eym., _Turritella Lessepsi_, _T. parisiana_, - May.-Eym., _Solarium_ sp., _Alectryonia Clot- - Beyi_, _Plicatula polymorpha_ (occasional), - _Lucina fortisiana_, Defr., _L. pharaonis_, Bell., - _Mytilus affinis?_ J. and C. Sowerby, _Astrohelia - similis_, _Goniaræa elegans_, Mich.; numerous - vertebrate remains both above and between - limestones including _Zeuglodon Osiris_, _Eosiren - libyca_, _Barytherium grave_, Andr., _Moeritherium - Lyonsi_, _M. gracile_, Andr., _Gigantophis - Garstini_, Andr., _Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi_ and - _Tomistoma africanum_, Andr. The remains of a - siluroid fish are abundant; also _Propristis - Schweinfurthi_, Dames. Large numbers of - coprolites. Silicified wood 12 - - 18. Brown sandy limestone with casts of shells, - _Akera_ aff. _striatella_, Lam., _Ampullaria_, n. - sp., _Gisortia gigantea_, Munst., _Lanistes - antiquus_, Blanck., _Melongena nilotica_, var. - _bicarinata_, _Mesalia_ sp., _Cassidaria - nilotica_, _C._ aff. _nodosa_, _Solarium_ aff. - _bistriatum_, Desh., _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_, _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Lucina - pharaonis_, Bell., _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_, J. - Sowerby, _Meretrix nitidula_, Lam., _M. - parisiensis_, Desh., _Ostrea flabellula_, Lam., - _Tellina_ sp., overlying clays with gypsum 4 - - 19. Sandy limestone with numerous _Carolia - placunoides_ and _Turritella imbricataria_, Lam. 1 - - 20. Greyish-blue and brown ferruginous, sandy, and - other clays. Plant remains 13 - - 21. Friable shelly limestone with occasional small - calcite veins ½ - - 22. Clays 4 - - 23. Hard yellow sandy limestone with _Ostrea_ and - _Anisaster_ (_Agassizia_) _gibberulus_ ½ - - 24. Clays with thin bands of fibrous gypsum 6 - - 25. Hard friable shelly limestone with numerous - fossils, including _Dictyopleurus Haimi_, Dunc. - and Slad.; _Akera_ aff. _striatella_, _Turritella - carinifera_, _T. imbricataria_, _T. pharaonica_, - _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_, _Arca tethyis_, Oppenh., - _Cardita_ aff. _carinata_, J. Sowerby, _C._ aff. - _depressa_, Locard., _C._ aff. _triparticostata_, - Cossm., _C._ cf. _gracilis_ and _depressa_, - Locard., _Cardita fajumensis_, _Cucullæa_ aff. - _crassatina_, Lam., _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Glycimeris_ - (_Pectunculus_) _pulvinatus_, Lam., _Ostrea_ aff. - _Reili_, _Spondylus ægyptiacus_, Bull. Newt., - _Pecten solariolum_, May.-Eym., _P. moelehensis_, - May.-Eym., _Qerunia cornuta_, _Euspatangus - cairensis_, Loriol, _Linthia_ sp., _Anisaster - gibberulus_, _Schizaster_ aff. _africanus_, - Loriol; bryozoa ½ - - 26. Sandy clays with gypsum 7 - - 27. Friable, gypseous, impure limestone with _Exogyra - Fraasi_, _Carolia placunoides_, _Turritella_ sp., - _Qerunia cornuta_, _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_ ½ - - 28. Sandy gypseous clays 3 - - 29. Friable sandy limestone with _Carolia - placunoides_, _Exogyra Fraasi_, _Turritella_ sp. - (The ruin of Qasr el Sagha is built on this bed) 1 - - 30. Gypseous sandy clays with occasional oyster- - limestone with _Qerunia cornuta_; ferruginous - sandstone band, etc. 27 - --- - Total 154 - --- - Hard grey sandstone with _Zeuglodon_ and numerous _Carolia_, - _Ostrea_, etc., in places, capping plain to south of Qasr el Sagha - and forming the top of the “Birket el Qurun series.” - -The chief divisions of the series remain fairly constant and can be -recognized and followed for many kilometres westwards.[61] The lower -beds form the summits of Gar el Gehannem and the neighbouring hills -(see Fig. 2 and section p. 36), the upper beds of the series being -exposed in the higher escarpments to the north. - -Although vertebrate remains are more common on some horizons[62] than -on others, they are occasionally met with in most of the beds. The -most prolific bone horizon is, however, about half-way down, i.e., -those beds numbered 16 and 17 in the above section; bed 7 also yielded -a number of remains. At the point where the upper part of the section -was measured, 3½ kilometres north-east of Qasr el Sagha, the beds -16 and 17 yielded a considerable number of land-animal remains, all -of which occurred within a fairly confined space, suggesting that -they had been carried out from the land to this point by a strong -river-current and deposited when the latter became too feeble to -carry them further out to sea. The same beds were also examined in -the faulted bay 8 kilometres to the north, but no bones, or at most -a very occasional fragment or two, were obtained here. This is easily -explained by the greater distance of this locality from the land-mass -to the south. Westwards the same beds were always found more or less -bone-bearing, isolated detached mandibles, limb-bones and vertebræ of -_Mœritherium_, being of frequent occurrence, although no such complete -remains were found as those from near Qasr el Sagha. Reptilian and -fish bones are very widespread throughout the area. An extensive and -detailed examination of these beds over a large area can hardly fail -to yield important results, as other localities where skeleton-carrying -currents came out from the land would very likely be discovered. - -That the Qasr el Sagha series was deposited in fairly shallow water at -no great distance from land seems certain, not only from the general -lithological character of the beds but from the number of land-animal -remains and the frequency of river and shore-frequenting whales, -dugongs, crocodiles and turtles. The clays, moreover, are found -to abound with impressions of plants, and in some cases are highly -lignitic, being made up of compressed masses of vegetation including -solid twigs, now found in a state more resembling charcoal than -ordinary dense lignites; some bands approximate to an impure brown -coal. In certain beds of the series further to the west, very thin -seams of true coal occur; they were, however, never seen to exceed one -or two millimetres. The intercalated bands of limestone are generally -impure and do not indicate any great conditions of depth, but only -rather a temporary cessation in the supply of sand and clay. Corals, -moreover, abound along many horizons. - -[Illustration: PLATE IX. - -UPPER BEDS OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES WITH BASALT CAP, LOOKING WEST FROM -THE EASTERN EXTREMITY OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - - - SECTION XI.—UPPER EOCENE (BARTONIAN)—LOWER OLIGOCENE. - - - _E._—=Fluvio-Marine Series= (_Jebel el Qatrani Beds_). - - -Throughout the north of the Fayûm depression the Qasr el Sagha -beds, forming the uppermost Middle Eocene, are followed by an unique -series[63] of variegated[64] sands and sandstones, with alternating -beds of clay and clayey marl. The ever-recurring bands of limestone, -so common to the underlying marine beds, have now almost completely -disappeared, being represented by only an occasional bed of calcareous -grit, marl, or thin band of limestone. In the upper part of the -series occurs a horizontal sheet of basalt,[65] in all probability -contemporaneously interbedded; this forms a convenient datum line and -may perhaps be provisionally taken as an arbitrary junction between the -Eocene and Oligocene. Although as a rule remarkably barren of organic -remains, certain bands, especially in the upper part, yield numerous -individuals of a few species of mollusca, including _Lucina_, _Arca_, -_Mutela_, _Spatha_, _Unio_, _Lanistes_, _Turritella_, _Melania_, -_Potamides_, _Cerithium_ and _Pleurotoma_. From such an assemblage we -may without doubt conclude that the conditions under which the series -was deposited were estuarine or fluvio-marine, and this is further -proved by the non-marine lithological character of the beds. The -enormous quantities of silicified wood which occur in certain beds, -in the shape of hundreds of trees of great length and girth, together -with the numerous remains of land-animals, crocodiles, tortoises -and turtles, indicate that rivers of considerable size emerged from -the land to the south, the coast-line of which was probably not far -distant. In fact the retreat of the sea, which as already mentioned, -had probably already begun in Middle Eocene times, was now still -further continued, although the cause of this was apparently not so -much due to elevation of the land as to the continued deposition -of sediment from south to north beyond the land-shore. We may in -fact regard the series as a huge delta deposit in an area of local -depression, in which the great accumulation of sediment brought down -from the land continually caused the gradual retreat of the sea to -the north. - -The same conditions would even appear to have continued on to -Pliocene times, as from the Fayûm northwards stretches an immense -plain of lithologically similar rocks, evidently accumulated under -similar conditions, and which appear to contain newer and newer -faunas from south to north. Thus, while in the Fayûm the remains -are of Middle and Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene age, when the -latitude of Mogara is reached, some 70 kilometres further north, -a fauna distinctly Lower Miocene in aspect occurs; further north -again, as at Wadi Natrûn, Pliocene remains are abundant. We may -hope therefore that this otherwise barren desert, when carefully and -systematically explored, will yield us a continuous record of the -vertebrate life of the northern part of the African continent from -Eocene to Pleistocene times. - -In the Fayûm, over a length of 80 to 90 kilometres, the basal beds -of the Fluvio-marine series, at a height of only a few metres above -the top of the Qasr el Sagha series, are frequently found to contain -the remains of land-animals, often in sufficient quantities to form -in places a true “bone-bed.” Besides land-mammals, remains of -large tortoises, turtles and crocodiles, are very common, some of -the latter being identical with those of the Qasr el Sagha series -below. Chelonian and crocodilian remains are to be found on various -horizons, but so far none but fragmentary mammal remains have been -observed in the higher parts of the series. It is interesting to -note that the bones in these beds appear to be most common near the -accumulations of fossil trees, thus suggesting that they were floated -out from the land at the same time and by the same river-currents. The -porous character of the sands and sandstones of this group has resulted -in the remains not being in nearly so hard or durable a condition, -except when coated with ferruginous sand, as those in the series below, -although the actual state of preservation is even more perfect. - -Analysis shows that these bones, with the exception of the loss -of all organic matter, have undergone very little change. A sample -examined by Mr. Lucas was taken from a typically preserved pelvis of -_Arsinoitherium_ and gave the following result:— - - DETERMINED. CALCULATED. - - Silica 0·57 Silica 0·57 - - Oxide of Iron 1·98 Oxide of Iron 1·98 - - Lime 51·40 Calcium Phosphate 76·11 - - Magnesia trace Magnesium Phosphate trace - - Phosphoric Acid 34·86 Calcium Sulphate 4·64 - - Sulphuric Acid 2·74 Calcium Carbonate 14·75 - - Loss on ignition, Organic Matter nil - being Carbon - dioxide 6·13 - - Chlorine trace Sodium Chloride trace - - Not determined 2·32 Not determined 1·95 - ------ ------ - 100·00 100·00 - -The following composition of the bones of an ox, from an analysis by -Berzelius, is - -appended for comparison:— - - % - - Phosphate and Fluoride of Calcium 57·35 - - Carbonate of Calcium 3·85 - - Phosphate of Magnesium 2·05 - - Soda and a little Sodium Chloride 3·45 - - Organic Matter 33·30 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -It is curious that these Eocene bones should have so completely -preserved their original composition considering the almost universal -silicification of the trees deposited in the same beds. - -Most frequently the vertebrate remains are found in an unconsolidated -false-bedded clean quartz sand, the grains of which are semi-rounded -or angular; in some layers the sand is very coarse and polished, and -mixed with fine gravel. These deposits of sand, apparently brought down -by river floods, are not continuous along any particular horizon, but -are intercalated here and there in the ordinary sandstones, clays and -marls of the series; they occur chiefly, however, as local lenticular -masses along a more or less constant horizon near the base of the -series. The bone-remains are not absolutely confined to these deposits -of river-sand, but like the silicified trees are far more common in -them than elsewhere. Scattered mammal bones occur in the lower clays, -marls, and hard concretionary sandstones, while the remains of aquatic -animals, such as turtles and crocodiles, may be found almost anywhere. - -From an examination of the series in the field, there is no doubt that, -in at least the centre of the area, the deposition of the lowest beds -was continuous with those of the Qasr el Sagha (Middle Eocene) series -below. Followed away from the centre (i.e. the district round Widan el -Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani) the series gradually -thins out, and eastwards, at Elwat Hialla, some 23 kilometres north -of Tamia, has a thickness of only 40 metres, the basal beds being -apparently laid on to a bed of limestone of the Qasr el Sagha series -about the horizon of Bed 12 in Section XXIII. The junction here is -apparently one of perfect conformity as far as the individual beds go, -and the peculiar sequence does not seem to be due to ordinary overlap; -it appears as if the change from marine to estuarine conditions had -set in earlier here than further to the west, with the result that -the upper Qasr el Sagha beds are wanting. Moreover, the accumulation -of estuarine beds went on so slowly in this locality that the series -does not attain to nearly its normal thickness, while further east it -dies out altogether. The slight dip to the north is identical in both -series, their lithological characters being, however, very different. - -Although the Qasr el Sagha series contains numerous bands of clay and -sandstone, the continual recurrence of thick beds of limestone at once -gives it a distinguishing feature from the group under discussion; -the latter is in fact characterized by the highly-coloured sandy, and -to less extent clayey, character of its beds. While the Middle Eocene -is essentially marine, the succeeding formation marks the retreat of -the sea and the incoming of estuarine and brackish water conditions. - -Before discussing the age of the Fluvio-marine series it will be well -to describe its development in the field. The beds of the complex are -throughout the district always found following on above the Qasr el -Sagha beds, although their thickness varies considerably, as might -be expected in a series of this nature. The most easterly locality -to which the formation was mapped is the scarp 23 kilometres due -north of Tamia, known as Elwat Hialla. Here the beds form a separate -escarpment, consisting of only about 40 metres of sands and sandstone -grit (sometimes silicified) with pieces of silicified wood: some of -the beds of sandstone have a concretionary stem-like weathering. From -this point these beds extend westwards far beyond the western end -of the lake, always forming the highest escarpments of the Fayûm -depression. A kilometre or two from our most easterly point the first -basalt sheets are seen, and these, preserving the same level as far -as can be observed, continue some 60 kilometres further west, to a -point nearly due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. The -series, only 40 metres thick at the eastern end, gradually thickens -as it is followed westward, until it reaches its maximum development -in the cliffs of Jebel el Qatrani, north-west of the temple of Qasr -el Sagha, where a thickness of some 210 metres is attained. - -Just 29 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia (6 kilometres N.W. of the prominent -western scarp of Elwat Hialla), a long hill offers a good section of -these beds, which consist of a variegated group of green sands, red -clays, coarse sandstones, red and yellow sand and sandstone, etc., -capped by a band of hard impure yellowish limestone with numerous -enclosed sand-grains (calcareous grit). Near the same place is an -interbedded sheet of basalt, which is sometimes followed by another -band of impure limestone and the latter by false-bedded sandstone. Huge -logs of weathered-out silicified trees are seen strewn about. - -The following is a detailed section of the series, measured from a -point 3½ kilometres W.N.W. of Elwat Hialla, and about 28 kilometres -N.N.W. of Tamia, to the top of the escarpment 4 kilometres further -north:— - - Undulating sandy, gravel-covered desert[66] stretching northwards. - - _Top of escarpment._ Metres. - - 1. False-bedded sandstones } - } - 2. Band of impure limestone } - } 8 - 3. Interbedded basalt sheet } - } - 4. Sandstone } - - _(Section continued in hill ¾ kilometre further north-east)._ - - 5. Hard yellow limestone with enclosed sand-grains; cavities - full of calcite 1 - - 6. Greenish-white sand-rock 1 - - 7. Hard reddish-brown stem-weathering sandstone 1½ - - 8. Greenish or white sand and sand-rock 3 - - 9. Variegated sandy clays; sand-rock with occasional - fragments of bone 6 - - 10. White sand-rock 1 - - 11. Rose-coloured sandstone 2 - - 12. Hard grey white marly clays 2½ - - 13. Coarse yellow sandstone 5 - - 14. Reddish, white, and variegated sands and sand-rock 8 - - 15. Grey, reddish and yellowish clays, with bands full of - plant-remains 3½ - - 16. Brown clayey, sandstone 2 - - 17. Greenish sandstone 1 - - 18. Sandy grey clay 1½ - - 19. Hard grey sandstone ½ - - 20. Greenish sand-rock and clayey sandstone 3 - - 21. Dark red clay 1 - - 22. Sands, etc.; outcrop of bed covered with silicified trees - of large dimensions, 12-15 metres long 10 - - 23. Clays with hard grey false-bedded sandstone and showing - fine mammilary weathering at top. Silicified logs on - surface 8 - - 24. Red clays, sandy clays and argillaceous sands 4 - - 25. Reddish sand-rock 1 - - 26. Yellowish sand-rock, in part false-bedded 2 - - 27. Red clays with thin sandy bands 1½ - - 28. Coarse grey sandstone 2 - - 29. Red and green sandy clays with thin band of hard white - sandstone at top 1 - - 30. Bright red clay 4 - - 31. Red clays with thin green sandy bands 3 - - 32. Greenish sand-rock with thin red clayey bands 1 - - 33. Reddish white mottled clayey sandstones passing up into - red and white mottled clays and sandy clays 8 - - 34. Fine white sand } - } 3 - 35. Black ferruginous silicified sandstone } - -- - Total thickness 90 - -- - _Base._ - - Junction with Middle Eocene (Qasr el Sagha series). - -[Illustration: PLATE X. - -EL QATRANI RANGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST.] - -A little further west, at a point 25 kilometres north of the eastern -end of the Birket el Qurûn, thick beds of white coarse sandstone -form the upper part of the escarpment. Below comes a bed of yellowish -impure limestone and below this an interbedded sheet of basalt 21 -metres thick, underlaid by more white sandstone. - -The series has almost always a constant dip of two or three degrees -to the north. Silicified trees are very commonly found strewn over -the surface both near the base and high up in the series. - -At a point about 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha definite organic -remains other than bone-fragments were for the first time met with -in the series. Here a fragment of ochreous-coloured grit containing -numerous specimens of a small _Melania_ was picked up and similar -rocks were afterwards found _in situ_. Calcareous grits and impure -limestones occurred at the same spot, and one of the harder more -compact bands of limestone was found to contain casts of _Cerithium_. - -Also at a point 9 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha hard -grey limestones, generally compact and cherty, and sometimes -semi-crystalline, are present, containing casts of _Melania_, -frequently filled with calcite. These overlie variegated sandstones, -and occur at about 40 metres below the basalt near the top of the -escarpment. - -Blanckenhorn has determined my fossils from these localities as -follows:— - -_Melania_ nov. sp., allied to _M. Nysti_ of the Oligocene. - -_Potamides scalaroides_, Desh., an important guiding form of the -Middle Beauchamp Sands of the Paris Basin, and thus Upper Eocene. - -_Potamides tristriatus_, Lam., of the Parisian (_Cerithium crispum_, -Desh.,) is nearly related to the frequent Middle and Upper Eocene -_C. perditum_, Bay, between which, according to Cossmann, transitions -exist. - -_Cerithium tiarella_, Desh., of the Middle and Upper Eocene, but more -especially in the latter. - -Blanckenhorn considers these determinations as certain, and thus -marking the complex as Upper Eocene, on the level of the “Beauchamp -Sands” of the Paris Basin, and consequently of the Lower Headon -Hill beds and Barton Clay of the South of England. - -The following section was measured from the base of the series, 2½ -kilometres N.