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diff --git a/75446-0.txt b/75446-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..468f06e --- /dev/null +++ b/75446-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5535 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75446 *** + + + + + + MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES + + III + + A History of Slavic Studies + in the United States + + + + + A History of Slavic Studies in the United States + + + Clarence A. Manning + + _Associate Professor of Slavic Languages Columbia University_ + + + THE MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS + + MILWAUKEE 1957 WISCONSIN + + MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES are published under the direction of the Slavic + Institute of Marquette University. + + + _Edited by_ ROMAN SMAL-STOCKI + + _Advisory Board_ CYRIL E. SMITH + ALFRED SOKOLNICKI + CHRISTOPHER SPALATIN + + + The views expressed in the MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES are those of their + authors, and are not to be construed as representing the point of view + of the Slavic Institute. + + + Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57–11742 + + ©Copyright, 1957, Marquette University Press, Milwaukee, Wis. + + MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + Contents + + + INTRODUCTION vii + _Chapter 1_ THE SLAVS IN AMERICA 1 + _Chapter 2_ MASS IMMIGRATION 9 + _Chapter 3_ SLAVIC STUDIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 17 + _Chapter 4_ THE BEGINNING OF FORMAL STUDY 25 + _Chapter 5_ SLAVIC EFFORTS BEFORE WORLD WAR I 36 + _Chapter 6_ FROM 1914 TO 1939 44 + _Chapter 7_ SLAVIC STUDIES SINCE 1939 62 + _Chapter 8_ THE FUTURE TASKS OF SLAVIC AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES 83 + Integration in American consciousness. The divisions of + the area. Undergraduate courses. Language + instruction. Graduate work. Area studies. Summary. + BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 + INDEX 114 + + + + + Introduction + + +Preparing an adequate history of Slavic and East European studies in the +United States is not an easy task. Much of the pertinent material has +never been collected. Where it has been brought together, it has never +been adequately evaluated or put in its proper setting against the +general American cultural and educational development. Any attempt at a +synthesis of the situation must then be highly tentative, subject to +correction and amplification. + +In the formal sense, studies and courses in the Slavic languages, +cultures and history began to appear in American colleges and +universities at the end of the nineteenth century, largely through +individual interest and effort. Until World War I, these courses +developed slowly and aroused little interest. We can say the same of the +formation of libraries and of collections of other materials. If then we +should treat the history of Slavic studies in this narrow sense, we +would secure a creditable but small list of courses and publications +multiplying on a large scale only since World War II began. + +Yet, this picture would be incomplete. It fails to consider certain +factors which have greatly influenced American life and thinking and +which will in the future exert still more influence. It likewise ignores +significant achievements of earlier periods. It ignores certain +individuals who, though only tenuously connected with universities and +colleges, influenced the course of events. It ignores also that one +phenomenon that sharply differentiates the scope of Slavic and East +European studies in the United States from such studies anywhere else in +the world. That is the presence in the United States of millions of +Slavic immigrants and their descendants. These have played a hitherto +unrecognized part in the country’s development and at the same time have +given it some unusual aspects. + +Slavic studies in the United States can never be as important as in +those countries where the dominant language is Slavic, and where a +knowledge of the language is a necessity for daily life. There the +Slavic tradition, even under external pressure, is still alive. It +expresses itself in every form of culture, every study of the local +environment, natural or artificial. Thus, from late in the eighteenth +century, the universities of Austria-Hungary, especially the University +of Vienna, and those in such Slavic centers as Prague, Krakow, Lwow and +Zagreb developed flourishing centers of Slavic studies. The universities +in the Russian Empire also concentrated not only on Russian, but on all +the other tongues. It was in these countries that Slavic languages came +earliest and most completely into their own, as they later did in the +independent Slavic countries. + +Yet Slavic and East European studies are not in the same position as +they were in past decades in Germany, France and the British Isles. +There, they were definitely intellectual disciplines which might find +practical use in certain governmental and educational posts but which +were of interest only to a small number of specialists. In those +countries there were learned professors of Slavic. This is especially +true of Germany and France where relatively large groups of outstanding +Slavs, chiefly of the educated, professional and political classes, were +able to influence higher level thought in those countries. Few ordinary +Slavs appeared in either country. Those who did were mostly migratory +workers who did not take root in their new environment, and exercised +little influence. + +That is not true in the United States. There were before World War I a +small number of outstanding representatives of the Slavic nations, free +or not. But the United States was also brought face to face with the +immigration of millions of Slavic workmen and peasants. These brought +little material or consciously intellectual baggage to the country but +took root here and, under the leadership which they developed in the +United States, have played a steadily increasing role in American life. +They and their descendants of the second and third generations are not a +negligible force. Their children and grandchildren may have lost a +certain facility in the use of their mother tongues but they have +retained qualities, knowledge and traditions which are vital to the +United States today and which cannot fail to have a far-reaching effect +upon the entire world in the future. + +We cannot then speak of Slavic studies merely in the narrow sense of the +word. We must take into account these other factors which are rapidly +becoming tangible elements in all of American life. In this sense we +must consider Slavic and East European studies to include those means +other than political propaganda which have led to the present American +knowledge of the Slavic world, a knowledge with some striking insights +and some equally amazing gaps. + +The present survey is an attempt to handle all aspects of the growing +awareness of the Slavs by the American people and the American +educational system. Yet we can hardly do this without a brief survey of +the way in which the Slavs appeared on the American scene and the +methods by which they have come to assume their present position. The +complete history of this has never been written though we do have a fair +outline of the various stages of the movement. + + + + + CHAPTER 1 + THE SLAVS IN AMERICA + + +We have no records of the arrival in what is now the United States of +the first Slavic nationals. We don’t know from where they came or where +they settled. But it seems certain that at an early date Slavs appeared +in all of the various streams of colonization though primarily as +individuals. We must remember that it was not until the nineteenth +century that the world became seriously interested in the nationality +and language of a person. The medieval period had thought only in terms +of allegiance to a given monarch or to some supernational state which +embraced persons of many tongues and origins, united in a common +loyalty. + +This held true for the first two centuries of American settlement and we +always have to take it into account. It may be well to glance briefly, +then, at the political situation in the Slavic lands, from the discovery +of America through the next century. + +Christopher Columbus discovered the New World less than a half century +after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks and the liberation of +Moscow from the Tatar yoke. Europe was filled then as now with homeless +people, the Christians of the Byzantine Empire and of the Balkan +Christian states, preferring the hardships of a wandering life to +existence under the Mohammedan Turks. The armed forces of all countries +were filled with adventurers who had been driven from their homes and +were glad to fight as mercenaries. + +For example, there were Greek soldiers in the armies of Francisco de +Pizarro in his conquest of Peru in 1532. Later these same men took sides +with Diego de Almagro in his revolt against Pizarro and made for him the +first cannon cast in the New World.[1] This intermixture of +nationalities continued throughout the era of the discovery and the +ensuing decades. This was the height of the Spanish power and it was +under the flag of Spain that men of all nationalities, especially from +the Mediterranean area, went to serve. + +At this time, the most powerful Slavic state was the Polish Republic, +the _Rzeczpospolita Polska_. Yet this was far more than ethnographic +Poland. It took in almost all Ukrainian and Byelorussian lands as well +as ethnographic Lithuania and Latvia and a considerable part of eastern +Germany. It maintained the closest connections with the Danubian +principalities and even Hungary. Thus, a person known as a Pole could +very easily have been one of several Slavic and even non-Slavic +nationalities. + +The Czechs formed the nucleus of the Kingdom of Bohemia, itself a +subsidiary of the Hapsburg domains, the Holy Roman Empire (which, to use +the words of Voltaire, was already ceasing to be either Holy, Roman or +an Empire). The Slovaks and the Carpathian Ukrainians were under the +Crown of St. Stephen of Hungary as were the Croats, while the Slovenes +were more particularly connected with Austria. Yet again, the lands of +the Crown of St. Stephen were also part of the Empire. + +Thus the only Slavs not included either in the Ottoman and Hapsburg +empires or in Poland were the Muscovite Russians. At this period few of +them thought of crossing the boundaries of their western neighbors. +Those who left their original homes traveled eastward and by the middle +of the seventeenth century had reached the Pacific ocean and were poised +to cross the north Pacific at its narrowest point. + +We must keep these facts in mind when we think of the early Slavic +immigration to the United States. This jumble of nationalities and +states was still more confused by the fact that the overwhelming +majority of the educated Slavic population used one of the three +international languages of the day. The Roman Catholics used Latin, the +Orthodox employed either Church Slavic or Greek, and these “higher” +tongues supplemented and in large part replaced the vernaculars in legal +and historical records. This was a period of religious turmoil as well, +beginning with the Hussite wars in Bohemia. These were continued by the +Protestant Reformation touched off by Martin Luther and the +Counter-Reformation under the leadership of the Jesuits. At the same +time, the new Protestantism and the older Latin Rite were spreading +among the Orthodox Slavs and the situation was still further complicated +by the Union of Brest in 1594 which formed the so-called Uniat Church or +Catholic Church of the Eastern Rite. + +Each of these religious disputes, with the political consequences that +they involved, added to the number of displaced persons. The adherents +of every religion found shelter with their friends in any of the +countries of Western Europe—England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and +Holland. These were added to the number willing to risk anything to +secure a new home. This was the background of the early colonization +efforts in America. + +The Spanish settlements in the southwest are less easily discussed. +There can be no doubt that the leaders of the great religious orders +that spread through California and New Mexico were of Spanish birth but +there is considerable evidence to show that some of their subordinates +were probably of Slavic origin. At least they seemed familiar with the +peculiarities of Orthodox iconography. The Spanish mission in Santa +Barbara, California, displays the Eastern form crucifix. Many of the +wood paintings of saints in New Mexico superficially resemble crude +icons. Yet little has been done to trace the early lives of the monks +who worked in these missions. It would certainly not be surprising to +find that some had made their way to the Spanish centers of the +Franciscans and Dominicans from the disturbed area of Eastern Europe.[2] + +We are on far surer ground when we come to the colonies established by +the English along the Atlantic coast. In 1610, the Virginia Company sent +to Jamestown, with Lord de la Warr, a group of Polish gentlemen as +workmen. These were apparently refugees in England from one of the many +upheavals in the _Rzeczpospolita_. Their names appear in Anglicized +forms and since we have no information about their experiences before +they reached England, many of them have been claimed by the Poles, +Ukrainians, and the other peoples included in the Polish state.[3] + +The same situation prevailed in New Netherlands. There can be no doubt +that some of the settlers in the new Dutch colony were Slavs. Thus for a +long while, the name of the Zeboroski[4] family, one of the early +settlers, was written in Jersey Dutch. The family is proud of its Polish +origin but again like so many, it also has been claimed by the +Ukrainians. Another Slav of this period is Augustine Herrman, a skilled +surveyor from Prague. He apparently went first to Virginia, then moved +northward to New Amsterdam and later founded Bohemia Manor in Maryland. +Efforts have been made by both the Czechs and the Germans to prove that +he was of their origin but what proof there is favors the Czechs.[5] +Many other families, such as the Roosevelts, can trace their origin to +the Baltic states but leave us to decide from which particular group the +original ancestor came. + +A still more tangled situation arose in the early colony of Delaware, +while it was still New Sweden. The Swedes eliminated the first Dutch +settlement around Fort Casimir and then in 1641 founded their own Fort +Christina and sent over a population of Swedes, Germans and Finns, and +all this at a time when the Poles and the Swedes were conducting their +own warfare behind the shelter of the Thirty Years War. At the same time +the Swedes were trying to make the Baltic a Swedish lake and their +representatives were deeply involved in negotiations with the +_Zaporozhian Kozaks_ who were in an almost constant state of revolt +against Poland. The Swedes then ruled both Livonia and Estonia. In view +of all this it would have been surprising indeed if there had not been +Slavs in the colony of New Sweden, the area in which the traditionally +American form of the log cabin seems to have originated, a form +reminiscent of the architecture of the East Baltic Slavs. The evidence +for New England is less clear, though we know that the authorities of +the new Harvard College seriously thought of inviting the distinguished +Czech educator, Jan Amos Comenius (Komensky) to serve as the first +president, in 1630. However, nothing came of it.[6] + +In the eighteenth century there is the same uncertainty. In 1741 a group +of the _Unitas Fratrum_ (the Bohemian Brethren) from Bohemia and +Moravia, were led by Count Zinzendorf to a settlement in Bethlehem, +Pennsylvania. It is at least possible that some of these settlers spoke +Czech as well as German. If they did, it would explain more clearly the +interest in the community that was taken during the American Revolution +by General Kasimierz Pulaski, who seems to have made a point of +attending religious services there whenever he could. The architecture +of the older buildings further suggests Slavic influence. + +The American Revolution brought to the New World another group of Slavs, +of whom the best known are the two Polish leaders, Generals Pulaski[7] +and Tadeusz Kosciuszko.[8] Pulaski, already a well-known figure in +Poland, brought with him a number of other East Europeans and Slavs who +formed a considerable portion of the famous Pulaski Legion. We have also +the names of others, such as Count Bienowski and Colonel Michael Kovach, +an Hungarian, a member of the Legion who was killed at Charleston, South +Carolina, in 1779. Most of the Legion’s survivors stayed in the new +country. + +Another possible source for inspiring Slavs, and especially Poles, to +come to America was the career of Major General Charles Lee,[9] of the +American Army. He had once been in command of the Cadet School in Warsaw +founded by King Stanislaw Poniatowski. In addition to that, most of the +French troops who served in America had previously been on duty in +western Poland supporting the Saxon claims to the throne and helping the +Poles oppose Russian domination. There is no way of knowing whether or +not this force had received Slavic recruits during its term of duty +there. The services of both Pulaski and Kosciuszko, and the later return +of Kosciuszko to the United States in 1797, built up considerable +interest for Poland in the United States. This continued for nearly a +half century, leading to a fair amount of immigration from the former +Polish state, especially after the Polish Revolt of 1831. + +Moreover, American newspapers of the time published long accounts of +events in Europe. Thus, in 1733 John Peter Zenger included in the New +York _Weekly Journal_ an account of the efforts of Stanislaw Leszczynski +to secure the throne of Poland. Numerous similar examples could be +cited. However, no organized interest in Slavic lands and peoples +developed. + +Little is heard of Russians at this period, although American +representatives had appeared in St. Petersburg during the Revolution and +the Tsars, in the early 1800’s, began to send diplomatic representatives +to Washington. Prince Dimitry Golitsyn,[10] a member of a socially +prominent Russian family, was the first Roman Catholic priest to be +fully trained and ordained by Bishop Carroll in the United States. He +continued until the end of his life to be one of the leading Catholic +priests in Pennsylvania, and maintained contact with the Russian +Ministers in Washington. We also know that in 1800, Kutusoff mantles and +bonnets were very popular in New York society.[11] + +Until 1848, the Slavs who came to the United States came either as +individual travelers or as individual immigrants, perhaps drawn in the +train of some more prominent compatriot. There are several interesting +accounts of this period, in Polish, such as those by Juljusz Ursin +Niemciewicz who came with Kosciuszko in 1797 and remained in the country +for several years. He visited Boston around 1799 and his diary mentions +a Polish Unitarian library, the _Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum_, in +Harvard of which nothing is now known.[12] + +The situation was different in the Pacific northwest.[13] The Russians +during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reached the Sea of +Okhotsk and Kamchatka in their eastward advance and began to push into +the north Pacific in quest for furs. Late in the century they started to +establish more or less temporary trading posts on the Aleutian Islands. +In 1783, Grigory Shelikov established a more permanent center at Kodiak. +This center of Russian influence was later transferred south to St. +Michael on the site of the present Sitka in 1800. (The ablest Russian +governor, Aleksander Baranov, went further. In 1811 he sent his most +trusted assistant, Ivan Kuskov, to establish a Russian trading post at +Fort Ross, not far from San Francisco). Shelikov had founded the +Russian-American Company to exploit these new lands, and his talented +successor, Nikolay Rezanov, visited the New World in 1805, dreaming of +controlling the entire Pacific coast, including the Spanish settlements +in California with San Francisco as their head. On his return across +Siberia he died at Irkutsk as the result of a fall from his horse and +his dreams largely perished with him, although later the Russians did +try to seize the Hawaiian Islands and make the north Pacific a Russian +lake. + +Fortunately for the Americans, the Russian settlements were poorly +supported from St. Petersburg and the intricacies of Russian law left +Baranov and his successor without the necessary supplies and they were +compelled to indulge in illegal trade with the British. Boston merchants +also carried to Kodiak and Sitka the goods which the Russian-American +Company had neglected to send. + +Strangely enough, the Russians failed to cross the coastal mountains +either in Alaska or further to the south. They contented themselves with +the hunting of marine animals, especially the sea otter, sending the +skins back to Siberia for Asiatic distribution. They apparently did not +realize that the American continent could be crossed by land, a peculiar +oversight when we remember their rapid crossing of the whole of Asia. +Rezanov had hoped to make Kodiak a center of Russian culture. He had +come to Russian America by sea from St. Petersburg and brought with him +a large library of books for an academy which he proposed to establish. +Apparently Shelikov had spread excessive stories of the Russian +achievements, for Kodiak was only a wretched frontier village and not an +embryonic metropolis, Slava Rossii, as he boasted. Rezanov’s collection +remained in Kodiak until its destruction by fire on July 18, 1943. + +The Russian Orthodox Church also sent a mission to the colony. The +monks, largely from Valamo, were devoted men and at least one was a +martyr. The greatest of the Russian clergy was Ivan Venyaminov, later +Archbishop Innokenty, Metropolitan of Moscow and one of the great +figures of the Russian Church. This mission converted the majority of +the Aleuts and Eskimos in the neighborhood and the Russian language was +long the common speech on most of the Aleutian Islands. + +Russian expansion thus had begun to take shape seriously at about the +same time the Americans began to push westward. After buying the +Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, President Thomas Jefferson sent +an expedition under Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the +northwest. In 1806 the expedition reached the mouth of the Columbia +River. Then followed the settlement of Astoria by agents of the American +fur trader, John Jacob Astor. By the time the Russians were ready to +advance to the south, the Americans were established in the center of +the area and the Russian colonies never formed a solid belt on the west +coast. For some reason the Russians did not try to eliminate the +Americans and the southern settlements began to wither away from +inability to expand. In 1841, Fort Ross was sold to a group of Americans +and the Russians withdrew northward. + +The lively trade between Sitka and Boston was interrupted by the War of +1812 and when peace came, commerce was further hindered by Russian +efforts to impose trade restrictions that were unacceptable to the +Americans. These came at the same time as the revolutions and +declarations of independence of the Spanish colonies and the adherence +of Tsar Alexander I to the Holy Alliance to aid Spain in recovering +them. The Russian efforts at controlling the north Pacific and the +American sympathy for the Spanish colonies led to the proclamation of +the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 which doomed European expansion in the New +World. Both President Monroe and his Secretary of State, John Quincy +Adams, had held diplomatic posts in Russia and were aware of the +differences between the Russian and American points of view. + +The Monroe Doctrine and the settlement of the northwest determined the +fate of Russian America. It was blocked to the south by the United +States and the British settlements in the Canadian West. In 1867, Russia +realized the hopelessness of its position and sold the territory now +known as Alaska to the United States. The Russians then established +their bishopric in San Francisco but during the next years the Russian +colony in the far west remained an isolated group and it was only toward +the end of the century that it merged with the general Slavic +immigration. + +This, then, is the first phase of Slavic contact with the New World. +Relatively little imprint was left on American life, although we must +not undervalue certain ideas that did pass into the young republic. They +were the result of individual effort rather than organized or mass +movements which came later. + + + + + CHAPTER 2 + MASS IMMIGRATION + + +As the middle of the century approached the situation began to change +radically. There came a marked improvement in the accommodations and +regularity of the trans-Atlantic ships and contacts between North +America and Europe began to multiply. + +Then came the Spring of the Nations, the year 1848, with the efforts of +the Germans and the peoples of Austria-Hungary to put an end to the +prevailing absolutism. This movement failed but it led a large number of +Germans who had supported the Frankfort General Assembly to leave their +native land and to seek refuge in the United States. Most of them +drifted west, settling in many of the Central States and the Middle +West. They took up free land and settled down to become prosperous +farmers. The rumors of their success in adapting themselves to their new +environment spread beyond Germany and fired the resolution of other +discontented peoples. + +The first to respond on any large scale were the Czechs. They began to +come in thousands, also tending toward the Middle West and settling on +the new frontiers which had been pushed westward by the coming of the +Germans. They soon began to form extensive colonies in the still +sparsely settled areas of Nebraska, Iowa, and other states until the +coming of the American Civil War, which briefly checked the movement. In +their new homes, and in small communities, they formed a large segment +of the population. They endeavored to transplant their old traditions +and mode of life to America and to establish their own institutions, +making changes only as American law and environment dictated.[14] + +The Poles were the next Slavic people to follow. The earliest immigrants +were, as we might expect, from Austrian Poland but after the failure of +the uprising of 1863, refugees from Russian Poland and the area under +German control began to flow in. The earliest immigrants, like the first +Czechs, moved west but after the Civil War the great American industrial +expansion began and the majority of later immigrants were attracted by +the possibilities for work in the mines and factories which were being +built, especially in Pennsylvania. The movement for immigration was +sponsored not only by the employers, who desired a constant supply of +unskilled and cheap labor, but also by the steamship companies which +sent their agents through the European villages and painted in glowing +terms the possibilities of advancement and of wealth in the United +States. + +Their blandishments did not fall upon empty ears in the more backward +and underprivileged areas. In a steadily increasing stream, there began +to come to the United States, Slovaks, Ukrainians from Galicia and the +Carpathian area, Croats, and, to a lesser degree, Serbs. There was even +a small settlement of Lusatian Serbs in Texas. This process continued +until the beginning of World War I. + +The immigrant ranks included a certain number of educated people but +these were to a large degree interested in some form of art, attracted +by the opportunities for practicing their talents in the United States. +The political immigrants were relatively few for since they had hopes of +affecting conditions in their homelands they preferred to find temporary +refuge in some European country. + +The majority of immigrants came from those strata which had become +accustomed to leaving their homes as migratory and seasonal workers. +Most were scarcely literate and were little aware of the cultural +progress that was going on in their homelands. At first they came merely +in the hope of saving up enough money to return and live with more +comfort in their native villages. But it was not long before they either +despaired of this or were attracted to the American mode of living and +sent for their wives and families. Many of these early arrivals had +little national consciousness and the Slovaks and Ukrainians in +particular reflected the conditions prevailing in the last quarter of +the nineteenth century. + +The change from the hard but traditional life of the Slavic village to +the confusion and grimness of the American mining or factory town was a +disagreeable shock to many of these immigrants, for it was primarily the +agricultural population of Eastern Europe that poured into the American +factories and mines. The newcomers were exploited everywhere and with +their ignorance of English were at a disadvantage in competing with +their neighbors. + +However, they rapidly adapted themselves to their changed environment. +They began to form various kinds of associations for their own advantage +and leaders of their own groups began to appear. Some of these were +unscrupulous men who learned some English and didn’t blush to drain +money from their less fortunate comrades. But the number of those who +seriously worked for the good of the immigration steadily grew and +finally eliminated, to a large extent, the more greedy and grasping +pseudo-leaders.[15] + +The Slavic communities in the United States owe much to the priests who +came to serve in the churches which they established in all the Slavic +centers. Some of them had come with the authorization of their superiors +in the Old World. Others simply followed the outflow from their villages +and arrived in America with little more knowledge of conditions than +their flocks. Their lack of familiarity with the legal conditions +governing church property in the United States involved them in many +difficulties. Even the immigrant Roman Catholic priests serving the +Poles and Slovaks could not, at first, easily fit themselves into the +framework of their Church in the United States and through +misunderstandings they often got into controversies with the Roman +Catholic hierarchy here, consisting mainly of Irish and Germans, and all +too often they were tempted to declare their complete independence and +make needless issues over extra-ritual customs and parish organization. +The situation was even worse for the Catholic priests of the Eastern +Rite (the Uniats) who ministered to the Ukrainians from Galicia and the +Carpathians. These people insisted at first upon a married clergy and +since they often came without proper credentials, they were looked at +askance by the hierarchy who had no experience or personal knowledge of +this Rite. In addition, many of the priests from the Carpathians had +been under strong Hungarian influence at home and found it difficult to +serve their flocks adequately in the New World. The Russian Orthodox +were somewhat better off, especially after the seat of the Archbishopric +was moved to New York. But, there again, many parishes indulged in +almost continuous appeals to the civil authority against the +administration of the church. However, by the end of World War I, most +misunderstandings had been eliminated on all sides and the way was open +for smooth and steady development. + +Yet it was the priests who became the first community leaders to guide +the immigrants to a new and better life in which they retained as much +as possible of their old traditions. + +They and the more experienced lay leaders played a great role in the +organization of the Slavs into fraternal societies, which had risen in +the United States even before the Revolution and since then had grown +steadily and found a place both in American life and American law. On +the payment of small sums they provided protection to their members, +payments in case of death or inability to work and, in some cases other +assistance. + +The value of this system was early recognized by the Slavic leaders. At +first the societies were small and purely local but in time the +individual groups tended to unite into central organizations which +acquired larger and larger capital resources. These societies, whether +directly connected with churches or not, gradually came to form a +distinctive feature of Slavic-American life. Today there is no Slavic +group which does not have one or more such organization of national +significance. Among the leaders are the Czechoslovak National Alliance, +the Polish National Alliance, the Ukrainian National Association, the +Serb National Federation, the Polish Roman Catholic Union, the Ukrainian +Workingmen’s Association, the Ukrainian Providence Association, the +Croatian National Alliance. They possess large reserve funds and are +leaders in financial, social, political and cultural work. + +Furthermore, as we shall see, it is out of these large, freely +organized, fraternal organizations, with or without church support, that +certain forms of Slavic scholarship have developed in the United States. +This was inconsiderable in the beginning but it has grown and improved +steadily and is destined to play a very important role in the future, +especially in the case of those countries from which there has been an +extensive immigration. + +Russian immigration has followed a quite different course. During the +nineteenth century, the Russian Empire tried to channel all movement +from home areas to Siberia instead of across the ocean. For this +purpose, the government appropriated large sums of money and furnished +transportation first from the Black Sea ports to the Pacific coast and +then later along the Trans-Siberian railroad. As a result, prior to +1908, almost the entire Russian immigration into the United States was +from the non-Russian areas in the northwest. This includes the Finns, +the Lithuanians, the Poles and the Jews who began to leave Russia in +large numbers in the nineties because of the anti-Semitic outbreaks. + +The actual Russian population of Russian Alaska had been small. But, +during the second half of the nineteenth century, after its sale, a +number of Russians drifted across the Pacific Ocean to San Francisco. +The seat of the Archbishopric of the Aleutian Islands and North America +was moved from Sitka to San Francisco. In 1900, there were enough +Russians on the Atlantic coast to warrant Tikhon, later Patriarch of +Moscow, moving his episcopal seat to New York.