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, to the summit of the escarpments, -2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. The series has its maximum -thickness at this point. - - Summit of escarpment of Fayûm depression, 2 kilometres - N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. - - _Top._ Metres. - - 1. Sandstones with band of coarse dark ferruginous grit; - silicified logs occur weathered-out of this bed 18 - - 2. Coarse sandstone-grit with yellowish calcareous base } - } 1 - } - 3. Greyish clay, possibly a product of decomposed basalt } - - 4. Basalt sheet, soft friable, grey or bright green, and - decomposed at base 5 - - 5. Hard yellow calcareous-grit with calcite-filled - cavities, passing into semi-compacted yellowish sand, - hardened at junction with basalt 1 - - 6. White and red sands } - } - 7. Greenish sandstones and yellow concretionary sands } - with 2·5 cm. layer of calcareous grit, with gastropods } 27 - including large _Cerithium_, _Melania_ sp., } - _Turritella pharaonica_, _Pleurotoma ingens_, } - May.-Eym., occasional lamellibranchs and also } - _Callianassa_ } - - 8. White, green and brown sands and sand-rock 17 - - 9. Hard yellow calcareous grit } - } - 10. Red and white clayey sand and sandy clays; some pebbly } 10 - bands; _Lucina_ sp., _Unio_ sp.,[67] preserved in } - brown ironstone, common in places on this horizon } - - 11. Coarse grey and white sand (2 metres) } - } - 12. Red clayey sands (1 metre) } 5 - } - 13. White and yellow sand and sand-rock } - - 14. Red clays 7 - - 15. Sandy ferruginous band with lamellibranchs and - gastropods of genera _Unio_, _Pseudodon_, _Mutela_, - _Spatha_ and _Lanistes_, indicating fluviatile or - fresh water conditions of deposition 5 - - 16. Green clay (1 metre) passing into a red variety } - } - 17. White sandy clay (2 metres) } - } - 18. Red clays } 6 - } - 19. White, brown, and red sands, partly consolidated } - } - 20. Bright red clay } - - 21. Hard coarse sandstone 3 - - 22. Hard compact light yellow limestone enclosing sand- } - grains (½ metre) } - } - 23. White and yellow sands } - } 5 - 24. Greenish clays (1 metre) } - } - 25. Coarse white sands with _Unio_ and _Cardium_-like } - lamellibranchs preserved in brown ironstone } - - 26. Grey clay 2 - - 27. Hard yellow impure limestone (forms a small platform) } - } 2 - 28. Grey clays } - - 29. Red and yellow sands with hard base of grey sandstone 15 - - 30. Grey sandstones. Base of basalt-capped escarpment 7 - - _(Section continued ¾ kilometre south-east)._ - - 31. Hard blue-grey compact cherty limestone (½ metre) with - casts of _Melania_; hollows often filled with calcite 18 - - 32. Variegated (red, white and yellow) sands, sand-rock } - and sandy clays } - } - 33. Hard compact close-grained limestone } 18 - } - 34. Red and white variegated sands and sand-rock, with } - some bands of red clay } - - 35. Hard yellow impure limestone (⅓) } - } - 36. Grey clays } - } 14 - 37. Coarse white sand } - } - 38. Brown calcareous sandstones } - - 39. Greenish and grey sandy clays (3 metres) } - } 8 - 40. Alternating white and red sands } - - 41. Coarse yellow calcareous grit (½ metre) } - } - 42. Light green sandstone } 2 - } - 43. Reddish clays } - - 44. White sand 2 - - 45. Alternating white and bright red sands } - } 19 - 46. Grey sandstone with silicified wood; occasional } - crocodilian and other bones } - - 47. Hard red clays 5 - - 48. Grey and brown clays, sandy clays, and thin beds of - sandstone with some silicified wood 19 - - 49. Grey sandstones and loose false-bedded sandy clays - with many silicified trees and remains[68] of - _Arsinoitherium Zitteli_, Bead., _Palæomastodon - Beadnelli_, Andr., _Mœritherium_ sp., _Phiomia - serridens_, Andr. and Beadn., _Saghatherium antiquum_, - Andr. and Beadn., _S. minus_, Andr. and Beadn., - _Megalohyrax eocænus_, Andr., _Ancodus Gorringei_, - Andr. and Beadn., _Pterodon africanus_, Andr., - _Crocodilus_ sp., _Tomistoma africanum_, Andr., and - large and numerous tortoises (_Testudo Ammon_, - Andr.)[69] and turtles[70], and very rarely - fragmentary fish-remains 5 - - 50. Thin bands of limestone } - } - 51. Yellow sand-rock } - } - 52. Grey sandstone with fragments of bone (½ metre) } 25 - } - 53. Brown calcareous-grit (½ metre) } - } - 54. Light green sand-rock and sandstone } - - Approximate total thickness in metres 271 - -The specimens collected from Bed 15, on about the same horizon as the -fossils mentioned from the locality 14 kilometres north of Qasr el -Sagha, were examined by Blanckenhorn, who has published the following -notice of them:— - -“I should first mention the fresh-water shells found by Beadnell -in brown sandstone 1 kilometre north of Camp 19 (i.e. at Widan el -Faras), which, in the absence of special literature on the Palaeogene -fresh-water shells of North Africa and nearer Asia, I have compared -with the fauna of to-day, in which I was most kindly helped by -Professor v. Martens, Director of the Conchological Collection of -the Natural History Museum. The greater number of the forms have a -distinctly tropical, and more especially Central African, character. - -_Unio_ sp., small, related to the recent _U. Nyassænsis_ of Lake -Nyassa. - -_Unio_, related to _U. Homsensis_[71] Lea, from Syria, and -_U. Bonneaudi_ from Cochin China, with many radial folds behind the -umbo which run obliquely from the blunt edge backwards towards the -hinge-border. - -_Unio_, related to _U. teretiusculus_, Phil. (_Caillaudi_, Fer., -_lithophagus_, Ziegli.) of the Nile. - -_Pseudodon?_ sp. - -_Mutela_ (a genus of tropical Africa) sp., long, with a straight -finely-toothed hinge-border which very much recalls that of _Barbatia_ -(a sub-genus of _Arca_). - -_Spatha_ sp. related to _S. dahomeyensis_ and _S. Droueti_ of Assinia -in West Africa. - -_Lanistes carinatus_,[72] scarcely distinguishable from the Nile form. - -The _Melania_ occurring in mass in the uppermost calcareous bed -appears to be a new species[73] whose nearest relation must in any -case be _M. Nysti_ of the Oligocene, not _M. muricata_ of the Eocene, -amongst forms at present known. - -_Turritella angulata_, Sow. A marine form, occurring below the -basalt and indubitably this species, as it is well preserved and -easily determined[74]; _T. angulata_ ranges from the Middle Eocene -to the Lower Oligocene of the East and occurs in the Upper Mokattam -of Syria.” - -From Widan el Faras the series continues westwards, forming several -escarpments, the uppermost that of Jebel el Qatrani, and maintaining -the same general characters. The tripartite character of the series, -already noticeable between Qasr el Sagha and Widan el Faras (see -foregoing section) becomes still more marked. The lowest division is -very largely composed of fluviatile sands and sandstones, frequently -coarse-grained and usually markedly current-bedded, divided by clays -and containing an abundance of silicified trees and quantities of -vertebrate remains. These soft beds, some 60 metres in thickness, -have as a rule an extensive outcrop, forming an undulating plain -averaging two or three kilometres in width. They are overlaid by -some 17 metres of harder dark red sandstones, which invariably form -a well-marked escarpment capped by a very constant two or three -metres band of hard white or pinkish calcareous grit. This grit -varies in composition, frequently passing into a marl; and one of the -characteristics of this and the underlying red beds is the abundance -of nodular masses of calcite and gypsum. In some localities, as for -instance 3 kilometres W.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, numerous spherical -nodules of beekitic chalcedony occur in the beds of this division, -and some of these when broken are found to be geodes lined with -beautiful crystals of quartz and calcite. - -The next division consists of some 60 metres of alternating sandstones -and clays with occasional thin calcareous bands in the upper part, and -capped by a well-marked hard cherty limestone, frequently passing into -a dense tabular chert or flint. This exceptionally hard band generally -forms a dip-slope plain of some width, before the softer basal members -of the third and highest division overlie it. The siliceous bed caps -many of the most notable hills in the district; among others may be -mentioned the big isolated hill 9 kilometres north-west of Garat el -Esh, and the hills five kilometres N.N.E. of the same point. This -is the only horizon throughout the Eocene succession of the Fayûm -on which an abundance of flint is met with; that it was well known -and exploited in early times is evident from the old pits met with -on the summits of the hills overlooking the main bone-pits, a few -kilometres north of Garat el Esh. As no worked flints were noticed -round the workings it is probable that the material was excavated and -carried away to the borders of the lake, there to be fashioned into -the harpoons, saws and other implements which are so commonly found -scattered at the present day near the margin of the old lake site. - -The uppermost division of the Fluvio-marine series consists of over -100 metres of variegated sediments and forms the escarpment of Jebel -el Qatrani itself, capped by the conspicuous band of hard black -basalt, which is itself overlain by a further 20 metres of similar -sediments. The basalt has a thickness of over 20 metres in places, -though its average is considerably less; at the base it is frequently -decomposed, soft, and of a brown colour. - -At a point due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the -interbedded basalt sheet terminates, and no further flows were seen as -far as the point up to which the series was mapped, nearly due north -of Gar el Gehannem. As far as could be seen on a traverse through -the Zeuglodon Valley to the south-western limits of the depression -no further basalt flows occur. - - -Section from the base of the Fluvio-marine series, 2 kilometres north -of Garat el Esh, to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani 5½ kilometres -north of the bone-pits. (See Plates XVIII and XXIV). - - Approximate - thickness in - _Summit of plateau._ metres - - 1. Coarse sandstones and grits 13 - - 2. Basalt 25 - - 3. Yellow sands and sandstones, capped by 3 m. of - hard concretionary grey sandstone with occasional - mammalian bones (underlying basalt in scarp and - capping outlying hill) 15 - - 4. Hard sandstones with clayey bands 8 - - 5. Sandy and clayey beds 5 - - 6. Hard yellow calcareous grit 5 - - 7. Clays and clayey marls 7 - - 8. Sandy beds 15 - - 9. Hard sandstone (forms connecting ridge between ½ - hill and escarpment) - - 10. Clays with thin sandstone bands } - } 40 - 11. Variable sandy and marly red clays with a hard } - yellowish sandstone band ten metres from base } - - _Base of isolated hill._ - - 12. Soft sands with chelonian and crocodilian remains 4 - - 13. Sandy clays with chelonian and mammalian } - (_Arsinoitherium_) bones, capped by coarse grit, } - in part ferruginous silicified grit and quartzite } 1 - } - 14. White calcareous grit and marly limestone. Band } - of flint in places - - _Summit of hill overlooking bone-pits._ - - 14. Sandstone, becoming calcareous and passing up 10 - into 3 m. of hard white calcareous grit, and - yellowish white bedded marly limestone with - calcite druses. Capped by ¼ m. hard tabular chert - and flint - - 15. Finely laminated grey shaly clays, sandy and } - marly clays, capped by 2 m. of mottled yellow and } - red sandstone and sandstone-grit } 10 - } - 16. Hard red, green, and brown sandstone } - - 17. Variegated grey, green and red clays, marly clays - and sandy beds, with thin bands of sandstone. - More arenaceous towards top 21 - - 18. Hard grey sandstone; greenish sandy clays; hard - dark red marls and marly clays at top 6 - - 19. Thin band of hard yellow limestone, capping salty - red clays and sandy clays 6 - - 20. Soft greenish clayey sandstone capped by ½ m. of - hard false-bedded concretionary sandstone with - numerous enclosed coprolites 3 - - _Base of hill overlooking bone-pits._ - - 21. Pink calcareous grit (forming summit of lowest - escarpment), with small flint and quartz pebbles - in some layers. An abundance of calcite and - gypsum 3 - - 22. Mottled red and green clayey sandstone, clays and - clayey marls. Passing up into a hard sandy (or - clayey) dark red marl with greenish mottlings 7 - - 23. Light yellow finely-laminated sandrock passing up - into dark red sandrock. Some clayey bands 10 - - 24. Coarse unconsolidated false-bedded sands, with - occasional bands of clay and consolidated - sandstone bands. Numerous silicified trees and - abundant mammalian and reptilian remains. (See - list in Bed 49 of Widan el Faras section). - Bone-pits are in this bed 40 - - 25. Thin band (½ m.) of hard sandstone with sometimes } - impure calcareous grit } - } 10 - 26. Hard light yellow sandstone, often very coarse, } - and with red bands } - - 27. Soft brick red and light yellow sands and - sandstones, (seen on plain and overlying - uppermost limestone of the Middle Eocene) 20 - - _Base of Fluvio-marine Series._ - -[Illustration: PLATE XI. - -SILICIFIED TREES OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES, 4½ KILOMETRES NORTH OF -QASR EL SAGHA.] - -In some localities pebbly bands occur in the sandstone-grits, -especially in some of the beds above the basalt: the pebbles are mostly -quartz or flint, subangular or rounded, the layer averaging perhaps two -cm. in diameter, although occasional specimens three or four times that -size are met with. Silicified trees of two distinct types[75] occur, -and they are met with chiefly on two horizons; usually large numbers of -trees occur together, completely covering the surface in places; they -lie as a rule scattered about in every direction, although occasionally -a large proportion may show considerable parallelism of deposition, -as if arranged by the direction of the current which floated them to -the spot. They always occur in a horizontal position or parallel to -the dip of the bed, and it seems quite certain that none of them ever -grew near where they are now found. The trees never bear attached -branches, the latter having always been broken off at or near the -point of junction with the trunk, where the scars are often plainly -seen; this points to the trees having been drifted a considerable -distance. Many trees over 25 metres[76] in length have been met with, -but this by no means represents the original height, as the trunks -have lost considerably in length during transport to their present -localities. Although, as a rule, found completely weathered-out and -exposed on the surface, in numerous localities these silicified trees -are to be observed firmly embedded in the sandstones in which they -were deposited, many being met with in our excavations for bones. - -As the Fluvio-marine series is followed westwards from the central -part of the area, the different divisions become more and more -attenuated and the outcrops more and more obscured by superficial -gravel. North-west of the Zeuglodon Valley an escarpment capped by a -conspicuous bed of white calcareous grit occurs and perhaps represents -the lower beds of the series. The higher are lost on the gravelly -undulating plateau above. - - - _F._—=Age of the “Fluvio-Marine Series”.= - - -The beds in question being as a whole remarkably unfossiliferous, -a determination of their exact age on palaeontological grounds is -an undertaking of some difficulty. The series, however, in certain -beds is very rich in vertebrate remains; a considerable number of new -and important forms have already been obtained and further additions -are probable. Until the survey of the area in 1898 it appears that -the only fossils obtained from these rocks were a few casts and -badly-preserved specimens of mollusca from the highest beds above -the basalt, collected by one or two observers from localities between -the summit of the Fayûm escarpments and the Pyramids of Giza. - -The Rohlfs Expedition did not visit this part of Egypt, and Zittel[77] -tabulated the beds, which he called the “Schichten von Birket el -Qurûn” as doubtfully Oligocene; probably the beds referred to are -those of the island Geziret el Qorn, which, as already mentioned, -belong to the lower division of the Birket el Qurûn series, and are -therefore of Middle Eocene age. Mayer-Eymar[78] states that he was -able to subdivide the series under discussion into Upper and Lower -Ligurian and Lower Tongrian. Schweinfurth[79] considered the series -as Miocene, comparing them with the lithologically similar _Scutella_ -beds of Der el Beda to the east of Cairo. Blanckenhorn, on the evidence -of the writer’s fossil collections, states, as already mentioned, -that the upper part is certainly to be regarded as Lower Oligocene -and the lower part as Upper Eocene. - -First as to the stratigraphical position of the series. There is no -doubt that the lowest beds of the group were deposited (at any rate -in the central part of the area) in practical continuity with the -Qasr el Sagha series, which, as shown, is certainly of Middle Eocene -age. A great change in the lithology of the beds, however, makes the -junction a perfectly natural one. We pass from a truly marine series -into an estuarine or fluvio-marine set of beds, and such a change -near the summit of the Eocene is not an uncommon one in some parts of -Europe. The stratigraphical position in the field, therefore, favours -an Upper Eocene age for the lower beds. The dip being northwards, -newer and newer beds are met with from south to north on the great -undulating, but more or less level, desert north of the escarpment -summit. The occurrence of Lower Miocene beds at Mogara, some 100 -kilometres north or north-west, also points to a somewhat younger, -or Oligocene, age for the underlying beds, (i.e., those between the -Fayûm escarpment and Mogara). The actual relations, however, of the -beds in the two localities have not yet been determined, but it is -probable younger beds are continually met with from south to north. - -Until the entire collection of fossils has been examined and -determined, it is somewhat premature to attempt to fix the age -of the series on palaeontological grounds. Up to the present the -foregoing lists show the species which have been provisionally or -finally determined. Some of these appear to be identical with species -which have been recorded from Upper Eocene deposits of Europe, such -as _Potamides scalaroides_, _P. tiarella_, while others, such as -_Melania_ cf. _Nysti_, _Natica crassatina_ (found below the basalt in -the so-called Sandberger Hills north-east of the Fayûm escarpment), -are typically Lower Oligocene. Other forms, such as _Turritella -angulata_, are common to both Eocene and Oligocene elsewhere. - -If Blanckenhorn’s determinations of these forms are confirmed, we -may regard the upper beds, i.e., those immediately above the basalt, -as undoubtedly of Lower Oligocene age. The beds below the basalt -mark the transition from the Eocene to Oligocene, while the base of -the series, so far unfossiliferous as far as molluscan remains are -concerned, must be regarded as of Upper Eocene (Bartonian) age. - -We may hope that when the important vertebrate fauna occurring chiefly -in the basal part of the series has been thoroughly exploited, and -the remains systematically determined, confirmatory evidence will -be obtained. At present the only forms described and determined, -beyond pointing to a pre-Miocene age, do not indicate any definite -horizon. Probably most of the animals will prove to be new, and -although on that account more interesting from one point of view, -will probably not assist us greatly in the exact determination of -the age of the beds in question. - - - _G._—=The Position of the Land-mass from which the Mammal Remains - were Derived.= - - -The existence of remains of land animals throughout the larger part of -the Qasr el Sagha series and in still greater quantity in the basal -beds of the overlying Fluvio-marine series, and occasionally in the -highest beds also, points to the presence of continental land within no -great distance of the area in which these deposits were laid down. That -the animal-remains were carried out from the land by river currents is -almost certain, and although in some cases such currents are known to -persist to great distances from their points of emergence, it seems -probable from the quantity and mode of distribution that the Fayûm -bones were deposited within a moderate distance of land. Moreover, -the silicified trees, by which the bones are so often accompanied, -occur together in very great quantities, and we should imagine that -the individual trees would have been far more scattered if they had -been floated to considerable distances from land. On the other hand -the fact that among the hundreds of trees examined, in no single case -were branches found attached to the trunk, points to the conclusion -that these trees had travelled great distances; probably the branches -were lost during their river journey, from constant jamming together -of a great number in a more or less constricted space, and not after -they had left the river mouth. - -The exact position of this land-mass is a highly interesting and -important question. There is no reason to suppose that land of any -extent occurred to the north, except possibly an occasional island, -such as that of the Cretaceous massif of Abu Roash,[80] west of Cairo, -which probably formed an island in the sea at that time; without doubt -the great Eocene sea which covered the area stretched northwards, -and was continuous with that in which the southern European deposits -of this period were laid down. To the west also there was certainly -no land-mass within approximate distances. Eastwards, possibly part of -the Red Sea Hills igneous range may have formed a restricted land-area, -but even this is not probable; in fact, it seems certain that we must -look to the south for the nearest land of any extent. In supposing -the land lay in this direction we are confronted at the outset with -the fact that the Lower Eocene limestones stretch southwards for -several hundred kilometres. In Egypt the Lower Eocene consists of -a great mass of nummulitic limestones, some 400-500 metres thick, -with no intercalated clays or sandstones except at the base, and was -evidently formed in water of considerable depth. The thickness of, -and superficial area covered by, these limestones show that they -were formed in a truly open sea, in contra-distinction to a littoral -area; the nummulitic sea in fact covered an enormous part of Europe, -North Africa and Asia. To the south of this sea lay the African -continent, a land-mass dating possibly from Palæozoic times. Since, -and possibly partly during, the deposition of the Lower and Middle -Eocene formations, a gradual elevation of the land or lowering -of the sea, resulting in a retreat of the latter, took place; -this continually brought the shore-line further northwards until, -during the deposition of the beds of the Qasr el Sagha series of the -Middle Eocene, we may surmise that it was not very far to the south, -though the exact distance is extremely doubtful; while in Upper Eocene -times it was still further north. We may assume therefore that the -Upper Eocene bone-bearing strata of the Fayûm represent sediments -transported by rivers and currents from a fairly adjacent continental -land-mass to the south and laid down as littoral and delta deposits -beyond the margin of the land. That at least one large river emerged -from the land in the neighbourhood of the Fayûm is certain; drainage -was then, as now, from south to north, although not probably confined -to a single channel like the present Nile. - -Apart from broader considerations a minute examination of the more -typically fluviatile beds favours the conclusion that the currents -were from the south or south-west. The general dip of the strata, -probably the natural inclination of the sediments at the time of -deposit, is from south to north; the most frequent lamination in the -current-bedded arenaceous deposits is also from south to north. In our -excavations for fossil bones it was noted that of seven tortoise shells -exposed at the same time in different parts of the pit, six lay with -their long axes similarly orientated and were distinctly tilted to the -north-east, or exactly away from the point of the compass from which, -as will presently be shown, the main river probably came. As a rule, -however, the scattered fossil bones and trees in these beds give no -definite clue as to the direction from which they were floated. The -existence of separate accumulations of fluviatile sand at different -horizons, but lying one above the other in the series and along a -north and south line, is of importance as indicating the continued -appearance of a river current from the same quarter. - -Blanckenhorn has published[81] diagrams showing what he supposes -to have been the relative areas occupied by land and sea in -Upper Mokattam, Lower Oligocene, Middle Pliocene and Pleistocene -times. Various lines of drainage are shown, the main river, which he -calls the Ur-Nil, being placed some 70 kilometres to the west of the -modern Nile, although closely following the trend of the latter. We -have been unable to ascertain on what evidence Blanckenhorn relies -for assuming rivers in Upper Mokattam and Lower Oligocene times to -have occupied the positions shown on his diagrams; the number and -positions of such rivers must remain more or less problematical. In -this connection however it is interesting to recall[82] the lacustrine -ferruginous grits which were brought to notice by the writer in 1900 -as having been deposited in a lake, occupying in post-Middle Eocene -times a shallow depression in that part of the Libyan desert now -occupied by the oasis-depression of Baharia. Similar deposits were -found forming the hills of Gar el Hamra a few kilometres east of the -extreme north end of the depression. Finally, during a traverse through -the unexplored country south-west of Gar el Gehannem in the winter of -1902-1903, hills capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits -and puddingstone were met with in the extreme south-west of the Fayûm -depression at a point nearly midway, and in the direct line, between -the hills of Gar el Hamra and the chief bone-bearing localities in the -north of the Fayûm. The deposits in question—at Baharia, at Gar el -Hamra and in the hills to the south-west of the Fayûm—are evidently -of lacustrine and fluviatile origin; and we may infer, with some -degree of probability, that they were laid down along the course of a -river which flowed in a north-easterly direction and formed extensive -delta deposits in what is now the northern part of the Fayûm. That -this river had its origin in the interior of a well-wooded continent -hundreds of miles to the south of Baharia is not to be questioned; -its size, length and exact position must remain matters of doubt, -but of its existence we can be as certain as if in times of flood -we had stood on its banks and watched the passage northwards of its -turbid swollen waters, laden with matted rafts of forest trees and -bearing seawards the carcases of those curious Eocene animals, the -remains of which are so abundant in the Fayûm of to-day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Probable Course of chief river of Upper -Eocene and Oligocene times.] - -In the Middle and Upper Eocene beds we first obtain an idea of the -animals which inhabited Africa in Tertiary times, and the collecting -and working out of this fauna will throw much light, not only on our -actual knowledge of the African vertebrata of the Eocene period, -which was practically nil until the discovery of the remains here -described, but also on other wider biological questions, such as the -origin of certain groups of animals, some of which were evolved in -this part of the world. - -As recently pointed out by a writer in the Field (No. 2605, Nov. 29, -1902) many years ago the late Prof. Huxley, to account for the -present distribution of the mammalian fauna of Africa and Magadascar, -advanced the theory that in the early part of the Tertiary period -Madagascar was connected with Africa, and Africa with Europe or Asia, a -connection which allowed of the immigration into Africa and Madagascar -of numerous small types of European and Asian mammals. Madagascar -later becoming separated from the mainland, its fauna, undisturbed by -the larger carnivora, was able to develop to its present remarkable -extent. Subsequently to the isolation of Madagascar the ancestors of -the modern fauna were presumed to have invaded the African continent -from the north. - -The extinct fauna of the Fayûm, however, shows that in early -Tertiary times Africa already had its own mammalian fauna, which, -besides containing some remarkable large types of somewhat doubtful -position, such as _Arsinoitherium_, _Barytherium_, etc., certainly -in _Mœritherium_ and _Palæomastodon_ included the earliest known -elephants, the forbears of the Mastodon and the modern elephants. There -is little doubt therefore that in Upper Eocene and Oligocene times -these early members of the elephant group ranged northward and -eastwards into Asia and India, and since in the Upper Tertiary deposits -of India and eastern Asia the extinct transitional types between the -mastodons and modern elephants appear to have been found, it is not -unlikely that during the later phases of the evolution of this group -of animals the radiation was back towards Africa, so that the African -elephant may be, as it has usually been regarded, an immigrant from -the Oriental region. Further research among the later deposits of the -Fayûm and the deserts to the north may, however, throw an entirely -new light on the subject and it is somewhat premature to theorise -at present. - -[Illustration: PLATE XII. - -RAISED BEACH UNCONFORMABLY OVERLYING MIDDLE EOCENE LIMESTONES (BIRKET -EL QURUN SERIES) IN THE DESERT EAST OF SIRSENA.] - -In this connection it is interesting to notice the observation of -so eminent a palæontologist as Prof. H. F. Osborn. In two recent -addresses[83] to the New York Academy of Sciences he pertinently -points out his belief that the African continent has been a great -centre of radiation of certain groups of the mammalia, and especially -mentions the Proboscidea as likely to have been evolved in the -Ethiopian region. Our discoveries in the Fayûm and Andrews’s -determinations, made subsequently to these addresses, so completely -confirm this view, at any rate with regard to the elephants, that it -may not be out of place to give here a somewhat lengthy extract of his -“_Theory of Successive Invasions of an African Fauna into Europe_” -(op. cit. pp. 56-58). “In Europe there are in the Upper Eocene two -classes of animals, first those which have their ancestors in the older -rocks; second, the class including certain highly specialized animals -which have no ancestors in the older rocks, among these, perhaps, -are the peculiar flying rodents or _Anomaluridæ_, now confined to -Africa, and secondly the highly specialized even-toed ruminant types -the anoplotheres, xiphodonts and others, the discovery of which in the -gypse near Paris Cuvier has made famous. It is tempting to imagine -that these animals did not evolve in Europe but that they represent -what may be called the first invasion of Europe by African types from -the Ethiopian region. - -“It is a curious fact that the African continent as a great -theater of adaptive radiation of Mammalia has not been sufficiently -considered. It is true that it is the dark continent of palæontology -for it has no fossil mammal history; but it by no means follows that -the Mammalia did not enjoy there an extensive evolution.[84] - -“Although it is quite probable that this idea has been advanced -before, most writers speak mainly or exclusively of _the invasion -of Africa by European types_. Blanford and Allen, it is true, have -especially dwelt upon the likeness of the Oriental and Ethiopian -fauna, but not in connection with its antecedent cause. This cause -I believe to have been mainly an invasion from south to north, -correlated with the northern extension of Ethiopian climate and -flora during the Middle Tertiary. It is in a less measure due to a -migration from north to south. Let us therefore clearly set forth -the hypothesis of _the Ethiopian region or South Africa as a great -center of independent evolution_ and as the source of successive -northward migrations of animals, some of which ultimately reached -even the extremity of South America, I refer to the Mastodons. This -hypothesis is clearly implied if not stated by Blanford in 1876 in -his paper upon the African element in the fauna of India. - -“The first of these migrations we may suppose brought in certain -highly specialized ruminants of the Upper Eocene, the anomalures -or peculiar flying rodents of Africa; with this invasion may have -come the pangolins and ard varks, and possibly certain armadillos, -_Dasypodidæ_, if M. Filhol’s identification of _Necrodasypus_ is -correct. A second invasion of great distinctness may be that which -marks the beginning of the Miocene when the mastodons and dinotheres -first appear in Europe, also the earliest of the antelopes. A -third invasion may be represented in the base of the Pliocene by -the increasing number of antelopes, the great giraffes of the Ægean -plateau and in the upper Pliocene by the hippopotami. With these forms -came the rhinoceroses with no incisor or cutting teeth, similar to the -smaller African rhinoceros, _R. bicornis_. Another recently discovered -African immigrant upon the Island of Samos in the Ægean plateau is -_Pliohyrax_ or _Leptodon_, a very large member of the Hyracoidea, -probably aquatic in its habits, indicating that this order enjoyed -an extensive adaptive radiation in Tertiary times. - -“It thus appears that the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, certain edentata, -the antelopes, the giraffes, the hippopotami, the most specialized -ruminants, and among the rodents, the anomalures, dormice and jerboas, -among monkeys the baboons, may all have enjoyed their original -adaptative radiation in Africa; that they survived after the glacial -period, only in the Oriental or Indo-Malayan region, and that this -accounts for the marked community of fauna between this region and -the Ethiopian as observed by Blanford and Allen. - -“Against the prevalent theory of Oriental origin of these animals -are: first, the fact observed by Blanford and Lydekker in the Bugti -Beds (Sind) that the Oligocene or lower Miocene fauna of the Orient is -markedly European in type; second, that if these animals had originated -in Asia some of them would have found their way to North America; -third, the fact that all these animals appear suddenly and without -any known ancestors in older geological formations. These are the -main facts in favor of the Ethiopian migration hypothesis.” - -That Professor Osborn’s main contention has already been partly -proved by the Fayûm mammal discoveries is apparent, and how far his -detailed remarks are confirmed will be seen when the new fauna has -been more completely explored and examined. - -The following is a list of the new species already obtained:— - - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - UPPER EOCENE. | MIDDLE EOCENE. - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Mammalia_ - - Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadnell.|Barytherium grave, Andr. - | - „ Andrewsii, Lankester. |Mœritherium Lyonsi., Andr. - | - Palæomastodon Beadnelli, Andrews.| „ gracile, „ - | - „ minor, „ | „ sp., „ - | - Mœritherium Lyonsi, „ |Eosiren libyca,„ - | - „ trigodon, „ |Zeuglodon Osiris, Dames. - | - Megalohyrax eocænus, „ | „ Zitteli, v. Stromer. - | - „ minor, „ | „ Isis, Beadn. (M.S.). - | - Saghatherium antiquum, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - „ minus, „ „ | - | - „ magnum, Andr. | - | - Ancodus Gorringei, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - Geniohyus mirus, Andr. | - | - „ fayumensis, Andr. | - | - „ major, „ | - | - Phiomia serridens, Andr. and | - Beadn. | - | - Pterodon africanus, Andr. | - | - „ macrognathus, Andr. and | - another much smaller and | - imperfectly known creodont. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Birds._ - - Eremopezus libycus, Andr. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Reptiles._ - - Testudo Ammon, Andr. |Gigantophis Garstini, Andr. - | - Pelomedusa progaleata, v. |Pterosphenus (Mœriophis) - Reinach. |Schweinfurthi, Andr. - | - Podocnemis fayumensis, Andr. |Psephophorus eocænus, Andr. - | - „ Blanckenhorni, v. Reinach. |Thalassochelys libyca, Andr. - | - „ „ var. ovata, v. Reinach.|Podocnemis antiqua, „ - | - Stereogenys libyca. Andr. | „ Stromeri, v. Reinach. - | - Tomistoma sp. | „ „ var. major, v. Reinach. - | - Crocodilus sp. |Stereogenys Cromeri, Andr. - | - | „ podocnemioides, v. Reinach. - | - |Tomistoma africanum, Andr. - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - _Fish._ - - Occasional fragments of |Propristis Schweinfurthi, Dames. - siluroids and rays. | - ----------------------------------+---------------------------------- - - - _H._—=The absence of Miocene deposits in the Fayûm.= - - -No traces of deposits of this age having been met so far south as -the Fayûm we may presume that in Miocene times the area had become -land, the sea margin having receded northwards. The slight depression -of Mogara, some 100 kilometres further north-west, is however cut -out in Lower Miocene beds, lithologically somewhat similar to the -Upper Eocene and Oligocene deposits of the Fayûm. Probably similar -conditions obtained throughout, and the existence of vertebrate remains -indicates the persistence of river-currents from the south. The fauna -of the Mogara beds has only as yet been very incompletely examined, -the locality being rather inaccessible.[85] - - - SECTION XII.