[16] This was done not +only to serve the needs of the Russian Orthodox population but to enable +him to exert an influence on the Greeks and other Orthodox who had +emigrated to the east coast. About 1905, the difficulties between the +Roman Catholic hierarchy and the Catholics of the Eastern Rite made +opportune a Russian attempt to bring the Eastern Rite adherents back to +Orthodoxy. At the outbreak of World War I the bulk of the Russian +Orthodox Church in America consisted of converts from Galicia and the +Carpathians. There also had been Russian immigration after the +revolutionary disturbances of 1905, but in 1904 the actual Russian +immigration in America was small, far less in numbers than any other +Slavic group except the Bulgarians. + +By 1914, the Slavic communities in the United States especially the +Czechs, the Slovaks and the Poles, were already well organized. These, +with their national committees, played a considerable role in securing +the independence of their homeland. They supported directly and through +their American non-Slavic friends the work of Thomas G. Masaryk and +Ignace Paderewski. Similarly, Professor Michael I. Pupin stood out as +the leader of the Serbs and indeed of all the Yugoslavs. The Ukrainians +were less fortunate, for at the moment they had no leader well known to +the American public and they encountered the opposition of both Russian +and Polish groups, whose nations had dominated Ukraine for centuries. + +After World War I, the interrupted stream of immigration again broke +through and during the early years it assumed even larger proportions +than it had previously. In addition, many White Russians who had fled +from the Bolsheviks came to the United States. + +The cultural level of the Slavic communities rose rapidly, assisted by +better educational opportunities for them both at home and in the +immigration. A large number of highly educated Russians had come over +and the opening of Washington legations for Poland, Czechoslovakia and +Yugoslavia gave the immigrants pride in their own origin and intensified +their contact with cultural work being done in their liberated +homelands. The same effect was achieved by the Ukrainian diplomatic +mission to Washington under Dr. Bachinsky and later Dr. Luke Myshuha, +although unfortunately this did not receive final recognition by the +United States. + +In 1924, this influx of immigrants was brought to a halt by the passing +of American immigration laws which introduced the principle of national +quotas and regulated the number of immigrants admitted each year by a +ratio based upon previous arrivals. This penalized the Slavs severely +for their immigration had been relatively recent and their quotas were +reduced almost to the vanishing point. Contrariwise, the peoples of +Northern Europe, who had arrived earlier, were assigned quotas which +they never filled. + +So, from then until World War II, the American Slavic communities +remained relatively static in numbers, growing only by natural +increases. However, this was also a period when earlier efforts began to +bear fruit and Slavic cultural and financial importance increased +rapidly. The second generation, educated in American schools, was +beginning to produce a new type of leadership. It took its place in the +general American cultural, economic and political life with consequent +results upon both the country as a whole and upon the Slavs. There was +increased cooperation between the Slavs and the rest of the American +population, a period of growth and development from within. + +After World War II, the displaced persons from Europe began to enter the +United States in large numbers. From 1939 on, there came a surprisingly +large number of highly educated persons, largely Poles, who were fleeing +from both the Nazis and the Communists. These new arrivals revivified +the intellectual and cultural interests of the older immigrants and +their descendants and, furthermore, they brought the best traditions of +education and scholarship from their homelands. + +We can thus divide the growth of Slavic influence into four periods. + +I. _From the beginning to 1848._ During this period, the immigrants +arrived as individuals and with few exceptions were absorbed rapidly and +almost completely into the main streams of American life. + +II. _From 1848 to 1924._ This was the period of the mass immigration, +largely of unskilled laborers who came to secure the material benefits +of life in the United States. Yet it was also the period when the +general outlines of Slavic life in America were being sketched, +organizational and church affiliations were made, and the immigrant +groups were taking root as large units in the United States. + +III. _From 1924 to 1939._ Despite the almost complete lack of +immigration, Slavic communities were beginning to attract the attention +of the American public. Internally they were completing their adaptation +to the American mode of life with far greater success than had seemed +possible a few decades before. + +IV. _Since World War II._ Most of the leaders who refused to accept +Communism have come to the United States. The outstanding scholars and +artists have also come to find refuge. In some instances, it is no +exaggeration to say that centers of the higher culture have been +transferred to the United States. Simultaneously, the emergence of this +country as the spokesman and champion of the free world has awakened far +broader classes of the American public to the importance of the Slavs in +the modern world and has led to a greater demand for scholarship in +those fields which concern the Slavic nations. + +There are thus two separate streams of Slavic scholarship in the United +States. The one is the normal inclusion of Slavic subjects, history, +culture and languages into the American universities and colleges. This +has been a normal process of development, just as in other areas of +study. Side by side with this, however, have been the efforts of the +national Slavic groups in the United States. These two streams developed +for many years in almost complete separation, but between the two World +Wars they began to affect each other. Since World War II, the two +streams are slowly but surely merging and it is probable that in the +future they will be completely consolidated to the advantage of Slavic +scholarship, the American people, and the entire free world which still +maintains those universal ideals that have come to dominate +civilization. + + + + + CHAPTER 3 + SLAVIC STUDIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY + + +Slavic studies were slow in making a formal appearance in American +colleges and universities. There were many reasons for this, not the +least being the general submergence of the Slavic countries (except +Russia) in the eighteenth century. At this period, the Slavic languages +were little studied in Germany or France, far less in England and thus +their absence in the United States is readily understandable. + +In addition, the early American colleges, especially before the Civil +War, had limited curricula. They were modelled on Oxford and Cambridge +but, restricted in finances, libraries, and personnel, their curricula +were largely adapted to the presumed needs of the day. They were +intended to prepare men for the Protestant ministry or the law. +Enrollments were small and confined to certain groups of the population. +There was relatively little broad intellectual interest in the country +although men like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson or even Count +Benjamin T. Rumford had won recognized places in the world of +scholarship and of ideas. + +The modern languages, chiefly French, were taught more or less by the +same methods as the accepted classical languages and Hebrew. It was only +in the first quarter of the nineteenth century that George Ticknor +introduced at Harvard detailed work on modern European literatures. This +was followed in the twenties and the thirties by the introduction of +some Spanish and Italian, largely influenced by the revolt of the +Spanish colonies in South and Central America. + +We should not then be surprised that the earliest interest in the Slavic +languages was shown by individuals who, by some means or another, had +had contact with the Slavic world and whose concern was more or less +amateurish. Some of these men were college graduates. Others had had no +formal connection with the colleges of the day but had learned to know +and appreciate Slavic culture and had set themselves the task of making +and publishing translations in America. These began to appear shortly +after the War of 1812. The Napoleonic Wars and later the war with +England had interfered with American trade and commerce but had also +stimulated American interest in Europe. This interest was also aroused +by the Greek war for independence and the formation of a group of +Hellenophiles in New England. Even before this, in 1810, the +Congregationalists of Boston had established the American Board of +Commissioners for Foreign Missions. It sent missionaries to the Near +East and these, originally working to convert the Mohammedans, soon +transferred their activity to Orthodox Christians and to the foundation +of such American missionary educational institutions as Roberts College +and the American University in Beirut, later to play so prominent a part +in the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire. + +The visit of the Marquis de Lafayette in 1825 also recalled the American +Revolution and the services of the various foreign officers who had +served in the American Army, including Generals Pulaski and Kosciuszko. +Interest in Poland was again stirred by the Polish Uprising of 1831.[17] + +Thus the growing American prosperity and the strengthening of the +American national consciousness started a ferment which for a number of +years caused a growing interest in some forms of Slavic culture in the +United States, especially in New England. We must remember that this was +before any mass Slavic immigration to the United States, although there +were a considerable number of Slavs in the country, especially in the +north and in the ocean shipping sections. + +The first translator of Russian poetry in the Anglo-Saxon world was, in +all probability, William David Lewis.[18] His career is typical of this +period. Lewis was born in 1792 in Christiana, New Castle County, +Delaware. He received some education in Clarmont Seminary and Lower +Dublin Academy and was then apprenticed to a merchant. However, his +brother, John D. Lewis, who was established in St. Petersburg as a +merchant asked his younger brother to join him in 1813. This was during +the War of 1812 and the young man, in order to get to Europe, secured a +post as private secretary to the peace commissioners. He sailed for +Europe in 1814. Leaving his post at Gothenburg, he went on to St. +Petersburg where he spent most of his time until 1824. + +Lewis had excellent connections in St. Petersburg. He met and became +friendly with Count Nesselrode, with the Cossack leader, Platov, and +also with Nikita Ivanovich Grech, the editor of the _Syn Otechestva_. He +also seems to have met the elderly dean of Russian poetry, Gavriil +Romanovich Derzhavin. It was perhaps under the influence of Derzhavin +and Grech that he began to translate Russian poetry. On January 31, +1821, apparently while on a visit home, he published in the _National +Gazette and Literary Register_ of Philadelphia a poem, _Stanzas_, by +Yuri Aleksandrovich Neledinsky-Meletsky. + +Lewis was becoming especially interested in the pre-Pushkin period of +Russian poetry. However, in 1849 he also published in Philadelphia, +where he made his home, a volume of translations entitled the +_Bakchesarian Fountain and Other Poems_, a name taken from one of +Pushkin’s early poems. Grech saw to it that Lewis’ book was +appropriately reviewed and praised in the conservative Russian literary +journals. However, Lewis was not primarily a man of letters and his +contribution ends here. Even before he left St. Petersburg he had +embarked upon a series of disputes with some of the American diplomatic +representatives in the Russian capital and the next decades he spent as +a successful business man and politician. For a time, 1849 to 1853, he +was Collector of Customs in Philadelphia. He died in 1881. Lewis was +slightly ahead of the work of Sir John Bowring who published in 1821–23, +two volumes of _Specimens of the Russian Poets_. He followed these later +with translations from Polish and Serb poetry, inspired by interest in +the Serb folksongs. The translations were widely read in the United +States. + +The translations of Bowring, and a special interest in the works of +Mickiewicz, determined the career of James Gates Percival.[19] He was +born near Hartford, Connecticut, in 1795 and was graduated from Yale in +1815. A student of languages, a poet of stature, an excellent geologist, +Percival was eccentric and somewhat of a recluse. His works attracted +little more than local interest and were soon forgotten. He finally +became the state geologist of Connecticut and later of Wisconsin, where +he died in 1856. For more than twenty years, though, he had done Polish +translations and contributed articles on Polish literature and history +to various periodicals. Some of these were little more than a rewriting +of articles published in European journals, for Percival knew ten +languages and was abreast of European developments. His knowledge of +Polish was not too thorough, but at the period he influenced a group +known as the “Connecticut Wits” and is a good example of the American +interests of the time. + +A more substantial contributor was the better known Talvj,[20] the +author of the _Historical View of the Languages and Literatures of the +Slavonic Nations_. This was the first survey of the Slavic literatures +after the works of Safarik. Talvj had a remarkable career. Her real name +was Therese Albertine Louise von Jakob. She was born in Halle, Germany +in 1797, where her father, Ludwig Heinrich von Jakob, was a professor at +the University of Halle. In 1807 he was invited to give a series of +lectures at the University of Kharkov. Therese soon became a competent +linguist, began to translate the novels of Sir Walter Scott into German, +and in 1825 published in German a collection of the _Volkslieder der +Serben_, again in response to an interest in the Serb folksongs. + +In 1828 she married Edward Robinson, an American Congregational minister +and scholar who was then a professor in the Union Theological Seminary +in New York. Robinson was much interested in Biblical archaeology, +edited a popular religious journal, the _Biblical Repository_, and spent +considerable time in the Biblical lands. He published his wife’s work on +Slavic literature in this journal. In 1850 it was issued in book form. +When Robinson died in 1863, Talvj (her pen name was taken from the first +letters of her name) returned to Germany. She died in 1870 in Hamburg. +Talvj’s book was probably the outstanding work on the Slavs done by a +non-Slav in the first half of the century. Unfortunately it attracted +little attention even though it was much sounder than were many of the +studies written as much as a half century later. It received due +recognition only after Slavic studies in the Anglo-Saxon world had begun +to find themselves and had shown a certain independence of thought. + +The approach of the American Civil War and American preoccupation with +western expansion turned interest away from Slavic themes. It was only +near the end of the Civil War that we begin to find truly interested +spokesmen for Slavic culture and even then the leaders were men who had +personal connections with the Slavic World, often through service in the +American diplomatic corps. + +One of these was Jeremiah Curtin.[21] Born near Milwaukee, Wisconsin in +1840, after a common school education and some study at Carroll College, +Waukesha, Wisconsin, he went to Harvard where he received his degree in +1863. A few months later, he met Admiral Lisovsky and the other Russian +naval officers in the fleet that visited New York. They induced him to +go to Russia and for a while, he was secretary of the American Legation +there. On his return to the United States, he did some work on the +folklore of the American Indian but later returned to Russia and +traveled extensively in the Caucasus. He wrote a great deal about his +experiences but achieved most of his fame by his translations of the +novels of the Polish writer, Henryk Sienkiewicz. Sienkiewicz’s _Quo +Vadis_, in Curtin’s translation, has kept its place as the most popular +piece of Slavic literature in English. It has been produced several +times in the movies and while Curtin’s name is largely forgotten, his +translations are still read and Sienkiewicz is still the best known +figure in Polish literature among Americans. + +Another American born in the same year, 1840, was Eugene Schuyler.[22] A +member of the celebrated Schuyler family, he was born in Ithaca and +educated at Yale, where he graduated in 1859. He then went to the +Columbia Law School and on leaving it in 1863, entered the American +diplomatic service. He was American Consul in Moscow and Revel (Tallinn) +and Secretary of the American Legations in St. Petersburg and +Constantinople. While he held the latter post he made a full report on +the Turkish atrocities against the Bulgarians in 1876. For a while he +acted as Minister Resident in Greece, Romania and Serbia. He was +regarded as somewhat too pro-Russian, though, and in 1889 the Senate +refused to confirm him as Assistant Secretary of State. Schuyler died in +1890. His chief work was a two volume biography of Peter the Great which +appeared in 1884 and was the chief American historical work dealing with +a Russian subject. While it has been outmoded by later historical +research, the biography still stands as a monument to his scholarship +and understanding of the Russian scene. + +George Kennan was slightly younger.[23] He was born in 1845 in Norwalk, +Ohio. He received little formal education but became an expert +telegrapher and was used on important assignments by the Western Union +Telegraph Company, including service in the telegraph office of the +White House during the Civil War. As the Civil War drew to its close, +the American and Russian governments became interested in a plan for +linking San Francisco and St. Petersburg by telegraph. Parties of +trained men were sent to various points in the northwest and to Siberia +to make the preliminary surveys and to build the line. Kennan was placed +in charge of the section that was working in the northern part of +Siberia. He spent some years in the wilderness there and became familiar +with the life of the native population as well as the Russians. When +construction was stopped after the completion of the Atlantic cable, +Kennan traveled extensively in the Caucasus and spent some time in St. +Petersburg. He recounted his experiences in a volume, _Tent Life in +Siberia_, published in 1870. His familiarity with the natives of Siberia +and the wilder tribes of the Caucasus led him to feel that Russia, with +its multi-national population, was in a way similar to the United States +of his day with its still unintegrated masses of immigrants and its +still hostile Indian population. + +After working as a reporter and war correspondent, he was sent in 1885, +by the Century Company to visit and report on the Siberian prison camps. +He was able to do this because of the many friends in high position that +he had made during his previous visit. He was profoundly shocked by the +conditions and his attitude, previously friendly to the imperial regime, +turned into utter disgust. He secured priceless material from the +Russian revolutionists whom he met on his travels and when he published +it in the Century Magazine and later in book form, in 1891 (_Siberia and +the Exile System_), it speedily became one of the outstanding +denunciations of the imperial regime. It had much to do with opening the +eyes of the Western World to the cruelty and barbarity of the imperial +administration of justice. George Kennan continued his work as a +reporter and war correspondent in both the Spanish-American and +Russo-Japanese Wars. He died in 1924. + +The last of this group of nineteenth century amateurs was Isabel +Florence Hapgood.[24] She was born in Wellesley, Massachusetts in 1850 +and passed most of her early life in Worcester. She early became +interested in translating and after working in the chief European +languages, began to teach herself Russian. She started work on +translating Tolstoy and also published a book on the byliny, _Epic Songs +of Russia_. In 1887 she made her first visit to Russia and met many +important officials and writers. For the next twenty years, she +dominated the Russian translation field in the United States with many +translations from Tolstoy, Turgenev and other authors. In 1906 she +brought out her greatest piece of work, a translation and adaptation of +the Service Books of the Russian Orthodox Church, for which she received +a gold watch from Tsar Nicholas II. The work was reprinted several times +then, and again after World War I by the Young Men’s Christian +Association in Paris. For years she was a well known figure at the +services of the Russian Orthodox cathedral in New York. She rarely +missed a service and she carefully explained the ritual and its +significance to the Americans who attended. Miss Hapgood paid another +visit to Russia during the winter of 1916–1917 and on that occasion she +was received by the Tsarina. She was in St. Petersburg when the Russian +Revolution broke out. Her friends succeeded in getting her out of the +capital and in enabling her to return to the United States through +Vladivostok. Before her death in 1928, she saw her work replaced in +large part by newer translations and she keenly felt the destruction of +the old regime with which she had been connected for almost half a +century. Yet her importance as one of the first serious translators from +Russian into English must not be forgotten. She still remains an +interesting figure in American-Russian relations. + +This brief review of the leading figures makes it clear that they worked +outside the educational system of the United States. They were persons +who had developed, for one reason or another, a personal interest in +Slavic affairs. Many of them had lived in one capacity or another, +largely as members of the American diplomatic service, in some Slavic +country. They were strict individualists and did not try to develop +students or assistants. They worked as they pleased and on what they +pleased and if their work was later recognized, they often paid no +attention to it except for the pride any person feels in recognition and +honor. + +During this entire period, the colleges and universities had taken no +part in the development. The educational system ignored both the Slavic +culture and the steadily increasing number of Slavic immigrants. They +continued the usual curricula and developed their courses and work in +the traditional languages of Western Europe. + +Yet the results which these individuals had achieved cannot be +overestimated. By the end of the century the leading works of Russian +literature, especially the novel, were generally known to American +readers, though all too often from English versions of French and German +translations. The appreciation of Polish culture had decreased during +the century as the memory of Pulaski and Kosciuszko faded, not without +the active cooperation of the representatives of Germany, +Austria-Hungary and Russia, which had succeeded in removing Poland from +the European map and in presenting Polish artists and writers as members +of their own states. The culture of the other Slavic peoples was even +less known and studied. + +Yet when we say this, we must never forget that the situation was little +better in England. Even in France and Germany, Slavic studies had not +really found themselves. It is true that professors like Jagic, August +Leskien, E. Berneker and A. Brueckner had already started on their +brilliant careers. Morfill and later Nevill Forbes in England were +trying to hold up a standard. Even there, though, a study of the Slavic +languages and culture, as well as the presentation of the great Russian +novelists, was done in an highly out of context manner. So it also was +in the United States where interest had been concentrated in the hands +of a few select individuals who had worked on their own and for their +own pleasure. + + + + + CHAPTER 4 + THE BEGINNING OF FORMAL STUDY + + +The second half and particularly the last quarter of the nineteenth +century was a period of rapid development in the American educational +system. Even before the Civil War, ambitious young men, dissatisfied +with the rigid curricula of the American colleges, had begun to go to +Europe, chiefly to Germany, to study and secure the degree of Doctor of +Philosophy. To a large extent the German universities came to take the +place of even Oxford and Cambridge, the chief goals of the few pre-Civil +War students who had gone to Europe. + +In the same way, foreign scholars began to come to America. Again these +were largely German or at least German-trained. Some of these men +received, through some chance contact, direct invitations. Others, +forced by the shifts of German politics and the Revolution of 1848, left +their homes and joined the mass emigration to America that was already +beginning. In either case, their influence was to the good. + +In 1867, Johns Hopkins University was established as a definite +post-graduate school, granting the doctorate. It was the first such +establishment in the United States and President Gilman secured a +distinguished faculty including such foreign scholars as Paul Haupt in +Semitic Languages and Maurice Bloomfield in Indo-Iranian. Other +outstanding men were soon appointed and the ideals of German scholarship +were solidly established. Undergraduate work at Hopkins was regarded as +merely an incidental in the first years of the institution’s life. + +The example of Johns Hopkins was not directly followed but it exerted a +marked influence upon some of the more important of the older +institutions. Harvard, Columbia, Yale, Princeton and a few others began +to offer more advanced instruction and step by step the modern American +graduate school, with its special course of study, was evolved. This +process required some decades and each institution approached the +problem in its own way, integrating the new work in accordance with its +own traditions. As these developing universities broadened their +interests and the range of their activities, it was only natural that +sooner or later they would come to take into consideration the study of +the Slavic peoples and their culture, especially of Russia.[25] + +The first step was taken at Harvard under the influence of Archibald +Cary Coolidge.[26] In a very real sense, Coolidge was typical of the men +whom we have considered in the preceding chapter. He was born in +Massachusetts in 1866 and graduated from Harvard in 1887. He then went +to the University of Freiburg for his doctorate, receiving it in 1892. +During these five years, however, he took time out from his actual +attendance at courses to serve as Acting Secretary of the United States +Legation in St. Petersburg in 1890–1891 and to act, in 1892, as private +secretary to his uncle, then United States Minister to France. + +He returned to the United States in 1893 and took a position in the +Department of History at Harvard. The next year he introduced a course +on the history of northeastern Europe. This was, in other words, a +course in Russian and Polish history. It was the first time anyone had +offered a course covering Russia which did not view her history solely +in terms of contacts with the West, the Eastern Question, the fate of +the Ottoman Empire and the relations of Russia with the countries of +Western Europe. + +Professor Coolidge was an enthusiast and was deeply convinced of an +American need to study the Slavic World. He expounded these views in a +paper delivered before the American Historical Association in 1895. By +the next year he had added a course at Harvard on the Eastern Question. +At about the same time he secured the appointment of Leo Wiener as +Professor of Russian Literature. This marked the actual beginning of +Slavic studies in an American university. + +Professor Coolidge never gave up his interest in the work. In addition +to the courses that he gave, he superintended the building of the Slavic +collection in the Harvard Library and served constantly as an adviser to +the United States government on Slavic matters. He brought out, in 1915, +a volume on the _Origin of the Triple Alliance_ and during World War I +was one of the committee of scholars formed under the leadership of +Colonel House to prepare materials for the American Delegation at the +Peace Conference. In 1918 he served as a special representative of the +American government in Sweden and north Russia, and in 1921 he was sent +by the American Red Cross to negotiate with the Bolshevik government on +famine relief. In 1922 he founded _Foreign Affairs_, the organ of the +American Council on Foreign Relations and the leading journal in this +field. He personally acted as editor until 1927 when he relinquished the +task to Hamilton Fish Armstrong who had been in the American service in +Serbia during World War I. When Professor Coolidge died in 1928, he was +the undisputed dean of American Slavic historians and the inspiration +for a large part of the work that was then being done in the United +States. His influence on the development of studies in history was +greater than that of Leo Wiener on languages and literature. + +Leo Wiener (1862–1939) published in 1902 and 1903 an _Anthology of +Russian Literature_. This incorporated almost all the translations +previously made, including excerpts from the greater Russian writers. +The first volume, which included Russian literature up to Karamzin, +still remains the best collection in English of the older literature. +Where translations were unavailable, Professor Wiener made his own in +prose. He also published in 1904 and 1905 a translation of the chief +works of Tolstoy. Unfortunately in his later years, he lost interest in +Russian and devoted his energies to studies of Ulfilas and the Gothic +texts and many other questions far removed from his original field. + +A great many of the scholars who became prominent in Slavic history +before and during World War I were students of Professor Coolidge, who +thus became the dominant force in the development of historical studies +for many years. Among these was Frank A. Golder (1877–1929) who +developed Russian history at Stanford University. He stressed, as we +might expect, the American contact with Russia in the north Pacific and +the Russian explorations in that area. In 1914 he published _Russian +Expansion in the Pacific (1641–1850)_ and later edited the accounts of +Bering’s voyages. + +Another of Coolidge’s students was Robert J. Kerner (1887–1956), born in +Chicago. Kerner took his A.B. at the University of Chicago and then +after study in Europe received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1913. He was at +first connected with the University of Missouri, but in 1928 went to the +University of California at Berkeley, where he spent the rest of his +life. He was made Sather Professor of European History in 1941. When he +retired, in 1954, he was also Director of the Slavic Institute of the +University of California. Professor Kerner, who was of Czech origin, did +most of his work in Czech history, especially the period following the +Battle of the White Mountain. In 1932, he published _Bohemia in the +Eighteenth Century: a Study in Political, Social and Economic History, +with Special Reference to the Reign of Leopold II (1790–1792)_. He +published other works on the Western Slavs and the Balkans. He was +recognized by the scientific societies of both Czechoslovakia and +Romania before World War II and was decorated Commander of the White +Lion of Czechoslovakia, and Officer of the Crown of Romania. Belgium +also honored him for his work at the Peace Conference of 1919 as well as +for later services. + +Another pupil of Professor Coolidge, Robert Howard Lord (1885–1954) took +his degree in Harvard in 1910 and remained there on the faculty. In +1915, he published _The Second Division of Poland_. During and shortly +after World War I he was very active in Polish studies and served on the +House Commission of Scholars to prepare materials for the Peace +Conference in 1919. However, he suddenly gave up this field of +scholarship, resigned his post, completely withdrew from previous +scholarly contacts and began to study for the Roman Catholic priesthood. + +Perhaps