—PLIOCENE. - - -We have presumed that in Miocene times the Fayûm remained land, no -traces of deposits of that age having been recorded; possibly the area -underwent considerable denudation during the Miocene and early Pliocene -periods, but of this it is difficult to adduce definite evidence. The -records of Pliocene times in the Fayûm may be classed as follows:— - - (J). _Marine deposits_ of Middle Pliocene age. - - (K). _Borings_ on rock surfaces, exact age doubtful. - - (L). _Gravel Terraces_, probably late Pliocene. } (or early - } Pleistocene). - (M). _Gypseous Deposits_, probably latest Pliocene. } - - - _J._—=Marine Deposits: Middle Pliocene.= - - -In Middle Pliocene times the area, which had probably undergone -considerable denudation, was again invaded by the sea, and we find -at Sidmant el Jebel, on the south-east side, definite evidence of -deposits of this age in the shape of sands containing such well known -forms as _Ostrea cucullata_ and _Pecten benedictus_. - -The beds in question reach an altitude of from 60 to 70 metres and -were first brought to notice by Schweinfurth. Although they are in -reality on the Nile Valley side of the separating ridge or saddle, -there is little doubt that the same beds will, when looked for, be -found within the Fayûm depression in places where they have been -preserved. As has already been mentioned this south-eastern side of -the Fayûm yet remains to be examined and mapped in detail, and the -determination of the relation of these marine sands to the gravel -terraces shortly to be described is a matter of primary importance -for the proper interpretation of their relative ages. - - - _K._—=Borings on Rock surfaces; of doubtful age.= - - -There are within the Fayûm depression numerous rock-surfaces pierced -by borings, apparently the work of marine boring mollusca but naturally -offering no exact evidence as to their age and origin. These borings -are found at two distinct levels, approximately from zero to 20 metres -above sea-level, and at 112 metres above sea-level. - - - (α) _Low level borings._ - -Between Tamia and Dimê, near the eastern end of the Birket el Qurûn, -the lowest ground, consisting of poor sandy land with tamarisk scrub, -bordering the lake and cultivation, is bounded by a low escarpment -of beds of the Birket el Qurûn series. Along certain horizons one -or more beds of calcareous sandstone weather into large globular -masses, which as already pointed out are in reality huge concretions, -but which may have been further rounded by water-action. The chief -point is, however, the fact that these blocks are honey-combed in the -most remarkable way by beautiful examples of borings; their presence -was first noticed by Schweinfurth. The globular masses of sandstone, -often several feet in diameter, are worn on the surface into a number -of parallel ledges, each of which is perforated with countless numbers -of vertical holes, averaging 10 millimetres in diameter (maximum 15 -millimetres), placed at right angles to the ledges; these holes are -not, as a rule, connected from one ledge to another. They occur in -every stage of perfection, from hollows as small as the finger tips -and only a few millimetres deep, to long completed chambers which -generally show considerable tapering, and are often placed so close -together that the dividing wall is pierced. - -Fig. 7 and Plate XIII show the appearance of these bored rocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Block of sandstone pierced by numerous -borings.] - -At El Kenîsa, a promontory jutting out into the lake, sandstones -showing shell-borings occur at a height of 14 metres above -sea-level. Between Dimê and the lake a calcareous sandstone contains -many borings, 66 metres above the lake-level, or about 22 metres -above sea-level. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIII. - -BORINGS IN FALSE-BEDDED SANDSTONE, TWO KILOMETRES SOUTH OF DIMÊ.] - - - (β) _High level borings._ - -Further west, but at a considerably higher level, borings are again -met with. In this case a hard compact limestone, forming a dip-slope -surface on the top of the lower cliff of the Qasr el Sagha series, -was found pierced with borings, similar in character to those of the -lower level. The exact locality where these high level borings were -observed is 14 kilometres west of the western end of the lake and 16 -kilometres north-east of the eastern extremity of Gar el Gehannem. The -height was determined as 156 metres above the Birket el Qurûn, -or 112 metres above sea-level, and we have every reason to believe -these figures to be approximately correct. Up to the present time -borings at this altitude have not been met with in any other locality. - -At first sight it seems surprising that the occurrences should be so -limited, but it should be remembered that only in those cases where -borings were made in the very hardest and most durable rocks could -they have been preserved to the present time. Considering the amount -of denudation which has taken place in the area since the Pliocene -period it is surprising that any of the rocks which formed the actual -surface of the country at that date should still be preserved; and -in all probability the comparatively few records that exist to-day -owe their preservation to the protection afforded by superficial -deposits. Under the present rigorous desert conditions, when the whole -surface is subjected to continual and rapid changes of temperature, -and every exposed rock is being worn down by the natural sandblast, -it must be admitted that in a comparatively short time every trace -of the borings now exposed will have been removed. At the same time -the denudation of superficial deposits will probably lay bare other -bored rock-surfaces, and the conserving nature of drift sand itself -where accumulated to even a limited degree must not be forgotten. - - - _L._—=Gravel Terraces: ? Upper Pliocene.= - - -On the north, east, and south-east sides of the Fayûm, well marked -terraces of gravel are found at certain levels up to a maximum of -about 170-180 metres above sea-level. Nine kilometres east of Sêla -the summit of the ridge separating the Fayûm and the Nile Valley is -formed of thick deposits of gravel, laid irregularly and unconformably -on the top of limestones belonging to the Birket el Qurûn series. The -lowest terrace occurs only 15 metres above the canal[86] running -along the outside of the cultivation. The main deposit of gravel is -laid on the top of the limestones and marls at 70 metres above the -canal; it is some 50 metres thick (summit 120 metres above canal) -and consists of a mass of well-rolled flint and quartz pebbles, with -blocks of limestone (frequently full of well-known Eocene fossils -such as _Carolia placunoides_). Large well rounded blocks of grey -quartzite and pebbles of black quartzite also occur, besides rounded -blocks of silicified wood. A certain amount of false-bedding occurs -and false-bedded sand was noticed in places. Numerous derived rolled -fossils are present, but no contemporaneous remains were found. On -the summit of the ridge is situated the remnant of an old pyramid-like -building. - -Fig. 8 shows the relation of these gravels to the underlying rocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—_Sketch showing relations of Middle Eocene -to Pliocene Gravel Terraces on the east side of the Fayûm._ - -_Birket el Qurun series._—(_a_) Clays, marls and limestone; -(_b_) Limestones with _Operculina_ (_O. discoidea?_). Pliocene -(to Pleistocene); (_c_) Coarse deposits of gravel, etc., with huge -blocks of derived Eocene limestone with _Carolia_, etc.; (_d_) sands -and sandrock with leaves of hard sandstone; (_e_) sand, gravel and -conglomerate.] - -At the spur of the cliff immediately to the east the terrace is -laid on to limestones of the Birket el Qurûn series at a height of -32 metres above the canal. Enormous blocks of _Carolia_-limestone, -some exceeding 3 × 2 × 1·5 metres in measurement, are included in -this deposit; such blocks cannot have been transported far, and were -doubtless derived from formerly-existing higher beds in the immediate -neighbourhood. The matrix of the deposit is usually crushed limestone -with sand and gravel. Occasional fragments of silicified wood (and -further west large logs), evidently derived from the Fluvio-marine -beds, also occur. - -In favoured localities the relation of the gravels to the Eocene is -still better seen; the lower beds of the terrace here are sometimes -formed of sands and sandy beds dipping 10° eastward. - -At the little promontory 9 kilometres east of Sersena the same deposits -reach an altitude of 157 metres above the canal below. - -Further north another cake of gravel caps the summit, attaining -here 60-70 metres above the canal-level. Probably these deposits -were originally more or less connected and continuous, but since -their deposition denudation must have removed the greater part, as -they are now only found here and there capping the highest points -of the escarpment along the east side of the Fayûm. Such isolated -gravel-capped hills occur notably 12 kilometres east of Roda, 16½ -kilometres east and 17½ kilometres north-east of Tamia. - -Along the north side of the Fayûm the same deposits are found, -in some cases covering large areas. - -Twenty-five kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia the Eocene beds, here an -alternating series of clays and limestones, are capped by a deposit -consisting of coarse rolled gravel, with blocks of silicified wood -enclosed in a sandy gypseous base, some 10 metres thick. A larger -and similar deposit caps the next high ground four kilometres to the -west, and about 9 kilometres N.N.E. of Garat el Faras; in this case -it forms a round-topped gravelly hill-range, attaining a height of -about 165 metres above the canal to the south-east. The loose gravel -at many points passes into hard conglomerate, notably in the hills -9 kilometres east and 4 kilometres north-east of Garat el Gindi. At -the former spot the conglomerate is composed of blocks of limestone, -with round pebbles of flint and quartz, sandstone and quartzite, -and fragments of silicified wood, cemented by sand and calcareous -material. Blocks of silicified wood also occur strewn on the surface -of these gravel deposits. - -In the hills north-east of Garat el Gindi the gravel deposits do not -occupy the summit of the escarpment but occur laid on to a platform of -beds belonging to the Qasr el Sagha series. Behind, another escarpment, -that of the Fluvio-marine series, rises to the plateau summit. - -Fig. 9 will show the general relation of the different formations in -this part of the district. - -Near Elwat Hialla the deposits contain numerous blocks of basalt -in addition to the usual constituents. The basalt is derived from -the sheets interbedded at the base of the Oligocene a little to the -north. As these gravels are here close to that formation, blocks of -sandstone, basalt, and silicified wood now form a large proportion -of the constituents. - -Along the north side of the Fayûm depression, to the west of Elwat -Hialla, the gravel terraces are almost absent, having been removed -nearly completely by denudation. That the terraces once existed -throughout this region is however shown by the small patches met with -to the north-east of Widan el Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel -el Qatrani, and at several points high up on the escarpments as far -west as the western end of the lake. Beyond the latter point these -terrace gravels have not been noticed; the slopes of the depression -become more and more obscured by loose superficial flints washed down -from the plateau, and the existence of underlying terrace gravels -could only be shown by detailed mapping. - -[Illustration: - - PLIOCENE (TO PLEISTOCENE) —1. Terrace of gravel and conglomerate. - - UPPER EOCENE-OLIGOCENE —2. Sands and sandstones. - - MIDDLE EOCENE —3. Clays, marls and limestones of the - Upper Mokattam. - -FIG. 9.—Sketch-Section through summit of Fayûm Escarpment at -Elwat Hialla.] - -Near Widan el Faras the terrace occurs at a level of about 220 -metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 175 metres above sea-level, -and consists of a 10-metre thickness of a semi-consolidated mass of -boulders and pebbles of sandstone, limestone, and basalt, with fine -gravel and sand, unconformably laid on to the variegated sandstones -of the Fluvio-marine series. - -In the neighbourhood of the Survey’s main excavations for fossil -bones, to the north of Garat el Esh, several local remnants of the -formerly more or less continuous gravel terrace were detected[87]. The -height was probably more accurately determined here than elsewhere -and the upper limit of the deposits was found to lie at approximately -170 metres above sea-level; this figure may indeed be taken as the -average height of the Pliocene terraces throughout the Fayûm. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIV. - -PLEISTOCENE LACUSTRINE CLAYS WITH TAMARISK STUMPS IN SITU AT 50 METRES -ABOVE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.] - -Briefly then we have shown the existence of the well marked remains -of a gravel terrace 170-180 metres above sea-level, throughout the -south-east, east, and north sides of the Fayûm depression, and the -first question that suggests itself with regard to these deposits -is, whether they are of marine or of freshwater origin? From their -position in part capping and in part perched on the flanks of the -escarpments, it is evident that the depression of the Fayûm must -have been partly formed before their deposition; probably it had -approximately obtained to its present form and dimensions, except as -to depth. The terrace certainly marks the shoreline of the sheet of -water in which its constituents were deposited, and the surface of this -water must have attained a height of nearly 200 metres above present -sea-level. It is not unlikely that some of the extensive plains of the -Fayûm may owe their existence in part to the presence in Pliocene -times of the sea or of a large inland lake, that they may in fact -be plains of denudation. The plain above the escarpment of the Qasr -el Sagha series, lying between 150 and 200 metres above sea-level, -and stretching throughout a large part of the north of the Fayûm, -has characters which tend to support this idea. - -Unfortunately the gravels are entirely barren of contemporaneous -organic remains, with one exception; near Ez. Qalamsha some examples -of _Ostrea cucullata_ were discovered, and these we believe to -have truly belonged to the lower beds of the terraces and not to -have been derived from the undoubted marine Middle Pliocene beds -of Sidmant. If the existence of _O. cucullata_ in these terraces -could be confirmed we should undoubtedly class them as marine and of -Middle Pliocene age. But the single evidence of the Qalamsha shells -is not sufficient, and confirmatory occurrences must be obtained and, -if possible, the relation of the terraces to Schweinfurth’s marine -Sidmant beds determined, which has not been yet done. - - - _M._—=Gypseous deposits, probably dating from the close of the - Pliocene Period.= - - -Of distinctly later date than the gravel-terraces are the widely -distributed gypseous deposits of the Fayûm and Nile Valley. These -deposits are found covering the plain which separates the Nile Valley -cultivation from the Fayûm depression, gradually rising from the -level of the former until they overlie the gravels capping the summit -overlooking the Fayûm (Section XXI). - -Near the Pyramid of Medum the following beds are seen at the edge of -the desert plain:— - - _Top._ Metres. - - Pure, gravelly, or marly gypsum 1-2 - - Clayey shales with gypsum and salt 1-1½ - - White marly limestone with much salt } probable { - and fish-remains (fish-scales, etc.) } part of { 2 - } Ravine beds. { - Yellow sandstone with fish-scales, etc. } { 3 - -The gravel deposits along the east side of the Fayûm are always capped -by a gypseous bed. The latter is often 2 metres thick and frequently -occurs as solid and almost pure white crystalline gypsum; sometimes -it is calcareous and is frequently deposited in a tufaceous manner, -especially resembling a tufa on the weathered surface. At other times -it passes into a yellowish compact mass and may be very saliferous. - -Frequently the deposit is full of rounded pebbles, the latter -being often in the greater proportion and forming a sort of -gypsum-cemented conglomerate. Not unfrequently it is impossible to -draw any divisional line between the terrace gravels and the gypseous -gravels above. Probably they are both closely connected and of Upper -Pliocene age. - - - _N._—=Summary of the Pliocene Period.= - - -From the above descriptions it is probable that the Pliocene period -is represented in the Fayûm by the following:— - -(1) Marine beds of Sidmant, undoubtedly of Middle Pliocene age and -reaching a level of from 60 to 70 metres above present sea-level. - -(2) Borings on exposed rock-surfaces at two distinct levels, the -lower 0-20 metres, the higher some 112 metres, above sea-level. These -borings appear to be the work of marine boring mollusca, and although -those on the lower level may perhaps be of Middle Pliocene age with -the Sidmant beds, the similar examples discovered at a much higher -altitude (112 metres), point to the sea having attained a much higher -level in later, perhaps Upper Pliocene, times. - -(3) An extensive beach or terrace of gravel on the south-east, east, -and north sides of the Fayûm, attaining a maximum level of about -170 to 180 metres above sea-level. - -All the known facts seem to be satisfied if we imagine that in -the Middle Pliocene the sea occupied the area, depression probably -continuing until the 112 metre level with the highest borings was -reached. Perhaps the lowest part of the terraces was formed during -this time. In the later Pliocene times we may infer that the area -was occupied, up to 180 metres above present sea-level, by a vast -inland lake, perhaps of brackish water, connected with the sea on -the one hand and the fiord or lakes of the Nile Valley on the other, -the deposits of which have been described elsewhere[88]. - -Along the margins of this gigantic lake, these great accumulations -of gravel might well have been formed, chiefly of material derived -from the immediate shores, augmented perhaps by a certain amount of -sediment brought by river-currents from the south. - -Finally, from the way in which the gypsum and gypseous deposits are -laid on the terrace gravels, and from their extension and thickness, -we may presume that they were deposited on the bottom of just such -a lake on evaporation of its water, when the sulphate of lime in -solution, becoming more and more concentrated, may have been finally -precipitated.[89] - - - SECTION XIII.