the most important of all of the Harvard students of this period +was George Rapall Noyes (1873–1952). A native of Massachusetts, he +studied with Professor Wiener. From 1898 to 1900, he held a Harvard +University Fellowship for study at St. Petersburg. Upon his return, he +spent a year as Assistant Professor of English at the University of +Wisconsin and then went to the University of California as Assistant +Professor of English and Russian. In the first year of his work at +California he had only five students in Russian and one in Czech, but as +the numbers grew he gradually dropped his work in English and by World +War I he was able to devote himself entirely to Slavic studies. + +During the War, he secured Alexander Kaun as his assistant. Kaun was +born in Russia in 1889 and studied from 1905 to 1907 in the Free +University of St. Petersburg. He then came to the United States and from +1909 to 1916 taught Hebrew in Chicago. He went to California and in 1917 +became Assistant in Russian. He took his M.A. and Ph.D. there and +remained on the faculty, rising to the rank of Professor in 1943. Kaun +was decidedly leftist in his sympathies and was a typical member of the +Russian intelligentsia in its narrowest sense. He was one of that group +far more interested in theoretical than practical reforms. This brought +him very close to those members of the intelligentsia who were most +inclined to sympathize with Communism; it determined his views on Maxim +Gorky and Andreyev, the subject of two of his works. He also contributed +many articles on Soviet literature. Professor Kaun died in 1944. + +In 1920, George Z. Patrick was added to the University of California +staff. Born in Nizhny in 1883, Patrick traced his name and ancestry to +an Irishman who went to Russia after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. +Educated in the _Faculté de Droit_ in Paris and the Moscow Law School, +from which he was graduated in 1912, he came to America with one of the +Russian commissions sent by the Provisional government. After its fall, +he went to California and in 1920 was appointed Lecturer in French and +Russian. In 1923 he dropped his French work and devoted himself entirely +to Russian. In 1940 he was appointed to a full professorship. However, +his health was poor and after years of suffering and long periods of +inability to work, he died of tuberculosis in 1944. Patrick was +undoubtedly the best teacher of Russian that the American universities +have had. He was a charming and sincere man and was the best beloved +professor in the field. + +The addition of Kaun and Patrick to the staff at the University of +California allowed Noyes to give up most of his Russian work and devote +himself primarily to Polish. He visited Poland in 1921 and was welcomed +at the University of Krakow where he stayed for some months. The Polish +government decorated him as Commander of _Polonia Restituta_ and several +Polish scholarly societies elected him to membership. + +Even in his early days at California, Noyes commenced his work of +translation. Among the earliest was a collaboration, the _Heroic Poems +of Servia_, with Leonard Bacon of the English department. Later Noyes, +with the aid of numerous assistants, translated most of the important +works of Mickiewicz, Slowacki and Krasinski, and also many Russian +dramas including a volume, _Masterpieces of Russian Drama_, ranging from +Fonvizin to Mayakovsky. It was his practice to write out a very careful +prose translation and then have some of his students and associates set +them, when necessary, into verse. Noyes really founded a special school +of translation. + +He was an earnest and sincere student, mild but demanding, especially of +himself. He carefully laid out his projected work for years in advance +and maintained a rigid schedule. Any pressure of university duties or +unforeseen calls upon his time he met by including in his work schedule +all those periods which he had left himself for vacations. When he died +in 1952, he was the last of the old generation. He left a gap in Slavic +scholarship that has not yet been filled. + +The interest in Russian on the Pacific coast was reflected not only in +the appointment of Golder to Stanford’s history department. In 1918, +Henry Lanz was appointed Professor of Russian Literature and Philosophy +there. Lanz had been born in Moscow in 1886. He was not a very prolific +writer but one of his works on rhythm of language received a prize from +Sweden. Just before the outbreak of World War II, he made another trip +to Europe and stayed for some time in one of the monasteries on Mount +Athos. He died in 1945. + +Another outstanding figure of the period was Samuel N. Harper +(1882–1943) of the University of Chicago. Harper was the son of the +first president of the University of Chicago. He studied in the _Ecole +des Langues Orientales_ in Paris and was closely associated with the +group of English Slavists who, under the leadership of Sir Bernard +Pares, K.B.E., gathered at the University of Liverpool and after the war +formed the School of Slavonic Studies at the University of London. +Harper was in Russia with Pares during the Revolution of 1905 and was +very friendly with such liberal Russian leaders as Paul Milyukov. In +1906 he published an English translation of Boyer and Speranski’s +Russian Reader and in 1908 a volume on the _New Electoral Law for the +Duma_. Through his connections at the university and Charles R. Crane, +both Milyukov and Maxim Kovalevsky were brought to Chicago for lectures. +Harper was a constant adviser to the United States government on Russian +affairs. He was convinced that the Russian people, if they had the +power, would definitely accept the Anglo-Saxon theories of democracy, a +position which he maintained in his dealing with the Russian emigres +after the Revolution. He was solidly anti-Bolshevik but in the thirties +he accepted an invitation to visit Moscow, about the same time as Pares +did. + +Harper had a wide knowledge of Russian history, and when he was not +traveling, lectured in Chicago and conducted courses in Russian. Yet he +did not build a department of Russian and, despite the large Slavic +population of the city, showed little interest in introducing other +Slavic languages or cultures. + +Another important center, started just as World War I was beginning, was +at Columbia University. Although Dr. Judah A. Joffe had been appointed a +lecturer in Russian for one year, in 1909, to prepare some articles and +lectures on Russian literature for a volume on European literatures +which the university was publishing, the serious work was begun only +when John Dyneley Prince, then Professor of Semitic Languages and an +authority on Assyrian and Sumerian, offered courses in Russian and +Slavonic philology. Prince was born in Paterson, New Jersey, in 1868 and +was an 1888 graduate of Columbia. He took his doctorate at Johns Hopkins +in Semitic and conducted excavations in Mesopotamia. He was later Dean +of the graduate school of New York University and then was brought to +Columbia. + +In addition to his academic work, Prince was greatly interested in +conservative New Jersey Republican politics. He served as both Speaker +of the House and President of the New Jersey Senate when Woodrow Wilson +was Governor. In 1921, President Harding appointed him United States +Minister to Denmark and President Coolidge in 1926 transferred him to +Yugoslavia. He was absent from the university therefore from 1921 to +1933, when as an ardent Republican he retired from the diplomatic +service after the election of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. + +Prince was an unusually talented linguist who fluently spoke nearly all +European languages, including Hungarian and Turkish. He was also a +master of several Algonquin Indian dialects and a masterly singer of +folksongs. He had previously turned this unusual ability to good use in +his political campaigns among the New Jersey voters of various foreign +nationalities. When he turned to Slavic, he easily mastered nearly all +the languages and soon was able to speak them readily. In addition, he +was an excellent philologist and it was in this field that he most +enjoyed himself. He published a _Russian Grammar_ in 1919 under great +difficulties because of the general lack of proper type. Later he +published grammars of both Latvian and Serbo-Croatian. He was also a +great friend of Professor Michael I. Pupin, the distinguished Serb +professor of electricity. + +All these abilities made him determined not to allow the department, at +Columbia, to be limited only to Russian. He offered courses in 1914 on a +graduate level with Ivan S. Andreyevsky as assistant. At the same time, +through University Extension, he started credit courses in Polish with +Dr. Albert Morawski-Nawench as instructor. Dr. Morawski-Nawench was a +Polish journalist and editor who had received his doctorate at the +University of Vienna. Czech was offered by Alois Koukol, a Presbyterian +minister, born in Kutna Hora and educated in Prague. + +In addition to these courses, Prince opened in Columbia University +Extension a special school of spoken languages. These were non-credit +courses and Prince hoped to develop them, in time, into something like +the _Ecole des Langues Orientales_. Courses were offered in some twenty +languages. This undertaking was nipped in its infancy by Prince’s +appointment to Denmark, for after his departure the original program was +abandoned. It had considerable effect for some years, however, both upon +the Department of Slavonic Languages and several others. + +In 1917, Prince invited Clarence A. Manning to be Lecturer in Slavonic +languages. Manning had received his doctorate in Greek and Latin at +Columbia in 1915 and had become interested in Russian while on a Cutting +Fellowship, traveling in Europe at the outbreak of World War I. He was +on leave of absence from the university in 1918–1919 while serving in +the Corps of Intelligence Police and the Translation section (M.I. 6) of +the United States Army War College. During Prince’s absence, he served +as acting executive officer of the department. + +On his return to Columbia, in 1933 Prince resumed his professorship but +because of failing health and eyesight he retired in 1937. He died in +1945. In this early period, two doctorates were conferred. One was +conferred on Mr. Avrahm Yarmolinsky, Director of the Slavic department +of the New York Public Library, for a study of Dostoyevsky’s ideology; +the other on Milivoy S. Stanoyevich, for a work on early Yugoslav +literature. + +In addition to these main centers, there were several other developments +worthy of mention. Professor William Lyon Phelps, the distinguished +professor of English at Yale University, published in 1911 a popular +work, _Essays on the Russian Novelists_. He was assisted in preparing +this by Max S. Mandell who for a decade continued to give courses in the +Russian language. Mandell also published a translation of the plays of +Turgenev and several other works. + +Professor Clarence L. Meader of the Department of Classics at the +University of Michigan also introduced courses in Russian and published +a translation of the plays of Andreyev. Professor Harold H. Bender of +Princeton, starting from a study of linguistics, came to stress the +influence of the Baltic and Slavic languages, especially Lithuanian. In +neither case was there a department definitely established at this time. + +There were also a great many professors in various other fields who did +valuable work on Slavic subjects. It would be impossible to list all of +these works though some should be mentioned. + +Professor Vladimir Simkhovich was appointed a professor of Economic +History at Columbia in 1904. There he continued work which he had +started at the University of Jena in 1899 on _Die Feldgemeinschaft in +Russland_ and, in 1908, _Die Bauernbefreiung in Russland_. Several +dissertations on Slavic subjects were accepted by the faculty of +political science at Columbia, such as the _Eastern Question_ by +Professor Stephan Duggan in 1902 and the _Making of the Balkan States_ +by W. S. Murray in 1910. + +Professor Ales Hrdlicka, the distinguished Czech anthropologist and +authority on the population of the Aleutian Islands, published several +works on the Czechs and on the _Races of Russia_ for the Smithsonian +Miscellaneous Collection for 1919. + +Professor E. A. Ross, a sociologist of the University of Wisconsin, was +in Russia during the Revolution and published _Russia in Upheaval_ in +1918, _Russian Bolshevik Revolution_ in 1921, and _Russian Soviet +Republics_ in 1924. + +Paul R. Radosavljevich, Professor of Experimental Psychology at New York +University, published in 1919 the two volume work, _Who are the Slavs?_ +This was a serious attempt to study Slavic psychology and to identify, +if possible, features common to all Slavic nations. + +A psychology professor, Will S. Monroe of the New Jersey State Normal +School in Montclair, traveled extensively in both Czechoslovakia and +Bulgaria and published _Bohemians and Czechs_ in 1910 and _Bulgaria and +its People_ in 1914. + +Other men who were active, some of them students of Professor Coolidge, +were: Professor Arthur I. Andrews, Tufts College; Professor A. J. +Shipman, Princeton; Professor Sidney Bradshaw Fay, Smith College, and +Professor Bernadotte Schmitt, University of Chicago. Most of these knew +Russian or one of the Slavic languages but at this period there was no +generally accepted rule that the students of Slavic themes had to be +familiar with the original sources and many of the dissertations and +books published were by men who used materials available in French, +German, or rarely, Latin. + +There were also many scholarly books by persons who had little or no +university connections. Included in these are the translations of +_Russian Poetry_ by Babette Deutsch, the wife of Dr. Yarmolinsky, and +the volumes by Julius F. Hecker. + +America’s entrance into World War I revealed the American people’s need +for more accurate knowledge of Slavic affairs. This was especially shown +by the confusion which prevailed, even in official circles, concerning +the Russian Revolution and the rise of Bolshevism.[27] It became still +more apparent when the committee, brought together through the efforts +of Col. Edward M. House, to consider the effect of the peace found +themselves hampered by lack of material on the non-Russian peoples of +the Russian Empire. The German materials on these people were suspect, +and the Russian a sealed book to all except a very few of the committee +members, and there was almost no one to deal with materials in the +native languages, especially when the material was not Slavic. + +Before the War, German had been the chief foreign language taught in the +American schools and universities. However, hostilities brought general +anger against the Germans and also against certain German professors who +placed themselves all too readily at the service of the German +government. This resulted in widespread opposition to the use of German +and, in fact, to any foreign language. Some states, such as Nebraska, +where there was a large population of German origin, went so far as to +forbid the teaching of any foreign language within the limits of the +state, a ban which was later overruled by the United States Supreme +Court. Even where this extreme was not reached, the number of students +of German declined almost to nothing and many members of the university +faculties either were dropped from their posts or were faced with that +possibility. + +In this crisis, and in the hope that the Russian Revolution would +promote democratic contacts and trade with the United States, some of +these former German professors announced courses in Russian. There was +often something humorous and grotesque about this, for there were few if +any textbooks and the professors themselves had little knowledge of the +language. The situation in some cases was scandalous. There is little +reason to do more than mention the existence of this situation. Even +well-known scholars lent themselves to it, only to report a few years +later that there was no call for Russian. As a result, the sudden flurry +of Russian courses was without result and in the years after the War, +they were more or less quietly abandoned. It accentuated the common +notion that Russian could not be learned, an idea energetically fostered +for various reasons. No one took the trouble to realize that the +necessary preliminaries, such as the publication of grammars, were yet +to be done. There were no books available, save a few published in +England, and no real teachers, save some chance immigrants who owed +their opportunities more to good fortune than to ability or training. +Yet the war period did serve to strengthen those departments which had +been previously established. It brought a few new individuals into the +picture and above all it aroused a sense of need that was slowly to be +satisfied. + + + + + CHAPTER 5 + SLAVIC EFFORTS BEFORE WORLD WAR I + + +In the preceding chapters, dealing with the gradual development of an +intellectual interest in Slavic questions, we have largely ignored the +activity of Slavic groups in the United States. This was deliberate, for +the early stages of Slavic study were almost completely apart from the +work of the Slavs themselves and involved only those persons who had +come to the United States and achieved prominence or success outside of +their own communities and background. + +These early Slavic efforts could make little imprint upon the American +public, for the first steps were taken under most adverse conditions. +The Slavic masses were composed for the most part of the underprivileged +groups who had come to America in the hope of working for a few years +and then returning. Later they became American citizens, but until 1914 +a surprising percentage of the Slavs had not taken out citizenship +papers. + +For their self-protection and mutual advantage these masses had formed +their own churches and fraternal organizations. There were in the +nineteenth century many difficulties to be encountered by each and the +communities lived apart with relatively little social or political +contact with the rest of the population. + +As entire families began to settle, their children were compelled to +attend the American public schools where instruction was given only in +English. It was not long before the preservation of their native +languages became a burning question, to be acted on by the establishment +of language schools held outside of regular school hours, in the late +afternoons, evenings and on Saturdays. For example, the first Czech +school was founded in 1862 by the _Slovanska Lipa_ Society of Milwaukee, +Wisconsin. In 1864, the first Czech schools were established in Chicago +and, in 1866, in New York. The example of the Czechs was followed later +by the Poles, the Slovaks, the Croatians, the Serbs and the Ukrainians. + +These schools were conducted by the best educated men or women in the +community, though this did not of necessity mean much. Classes were +usually held in the building of a church or other organization, but +sometimes in private homes or in public school buildings, the use of +which was given free by the American school authorities. The textbooks +were inadequate, often being those which the teacher had studied years +before in the home country. Sometimes they were heavily laden with +political propaganda, as were the books prepared for the Carpathian +population by the Hungarian government which exercised a considerable +influence through the Greek Catholic priests who were Magyaron in +tendency as a result of their early upbringing. The situation was made +worse by the fact that the schools in the homelands were themselves +unsatisfactory, either in the hands of the alien rulers or the products +of the vague stirrings of the population to secure their own more or +less illegal schools.[28] + +Despite all this, these schools did achieve some success but not enough +to be regarded as a satisfactory solution of the problem. Life in +America, even with its lack of legal barriers or restraints, was +unfavorable to active continuation of a foreign tongue. The contrast +between these impromptu courses and the developing American school +system was too striking to escape the attention of the pupils in the two +types of schools as well as the more intelligent leaders of the +community. In addition to this, these schools failed to give the +students an adequate picture of the progress that their relatives at +home were making. + +The Roman Catholic schools were gradually remodelled on the normal +parochial school system. The teachers were, for the most part, nuns and +brothers from orders working among a particular national group. Their +quality of teaching was often quite low but the Church schools did enjoy +the possibility of incorporating the innovations which were coming into +the parochial schools. Thus as the parochial schools were improved, so +were the foreign schools under Church auspices. + +In the Orthodox and Catholic Uniat Churches, such instruction was +usually given by the dyak or cantor, a layman who superintended the +choirs and took a part in the services. These men had some education but +little training in teaching and their efforts were largely directed +along the same lines as in their homelands. + +The Protestant and anti-clerical groups endeavored to find competent +laymen. These stressed the holding of classes in some lay building or on +the property of some secular organization. + +As early as 1881, a journal in Johnson County, Iowa, the _Slovan +Americky_, started a campaign to raise money for a Czech college in +America. The newspaper believed that it could accomplish its purpose if +it succeeded in raising $20,000. The proposal, being launched by a +single newspaper, did not secure the support of rival papers and the +entire enterprise was dropped as a failure.[29] + +Out of this chaotic and thoroughly unsatisfactory situation two +tendencies became evident just before World War I. Those Catholic +schools which had acquired some stability and organization began to take +the shape of the other parochial schools and where there was sufficient +demand and a sufficient concentration of worshippers, they began to +approximate the parochial high schools and then to pass over to be two +or three year colleges. The work of these was still not of high calibre +but the leaders were constantly striving to make them so. Thus, the +Czech Benedictines founded a school in Chicago in 1887. This passed +through the usual changes and after its removal to Lisle, Illinois, in +1901 it was reorganized as St. Procopius College, now a duly accredited +Catholic institution. St. Vincent College, Latrobe, Pennsylvania, with a +marked emphasis on Slovak, is another of these institutions. + +We find the same activity among the Poles. St. Mary’s Seminary, Orchard +Lake, Michigan, early included Polish in its curriculum, as did St. +Francis Seminary, Milwaukee. Various religious orders have long +conducted courses in the Polish language on the high school level in +various centers of population. The Polish Roman Catholic Union, with its +library, was highly developed by Mieczyslaw Haiman, especially in +publishing studies of the career of such Polish soldiers in the United +States as Tadeusz Kosciuszko and the other Poles who fought in the +American Revolution. The Polish Historical Society also has done +outstanding work. All these represent the natural development of the +Poles and their descendants in America, and deserve more than passing +mention. + +At the turn of the century, the fraternal organizations also began to +give the question of schools due consideration. Almost all appointed +committees on education and they too decided that the primary need was +the foundation of special colleges where instruction could be given in +the language of the homeland. Thus, in 1902 there was formed in Cedar +Rapids, Iowa, an institution, _Matice Vyssoho Vzdelani_, a center of +higher studies, by Bohumil Simek and G. F. Severa to work for the +establishment of a Czech college, but it also met with no success. + +In 1903, the Polish National Alliance also created a committee on +education and schools, which worked for ten years and then in 1912, at +Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania, opened the Polish National Alliance +College which was incorporated in 1914. Although it was rather on the +level of a high school, it profited by the opportunity to establish a +branch of the Student Army Training Corps during World War I. Its first +rector was Professor Romuald Piatkowski. In 1915, the work of the high +school or academy was augmented by the foundation of a Technical +Institute. It was in this status that the institution passed into the +next general period.[30] + +Other forces were at work, however, to preserve the native languages by +introducing the Slavic languages into the already established American +institutions. While the motives were varied the efforts were made first +by the less clerical and the more Protestant parts of the population. +Thus, in 1887, the Congregational Church in Ohio persuaded the +authorities of Oberlin College at Oberlin, Ohio[31] to introduce a +course in Czech for candidates to the Congregational ministry who would +minister to the Czech communities. Professor Louis F. Miskovsky was +appointed instructor, and his became the first chair of Slavic studies +in an American institution. Oberlin’s program differed from the later +attempts at Harvard and elsewhere in that it was frankly intended only +to teach the language. Any Slavic cultural work in a broader sense was +insignificant. It is small wonder then that on Professor Miskovsky’s +death in the 1920’s, the chair was quickly abandoned and the money used +for a course of lectures on Central European affairs given by Professor +Oskar Jaszy, a liberal Hungarian who opposed both Communism and the +regime of Admiral Horthy. + +In somewhat the same way, and for the same purpose, instruction in the +Polish language was introduced into Notre Dame University in 1909. + +Efforts to include a Slavic language, usually Czech, in the curricula of +state and private colleges were particularly intense in Nebraska and +Iowa.[32] In these states, the Czech population had been among the +earliest settlers; many had prospered and secured appointive and +elective posts in the state governments, which gave them the opportunity +to work for the introduction of their native language into various +institutions. + +In 1903, Professor Bohumil Simek of the University of Iowa and F. J. +Pipal, a student of the University of Nebraska, established at Lincoln +the first of the Komensky Educational Clubs. These clubs were intended +to unite the Czech-Americans who had some education. The movement, which +included plans for building a monument to the Czech educator Jan Amos +Komensky (Comenius), spread extensively and finally included twenty-nine +societies, chiefly in the states of Nebraska and Iowa, although there +were some in Texas, Chicago and New York. For a while this loosely knit +organization was even able to publish a periodical bulletin.[33] + +These clubs petitioned at once for the establishment of Czech language +courses at the University of Nebraska. Although the request was turned +down on the ground that there was a lack of interest in such a project +among the Czechs, a new attempt was made during the winter of 1906–07. +John Rosicky, an outstanding publisher of Czech newspapers in Nebraska, +and Vaclav Bures, both of Omaha, met the Regents of the state university +along with Frank Rejcha, a member of the Nebraska legislature. The +Chancellor of the university, in refusing the request, proposed a +political deal whereby a tax of one mill would be laid on certain +railroad properties and earmarked for the university. By clever +lobbying, the Czechs secured passage for the bill. Then the Governor of +the state cut the grants to the university and the Chancellor again +declined to set up a Slavonic department. Later the same summer, +however, another request was more successful and courses were started in +the fall of 1907. + +The first instructor was Jeffrey Dolezal Hrbek, a graduate of Lafayette +College, Easton, Pennsylvania, and, at the time, a student in the +University of Iowa. He was appointed head of the new Department of +Slavonic and instructor in the Germanic languages and literatures. +Unfortunately Hrbek, a young man of great promise, became ill and died +on December 4, 1907. + +He was succeeded by his sister Sarka B. Hrbkova, who graduated from the +University of Iowa in 1909 and received an M.A. from Nebraska in 1914. +Under her period of teaching, the department flourished. In 1910 she was +named adjunct professor; in 1914, an assistant professor; and in 1918, +she became a full professor. She was also very active during the war in +various aspects of Czech-American relations. + +During World War I, the outburst against the use of German spread in +Nebraska to all foreign languages. The courses in the university were +dropped and the department was abolished, while Professor Hrbkova moved +to New York and became the manager of the Czechoslovak Section of the +Foreign Language Information Service, ancestor of the Common Council for +American Unity. The outburst was even worse against Czech courses in the +lower schools and in 1919 the so-called Siman Bill provided that “no +person, individually or as a teacher, shall, in any private, +denominational, parochial or public school, teach any subject to any +person in any language other than the English language.” This was made +more stringent in 1921 but in 1923, the measures were declared +unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court. + +In the meantime, the break in the university courses was less prolonged. +In 1919–20, during the meeting of the State Constitutional Convention, +two members of Czech origin raised the question of a renewal of the +courses. After negotiations, the teaching of Czech was renewed in the +autumn of 1920 under Professor Orin Stepanek. Stepanek, a native of +Nebraska, received his A.B. from the University of Nebraska in 1913 and +an A.M. from Harvard in 1914. After service in the U.S. Marine Corps he +returned to Harvard and then went to serve under General Snejdarek on +the Magyar frontier. After this, he returned to Nebraska and there +became Assistant Professor of English. While there, he was also giving +courses in Czech and Russian under the auspices of the Department of +Modern Language and, later, of Romance Languages. + +We have stressed the history of the establishment of Slavic work at the +University of Nebraska because the Czechs were sufficiently numerous and +influential to be able to reach the university authorities and the state +legislature. More than that, they were persistent and finally succeeded +in securing recognition. Yet in its way, the same type of politics, in +addition to formal applications, was going on with various degrees of +success in many different places. + +At about the same time, Czech was included in the University of Iowa +where Miss Anna Heyberger conducted the work. Still later she changed to +Coe College at Cedar Rapids where she became Professor of French and +took a doctorate, with a dissertation on the Czech educator Jan Amos +Comenius, at the University of Paris. Alois Barta was then giving +instructions at Dubuque College and Seminary. For a while before World +War I, B. Prokosch gave courses in Czech at the University of Wisconsin +and Leon Zelenka Lerando at Ohio State University but more lasting +results were obtained by Mr. Charles Knizek at the University of Texas, +where Czech has continued almost without a break since its +introduction.[34] At this time, still other developments, largely +connected with the various churches, were ensuing. For example, Reverend +Andrew Slabey was appointed to the International Baptist Seminary in +Montclair, New Jersey, an institution greatly concerned with training +clergymen for missionary work among various non-English groups and +extensively staffed for such foreign languages as Slovak, Ukrainian and +Hungarian. On the other hand, the Russian Orthodox Archbishop of the +Aleutian Islands and North America established a small Russian seminary +at Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was later moved to Tenafly, New Jersey, +and its head was Reverend Leonid Turkevich, the present Archbishop +Leonty of the Russian Orthodox Church in North America. + +We could extend this list even further, but the institutions at this +period cared for little more than the giving of elementary instruction +in a Slavic language, usually either Czech or Polish. The period +witnessed the publication of a considerable number of elementary +grammars, dictionaries and readers. Many of these were not of high +quality but they did reflect the growing maturity of the various Slavic +communities and their efforts to secure the introduction of their +languages into the curricula of American institutions. Furthermore, at +this period, it was rare that any person in one of these smaller state +institutions could secure a post exclusively in Slavic studies. The best +and most scholarly were compelled to carry almost a full load in some +other subject. But the mere fact that this was possible accents the +increasing number of young Slavs who were securing college and +university educations. The situation was still not healthy but at the +beginning of World War I it was by no means as hopeless as it had seemed +earlier. + + + + + CHAPTER 6 + FROM 1914 TO 1939 + + +As we have seen, Slavic studies were in their infancy when World War I +broke out. The American reaction to the War was, as we might have +expected, a plain paradox. + +American public opinion concentrated on the Western Front and the +campaign in France and only slowly did it begin to react to the enormous +forces that were working in the central and eastern parts of Europe. As +in most countries of Europe, the only persons who took a deep interest +in these areas were the immigrants and the few persons who had already +been awakened to the great problems which the Slavic world of the time +presented. + +The clash of Great Britain, France and Russia against Germany, +Austria-Hungary and Italy, the Triple Entente versus the Triple +Alliance, seemed real only in its relations to the Western Front. The +Eastern Front and the titanic passions released in the Slavic lands +under both Russia and Austria-Hungary seemed fantastic to public opinion +and even to the opinion of the educated and intelligent classes. At the +same time, it did have a message for the Slavic communities in the +United States which sought every opportunity to raise their voice in +hope of national liberation. The average American was more moved by the +Armenian massacres than he was by the astounding Russian advances and +retreats in the East. The causes which led the United States into the +War were almost wholly connected with the respective influences of Great +Britain, France and Germany and it was the armistice with Germany on +November 11, 1918 that convinced the American people that the War was +over and that the whole of Europe would very soon return to normalcy. + +Consistent with American preoccupation with the developments in Germany, +the agitation for the disintegration of Austria-Hungary vigorously +sponsored by the Slavic colonies in the United States and the various +national committees in Europe found a hearing chiefly as a means of +curtailing German influence. Furthermore, as a result of propaganda +diligently spread during the War, the Russian Revolution seemed to the +majority of the American people another step in the development of +democracy and the break up of the control of Russia by a Germanized +royal family and a Germanized bureaucracy. It might even be said that +the initial distrust of Lenin came because the German General Staff +allowed him to cross to Russia from Switzerland. The disintegration of +the Russian front was laid entirely to German propaganda and the most +ridiculous stories were advanced in order to justify this point of view. +This attitude prompted the American reaction to the efforts of +liberation of the various peoples of the old Russian empire and nearly +all the nationalist movements were laid to German influences. + +We may see this in the phrasing of the sixth of Wilson’s Fourteen Points +touching Russia: + + The evacuation of all Russian territory, and such a settlement of + all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest + cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her + an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent + determination of her own political development and national policy, + and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations + under institutions of her own choosing and more than a welcome, + assistance of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. + +On the other hand the non-Russian peoples of the old empire paid no +attention to these remarks by President Wilson. They saw rather the +general principles enunciated in the Fifth Point, “A free, open-minded +and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims based upon a +strict observance of the principle that in determining all such +questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must +have equal weight with the equitable claims of the Government whose +title is to be determined.” In fact he went further and on July 4, 1918 +he declared in the “Four Ends” speech: “The settlement of every +question, whether of territory or sovereignty, of economic arrangement, +or of political relationship, upon the basis of the free acceptance of +that settlement by the people immediately concerned, and not upon the +basis of the material interest or advantage of any other nation or +people which may desire a different settlement for the sake of its +exterior influence or mastery.” + +Thus the doctrine of self-determination definitely pronounced by +President Wilson was carried still further by the people of the old +Russian empire than he had himself intended. He only provided for +independence for Finland, Poland and Armenia, three peoples who had won +the special sympathy of the American people. In the case of all others, +he was prepared to rest upon his Sixth Point and neglect careful and +accurate study of the conditions prevailing in Eastern Europe. + +If space permitted, we could trace this idea in the American attitude to +the Peace of Brest Litovsk, the actions of the American Expeditionary +Forces in Archangel and Vladivostok, the attitude toward the Russian +White armies, the refusal to grant an Eastern border to Poland under the +Treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain, the refusal to recognize the +cession of Bessarabia by Russia to Romania and many other questions. It +insured high favor from those entirely removed from Austria-Hungary and +Germany and relative disfavor from all peoples trying to separate +themselves from Russia. + +It is true that from the very beginning of the conflict the leading +intelligence officers like Colonels Ralph Van Deman and Marlborough +Churchill, the real moving spirits of the military intelligence branch +of the General Staff, recognized the importance of the Slavic languages, +and Colonel Graham D. Fitch included the Slavic languages among those +handled in the Translation Section of which he was the chief. Yet on the +whole, the Corps of Interpreters and other concerned branches and units +paid little attention to them and nearly all the American agents in the +Slavic territories were persons who had already known the languages. +Even in the case of the Siberian and Archangel expeditions, the problem +of interpreters was not placed on a firm basis. For some years after the +War, almost all the officers and men in the State Department were +persons who had served in these forces and had attained a certain amount +of Russian or some other language without any formal training. + +The situation was the same in the committee formed by Colonel Edward +House to study the peace settlement. It is true that most of the +professors of Slavic were connected with this but it was very soon +discovered that much of the available material could not be used unless +it was in one of the Western languages or, in some cases, in Russian +(and, of course, with a Russian bias). + +Thus the World War, and American participation in it, did not result in +any marked increase in interest and there was for some years a strong +feeling that a knowledge of the languages was secondary. The old +divisions between language and the historical sciences were still +perpetuated, gradually breaking down between the wars. + +It is true that after the War, the War Department made a half-hearted +attempt to train certain regular officers in various subjects with a +possible eye for making them instructors in West Point. These included +two men who had been on the Siberian Expedition. Lt. Col. Benjamin B. +McCroskey and Captain William Gent were sent to study in the Department +of Slavonic Languages at Columbia University. With the growth of +isolationism the experiment was not pressed, and step by step all of the +government services lost interest except for a few young men in the +State Department who were often sent in some indefinite capacity to the +Baltic republics with the intent of learning Russian. + +Thus, at the end of the War, there had come no important change in the +general picture. The departments of language in Harvard, California and +Columbia continued, perhaps with increased staffs, and Professor Harper +in Chicago went on with his work also. On the other hand, there were a +number of universities and colleges, chiefly in the Middle West, where +one or more Slavic languages were taught, often under the pressure of +local Slavic groups. These included Nebraska where Orin Stepanek was +teaching. Czech was also added to the curriculum of Creighton University +in Omaha and the University of Texas in Austin. There were energetic +stirrings among the Poles to introduce their language at the University +of Wisconsin. There were men in various other institutions such as +Professor Leon Zelenka Lerando in Lafayette College who, in at least +part of their work, handled one or another language. Yet in the course +of the years many of those institutions which had included Russian +during the War abandoned it.[35] + +A rather unique case occurred at Dartmouth College. Professor R. W. +Jones, who was in the German department, knew some Russian. But, one of +the professors of the English department was Eric P. Kelly, who had been +in Poland with the YMCA during the War and had become vitally interested +in the country and its culture. In 1928 he published a very successful +boy’s story on medieval Poland, _The Trumpeter of Krakow_, which won the +Newberry Prize for Juvenile Books. Later he wrote two more on Polish +themes, _The Blacksmith of Wilno_ and _The Golden Star of Halich_. +Through their influence, William J. Rose, a Canadian and later the +Director of the School of Slavonic and East European Studies in the +University of London, was brought to Dartmouth for a few years. At one +time it looked as if Dartmouth would establish a full department with +Kelly attracting large classes to courses in Polish in translation. +Kelly became important in Polish intellectual work but for some reason, +despite his popularity, reverted to work in journalism, although he +continued his interest in things Polish outside the institution.[36] + +All this was at a time when the bulk of the work on East European +history was still being carried on in the small institutions by men who +had no language training. In far too many places we still can find +traces of this habit. + +Another important event of the period, following the Bolshevik +Revolution, was the arrival in the United States of a number of Russian +emigres, on all intellectual levels. Some of them like Professors M. +Rostovtseff and A. A. Vasilieff, were among the most distinguished +Russian scholars. They easily found outstanding positions for themselves +in the leading universities and were able to exert a considerable +influence. They brought with them, in various capacities, men like +Professor George Vernadsky who were to become the heads of their +subjects during the next decades. It would take too long to list all of +these men but among them was Professor Leonid Strakhovsky, Rostovtseff’s +nephew, who taught history at Georgetown University and later moved to +the University of Maryland, then to Harvard and is now at the University +of Toronto. Professor Serge Eliseeff of Harvard was also in the field of +Far Eastern languages. For a while, Nicholas Martinovitch, formerly of +the University of Petersburg, was at Columbia in the field of Turkic +studies. Many more of the younger group have gradually secured good +positions and worked themselves up in the American university system, +sometimes with a change of their names. + +The same period saw the arrival in the United States of such outstanding +Ukrainian scholars as the architect and engineer, Professor Stephen +Timoshenko of Stanford University, and his brother the economist +Volodymyr Timoshenko of the same institution, and Professor Alexander +Granovsky, an entomologist, of the University of Minnesota. Professor +Dmytro Doroshenko of the Ukrainian Free University in Prague paid +several visits to Canada. All of these men were very active in arousing +interests in Ukrainian culture as were the choral leader, Alexander +Koshits, and the sculptor, Alexander Archipenko. + +There were also a few young men of Slavic origin, born and educated in +the United States, who devoted themselves to Russian fields. Among them +was Leo Pasvolsky who worked for many years at the Brookings Institute +in Washington and was the son of one of the foremost Russian editors in +the pre-war United States. Yet the situation was so discouraging that +relatively few of the really young emigres who came to the United States +after 1918 and secured an education went into Slavic studies. They +usually chose some other field and gradually lost all practical +influence in the extension of Slavic culture, though in a few cases they +did some unofficial work in their own languages. + +The situation in the languages and cultures of the liberated Slavic +countries was very different. The restoration of the independence of +Czechoslovakia and Poland and the formation of the Kingdom of the Serbs, +Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) involved the “Slavonization” of +many institutions that formerly had been under German and Austrian +control. As a result, there was a strong call for professors in those +lands and very few of the outstanding men came to America during the +early years. When they did, it was usually for a limited time, a +semester or perhaps a full year, and the funds for this purpose were +often supplied by the Slavic community in the neighborhood. Thus the +Poles of Detroit brought Professor Thaddeus Mitana to the University of +Michigan. This had been intended as the beginning of a Polish chair, but +the attempt broke down and Professor Mitana remained at Alliance +College, the institution of the Polish National Association. Professor +Roman Dyboski of the University of Krakow was likewise brought to the +University of Chicago for a period, but his lectures were not connected +in any sense with the work of Professor Harper. In 1928, Professor +Otakar Vocadlo of the University of Bratislava spent almost a full year +lecturing throughout the United States. All this did much to promote an +appreciation of Slavic scholarship, but since most of the visitors were +in technical and scientific fields they did not increase interest in +distinctively Slavic subjects. + +Many of these visits were arranged through the Institute of +International Education which, as part of an international policy, +brought to the United States not only professors on lecture tours but +many students from the Slavic lands. The same institute also +administered a series of fellowships, usually for advanced study, which +were chiefly offered to Americans of Czech and Slovak parentage by the +Czechoslovak Ministry of Education. A similar program among the Poles +was carried on by the distinctively Polish-American Kosciuszko +Foundation begun in 1926. It was able to take many American Polish +students to Poland by offering them not only free tuition but also +greatly reduced rates on the Polish-American line steamships. + +During the 1920’s those American universities most interested in Slavic +subjects developed rather independently. In the field of history, there +were few real innovations. During the twenties, and especially during +the period of the New Economic Policy in the USSR, a few young men were +able, on fellowships from various institutions, to study in the Soviet +universities and familiarize themselves with conditions there. Among +these men we may mention two important scholars of the present time: +Professor Philip Mosely of the American Council of Foreign Relations, +formerly of Columbia University, and Professor Geroid T. Robinson of +Columbia. Other men similarly visited other Slavic lands for varying +periods. Their studies have been an application of the accepted method +of historical research to the history of the Slavic countries by men who +were as well trained in Slavic as earlier generations had been in French +and German. + +The situation was different in the field of language, literature and +culture, in the general sense of the word, for these subjects had been +very largely ignored in the earlier periods except in those institutions +where Slavic departments had been established. Even the masterpieces of +Russian literature had been handled purely on the basis of translations, +with few efforts to equate them with the general life of Russia. This +had produced the jaundiced view of Russian literature satirized by +Stephen Leacock of McGill University. In fact during a large part of the +period between the wars, one of the largest groups of students of Slavic +literature were persons who had no desire to learn the language or to +read Slavic literature in the original. They were merely interested in +including Russian in courses of comparative literature, or they were +instructors obliged to treat some of the Russian masterpieces in +translation. + +This broad cultural need was met in different ways by the various Slavic +departments. Thus, during these years, the department at the University +of California, under Professor George Rapall Noyes, decidedly stressed +the development of translation, and courses in which a knowledge of +Russian was not primarily required. The department grew steadily but +largely maintained its original staff supplemented by visiting +lecturers. This policy continued