—PLEISTOCENE. - - -The course of events in Pleistocene times is at present obscure. As -far as can be judged it was during this period that a freshwater -lake, the precursor of the great Mœris, came into existence. It -might be thought that the early Pleistocene prehistoric lake was a -relic of the still older body of water of Pliocene times, in which -the gravel terraces and gypseous deposits were laid down. But such -a remnant would have been of a high degree of salinity and could not -have given rise to the fresh water Mœris. Most probably at the close -of the Pliocene period, after the formation of the gypseous deposits, -the area became elevated and cut off from the sea and from the Nile -Valley marine fiord; probably an extensive body of water remained as -an isolated lake, but this, cut off from external supply, would have -gradually evaporated, its salt being left as a superficial deposit on -the dried up bed. In early Pleistocene times we may presume the area -became dry and was gradually eroded to its present shape and depth. The -superficial deposits of salt and gypsum were for the most part removed -as the depression was deepened, while the continuous terrace of gravel -laid round the greater part of the rim was broken through, except -where protected in favourable localities, the constituents being -washed down and spread out over the lower ground. In course of time -the region was moulded to its present form and dimensions, or rather to -what it would be if the local alluvial deposits were stripped off and -the water of the lake baled out. The area was an inland depression, -probably sparsely vegetated like the rest of the higher country and -separated from the Nile Valley by a low rocky ridge surmounted by a -more of less continuous terrace of gravel of considerable height and -thickness. In our opinion desert conditions had already set in before -the early Nile broke down the ridge and formed a lake in the Fayûm; -the date when this important event first took place is a matter of -considerable doubt, as has already been mentioned (pp. 24, 25). We -know that at the close of the Pliocene period the Nile Valley was -a marine fiord (connected with the Fayûm and the Mediterranean) -which was replaced in Pleistocene times, probably in consequence of -slight elevation, by a series of fresh water lakes throughout the -valley. These lakes were probably two or three in number and drained -one into the other; the exact position of the barriers is as yet a -matter of conjecture. Within these lakes thick lacustrine deposits -were accumulated, so that the basins eventually became to a great -extent silted up. In later Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile -Valley appears to have become more pronounced, the barriers between -the lakes were broken down and the river cut for itself a channel -through the lacustrine beds, filling up the old lake basins. From -this time onwards to early prehistoric times the bed of the river -would appear to have steadily fallen, as it eroded its channel deeper -and deeper. That this early Nile was a river of considerable size is -evident from the amount of erosion it accomplished in the trough of the -valley, whence the older lacustrine beds have been almost completely -removed. Probably in the lower part of its course it swept against -the base of the dividing ridge between the Nile Valley and the Fayûm -depression. If, as we imagine, the river was at that time flowing -some 20 metres higher than at present its currents would have met -with little resistance from the loosely cemented terrace of gravel -which formed the upper part of the dividing ridge. Once this was -broken down the waters must have poured into the depression behind, -until a lake of considerable size was formed. The sediment spread out -over the floor in the shape of a fan, while at the same time deposits -of sands and fine clays, blown and washed into the waters from the -surrounding shores, were being slowly accumulated in the quieter and -more remote parts of the lake. - -For some time subsequent to the first connection between the Fayûm -depression and the Nile, the latter continued to fall in level owing to -continued erosion along its course, possibly the Fayûm again became -completely isolated for a time. Subsequently in the earliest historic -times under changed conditions the river commenced to carry and lay -down the modern alluvial deposit of “Nile mud”, and from this time -to the present day its bed has gradually risen. This is shown by the -high Nile flood-readings on the early gauges of the Nile Valley; the -nilometer at Roda shows a difference of 1·22 metres in 1026 years, or -an annual rise of 0·12 centimetre, which is equivalent to 12 metres -in 10,000 years[90]. Whether there was ever complete disconnection -between the Nile and the originally formed lake in Pleistocene times -is uncertain, but even so it was probably only during a comparatively -short period: in early historic times the rise of the Nile bed must -have brought about a reconnection. - -The geological evidence for the existence of a great freshwater lake -in Pleistocene and prehistoric times is afforded by the well-marked -lacustrine clays and sands which are found over such a large area of -the northern and western deserts of the Fayûm; the great extent of -this lake will be seen by an examination of the accompanying maps. Its -area must have been about 2250 square kilometres or about ten times -the size of the modern Birket el Qurûn. The western limit may even -have been further west than shown on fig. 10.,[91] as some of the -desert in the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem is very low-lying; -or there may have existed subsidiary lakes in that direction. The -upper limit of these ancient lacustrine clays is between 22 and 23 -metres above sea-level, which exactly agrees with the figure adduced -by Sir Hanbury Brown as the height of the more modern Lake Moeris -from the evidence of levels. That Lake Moeris was simply the older -prehistoric lake placed under artificial control admits of no doubt; -the difficult question being as to when the lake first came into -existence in prehistoric times. - -The clays abound in freshwater shells and semi-fossil fish-bones of -exactly the same species of fish (siluroid, etc) as still inhabit the -Birket el Qurûn; probably some are even hardly different specifically -from the Middle Eocene forms of the district. In addition remains -of large animals are common, and include _Hippopotamus_, _Elephas_, -_Bubalis_, sheep or goat, and _Canis_, with crocodiles and turtles, -etc.[92] - -[Illustration: PLATE XV. - -ISOLATED SAND-DUNE NEAR GAR EL GEHANNEM.] - -Martens[93] has described the following species of mollusca from -Schweinfurth’s collections:— - - _Unio abyssinicus_, Mart. - - _U. Schweinfurthi_, Mart. - - _Corbicula fluminalis_, var. _consobrina_ Caill. - - _Neritina nilotica_, Reev. - - _Valvata nilotica_, Jick. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_, Jick. - - _C. pirothi_, var., _unicarinata_, Mart. - - _Bithynia_ aff. _Boissieri_, Charp. - - _Melania tuberculata_, Müll. - - _Limnaea natalensis_, Krauss. - - _L. mœris_, Mart. - - _L. palustris_, Müll. - - _Planorbis subangulata_, Phil. - -Blanckenhorn has pointed out[94] that this fauna is of special -interest and differs from all fossil and living faunas in Egypt. It -might be compared with the _Melanopsis_-fauna of the Nile Valley if the -exceptional _Limnaea_ were replaced by _Melanopsis_ or _Paludina_. Its -_Unio Schweinfurthi_ recalls the youngest alluvial deposits of the -Nile Valley, 2nd Cataract, Kom Ombo and Silsila; at these places, -however, the beds containing the species in question are at least 20 -metres above mean water level of the present day. - -The sub-fossil fauna of the Fayûm alluvium, in addition to those forms -everywhere met with in the Nile Valley, includes _Neritina nilotica_ -and _Melania tuberculata_, which are common forms of the _Melanopsis_ -stage, as well as _Unio abyssinicus_ and _Valvata nilotica_. In -common with the present fauna of the Birket el Qurûn it has the five -forms belonging to the genera _Corbicula_, _Neritina_, _Valvata_, -_Melania_, and _Planorbis_. The sub-fossil fauna, which passes into -the modern fauna of the Birket el Qurûn, shows connection with the -Mediterranean and Blue Nile, but has a total absence of White Nile -forms such as _Ampullaria_, _Lanistes_, _Cleopatra bulimoides_, -_Spatha_ and _Aetheria_. Moreover _Limnæa palustris_, although -identical with the form found on other Mediterranean coasts, is as -yet entirely unknown from the Nile Valley. Blanckenhorn concludes that -the diluvial subfossil deposits of the Fayûm were produced when the -climate of Egypt was damper and more Europæan, the Nile carrying -more arenaceous sediment in place of the mud of to-day and running -at higher level, as it did when the shells of _Unio Schweinfurthi_ -were enclosed in the deposits of Jebel Silsila. Blanckenhorn thinks -the Nile obtained access to the depression during the last European -ice period. This last supposition, coupled with the above comparison -of the Fayûm fresh-water fauna with the Melanopsis stage of the Nile -Valley Pleistocene series, shows that in regarding the early Fayûm -lake as dating from prehistoric times Blanckenhorn and the writer -are in agreement. - - - SECTION XIV.—RECENT. - - -We may divide the Recent period into two epochs, Prehistoric and -Historic, always remembering that the line of demarcation is not much -more distinct than that between Recent and Pleistocene. - - - _O._—=Prehistoric.= - - -The abundance of worked flints on the desert just within and around the -site occupied by the Fayûm lake in late Pleistocene and prehistoric -times, shows that the shores were eventually inhabited by people -who made and used these primitive tools. That the edge of the lake -was abundantly wooded is shown by the thousands of well preserved -tamarisk stumps met with at the present day in situ (Plate XIV) -in the clays throughout the former margin of the lake. - -The implements occur chiefly along the margin of the highest level -of the old lake, and have probably in many cases been buried in the -lake clays until the present time, which would account for their -beautiful state of preservation. We have not, however, yet actually -detected them enclosed within the clays, although commonly found lying -on the clean wind-worn surface. From the fine degree of workmanship -we may undoubtedly refer these flint implements to the Neolithic or -later stone-age, although the exact date is doubtful. That they were -made and used while the lake still stood at its highest level seems -certain, but as we have shown above, the lake, as a sheet of water -up to 23 metres above sea-level or thereabouts, probably existed far -anterior to the Egyptian historic period. They might, on the other -hand, as far as the evidence from the position of the lake goes, -have been used by the inhabitants of the lake-margin down to the -great reclamation which took place in Ptolemaic times. As it seems -impossible to date them by comparison with flints of known age from -any Egyptian period, we may perhaps conclude that they are at least -of older date than the earliest Egyptian records.[95] - - - _P._—=Historic.= - - -In historical times, under conditions almost identical with those of -the Nile of to-day, there would have been an annual inflow during -the flood and outflow back to the Nile when the latter subsided; -during the inflow a constant supply of Nile mud was brought into the -lake and deposited on the surface of the earlier alluvium, continually -augmenting the thickness of the latter and raising its surface, until -in the central area marshy land began to appear. In the XII Dynasty -this natural backwater of the Nile, which acted as a more or less -efficient regulator of high and low floods, was brought under human -control by Amenemhat I, and a considerable area of land reclaimed from -the shallowest part of the lake, or that part of the country now lying -near Edwa, Medinet el Fayûm, etc. The new artificially controlled -lake was called Moeris, and its wonders are mentioned by Herodotus, -Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Pliny. - -The actual position of Lake Moeris has been the subject of much -discussion, the late Linant de Bellefonds[96] having asserted that -it was a high-level lake, quite distinct from the Birket el Qurûn, -occupying the gap in the hills by which the Bahr Yusef enters the -Fayûm, its encircling bank commencing at Edwa and passing through -Biahmu, Medinet, etc. Sir Hanbury Brown has,[97] however, completely -demolished Linant’s theory, which is shown to be absolutely -untenable; and has proved conclusively that the ancient Mœris -occupied the greater part of what is now the cultivated land, as -well as the area covered by the present lake and a considerable part -of the surrounding desert, the reclaimed land being in fact part of -the very district Linant supposed the lake to have occupied. Since -the publication of Brown’s work complete corroborative evidence -has been forthcoming from two distinct sources, one archæological, -the other geological. The latter has already been mentioned. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Sketch Map showing approximately the site -of Lake Moeris.] - -It was clear from the map of Claudius Ptolemy that the route through -the Fayûm to the Oasis Parva left Bacchias near the north end of the -lake, and passing between Arsinœ and Lake Mœris, reached Dionysias -near the other end. The archæological researches of Messrs. Grenfell -and Hunt[98] have shown that Bacchias occupied the site of the -modern Um el Atl close to one end of the Birket el Qurûn, while -Dionysias was probably in the neighbourhood of Qasr el Banat or Qasr -el Qurûn. Thus the Ptolemaic Lake Mœris was almost identical with -the modern Birket el Qurûn. Neither did the sites excavated yield a -trace of anything older than the third century B.C. Theadelphia and -Philoteris were founded in the reign of the second Ptolemy, when a -great reclamation of the land from the lake took place, and probably -Euhemeria, Dionysias, Karanis and Bacchias date from the same reign. - -The archæological evidence is thus briefly summed up by Grenfell and -Hunt: “Originally the lake filled the whole basin of the Fayûm, -the first reclamation being carried out by Amenemhat I, who built the -great dam at El Lahûn, where the Bahr Yusef enters the province, -and recovered the high ground near the entrance as far as Biahmu, -and a point between Abshawai and Agamiin. This remained the Pharaonic -province until the time of Herodotus, when the water still came up -to the colossi at Biahmu. Subsequently all the land now cultivated -below the level of the Pharaonic province was reclaimed, chiefly in -the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, when Lake Mœris was reduced nearly -to the size of its modern representative, the Birket el Qurûn”. - -[Sidenote: Present day Fauna of the Birket el Qurûn.] - -As mentioned above, the Pleistocene fauna of the Fayûm differs in one -or two particulars from the fauna of the present day. The commonest -living molluscan forms include the following:— - - _Corbicula fluminalis_. - - _Neritina nilotica_. - - _Cleopatra bulimoides_. - - _Hydrobia stagnalis_. - - _Valvata nilotica_. - - _Melania tuberculata_. - - _Planorbis Ehrenbergi_. - - _P. marginatus_ var. _subangulata_. - -Blanckenhorn[99] has pointed out that in this fauna _Hydrobia -stagnalis_, as a typical brackish water form is of special -interest. The species appears to have established itself in the Birket -el Qurûn in modern times, as it has not been found in the youngest -alluvium of the lake, nor is it known in the modern Nile fauna. - -[Sidenote: Modern Deposits: Blown Sand and Erosion.] - -Except for the gradual accumulation of silt over the bed of the -Birket el Qurûn—sand and clay carried in by the wind and the fine -sediment borne by the feeder canals—the only modern deposits of any -importance are those of blown sand. The extensive arenaceous deposits -of younger Tertiary age, forming the greater part of the continent -from the latitude of the Fayûm to the Mediterranean shores, yield as -a result of the action of denudation a constant and abundant supply -of the raw material. The sand carried southwards by the prevailing -winds accumulates as dunes in the lowest parts of the depressions, -on the slopes of cliffs, and in all the less exposed localities. Wind -swept areas remain free or are only gradually encroached on by slowly -growing linear dunes originating in the wind-shadow of some protecting -hill or ridge. An unique example of such a dune is to be seen at the -south end of the well-marked ridge a few kilometres east of Gar el -Gehannem (Plate XV). - -The main accumulations of blown sand are in the southern part of the -Fayûm; large areas of the floors of Wadis Rayan and Moêla are covered -with dunes, while in their immediate neighbourhood the material has -accumulated to such an extent as to blot out entire cliffs and valleys; -immediately to the west of Gharaq a considerable area is covered with -small but steep dunes; and finally must be mentioned the great linear -belt of sand, known as the Ghart el Khanashat, which starting from a -point about midway between the Wadi Natrûn and Mogara comes to an -abrupt termination some 24 kilometres before gaining the northern -escarpment of the Fayûm depression (see page 23). - -As might be expected in an area like the Fayûm, where sedimentary -rocks of every type are met with, and where the wind never wants for -a sufficient supply of the necessary sand, superficial erosion is -everywhere well marked. We do not propose to study here the action of -wind-borne sand and it will be sufficient to mention two localities -where the effects are best seen; one is in the neighbourhood of Garat -el Esh, where the most remarkable scoring and grooving is to be seen -on the two beds of limestone capping the upper and lower cliffs of -the Middle Eocene; the other is the Zeuglodon Valley, and here the -sculpturing of the sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series is of -the finest and most unique description. - -[Illustration: PLATE XVI. - -THE BIRKET EL QURUN NEAR THE WESTERN END.] - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 33: BEADNELL, _The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice -of the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Palæogene -Vertebrate Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, -pp. 540-546.] - -[Footnote 34: ANDREWS, _Fossil Mammalia from Egypt_, Geol. Mag. 1899, -No. 425, pp. 481, 482; and BLANCKENHORN, _Neues zur Geologie und -Paleontologie Ægyptens_, III, “Das Miocän,” Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. -geol. Gesellschaft. Jahrg. 1901, pp. 98-101.] - -[Footnote 35: SCHWEINFURTH, _Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im -Umkreise des Fayum_, Zeitschr., Ges. f. Erdkunde, Berlin, No. 122, -1886, p. 100.] - -[Footnote 36: Op. cit. pp. 108-110.] - -[Footnote 37: _L’Oasis de Moëleh_, Bull. de l’Institut Égypt., -Fasc. 3, Ap. 1892.] - -[Footnote 38: The following may be mentioned; _Euspatangus_ -(_formosus?_ and _Blanckenhorni_), _Schizaster_, _Lobocarcinus_ -(? _Paulino Wurtembergicus_), _Nautilus_ sp. etc.] - -[Footnote 39: El Haram el Bahrl of Schweinfurth.] - -[Footnote 40: Individuals of 60 mm. diameter are not uncommon.] - -[Footnote 41: Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth.] - -[Footnote 42: BLANCKENHORN, _Neues zur Geologie und Palæntologie -Ægyptens_ (II. Das Palæogen) Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. -Gesellschaft, Jahrg. 1900, p. 446, has determined this as _T. -tenuistriata_. He refers to these beds as corresponding to the Tafla -of Jebel Mokattam, but I regard them as probably representing a -considerably lower horizon.] - -[Footnote 43: The nummulites from the Birket el Qurûn series have -not yet been critically examined. There appear to be several species -present, including _N. Beaumonti_, _N. Sub-Beaumonti_, _N. Fraasi_ -and _N. Schweinfurthi_. In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilom. W.S.W. of -Gar el Gehannem, occasional individuals of _N. gizehensis_ occur in -the basal beds. As there appears to be some doubt whether the four -smaller nummulites mentioned above are specifically distinct we shall -not attempt to discriminate too closely in the present report.] - -[Footnote 44: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit. p. 139.] - -[Footnote 45: ZITTEL, Palæontographica N.F.X. 3 (XXX) _Die -Versteinerungen der tertiäre Schichten von der westlichen Insel im -Birket el Qurun See_, von Prof. Karl Mayer-Eymar.] - -[Footnote 46: It must be mentioned here, however, that more recently -Mayer-Eymar speaks (_Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le -Tongrien d’Égypte_, Bull. Inst. Égypt., April, 1894, p. 216) -of the Mokattam beds above Qasr el Sagha, some 100 metres higher in -the series, as Parisian, but does not explain these two conflicting -determinations. It seems quite certain, however, that these island -beds are of Parisian age, and not Bartonian as stated by him.] - -[Footnote 47: _Lucina pharaonis_, Bell., (_L. pomum_, May. Eym. not -Dujardin) see Oppenheim, _Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in -Ægypten_, Palaeontographica, Bd. XXX, III, p. 124.] - -[Footnote 48: DAMES, _Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna von -der westlichen Insel des Birket el Qurun in Fayum (Ægypten)_, -Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883.] - -[Footnote 49: _Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die Beziehungen der -Archæoceten zu den übrigen Cetacean_, Palæontologische Abhandlungen -von W. Dames und Kayser, I. V. 5, Jena, 1894.] - -[Footnote 50: We propose to refer to this species as _Z. Isis_. See -Geol. Mag. No. 479, Dec. V, Vol I, No. V, May 1904, p. 214.] - -[Footnote 51: See also, Stromer von Reichenbach, _Zeuglodonten-Reste -aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum_, Bayer Akad. Wissensch. Bd. -XXXII, 1902, pp. 341-352.] - -[Footnote 52: ERNEST VON STROMER. _Zeuglodon-reste aus dem oberen -Mitteleocän des Fayum_, Beiträge zur Paläontologie und Geologie -Osterreich-Ungarns und des Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III, p. 82. - -Also _Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten_, Zeitschr. d. -Deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr. 1903. - -Compare Fraas _Neue Zeuglodonten aus dem Unteren Mitteleocän vom -Mokattam bei Cairo_, Geol. u. Palæont. Abhand. Neue Folge Band VI -Heft 3. Jena 1904.] - -[Footnote 53: As the fossils occurring in these beds had been collected -and described by Schweinfurth, Dames, and Mayer-Eymar, the writer -did not spend further time on the island than was necessary for -correlating the beds with his classification.] - -[Footnote 54: Cossmann has recently described some Middle Eocene shells -collected from the same locality, near Dimê, in a publication entitled -_Additions à la Faune Nummulitique d’Égypte_, le Caire, 1901.] - -[Footnote 55: _T. pharaonica_, Cossmann. A new species; apparently -this is the form quoted by Blanckenhorn and Mayer-Eymar as -_T. angulata_. According to Cossmann, however, _T. pharaonica_ -differs from _T. angulata_ in several particulars, especially in -being more thickset.] - -[Footnote 56: Blanckenhorn, thinking that the bed capping the island -of Geziret el Qorn is identical with that forming the plain around -and to the north of Dimê, has, in a section recently published -(_Neues zur Geol. u. Palænt. Ægyptens, IV. Das Pliocän_, etc., -Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., Jahrg. 1901, Taf. XIV, fig. 2), -inserted a number of faults letting the beds down continually to the -south. The beds however are not identical, and no faults occur.] - -[Footnote 57: This block was far too large to transport by camel, -but it may be feasible to effect its removal to Cairo by cart when -opportunity offers.] - -[Footnote 58: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit. p. 139.] - -[Footnote 59: A ruin discovered by Schweinfurth in 1886 and hence -often spoken of as “Schweinfurth’s Temple.” Nothing certain is -known as to its age or former use, but we may infer from its situation -just beyond the limits of the high-level lacustrine clays, that it was -built and inhabited only while Lake Mœris stood at its highest level.] - -[Footnote 60: See OPPENHEIM, op. cit. p. 105.] - -[Footnote 61: Details of a section of the lower beds of this group -near the end of the lake have already been given on p. 44.] - -[Footnote 62: As might be expected, vertebrate remains occur chiefly -in the sandy and clayey beds. Skeletons of marine animals such as -_Zeuglodon_ and _Eosiren_ may, however, be frequently observed embedded -in the hard intercalated limestones. Limestone cranial-casts of these -animals are thus sometimes found, and one of these has already been -figured and described (Elliot Smith, _The Brain of the Archæoceti_, -Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. 71, pp. 322-331. Some most beautifully -formed casts from one of the limestone beds were eventually determined -by Andrews to be casts of the air passages of crocodile skulls.] - -[Footnote 63: Schweinfurth appears to have been the first to examine -these beds.] - -[Footnote 64: One would imagine that there must have been a -considerable amount of ferruginous matter in the water at the time -of deposition of the Fluvio-marine series, the prevailing colours of -the deposits being red and yellow.] - -[Footnote 65: Mayer-Eymar appears to believe the depression of -the Fayûm is the result of the volcanic activity which produced -these basalt flows. He says (op. cit. _Nouvelles recherches, etc._, -p. 218.) “Or, de cette extension extraordinaire du phénomène -volcanique dans l’ouest du grand désert, il est, en premier lieu, -permis de conclure que c’est par suite de son action excavante -qu’a eu lieu l’effondrement rempli de nos jours, en partie par -le lac de Fayum.” - -Personally, we cannot see the slightest evidence in support of -this. Where the basalt occurs as a hard band it usually causes steep -cliffs as at Widan el Faras, owing to its protecting the underlying -beds from denudation. To the west, in Jebel el Qatrani, its thickness -and hardness determine the character and steepness of the escarpment -below.] - -[Footnote 66: Pebble bands are occasionally met with in the coarser -sandstones of the Fluvio-marine series, and it would seem that from -them are derived the pebbles of quartz and flint which so invariably -strew the desert-surface to the north to beyond the latitude of -Cairo. Those flints on the surface are largely broken up and flaked -by changes of temperature, but show comparatively little shaping by -blown sand; the white quartz pebbles on the other hand, while seldom -or never broken or flaked, are invariably more or less facetted, -frequently into typical “dreikanter” or pyramid-pebbles; below -the surface both varieties are perfectly water-rounded.] - -[Footnote 67: Many of the fossils mentioned in this profile were only -discovered after long search, and had to be inserted in the measured -section afterwards. Their position therefore is only approximate, -as individual beds could not always be correlated at the different -points where fossils were collected.] - -[Footnote 68: It is not intended to convey the impression that remains -of all these vertebrates were found at the point where the actual -line of section runs. As a matter of fact at that particular point -only _Palæomastodon_ remains were observed, while most of the others -were obtained some distance further west. Remains of _Mœritherium_, -probably identical with _M. Lyonsi_, of the Qasr el Sagha series, -in the shape of a beautifully-preserved and almost complete skull, -associated with _Palæomastodon_ and _Arsinoitherium_ in these same -beds, I only discovered in January 1903, at a point nearly due north of -the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. A preliminary description of -this skull has been published by Andrews, _Further Notes on the Mammals -of the Eocene of Egypt_; Geol. Mag. Dec. V. Vol. I. No III. March 1904, -pp. 109-115.] - -[Footnote 69: ANDREWS and BEADNELL, _A preliminary notice of a Land -Tortoise from the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt_, P.W.M. report, -Cairo, 1903.] - -[Footnote 70: In addition to those described from the Survey and -British Museum collections, some additional species are described -by von Reinach from von Stromer’s collection: _Schildkrötenreste -aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär_; Sonderabdruck aus den Abhandlungen -der Sendeenbergischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Band XXIX, -Heft I. Frankfurt 1903.] - -[Footnote 71: Op. cit., p. 455-456. Vide Blanckenhorn, _Zur Kentniss -der Süsswasserablag. u. Mollusken Syriens_. Palaeontographica XLIV, -1897, S. 97, t. 8, f. 2.] - -[Footnote 72: More recently Blanckenhorn in a paper entitled -_Nachträge zur Kentniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten_, (Centralbl. f. -Mineralogie ch. 1901, No. 9, p. 272) has named this species _Lanistes -bartonianus_ (spelled _bartoninus_ in same paper).] - -[Footnote 73: It has 4-5 flat spiral rows, the uppermost of which on -the last whorls is often more strongly developed but not keel-shaped -as in _M. muricata_. There are longitudinal ribs to the number of -8-12 over the whorls; the largest example was 9 millimetres long and -had 8 whorls.] - -[Footnote 74: See Note 2, p. 43.] - -[Footnote 75: The majority belong to the genus _Nicolia_, but more -rarely specimens, apparently referable to a species of conifer, -are met with.] - -[Footnote 76: The largest trunk noticed had a length of 28 metres.] - -[Footnote 77: ZITTEL, _Beitr. z. Geol. u. Palaeont. d. Libysch. -Wüste_, I Th. (Palaeontographica, Vol. XXX) p. XCIII.] - -[Footnote 78: MAYER-EYMAR, _Quelques mots sur les nouvelles -recherches relatives au Ligurien et au Tongrien d’Egypte_. Bull. de -l’Inst. Egypt. (3) N. 4, 1894. Mayer-Eymar’s division of the lower -beds into _Ligurien inférieur_ and _Ligurien supérieur_ is hardly -convincing, especially as no fossils were found by that observer. The -correlation of strata in widely separate areas by their lithological -similarity is at least open to question, especially with beds of -this type, which can indeed be exactly matched again and again at -many levels in the same vertical succession. His diagnosis of the -beds immediately below the basalt as _Tongrien inférieur_, rests, -however, on firmer grounds, as this basalt sheet can be traced across -the desert to beyond the latitude of Cairo, and is probably everywhere -of approximately the same age.] - -[Footnote 79: SCHWEINFURTH, op. cit., _Reise in das Depression Gebiet_, -etc.) p. 41.] - -[Footnote 80: BEADNELL, _The Cretaceous Region of Abu Roash, near the -Pyramids of Giza_. Geol. Survey, Egypt, Report 1900, Pt. II. 1902, -p. 44.] - -[Footnote 81: _Zur Geologie Aegypten_, Pt. II, p. 458; _Die -Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär und Quartärperiode_, etc., -Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902, Tafel 10.] - -[Footnote 82: BEADNELL, _Découvertes Géologiques Récentes -dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, Compte rendu. VIIIe -Congr. Géol. Internat. 1900, Paris, 1901, p. [Blank]; also BALL -and BEADNELL, _Baharia Oasis: Its Topography and Geology_; Survey -Depart. P.W.M. report. Cairo. 1903, pp. 61-62.] - -[Footnote 83: _Correlations between Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe -and America_, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, No. 1, July 21, -1900, pp. 1-72.] - -[Footnote 84: Compare _Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere_, -Stromer, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr 1903. Also -_Betrachtungen über die Geologische geschichte Aethiopiens_, -do. do., 1901.] - -[Footnote 85: The locality has been briefly examined by Dr. -Blanckenhorn and more recently by Mr. T. Barron, who was accompanied -by Dr. Andrews; the writer spent a few days collecting in the -neighbourhood in April, 1903.] - -[Footnote 86: Approximately 10 metres above sea-level.] - -[Footnote 87: It is worth recording here that a single worn specimen -of _Chicoreus anguliferus_, Lam., was found on the desert surface -in the neighbourhood of the bone-pits and at about the level of the -highest gravel terrace. This determination was made by Bullen Newton, -who informs me the species occurs in the marine Pleistocene beach -deposits of the Red Sea.] - -[Footnote 88: BEADNELL, _Découvertes Géologiques Récentes -dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, VIIIe Congrès -Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris 1901, pp. 25-27.] - -[Footnote 89: Doubt has recently been thrown by American writers on -the possibility of large or thick deposits of gypsum being formed by -precipitation. See R. S. SHERWIN. _Notes on the theories of origin of -gypsum deposits_, Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans. Vol. 18. 1903, pp. 85-88.] - -[Footnote 90: Egyptian Irrigation (1899), p. 32.] - -[Footnote 91: The southern limits of the site (broken line) are taken -from the maps of Brown and Willcocks.] - -[Footnote 92: The mammalian remains collected from these lacustrine -clays have not yet been systematically examined. Dr. Andrews has -however determined some of the genera present: see, “_Notes on an -Expedition to the Fayum, Egypt_”, Geol. Mag. No. 470 Aug. 1903, -pp. 337-343.] - -[Footnote 93: MARTENS _Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem -Fajum_, Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin July, 1879, -S. 100 u. Oct. 1886, S. 126.] - -[Footnote 94: _Geologie Ægyptens_, pp. 444-446.] - -[Footnote 95: For figures and details of these flints see a paper by -the writer, _Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the -Fayûm, Egypt_, Geol. Mag., Dec. IV., Vol. X., pp. 53-59, Febr. 1903.] - -[Footnote 96: _Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité -publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité -jusqu’à nos jours_. 1872-1873, Chap. II.] - -[Footnote 97: Op. cit. pp. 28-40.] - -[Footnote 98: “_The disposition of the Lake Mœris_,” in the -Archæological Report of the Egypt Explor. Fund 1898-1899, Pt. I. D., -pp. 13-15.] - -[Footnote 99: BLANCKENHORN, op. cit. p. 463.] - - - - - APPENDIX I. - - =PREVIOUS LITERATURE RELATING TO THE FAYUM.= - - * * * * * - - - ANDREWS C. W.—_Extinct Vertebrates from Egypt_. Parts I, II, - Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct, 1901. - - _Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, with description - of some new Mammals_, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Aug. 1903. - - _Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt_, (Pts I, - II, III), Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V. Vol. I. March, April, May, 1904. - - _A note on the occurrence of a Ratite Bird in the Upper Eocene - beds of the Fayûm, Egypt_. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1904, Vol. I. - - ANDREWS, C. W. AND BEADNELL, H. J. L.—_A preliminary note - on Some New Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt_, Survey Dept., - P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - _A preliminary Notice of a Land Tortoise from the Upper Eocene - of the Fayûm, Egypt_. Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1903. - - BEADNELL, H. J. L.—_Découvertes Géologiques - Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen_, - VIII. Congr. Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris, 1901. - - _The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of the Geology - of a district in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene Vertebrate - Fauna_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII No. 450, Dec. 1901. - - _A preliminary note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadn._, - Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - _Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the - Fayûm, Egypt_. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Febr. 1903. - - BLANCKENHORN, M.—_Geologie Ægyptens_ (Pts I-IV) - Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Berlin, 1901. - - _Neue geologisch-stratigraphische Beobachtungen in Ægypten_, - S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe d. Kgl. bayer. Ac. d. Wiss. Bd. - XXXII, 1902, Heft III, München, 1902. - - _Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär- - und Quartär periode, sowie des Palaeolithischen Menschen in - Ægypten_. Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902. - - _Nachträge zur Kenntniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten_, - Centralb. f. Mineral. No. 9. 1903. - - BROWN, SIR HANBURY.—_The Fayûm and Lake Mœris_, London, 1892. - - COSSMANN, M.—_Additions a la Faune Nummulitique d’Egypte_, - Cairo, 1901. - - DAMES, W.—_Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna - von der westlichen Insel des Birket-el-Qurûn in Fayûm - (Ægypten)_. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883. - - DAMES, W. AND KAYSER.—_Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten - und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den übrigen - Cetacean_. Palaeont. Abhand. I. V. 5, Jena, 1894. - - EDITOR GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.—_A New Egyptian Mammal - (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm_. Geol. Mag. N.S., Dec. IV, Vol. X, - Dec. 1903. - - ELLIOT SMITH, G.—_The Brain of the Archaeoceti_, - Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. 71. - - FLINDERS PETRIE.—_Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ_, - Egypt. Explor. Fund Reports, 1889. - - GARSTIN, SIR WILLIAM.—_Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile_, - Cairo, 1904. - - GRENFELL AND HUNT.—_The disposition of the Lake Mœris_, - Archaeol. Rep. Egypt. Exploration Fund. 1898-99. Pt. I. D. - - LIERNUR, WESTERN AND SCOTT MONCRIEFF, SIR COLIN.—_Notes on the - Wadi Rayan_, Cairo, 1888. - - LINANT DE BELLEFONDS.—_Mémoires sur les travaux publics en - Egypte_, Paris, 1873. - - _Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité publique - exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à nos - jours_, 1872-1873. - - LUCAS, A.—_A preliminary Investigation of the Soil and Water - of the Fayûm Province_, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902. - - MARTENS. E. V.—_Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem - Fajum_. Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1879. - - MAYER-EYMAR,—_L’oasis de Moëleh_, Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt., - April, 1892. - - _Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le Tongrien - d’Egypte_, Bull. de l’Instit. Egypt., April, 1894. - - _Die Versteinerungen der tertiären Schichten von der - westlichen Insel im Birket-el-Qurûn See_, Paleontogr. N.F.X., 3, - (XXX). - - OPPENHEIM, P.—_Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Aegypten_, - (I). Palaeontographica, Dreif. Band. III, Public Works Ministry - reports, 1889-1904. Abt. Erst. Lief. Stuttgart, 1903. - - REINACH, V.—_Schildkrötenreste aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär_. - Sonderabd. aus d. Abhand. d. Senckenb. natur. Gesellsch. XXIX, I. - Frankfurt, 1903. - - SCHWEINFURTH, G.—_Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise - des Fajûm_, Zeitschr. Ges. F. Erdkunde, Berlin, 1886. - - _A note on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan_, Appendix II, Egyptian - Irrigation (Willcocks), London, 1899. - - SCOTT MONCRIEFF, SIR COLIN—_Note on the Wadi Raian Project_, - Cairo, 1889. - - STROMER, E.—_Zeuglodonten-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän - des Fayûm_, Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., Bd. XXXII, 1902. - - _Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten_, - Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. See also Beiträge - zur Paläont. u. Geol. Osterr.-Ungarins u. des Orients. Band XV. - Heft II and III. - - _Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere_, - Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. - - WHITEHOUSE, COPE.—_Bull. of the American Geographical Society_, - 1882. - - WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM.—_Perennial Irrigation and Flood - Protection in Egypt_, P.W.M. Report, Cairo, 1894. - - _Egyptian Irrigation_, 2nd Edit. London, 1899. - - _The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Mœris_, London, 1904. - - ZITTEL, K. V.—_Geologie u. Palaeontologie der Libyschen Wüste_, - Cassel, 1883. - - * * * * * - - - - - APPENDIX II. - - * * * * * - - -_Paul Oppenheim has recently published[100] a description of a large -collection of Egyptian lamellibranchs; the following is a list of the -species of which examples have been collected in the Fayûm (including -Rayan and Moêla). Figured species are marked by an asterisk._ - - *Gryphaea pharaonum, Oppenh Lower Mokattam. - - *Ostrea (Gryphaea) Whitehousei, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. „ Edmondstonei, May-Eym. „ - - *O. „ histris, May.-Eym. „ - - *Gryphaea (?) arabica, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. elegans, Desh. Upper (and intermediate) - Mokattam. - - *O. Fraasi, May.-Eym. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. Stanleyi, May.-Eym. „ „ - - *O. Cailliaudi, May.-Eym. Upper Mokattam. - - *O. ramosa, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - *O. plicata, Sol. Mokattam Series. - - O. paucicostata, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - O. Reili, Fraas. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - O. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym. Upper Mokattam. - - O. Sickenbergeri, May.-Eym. „ - - *O. Hessi, May.-Eym. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. qeruniana, May.-Eym. Mokattam Series. - - O. gigantica, Sol. Upper (and intermediate) - Mokattam. - - *O. (Alectryonia) Clot-Beyi, Bell. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *O. ( „ ) Bellardi, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - O. ( „ ) semipectinata, Schafh. „ - - *O. ( „ ) Mehemeti, May.-Eym. „ - - Carolia placunoides, Cantraine Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *Pecten moëlehensis, May.-Eym. Lower Mokattam. - - *P. Cailliaudi, Oppenh. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - Plicatula pyramidarum, Fraas Upper Mokattam. - - P. Bellardi, May.-Eym. Mokattam Series. - - P. indigena, May.-Eym. „ - - *P. Schweinfurthi, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *Spondylus ægyptiacus, Newton Mokattam Series. - - *S. Rouaulti, d’Arch. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *S. perhorridus, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *Vulsella crispata, Fischer Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *V. lignaria, Oppenh. Lower Mokattam. - - *V. moëlehensis, Oppenh. „ - - *V. chamiformis, May.-Eym. „ - - *Nucula Mœridis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *Cucullaea dimehensis, Oppenh. „ - - *Arca subplanicostata, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *A. Tethyis, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *A. uniformis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *A. tenuifilosa, Cossm. Mokattam Series. - - *Pectunculus juxtadentatus, Cossm. Upper Mokattam. - - *P. aegyptiacus, Oppenh. „ - - *Cardita Viquesneli, d’Arch. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - C. acuticostata, Lk. „ „ - - *C. mokattamensis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *C. fayumensis, Oppenh. „ - - *C. fidelis, May.-Eym. „ - - *C. Mosis, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *Crassatella fajumensis, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - C. Junkeri, May.-Eym. „ - - C. puellula, May.-Eym. „ - - *C. trigonata, Lk. Mokattam Series. - - *Lucina pharaonis, Bell. Lower and Upper Mokattam. - - *L. Rai, Oppenh. Mokattam Series. - - *L. polythele, Oppenh. „ - - *L. calliste, Oppenh. „ - - *L. gibbosula, Lk. Upper Mokattam. - - *L. fajumensis, Oppenh. „ - - *L. sinuosa, Bell. „ - - *Diplodonta cycloidea, Bell. Mokattam Series. - - *D. inflata, Bell. „ - - *Lucina (Diplodonta) corpusculum, Oppenh. „ - - *Cardium desertorum, Oppenh. Upper Mokattam. - - *C. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym. „ - - *Cyrena (Corbicula) Blanckenhorni, Oppenh. „ - - *Cyprina aegyptiaca, Oppenh. „ - - * * * * * - - -[Footnote 100: _Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Ägypten_. Pt. I. -_Der Bivalven, erster Teil_. Palaeontographica Bd. XXX, III.] - - - - - INDEX - - * * * * * - - - A - - Abshawai—30-31, 84. - - Abu Roash as an island—65. - - Acacias—25. - - Adaptive radiation of Hyracoidea, &c.—69. - - Aegean plateau, Giraffes, &c. of—69. - - _Aetheria_—81. - - Africa with Europe or Asia, Connection of—68. - - Africa as centre of mammalian radiation—68, 88. - - Agamiin—84. - - _Agassizia gibberulus_—52. - - Ain Warshat el Melh—20. - - Air passages of crocodile skulls, as casts—52. - - _Akera_ aff. _striatella_—51-52. - - _Alectryonia Clot-Beyi_—35, 50-52. - - Allen—69. - - Alluvial deposits—23, 25-26, 29, 39, 79-81. - - Alluvial soil, Composition of—11-12. - - Alluvium covering eastern area—25, 30. - - Amenemhat I—13, 26, 82, 84. - - _Ampullina hybrida_—51. - - _Ampullaria_—51, 81. - - Analyses of water—13, 22. - - Analysis of fossil bones—54. - - Analysis of ox bone—55. - - _Ancodus Gorringei_—34, 59, 70. - - Andrews, Dr. C. W.—10, 34, 52, 59, 68, 71, 80, 87. - - _Anisaster gibberulus_—52. - - Anomaluridae—68-69. - - Anoplotheres—69. - - Antelopes—69. - - Aquatic animals—55. - - Aquatic hyracoid—69. - - _Arca_—53, 60. - - _Arca Edwardsi_—43. - - _Arca subplanicostata_—90. - - _Arca tenuifilosa_—90. - - _Arca tethyis_—52, 90. - - _Arca uniformis_—90. - - Archæoceti—44, 52, 87. - - Ard varks—69. - - Area of Birket el Qurûn—13. - - Area of cultivated land—11. - - Area of desert in depression—15. - - Area of Fayûm depression—9-11. - - Area of Fayûm freshwater lake—80. - - Arenaceous deposits—84. - - Arenaceous sediments of Nile—81. - - Argillaceous sandstone—36, 39, 46. - - Argillaceous sands—57. - - Armadillos—69. - - Arsinœ—13, 83, 87. - - _Arsinoitherium_—10, 54, 59, 62, 68-87. - - _Arsinoitherium Andrewsii_—34, 70. - - _Arsinoitherium Zitteli_—10, 34, 59, 70, 87. - - Assuan Reservoir—88. - - _Astarte_—46. - - _Astrohelia similis_—35, 43, 51. - - B - - Baboons—69. - - Bacchias—83-84. - - Baharia Oasis—9, 25, 27, 29, 66, 67. - - Bahr Belama—18. - - Bahr Yusef—11-12, 17-18, 25-26, 83-84. - - _Balanus_—39, 47. - - Ball, Dr. J.—66. - - _Barbatia_—60. - - Barriers between Nile lakes—79. - - Barron, T.—71. - - Barton Clay—58. - - Bartonian beds—43, 53-70. - - _Barytherium_—10, 51, 68. - - _Barytherium grave_—35, 51, 70. - - Basalt sheet—15, 28, 34, 53, 56-64, 75-76 (derived). - - Basins receiving drainage—25, 79. - - Bats, Ravine of El—29-30, 37, 39-40. - - Beadnell, H. J. L.—10, 33, 59-60, 65-66, 78, 87. - - Beauchamp sands—58. - - Beekite—61. - - Biahmu—13, 83-84, 87. - - Birds, Fossil—70-87. - - Birket el Qurûn—11, 12-14, 16, 23-25, 27-28, 30-32, 36, 40-41, - 43-47, 49-50, 56, 61, 72-73, 80-81, 83-84, 87-88. - - Birket el Qurun Schichten—63. - - Birket el Qurûn Series—23, 27, 35, 41-50, 52, 64, 72-74. - - _Bithynia_ aff. _Boissieri_—81. - - Blanford—69-70. - - Blanckenhorn, Dr. M.—30-31, 34, 39, 45, 58, 60, 64, 66, 71, 81, 87. - - Blue Nile fauna—81. - - Bone horizons & pits—52, 54, 62, 76. - - Borings, Artesian—18. - - Borings at Medinet el Fayûm—29-30, 41. - - Borings by molluscs—23, 34, 43, 71-73, 78. - - Borings by shells at two levels—72-73. - - _Borsonia_—37. - - Boulders in gravel terraces—76. - - Brackish-water shells—84. - - Brain of archæoceti—52, 87. - - Branches wanting on fossil trees—64-65. - - British Museum collections—59. - - Brown coal—53. - - Brown, Sir Hanbury—11, 13, 80, 83, 87. - - Bryozoa—36, 52. - - _Bubalis_—80. - - Bugti beds (Sind)—70. - - Bullen Newton, R.—76. - - C - - Cairo—9, 16, 28, 49, 56, 64, 65. - - Calcareous beds in lake—12. - - Calcareous grits—33, 53, 56-63. - - Calcareous sandstone—25, 42-43, 45, 50-51, 59, 72. - - Calcite—51, 58-59, 61-62. - - _Callianassa_—36, 58. - - _Calyptræa trochiformis_—43. - - Canals—11-12, 18-19, 29, 73. - - Canals, Mud brought to lake by—14. - - _Canis_—80. - - Cape Rayan—21, 36. - - Carbonaceous clays—46. - - Carbonaceous matter—42, 51. - - _Cardita_—38-39, 47. - - _Cardita acuticostata_—90. - - _Cardita_ aff. _carinata_—52. - - _Cardita_ aff. _depressa_—52. - - _Cardita ægyptiaca_—46. - - _Cardita fidelis_—90. - - _Cardita fajumensis_—35, 46, 50-52, 90. - - _Cardita_ cf. _gracilis_ and _depressa_—52. - - _Cardita mokattamensis_—90. - - _Cardita Mosis_—90. - - _Cardita_ aff. _triparticostata_—52. - - _Cardita Viquesneli_—35, 45-46, 90. - - _Cardium_—59. - - _Cardium desertorum_—90. - - _Cardium Schweinfurthi_—35, 43-44, 50-51, 90. - - _Carolia_—36-39, 48, 50, 52. - - Carolia Beds—33, 48-53, 74 (rolled blocks). - - _Carolia placunoides_—35-36, 38-39, 45-49, 51-52, 73, 89. - - _Cassidaria_—51. - - _Cassidaria nilotica_—51. - - _Cassidaria_ aff. _nodosa_—51. - - Casts of crocodilian skull air passages—52. - - Casts of shells—39, 44, 51, 59, 63. - - Cavernous limestone—37. - - Celestine—48. - - Cellular weathering of sandstone—46. - - Central African character of Fayûm shells—60. - - Central Area of Fayûm—24-25. - - Centres of independent evolution—69. - - _Cerithium_—39, 46-47, 53, 57-58. - - _Cerithium crispum_—58. - - _Cerithium fodicatum_—37. - - _Cerithium perditum_—58. - - _Cerithium tiarella_—58. - - Cetacea—9, 43-44, 47, 49, 87. - - Chalcedony—61. - - Chalky limestones—40. - - Charcoal, Natural—51, 53. - - Chelonians—34, 44, 54, 62. - - Chert, Tabular—61-62. - - Cherty limestones—57, 59, 61. - - _Chicoreus anguliferus_—76. - - Claudius Ptolemy—83. - - _Clavellithes longævus_—35, 45-46. - - Clays—12, 15, 18, 20, 22-25, 28-30, 33-53, 55-59, 61-62, 74-76, - 80, 82. - - Clays, Variegated—62. - - Clayey marls—37, 53, 62. - - Clayey sands—29, 36-37, 42, 58. - - Clayey sandstones—36, 50, 57, 62. - - Clayey shales—77. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_—81. - - _Cleopatra pirothi_ var. _unicarinata_—81. - - _Cleopatra bulimoides_—81, 84. - - Cliffs—12, 14-15, 20-24, 27, 32, 36, 40-41, 45-46, 48-50, 53, - 56, 73-74, 84-85. - - Climate, Variations in Egyptian—81. - - Coal, Thin seam of—53. - - Coast-line of old continent—54. - - Colossi at Biahmu—84. - - Concretions—35-36, 38-40, 42-46, 50, 72. - - Concretionary sands—58. - - Concretionary sandstones—35, 46, 49, 51, 55-56, 62. - - Concretionary weathering—42, 46. - - Conglomerate—25, 74-76, 78. - - Conical hill near Wadi Muêla—36. - - Coniferous fossil trees—63. - - Constancy of beds over wide areas—33. - - Continental land in Oligocene times—64. - - Continuance of Oligocene continental conditions—54. - - Cope Whitehouse—16-17. - - Coprolites—50-51, 62. - - Corals—36-37, 44, 46, 51, 53. - - _Corbicula Blanckenhorni_—90. - - _Corbicula fluminalis_, var. _consobrina_—81, 84. - - _Corbula_—40. - - _Corbula_ aff. _pixidicula_—35, 39, 43. - - Cossmann, M.—45, 58, 87. - - _Cossmannella ægyptiaca_—50. - - Cranial casts in limestone—52. - - _Crassatella fajumensis_—90. - - _Crassatella Junkeri_—90. - - _Crassatella puellula_—90. - - _Crassatella trigonata_—90. - - _Crassatellithes_—50. - - Creodonts—70. - - Crocodiles—9, 34, 51-55, 59, 62, 80. - - _Crocodilus_—59, 70. - - Crystals of quartz, calcite &c.—61. - - _Cucullæa_ aff. _crassatina_—52. - - _Cucullæa dimehensis_—89. - - Cultivated lands—9, 11-14, 39-42, 73, 83-84. - - Currents in Birket el Qurûn—14. - - Currents in ancient river—52, 54, 65-66, 71-78, 80. - - Current-bedded clays, sands, &c.—51, 56. - - Cuvier—69. - - _Cyprina ægyptiaca_—90. - - _Cyrena Blanckenhorni_—90. - - _Cytherea_—46. - - _Cytherea Newboldi_—43. - - D - - Dakhla Oasis—29. - - Dam at El Lahûn—84. - - Dames—9, 43-44, 49, 87. - - Damp climate formerly in Egypt—81. - - Dashûr, Pyramids of—28. - - Dasypodidae—69. - - Defile of Wadi Muêla—9, 21. - - Delta, Ancient—54, 66-67. - - _Dentalium_—46. - - Denudation, Effects of—39, 73, 75, 77, 84. - - Deposition of sediments in Eocene times—54. - - Depression, Origin of Fayûm—15, 29, 33, 79. - - Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks—33. - - Depression, Fayûm—9, 11-16, 20, 24, 26-30, 33-36, 39, 53, 61, - 64, 67, 71, 75, 77-81, 84-85, 87-88. - - Depression, Mogara—71. - - Depression, Wadi Rayan &c.—17-19, 21-24. - - Depressions of Libyan Desert—16, 29, 67. - - Depth of Birket et Qurûn—13. - - Der el Beda—64. - - Der el Galamûn—21, 36. - - Desert conditions—73, 79. - - Desert region—11, 14, 16, 26-28. - - Deshasleh—17. - - _Dictyopleurus Haimi_—52. - - Diluvial deposits—81. - - Dimê—13, 31, 45, 50, 72. - - Dinotheres—69. - - Diodorus Siculus—13, 82. - - Dionysias—83-84. - - Dip, Importance and nature of—15, 33, 48-49, 55, 57, 64. - - _Diplodonta corpusculum_—90. - - _Diplodonta cycloidea_—90. - - _Diplodonta inflata_—90. - - Dip-slopes of central area &c., of Fayûm—24, 25, 27, 50. - - Disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—80. - - Dormice—69. - - Downthrow of faults—32, 50. - - Drainage basins—11, 13, 23, 25. - - Drains—12. - - Dreikanter—56. - - Druses of calcite—62. - - Dugongs—53. - - Dunes—17, 21-23, 26-27, 84-85. - - Dunes, Slope of—26. - - Dunes, Straight-lined character of—26, 85. - - E - - Earth-pillars—46. - - Earthy limestone—46. - - Echinids—36-37, 39. - - _Echinolampas Crameri_—35, 50. - - Edentata—69. - - Edwa—82-83. - - Egyptian irrigation—88. - - Elephants, Early—68. - - _Elephas_—80. - - El-Gayat, village—20. - - Elliot Smith, Dr.—52, 87. - - Elwat Hialla—28, 55-56, 75-76. - - Emigration of African animals—68. - - Eocene sea, Extension of—66. - - _Eosiren_—10, 52. - - _Eosiren libyca_—35, 51, 70. - - _Eremopezus libycus_—34, 70. - - Erosion by Nile—79, 80. - - Erosion, Superficial—85. - - Escarpments—15, 21, 26-28, 31-32, 45, 49, 52, 56-58, 60-61, 75-77. - - Escarpments determined by fractures—32. - - _Eschara Duvali_—37. - - Estuarine conditions of upper beds—53, 55. - - Ethiopian faunal region—68-69. - - Ethiopian region centre of independent evolution—69-70. - - Euhemeria—84. - - _Euspatangus Blanckenhorni_—36. - - _Euspatangus cairensis_—52. - - _Euspatangus formosus_—36. - - Evaporation of late Pliocene lake—78-79. - - Even-toed ruminants—68. - - _Exogyra Fraasi_—35, 50-52. - - F - - Facetted quartz pebbles—56. - - False-bedding—50-51, 55-57, 62, 73. - - Farafra Oasis—29. - - Faulting and folding—16, 29-32, 49-50. - - Fault near Qasr el Sagha—32. - - Fault, Nile Valley—15. - - Fayûm beds shallower water than those of Mokattam—41. - - Fayûm, Causes of origin of—15, 29, 33. - - Ferruginous bands—51-52, 58. - - Ferruginous clays—51. - - Ferruginous grits—27, 58, 62, 66-67. - - Ferruginous sand—54. - - Ferruginous sandstone—46, 50, 52, 57. - - Feshn—11. - - Fibrous gypsum—52. - - _Ficula tricarinata_—43. - - Filhol, M.—69. - - Fiord, Nile Valley—78-79. - - Fish remains—9, 35, 39-40, 42-44, 46-47, 50-52, 59, 70, 77, 70. - - Fish-scales—39-40, 42, 44, 77. - - Fish-spines—39, 50. - - Fish-teeth—39, 43, 50. - - Fish-vertebrae—50. - - Flat-topped hills—20. - - Flinders, Petrie—13, 87. - - Flint implements—61, 82. - - Flint pebbles—20, 50, 56, 62-63, 73, 75-76. - - Flint, Tabular—61-62. - - Floods—26, 54, 67, 82. - - Flood protection—88. - - Flood-readings—80. - - Floor of depression—39. - - Fluviatile conditions of deposition—58. - - Fluviatile sands, etc.—60, 66-67. - - Fluviomarine conditions of deposition—33. - - Fluviomarine Series—9, 27, 34, 53-65, 74-76. - - Flying rodents—68-69. - - Fold near Qasr el Sagha—32, 49. - - Foraminiferal beds—33, 35-39, 41-42, 45-48, 74. - - Formation of Fayûm lake—26, 78-80, 82-84. - - Fractures determining escarpments—32. - - Freshness of Birket el Qurûn—14, 24. - - Freshwater conditions of deposition—58. - - Freshwater lake before Mœris—79-80. - - Freshwater lakes of Nile Valley—79. - - Freshwater shells—18, 44, 47, 60, 80-81, 88. - - Freshwater shells absent in Wadi Rayan—23. - - _Fusus_—37, 48. - - G - - Gar el Gehannem—9, 23, 25, 27, 32, 36-39, 41, 46-47, 50, 52, 61, - 67, 73, 80, 85. - - Gar el Hamra—27, 67. - - Garat el Esh—32, 61, 76, 85. - - Garat el Faras—28, 50, 75. - - Garat el Gindi—28, 75. - - Garstin, Sir W.—18, 87. - - Gasteropods—36, 58. - - _Geniohyus_—10. - - _Geniohyus fayumensis_—34, 70. - - _Geniohyus major_—34, 70. - - _Geniohyus mirus_—34, 70. - - Geodes—61. - - Geological Succession in Wadi Rayan—22. - - Geological Magazine—10, 87. - - Geology of Fayûm—33, 90. - - Geziret el Qorn—31, 40, 43-45, 63. - - Gharaq, Bahr el—11, 17. - - Gharaq Basin—11, 13, 19-20, 23-26, 31, 36, 85. - - Gharaq, Wadi—17. - - Ghardag bushes—22. - - Ghart el Khanashat—26-27, 85. - - _Gigantophis_—10. - - _Gigantophis Garstini_—35, 51, 70. - - Giraffes—69. - - _Gisortia_—37. - - _Gisortia gigantea_—51. - - Giza, Pyramids of—28, 63. - - Glacial period—69, 81. - - Glauconitic clays—36, 39, 50. - - Glauconitic marl—39. - - Glauconitic sands—37. - - Globular concretions—35, 42-46, 72. - - _Glycimeris pulvinatus_—52. - - Goat remains—80. - - _Goniastræa cocchii_—43. - - _Goniaræa elegans_—51. - - _Goniopora_—51. - - Grass in desert—27. - - Gravels—15, 25-27, 32, 34, 40-42, 73-78. - - Gravel-capped hills—75. - - Gravel terraces—25, 34, 42, 71, 73-80. - - Gravelly gypsum—77. - - Grenfell, Mr.—83-84, 87. - - Grits—27, 33-34, 57-63, 66. - - Grooving due to blown sand—85. - - _Gryphæa arabica_—89. - - _Gryphæa Edmonstonei_—89. - - _Gryphæa histris_—89. - - _Gryphæa pharaonum_—89. - - _Gryphæa Whitehousei_—89. - - Gauges, Nile—80. - - Gypseous clays—33, 35, 37-40, 44-46, 51-52. - - Gypseous deposits—71, 75, 77, 79. - - Gypseous limestone—50, 52. - - Gypseous marls—37-39. - - Gypseous plain—20-21. - - Gypseous sands—39. - - Gypseous shale—42, 48. - - Gypsum—18, 20, 36-37, 39, 42, 50-52, 61-62, 77-79. - - Gypsum of Paris, Animals in—69. - - H - - Hade of fault—32. - - Haram el Bahrl, El—36. - - Harpoons, Flint—61. - - Hawara—11, 13, 26, 87. - - Headon Hill beds—58. - - Height of Pliocene terraces—76. - - _Heliastræa acervularia_—43. - - _Heliastræa Ellisi_—13. - - _Heliastræa flattersi_—43. - - Heluan—16. - - Herodotus—13, 82, 84. - - High-level lake—83. - - _Hippopotamus_—69, 80. - - Historic epoch—81-85. - - Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to siliceous bands—41. - - Hunt, Mr.—83-84, 87. - - Huxley, Prof.—68. - - _Hydractinia_—38. - - _Hydractinia cornuta_—35. - - _Hydrobia stagnalis_—84. - - Hyracoidea—69. - - I - - Ice periods—69, 81. - - Immigration of animals into Africa—68. - - Implements, Flint—61. - - India, Fauna of—69. - - Indo-Malayan faunal region—69. - - Invasion of Africa by European animals—69. - - Invasion of Europe by African animals—69. - - Ironstone—50, 58-59. - - Irrigation works, Result of—12, 88. - - _Isocardia cyprinoides_—43. - - J - - Jerboas—69. - - Joint-planes—36. - - K - - Kafr el Ayat—11. - - Karanis—84. - - Kayser—87. - - Kenîsa, El—72. - - Kharga Oasis—29. - - Knobs along line of fault—32. - - Kom Ombo—81. - - Korif, Wadi—21. - - L - - Lacustrine deposits—12-13, 34, 40, 44, 47, 49, 66-67, 79-80, 82. - - Lahûn—11, 26, 39, 84. - - Lahûn Pyramid—28, 42. - - Lake deposits—67, 79. - - Lake in Fayûm—11-14, 78-80. - - Lake Mœris—12-13, 18-19, 23-24, 43, 49, 79-80, 82-84, 87-88. - - Lake, Nile Valley—78-79. - - Lake of the Horns—12. - - Lamellibranchs—12, 58-59, 89. - - Lamination of arenaceous deposits—66. - - Land-animal remains—52-54. - - Land-areas, Ancient—65-67, 71. - - _Lanistes_—53, 58, 81. - - _Lanistes antiquus_—51. - - _Lanistes bartonianus_—34, 60. - - _Lanistes carinatus_—60. - - Lava Flows—15, 33-34, 53, 56-58, 61-62, 75. - - Leakage through ridge of Wadi Rayan—23. - - _Leda_—35, 39. - - Lenticular sand-beds—55. - - _Leptodon_—69. - - Levels made from Rayan to Nile Valley—17. - - Libyan Desert, Area, etc., of—15, 88. - - Liernur Bey—17-18, 87. - - Liernur, Wadi—17, 19. - - Lignite—51, 53. - - Ligurian beds—43, 64, 88. - - Limb-bones of vertebrates—52. - - Limestones—12, 15-16, 20-25, 29, 33-42, 45-53, 56-57, 59-62, - 65-66, 73-77. - - _Limnæa mœris_—81. - - _Limnæa natalensis_—81. - - _Limnæa palustris_—81. - - Linant de Bellefonds—16, 83, 88. - - _Linthia_—52. - - Little Rayan—22. - - Littoral deposits—66. - - Loam—39. - - _Lobocarcinus Paulino-Wurtembergicus_—36. - - Lower Headon Hill beds—58. - - Lower Oligocene—53-70. - - Lucas, A.—9, 14, 22, 54, 88. - - _Lucina_—36, 39, 45-46, 48, 53, 58. - - _Lucina calliste_—90. - - _Lucina consobrina_—37. - - _Lucina Defrancei_—37. - - _Lucina fajumensis_—90. - - _Lucina fortisiana_—51. - - _Lucina gibbosula_—90. - - _Lucina globulosa_—37. - - _Lucina pharaonis_—35, 43, 45, 51, 90. - - _Lucina polythele_—90. - - _Lucina pomum_—43. - - _Lucina Rai_—90. - - _Lucina sinuosa_—90. - - _Lucina_ cf. _tabulata_—43. - - Lulu, Wadi—17. - - Lydekker, R.—70. - - M - - _Macrosolen Hollowaysi_—35, 46, 51. - - _Mactra compressa_—43. - - Madagascar and Africa, Connection of—68. - - Mammalia, Fossil—34-35, 55, 62, 38-70, 80, 87. - - Mammillary weathering—57. - - Mandibles of vertebrates—52. - - Marls—18, 29-30, 33-35, 37, 39-42, 49-50, 53, 55, 61-62, 73-74, 76. - - Marls in lake—12. - - Marls, Saliferous—19. - - Marly clays—29-30, 57, 62. - - Marly gypsum—77. - - Marly limestones—33, 35, 37-39, 47-48, 62, 77. - - Marsh land—26, 40, 82. - - Martens, Prof. von.—60, 81, 88. - - Masaigega, Wadi—19. - - Masaret-Abusia—40. - - Mastodons—68-69. - - Mayer-Eymar, K.—37, 43, 49, 53, 64, 88. - - Mazana—17, 19. - - Medinet el Fayûm—29-30, 41, 82-83. - - Mediterranean fauna—81. - - Medum—40, 77 (pyramid). - - _Megalohyrax_—10. - - _Megalohyrax eocænus_—34, 59, 70. - - _Megalohyrax minor_—34, 70. - - _Melania_—53, 57-60. - - _Melania muricata_—60. - - _Melania_ cf. _Nysti_—60, 64. - - _Melania tuberculata_—81, 84. - - _Melanopsis_—81. - - _Melanopsis_ fauna—81. - - _Melongena nilotica_, var. _bicarinata_—51. - - Menesi Ali, Ezba—17. - - _Meretrix nitidula_—51. - - _Meretrix parisiensis_—51. - - _Mesalia_—51. - - _Mesalia fasciata_—35, 51. - - _Mesalia oxycrepis_—51. - - Middle Eocene—9-10, 15, 32-33, 35-53, 54-55, 57-58, 60, 62, 64, - 66-67, 70, 80. - - Migrations of mammalia—69-70. - - Miocene beds suggested—64. - - Miocene, Lower—34, 54, 70. - - Miocene, Lower, of Orient European in type—70. - - Miocene strata, Absence of—34, 71. - - _Mitra_—36. - - _Mœriophis Schweinfurthi_—50, 70. - - Mœris (see Lake Mœris). - - _Mœritherium_—10, 52, 59, 68, 70. - - _Mœritherium gracilis_—35, 51, 70. - - _Mœritherium Lyonsi_—34, 35, 51, 59, 70. - - _Mœritherium trigodon_—34-70. - - Mogara—34, 54, 71, 85. - - Mokattam beds, Lower—35, 89-90. - - Mokattam beds, Upper—33, 41, 49, 89-90. - - Mokattam beds deeper water than Fayûm beds—41. - - Mokattam, Jebel—39, 41, 49. - - Monastery in Wadi Muêla—21. - - Moncrieff, Sir C. S.—16-17, 87. - - Monkeys—69. - - Monoclinal fold—16. - - Monograph of Fayûm vertebrates—10. - - Monotony of desert—26. - - Muêla, Wadi—9, 14, 16-17, 20-21, 35-37, 88-89. - - _Mutela_—53, 60. - - _Mytilus affinis_—51. - - N - - _Natica_—46. - - _Natica crassatina_—64. - - Natrûn, Wadi—26, 27, 54, 85. - - _Nautilus_—36, 46, 48. - - Nawamis—40. - - _Necrodasypus_—69. - - Neolithic implements—82, 87. - - _Neritina nilotica_—81, 84. - - Nezleh Canal—19. - - _Nicolia_—63. - - Nile deposit absent in Wadi Rayan—23. - - Nile mud—80-82. - - Nile Valley, Connection with—11, 13, 17-18, 79-82. - - Nile Valley, History of—79, 87. - - Nile waters enter depression—26, 79-80, 82. - - Nilometer—80. - - Nodular bands—44, 47. - - Nodular limestones—48. - - Nodules, Calcareous—39, 61. - - _Nonionina_—46. - - Northern Desert Region—9, 26-28, 87. - - _Nucula Mœridis_—89. - - _Nucularia_—35, 39. - - Nummulites—33, 36, 39, 41, 46-48. - - _Nummulites Beaumonti_—35, 41. - - _Nummulites curvispira_—35-37. - - _Nummulites Fraasi_—35, 41-42. - - _Nummulites gizehensis_—33, 35-37, 39, 41, 48. - - _Nummulites gizehensis_ limestones—33, 35-37, 39, 41, 48. - - _Nummulites Schweinfurthi_—41. - - _Nummulites sub-Beaumonti_—41. - - Nummulitic limestones—36-39, 65. - - O - - Oases depressions—67. - - Oases, Origin of—29. - - Oasis, Parva—83. - - Oldest beds in Fayûm—33. - - Oligocene beds—34, 53, 70. - - Oligocene of Orient European in type—70. - - _Oliva_—46. - - _Operculina_—33, 46, 74. - - _Operculina discoidea_—35, 41-42, 47, 74. - - _Operculina-Nummulite_ Beds—35, 41-48, 74. - - Oppenheim, Dr. P.—43, 50, 88-89. - - Oriental faunal region—69. - - Origin of Fayûm, Causes of—15. - - Original floor of depression—39. - - Osborn, Prof. H. F.—68, 70. - - _Ostrea_—36-39, 42, 44-46, 48-50, 52. - - _Ostrea Bellardi_—89. - - _Ostrea Caillaudi_—89. - - _Ostrea Clot-Beyi_—38, 46, 89. - - _Ostrea cucullata_—41, 71, 77. - - _Ostrea digitalina_—43. - - _Ostrea Edmonstonei_—89. - - _Ostrea elegans_—35, 51, 89. - - _Ostrea flabellula_—51. - - _Ostrea Fraasi_—38-39, 47, 89. - - _Ostrea gigantea_—43. - - _Ostrea gigantica_—89. - - _Ostrea Gumbeli_—37. - - _Ostrea Hessi_—89. - - _Ostrea_ aff. _heteroclyta_—51. - - _Ostrea histris_—89. - - _Ostrea longirostris_—43. - - _Ostrea Mehemeti_—89. - - _Ostrea paucicostata_—89. - - _Ostrea plicata_—43, 89. - - _Ostrea producta_—43. - - _Ostrea qeruniana_—89. - - _Ostrea ramosa_—89. - - _Ostrea Reili_—35, 39, 45-47, 51-52, 89. - - _Ostrea Schweinfurthi_—89. - - _Ostrea semipectinata_—89. - - _Ostrea Sickenbergeri_—89. - - _Ostrea Stanleyi_—89. - - _Ostrea Whitehousei_—89. - - _Oudardia ovalis_—39. - - Outlets, Subterranean, to lake—14, 24. - - Outliers—21, 28. - - Output of water from springs—22. - - Oysters—36, 39, 42, 48. - - Oyster-beds—36, 50. - - Oyster-limestone—52. - - P - - Palæogene freshwater shells—60. - - Palæogene vertebrate fauna—87. - - Palæontographica—43, 63, 88. - - _Palæomastodon_—10, 59, 68. - - _Palæomastodon Beadnelli_—34, 59, 70. - - _Palæomastodon minor_—34, 70. - - Palms—21-22. - - _Paludina_—81. - - Pangolins—69. - - Paper-shales—36, 51. - - Paris basin—58. - - Parisian beds—18, 35-53. - - Pass from Muêla to Rayan—21. - - Pebble deposits—18, 30, 39-40, 56, 58, 76, 78. - - _Pecten_—39, 42, 46-47. - - _Pecten benedictus_—71. - - _Pecten Caillaudi_—89. - - _Pecten corneus_—37. - - _Pecten moëlehensis_—37, 52, 59. - - _Pecten solariolum_—52. - - _Pectunculus_—46. - - _Pectunculus juxtadentatus_—90. - - _Pectunculus ægyptiacus_—51, 90. - - _Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—35. - - _Pectunculus pulvinatus_—52. - - _Pelomedusa progaleata_—70. - - Pelvis of _Arsinoitherium_—54. - - Perforate weathering of sandstone—46. - - Permeability of Wadi Rayan—24. - - Perennial irrigation in Egypt—88. - - Pharaonic province—84. - - Philotera—84. - - _Phiomia_—10. - - _Phiomia serridens_—34, 59, 70. - - _Pinna_—39, 47. - - Plains—50, 52, 54, 77. - - Plain of subaerial denudation—39. - - _Planorbis Ehrenbergi_—84. - - _Planorbis marginatus_ var. _subangulata_—84. - - _Planorbis subangulata_—81. - - Plant-remains—42, 50-51, 53, 57. - - Plateau bounding Fayûm to north—26. - - _Plateaux_—15, 21, 25, 27-28, 32, 62. - - Pleistocene Beds—30, 34, 47, 50, 54, 71, 79-81, 84. - - _Pleurotoma_—37, 43, 46, 53, 58. - - _Pleurotoma ingens_—34, 58. - - _Plicatula Bellardi_—50-51, 89. - - _Plicatula indigena_—89. - - _Plicatula polymorpha_—35, 45-46, 51. - - _Plicatula pyramidarum_—89. - - _Plicatula Schweinfurthi_—89. - - Pliny—82. - - Pliocene Beds—30, 34, 41-42, 54, 69, 71-78. - - Pliocene sea, Invasion of—43, 71, 78. - - _Pliohyrax_—69. - - _Podocnemis antiqua_—37, 70. - - _Podocnemis Blanckenhorni_—70. - - _Podocnemis Blanckenhorni_ var. _ovata_—70. - - _Podocnemis fajumensis_—70. - - _Podocnemis Stromeri_—35, 70. - - _Podocnemis Stromeri_ var. _major_—70. - - Pools formed by rainfall—25. - - Pools produced by springs—20, 22. - - _Potamides_—53. - - _Potamides scalaroides_—34, 58, 64. - - _Potamides tiarella_—64. - - _Potamides tristriatus_—34. - - Prehistoric epoch—81-82. - - Prehistoric lake—23, 79-82. - - Preservation of fossil remains—55. - - Proboscidea—68-69. - - Promontories of Birket el Qurûn, Origin of—41. - - _Propristis Schweinfurthi_—35, 51, 70. - - _Psephophorus eocænus_—35, 70. - - _Pseudodon_—58, 60. - - _Pterodon_—10. - - _Pterodon africanus_—34, 59, 70. - - _Pterodon macrognathus_—34, 70. - - _Pterosphenus_—10. - - _Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi_—35, 50-51, 70. - - Ptolemaic lake—84. - - Ptolemaic period—82. - - Ptolemy Philadelphus—84. - - Ptolemy the second—84. - - Puddingstone of ancient rivers—26, 67. - - Pyramid-like building—74. - - Pyramid pebbles—56. - - Q - - Qalamsha, Ezba—23, 25-26, 41-42, 77. - - Qasr el Banat—84. - - Qasr el Qurûn—84. - - Qasr el Sagha—9, 31-32, 43, 49, 52, 56-58, 60-61. - - Qasr el Sagha Series—27, 32-33, 35, 38, 41, 44-57, 64-66, 75, 77. - - Qatrani, Jebel El—28, 55, 61, 75. - - Qatrani beds—34, 53-70. - - _Qerunia_—38. - - _Qerunia cornuta_—35, 45-46, 48, 51-52. - - Quartz pebbles—20, 50, 56, 62-63, 73, 75. - - Quartz sand—55. - - Quartzite—62, 73-75. - - R - - Radiation of Mammalia from Africa—69. - - Railway to Fayûm—40. - - Raised beaches—34, 41. - - Ratite bird—87. - - Ravine Beds—23, 25, 29-30, 35, 37-42, 46, 77. - - Ravines—12, 19, 29, 37, 39-40. - - Rayan, Jebel—36-37. - - Rayan, Geology of Wadi—22-23. - - Rayan, Little—22. - - Rayan Series—24, 25, 30, 33, 35-39, 41. - - Rayan, Wadi—9, 11, 14-24, 27-28, 31, 85, 87-89. - - Rays—70. - - Recent Beds—34, 81-85. - - Reclamation of Fayûm lake—82-84. - - Reconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—80. - - Reeds—20. - - Regulator of floods, Fayûm as—82. - - Reinach, Von—59, 88. - - Reptiles, Fossil—70. - - Reservoir at Assuan—88. - - Reservoir proposed in Wadi Rayan—16-19. - - Retreat of Eocene sea—54, 55, 66. - - _Rhinoceros bicornis_—69. - - Ridge separating Nile Valley and Fayûm—25-26, 71, 73-74, 79-80. - - Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq—23. - - _Rimella rimosa_—35, 51. - - Ripple-marked sandstone—51. - - Rise of Nile bed—80. - - River, Ancient—27, 52-55, 66-67, 79. - - River-currents—65, 71, 78. - - River-sand—55. - - Roads in desert—27. - - Rocks forming Libyan Desert—15. - - Roda—13, 75, 80. - - Rodents, Flying—68-69. - - Rohlfs’ Expedition—9, 63. - - Rolled fossils—73. - - _Rostellaria_—37. - - Round-topped hill-ranges—75. - - Rubiat—39-42. - - Ruins—20-22, 48-50, 52. - - Ruminants, Even-toed—68-69. - - Rushes—20. - - S - - _Saghatherium_—10. - - _Saghatherium antiquum_—34, 59, 70. - - _Saghatherium magnum_—34, 70. - - _Saghatherium minus_—34, 59, 70. - - Salines—20. - - Salinity of lake—14. - - Salinity of water in Wadi Rayan—24. - - Salt—18, 36, 77, 79. - - Salt in Wadis Rayan & Muêla—19, 20, 88. - - Samos, Island of—69. - - Sands—15, 18, 21, 29, 33-34, 40, 42, 47, 50, 53, 55-59, 61-62, - 71, 74-76, 80. - - Sand accumulations, Wind-blown—12, 20-21, 32, 34, 73, 84-85. - - Sand, &c., deposited in Birket el Qurûn—13, 80, 84. - - Sandberger Hills—62. - - Sandblast action—73. - - Sand-rock—44, 50-51, 56-60, 62, 74. - - Sands, Variegated—34, 53, 57, 59. - - Sandstones—15, 28, 32-36, 38-39, 42-63, 72, 74-77. - - Sandstone, Concretionary—35, 38. - - Sandstone-grit—56, 58, 62-63. - - Sandstones, Mottled—62. - - Sandstones, Variegated—76. - - Sandy clays—12, 18, 36-37, 42, 44, 46, 50-52, 56-59, 62. - - Sandy conglomerate—18. - - Sandy limestones—25, 35-36, 38-39, 42, 49-52. - - Sandy marl—37, 42, 62. - - Sandy shale—42. - - Saqâra, Pyramid of—28. - - Saws, Flint—61. - - Scalenohedra of calcite—51. - - _Schizaster_—36. - - _Schizaster_ aff. _africanus_—52. - - Schweinfurth, Dr.—9, 14, 19, 24, 34-37, 43-44, 49, 64, 71-72, - 77-80, 88. - - Schweinfurth’s Temple—49. - - Scoring due to blown sand—85. - - Scott Moncrieff, Sir C.—88. - - Sculpturing of sandstone—85. - - _Scutella_ beds—64. - - Second Cataract—81. - - Sections, Geological—36-42, 44-47, 50-52, 56, 58-62. - - Sediment deposited in Fayûm—26, 54. - - Sêla—9, 26, 39-40, 73. - - Septaria—46. - - _Serpula_—46. - - Sersena—25, 42, 75. - - Shales—36, 42, 48. - - Shaly Clays—44, 47, 62, 77. - - Shaly marl—39-41, 44. - - Sharks—39. - - Sharks’ teeth—46, 51. - - Sheep remains—80. - - Shell-borings—72. - - Shell-impressions—39-40, 42, 44, 50. - - Shelly limestone—38-39, 46, 51-52. - - Shelly sands—36. - - Shelly sandstone—46, 51. - - Sherwin, R. S.—78. - - Shore-line, Ancient—77. - - Shore-line, Movements of—65. - - Shrinkage of Birket el Qurûn—13. - - Sidmant el Jebel—17, 34, 71, 77. - - Siliceous bands, Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to—41. - - Siliceous beds capping hills—61. - - Siliceous limestone—37, 41. - - Silicified grits—27, 62, 67. - - Silicified sandstones—32, 57. - - Silicified trees—27, 34, 51, 53, 55-59, 61, 63, 65, 73-75. - - Silicified trees, Size of—53, 63. - - Silsila—81. - - Siluroid fish—35, 51, 70, 80. - - Sirenia—51. - - Sites, Excavated—84. - - Skeleton-carrying currents—53. - - Soil, Character of—11-12, 88. - - Soil survey—9. - - _Solarium_—51. - - _Solarium_ aff. _bistriatum_—51. - - South Africa as centre of evolution—69. - - South America, Migrations to—69. - - _Spatha_—53, 58, 60, 81. - - _Spatha dahomeyensis_—60. - - _Spatha Droueti_—60. - - _Spondylus ægyptiacus_—52, 89. - - _Spondylus perhorridus_—89. - - _Spondylus Ruaulti_—89. - - Springs in Wadi Muêla—20. - - Springs of Wadi Rayan—22. - - Stem-weathering in sandstone—56. - - Step-faults—31. - - _Stereogenys Cromeri_—35, 51, 70. - - _Stereogenys libyca_—70. - - _Stereogenys podocnemioides_—35, 70. - - Stock-work—50. - - Stone Age, Neolithic—82. - - Strabo—13, 82. - - Strata, Classification of—34. - - Strike faults—32. - - Stromer von Reichenbach, E.—44, 59, 69, 88. - - Strontium sulphate pseudomorphs—48. - - Subaerial denudation—39. - - Sub-fossil fauna of Fayûm—81. - - Successive faunal invasions, Theory of—68. - - Sulphate of lime—78. - - Sulphate of strontium pseudomorphs—48. - - Survey collections—59. - - Surveying operations—9. - - Surveying by Colonel Western—17. - - T - - Table-land of cultivated area—11. - - Tafla beds—39. - - Tamarisk growth—22, 25, 72, 82. - - Tamia—12-13, 15, 25, 27-28, 31, 40, 42, 49-50, 55-56, 72, 75. - - Tamia lake—40. - - Tectonics—16, 29-32. - - _Tellina_—40, 42, 51. - - _Tellina pellucida_—43. - - _Tellina scalaroides_—35. - - _Tellina tenuistriata_—35, 39. - - Temperature changes in desert—73. - - Temperature effects on pebbles—56. - - Temperature of springs in Wadi Rayan—22. - - Temple of Qasr el Sagha—49, 56. - - _Terebellum sopitum_—36. - - _Teredo_—39, 47. - - _Testudo Ammon_—10, 34, 59, 70. - - _Thallassochelys libyca_—35, 70. - - Theadelphia—84. - - Thickness of beds in section—37-29, 42, 45-46, 49-52, 56-60, - 65, 76-77. - - Thickness of sediments in Fayûm—15. - - Thinning of Fluvio-marine series—55. - - _Tomistoma_—70. - - _Tomistoma africanum_—35, 51, 59, 70. - - Tongrian beds—13, 64, 88. - - Toothed whales—39. - - Topography and structural geology—11-28. - - Tortoises, Large—10, 53-54, 59, 66, 87. - - _Trachelochetus bituberculatus_—51. - - Tropical shells in Fayûm—60. - - Tuba, El—40. - - _Tudicla_ aff. _umbilicaris_—51. - - Tufaceous gypsum—77. - - _Turbo Parkinsoni_—43. - - _Turritella_—38-39, 44-53. - - _Turritella angulata_—43, 45, 60, 64. - - _Turritella carinifera_—35, 38, 43, 51-52. - - _Turritella imbricataria_—51-52. - - _Turritella Lessepsi_—51. - - _Turritella parisiana_—51. - - _Turritella pharaonica_—34-35, 45, 51-52, 58. - - _Turritella transitoria_—43. - - _Turritella turris_—43. - - Turtles—53-55, 59, 60. - - Twelfth Dynasty—26, 82. - - Twigs preserved in clays—53. - - U - - Um el Atl—84. - - Unconformable junctions—39-40, 73, 76. - - Underground outlets of Birket el Qurûn—14. - - Ungulate, Horned—10. - - _Unio_—34, 53, 58-60. - - _Unio abyssinicus_—81. - - _Unio Bonneaudi_—60. - - _Unio Caillaudi_—60. - - _Unio Homsensis_—60. - - _Unio lithophagus_—60. - - _Unio Nyassænsis_—60. - - _Unio Schweinfurthi_—81. - - _Unio teretiusculus_—60. - - Upper Eocene—10, 32-34, 53-70, 76. - - Upper Mokattam beds—33. - - Upper Nile basin—87. - - Ur-Nil—66. - - V - - _Valvata nilotica_—80, 84. - - Vegetation in water-courses—25. - - _Velates Schmiedeli_—37. - - _Venus_—46. - - _Venus plicatella_—35. - - _Vermetus_—46. - - Vertebrae of _Mœritherium_—52. - - Vertebrae of _Zeuglodon_—45, 47, 50. - - Vertebrate fauna, Discovery of—9. - - Vertebrates, Extinct—10, 34-35, 43, 49, 51-52, 55, 61, 63, 65, - 67, 70, 87. - - _Voluta_—46. - - _Voluta arabica_—35. - - _Vulsella chamiformis_—37, 89. - - _Vulsella crispata_—89. - - _Vulsella lignaria_—89. - - _Vulsella moëlehensis_—89. - - W - - Wadi, Ravine of El—29-30, 37, 39. - - Wadi Rayan, Muêla, etc. (see under Rayan, Muêla). - - Wadi Rayan series—35-37. - - Warshat el Melh—20. - - Water analyses—22. - - Water-courses—25. - - Water-rounded pebbles—56, 72. - - Water-supply of Fayûm—11, 88. - - Weathering—57. - - Wells—21. - - Western, Colonel—16-18, 22, 87. - - Whales, Frequency of river and shore-frequenting—53. - - Whales, Toothed—39. - - Whitehouse, Cope—88. - - White Nile fauna, Absence of—81. - - Widan el Faras—28, 55, 58, 60, 62, 75-76. - - Willcocks, Sir William—13-14, 17-19, 80-88. - - Wind-shadow—84. - - X - - Xiphodonts—29. - - Z - - _Zeuglodon_—9, 39, 44, 49, 52, 87-88. - - _Zeuglodon brachyspondylus_—44. - - _Zeuglodon Isis_—35, 44-45, 47, 70. - - _Zeuglodon macrospondylus_—44. - - _Zeuglodon Osiris_—35, 44, 47, 49-51, 70. - - _Zeuglodon Zitteli_—44, 70. - - Zeuglodon Valley—41, 46-49, 61, 63, 85. - - Zittel, Prof. K.—43, 49, 62, 89. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration: PL. XVII. - -GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE FAYUM DEPRESSION - -_Survey Dept. Cairo._] - -[Illustration: PL. XVIII. - -MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAL BONE-BEARING LOCALITIES - -_Survey Dept. Cairo._] - -[Illustration: Plate XIX. - -SECTION FROM THE BIRKET EL QURÛN THROUGH DIMÊ AND QASR EL -SAGHA TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - -[Illustration: Plate XX. - -SECTION FROM WADI RAYAN TO THE SUMMIT OF THE ESCARPMENT NORTH OF GAR -EL GEHANNEM.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXI. - -SECTION OF THE DESERT RIDGE SEPARATING THE NILE VALLEY AND THE FAYÛM.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXII. - -SECTION FROM SIDMANT EL JEBEL IN THE NILE VALLEY THROUGH MEDINET -EL FAYÛM TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI, NEAR WIDAN EL FARAS.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXIII. - -MIDDLE EOCENE ESCARPMENT NEAR QASR EL SAGHA.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXIV. - -FROM GARAT EL ESH TO THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL EL QATRANI.] - - - - -Transcriber's note: - - - pg 4 Changed: "Homotoxial with quarried" to: "Homotaxial" - - pg 6 Changed: "M.—_Gyseous Deposits_" to: "_Gypseous_" - - pg 30 Absent references to footnotes 30 and 31 added after - "an accompanying map" and "plateau north of the lake." respectively. - - pg 31, footnote 32 Changed: "Bd. XXX I 1902" to: "Bd. XXXII 1902" - - pg 34, footnote 34 Changed: "III, Das Miocân,”" to: - "III, “Das Miocän,”" - - pg 58 Changed: "_Potamides tristiatus_" to: "_tristriatus_" - - pg 66, footnote 82 Some missing text has been indicated as [Blank]. - - pg 69, footnote 84 Changed: "für Saügetiere" to: "Säugetiere" - - pg 79 Changed: "matter or considerable doubt" to: "of" - - pg 80 Changed: "with little resistence" to: "resistance" - - pg 87 Changed: "_Eocene beds of the Fayûm, Egypi_" to: "_Egypt_" - - pg 88 Changed: "_Versteinerungen der tertiāren_" to: "tertiären" - - pg 88 Changed: "_für Saugetiere_" to: "_Säugetiere_" - - pg 88 Changed: "_der Libyschen Wūste_" to: "_Wüste_" - - pg 89 Changed: "Nacula Mœridis" to: "Nucula" - - pg 91 Changed: "_Arca tethyis_—52-90." to: "52, 90." - - pg 97 Changed: "Muêla, Wadi— [. . .] 21-21," to: "20-21," - - pg 97 Changed: "_Mytilus affinus_" to: "_affinis_" - - pg 98 Changed: "Perrenial irrigation" to: "Perennial" - - pg 98 Changed: "_Plonorbis subangulata_" to: "_Planorbis_" - - pg 98 Changed: "_Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—" to: - "_Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus_—35." - - pg 99 Changed: "Rohlfs’ Expedition—9-63." to: "9, 63." - - pg 100 Changed: "Thickness of beds in section—37-29" to: "37-39" - - Minor changes in punctuation have been done silently. - - Typographical errors changing æ for œ and vice versa have been - fixed silently. - - Placenames commonly spelled with diacritics (Fayûm, Qurûn, Lahûn, - etc.) were also accented elsewhere except illustration captions, - headers and titles of cited works. - - Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74831 *** |