until the eve of World War II. During +most of this time Professor Noyes did not make any special effort to +establish contacts with the Slavic groups on the Pacific coast. + +The situation at Columbia University was different. Professor Clarence +A. Manning, who was acting department head during the twelve years which +Professor Prince spent in the American diplomatic service, tried to +continue the policy of Professor Prince in fostering a study of all the +Slavic languages and in establishing contacts with the Slavic +communities in the New York area. In terms of administration, the chief +development was the transfer of most instruction in the Slavic languages +from the faculty of philosophy, where it had originated, to the Columbia +Extension Teaching, later revamped as the School of General Studies. +This school had been planned originally for adult education but as it +acquired a special form it furnished a convenient vehicle for many +years, for giving language instruction. For some years it conducted a +series of extramural courses, especially in Polish, as far away as +Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. + +The first addition to what eventually became a full time staff was Mrs. +Elena T. Mogilat who, from 1922 until the eve of World War II, conducted +practically all the courses in the Russian language. In 1927, Arthur P. +Coleman, the first American of non-Slavic origin to receive a doctorate +in Slavic languages in the United States, was appointed Lecturer and +devoted himself chiefly to courses in Polish. + +The rest of the staff, some of whom served for many years, was composed +chiefly of educated journalists employed on the Slavic papers in New +York or persons occupying responsible positions in various institutions +of learning and business. Almost without interruption, yearly courses +were given in Polish, Czechoslovak and Serbo-Croatian or Slovene. We +must specifically mention the courses in Albanian given by Nelo Drizari +who published, at this period, an Albanian-English grammar and a small +Albanian-English dictionary. Most of the students in these non-Russian +courses were second generation Slavs. Few of these ever worked toward +higher degrees. + +During the twenties, most students for the doctorate were Russians or +persons of Russian descent who had come to the United States after the +Revolution seeking positions in the American educational world. Those +who took the master’s degree were largely of the second generation or of +non-Slavic origin. + +The department made its most extensive efforts in 1929 in providing a +summer course on the history of all Slavic literatures. The lectures on +Russian were given by Prince D. S. Mirsky of the University of London; +on Czech, by Professor Otakar Vocadlo; on Polish, by Professor Kelly of +Dartmouth; and, on Yugoslav, by Dr. D. Subotic of the University of +London. One lecture on Bulgarian was prepared by Dimitar Shishmanov, the +son of the distinguished professor of Slavic philology at the University +of Sofia and a well-known Bulgarian author who was executed by the +Communists after World War II. The response of students was not +sufficient to justify the repetition of the experiment in the next +years, although the numbers exceeded anything achieved in England at +that time for similar programs. + +At the time it was the idea of Professor Manning that the future of +Slavic studies, especially in those languages spoken by considerable +communities in the United States, lay in the development of interest and +support from those communities. This notion was, at the time, warmly +supported by Columbia’s President Nicholas Murray Butler and led to the +formation of an Institute of Polish Culture and an Institute of +Czechoslovak Studies. Both met with initial success but the depression +with its pressure upon the Slavic population of the United States, led +to a practical suspension of the institutes after the publication of a +Polish number of the American archaeological journal, _Art and +Archaeology_, and a translated _Anthology of Czechoslovak Poetry_ +compiled in the United States and Canada. + +On the return of Professor Prince in 1933, the name of the department +was changed to East European Languages and Professor Prince made a new +effort to realize his dream of founding something that would include all +of the peoples of Eastern Europe. It proved premature, once again. The +department underwent further change after the retirement of Professor +Prince. Then in the fall of 1938, Professor Max Vasmer of the University +of Berlin lectured for one semester; he was followed by Professor Boris +Unbegaun of the University of Strassburg. Still later Professor Karl +Menges was added to the faculty to give courses in Slavic and Altaic +philology. + +In still a different field, Professor Manning and Dean Hawkes, of +Columbia College, were both active in the establishment of St. +Vladimir’s Russian Orthodox Seminary in New York, to train candidates +for the priesthood of the Russian Orthodox Church of North America. This +developed later into St. Vladimir’s Orthodox Seminary and Theological +Academy. To this were invited many of the leading emigrant Russian +theologians from Paris and elsewhere. + +The development at Harvard was somewhat different. Few changes were made +in the situation which existed prior to World War I, until the +retirement of Professor Wiener. Then in 1927 Professor Samuel Hazzard +Cross (born in 1891, A.B. and Ph.D. at Harvard before 1917), rejoined +his alma mater and after some years of service in the German department +was made, in 1930, Professor of Slavic Languages. With the appointment +of Professor Cross, Slavic work at Harvard went through a new period of +development and expansion. Into the revised department Cross brought +Professor Ernest J. Simmons who had taken his doctorate in 1928 with a +study of English influence on Russian literature of the eighteenth +century. A larger staff of Russian assistants was also engaged. + +Professor Cross, who had translated the _Russian Primary Chronicle_, +stressed the older period of Russian literature, perhaps because of his +Germanic interests. He also became the managing editor of _Speculum_, +the organ of the Mediaeval Academy of America. In his interest in the +medieval period, Professor Cross was not alone in Harvard for from the +School of Architecture came the work of Professor Kenneth J. Conant on +St. Sofia Cathedral in Kiev and from the English department the work by +Francis P. Magoun, Jr. on the spreading in East Slavic lands of the +medieval _gestes_ of Alexander. + +During the following years, Professor Cross became the center of the +developing Slavic activity, which was not limited to Harvard, but which +was responsible for the publication of various works in connection with +the Pushkin Centennial in 1937. The death of Cross in 1946 was a great +loss to American-Russian scholarship. + +Still another attempt to promote Slavic studies was made at the +University of Pittsburgh by the establishment of national rooms in the +Cathedral of Learning to serve as centers for the national interests of +the students. The Slavic communities, in and around the city, were urged +to provide funds to furnish these rooms in native style and appeals were +frequently made to the governments of the Slavic countries to help in +the work. + +In 1927 also, Professor Michael Karpovich, joined the faculty at Harvard +as Professor of Russian History. Professor Karpovich had been trained as +a lawyer and diplomat in Russia before the Revolution of 1917 and he +soon became a leading spokesman for the Russian liberal groups in the +United States and in America’s scholarly communities. + +At the end of World War I, it was proposed that a scientific society be +established to unite Slavic scholars. The constitution and practice of +existing organizations in history seemed sufficiently broad to include +the professors of those subjects but a more complicated situation +prevailed in the fields of language and literature. + +Consequently, in 1919, there was organized the Society for the +Advancement of Slavonic Study. The nucleus of this group was Slavs from +various organizations, especially Czechs and Yugoslavs. The first +president was Miss Sarka B. Hrbkova who had come to New York from +Nebraska after the dissolution of the department at the state university +there. The secretary was Leon Zelenka Lerando of Lafayette College. A +few meetings were held in 1922 with the final one at Columbia. The +society did not prove to be a success, however, largely because of the +inability of the founders to realize the aims of the society. It +published a few numbers of a bulletin but the addresses at the meetings +were made largely under the mistaken impression that the “findings” of +the society would pass for final pronunciamentos on many of the most +disputed subjects of Slavic scholarship. It must be confessed, also, +that many of these “findings” were based upon the political decisions +made at Versailles and previously advanced by movements such as the +Czechoslovak National Committee. As a result, the organization rapidly +lost standing and it very soon ceased to exist. + +Yet the seed which it had sown was not entirely wasted. In 1922, +Professor Manning discussed with the Modern Language Association the +possibility of organizing the scholars of Slavic languages and +literatures under its auspices. From the very beginning, the attitude of +Professor Manning and the other founders was to avoid the difficulties +that had arisen earlier between the Association and the Society for the +Advancement of Slavonic Study. The first meeting, under the chairmanship +of Professor Manning, was poorly attended and some of the papers read +were decidedly amateurish; but the group continued. During the +intervening years, the original group has been developed into two: one +for Slavic literatures and one for Slavic philology. The attendance is +composed of members of the Association who are either actively or +passively interested in Slavic studies. This is very different from the +early years when it became necessary to do everything possible to secure +an audience for the few persons who ventured to submit papers. During +the early years, Professor Manning remained as chairman and the +secretary was usually chosen from one of the representatives of the +Slavic communities who had shown some interest in the undertaking. Now +the posts of chairman and secretary are rotated, more or less regularly, +and most professors of Slavic in the country have filled a position at +least once. Even so, the group has not sufficiently developed to apply +for recognition as a section parallel to those for English, Romance and +Germanic. Despite this, one of its members, Professor Ernest J. Simmons, +has been elected to the post of Director of the Modern Language +Association for one term. + +A somewhat different development came in the foundation of the _Slavonic +Review_ by Professor Sir Bernard Pares and Professor R. W. Seton-Watson +at the University of London in 1922. From the beginning, this journal, +the first purely scholarly Slavic journal in English, had as American +co-editors, Professor Harper, Professor Noyes and Professor Kerner, then +at the University of Missouri. In 1923, once the journal was fairly +launched, Professor Seton-Watson came to the United States in the hope +of dissuading American Slavists from starting a competing journal. The +proposal was broached at a meeting of the American Historical +Association in Richmond, Virginia, but was decidedly disapproved by some +of those present, and the idea was tacitly dropped without prejudice to +the cooperation between the scholars of the two countries. + +In a somewhat different vein, mention should be made of the monthly +magazine _Poland_. This was started in 1919 by the Polish Legation in +Washington at the suggestion of the Baldwin Locomotive Works which had +taken a prominent part in the rehabilitation of the Polish railroads +after World War I. The Baldwin company furnished the permanent staff, an +editor, Paul Le Tallec, a young Frenchman, and Eric Lord as business +manager. The journal received a subsidy from the Legation. It was +started purely as a trade journal, but Le Tallec had other views. Under +Clarence Dawson, who succeeded Paul Le Tallec as editor, it rapidly +developed into a general magazine covering all aspects of Polish life, +art and literature, as well as economics and business. The journal +proved successful for over ten years but when Dawson resigned as editor, +it began to fail. The magazine changed its character considerably and +finally, in the early thirties, was allowed to lapse. + +It was during this same decade that energetic work was done in building +the libraries of various institutions. Even before the Russian +Revolution, the Library of Congress had acquired a large, uncatalogued +collection of Russian books and the New York Public Library developed a +very large and extensive Russian department. There were large Russian +collections at both Harvard and Yale. At Columbia, the Russian +collections prior to 1914 were negligible, while at the University of +California, Professor Noyes had specialized largely in translations of +Russian literature. Most of the institutions took advantage of the large +number of Russian books that were thrown upon the market after the +Soviet Revolution and purchased whole libraries from emigres and other +sources. + +The Columbia collections were increased by the gift of a large library +on Russian literature, collected for many years by Dr. Samuel Abel, a +graduate of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. It numbered several +thousand volumes. The establishment of the Hoover War Library at +Stanford University brought to that institution a vast amount of +material, especially concerning Slavic countries, that had been +collected by American Relief workers, under the direction of Herbert +Hoover. + +We must also mention the work that developed at Georgetown University +under the direction of Father Edmund Walsh who had served in Russia +after the Revolution. Work was done in the various schools but +especially in the School for Foreign Service of which Father Walsh was +the founder. Georgetown’s example was seconded by the continual +improvement in the standards of other institutions such as that of the +Czech Benedictines at Lisle, Illinois, and further, by the +establishment, in 1933, of such institutions as St. Basil’s College in +Stamford, Connecticut, by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Exarchate of +Philadelphia. + +There was also a large number of Slavic books and translations from +Slavic in the public library in Cleveland, Ohio, where Mrs. Eleanor +Ledbetter had worked long and hard with the Slavic groups in that city. +Thus, by the outbreak of World War II, there were in the United States a +considerable number of libraries that were fairly adequate in nearly all +the centers where Slavic subjects were treated with the importance that +they deserved. + +In 1931 work in Russian literature in English was also started at the +University of Washington, in Seattle, by Ivar Spector. In 1943, a course +in Russian history was added. In addition to these courses, Professor +Spector did considerable lecturing before various groups interested in +Russian affairs. The interest in Seattle is especially noticeable +because of the possible contacts with Siberia across the Pacific Ocean. +Whatever contact is had with the Soviet Union comes almost inevitably +through the seacoast cities on the Pacific Ocean. The same motives have +led to a strengthening of Russian work in the other California +universities, the University of California at Los Angeles and the +University of Southern California. + +Strange to say, the recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933 by the +United States did not produce a marked increase in interest in Russian +Slavic affairs. Student interest flagged and it was soon evident that +the need for Russian in the business world would not at all parallel the +situation which a few years earlier had sparked the great development in +Spanish studies. + +The years of the depression, in many ways, produced another period of +marking time in Slavic studies. For the most part efforts of the Slavic +groups to introduce their languages into the American educational system +were retarded, while available finances were restricted to relief +purposes. In other cases, as among the Czechs, the hardships were +complicated by the death of such leaders as Reverend Vincent Pisek and +Professor Michael Pupin who had been active in stimulating cooperation +between the immigrant communities and the American educational system. +Their deaths at a critical period disrupted much of the work. Further, +the 1931 failure of the Bank of Europe Trust company in New York under +conditions which almost completely reimbursed the depositors, +nonetheless lessened the effectiveness of Thomas Capek, a leader in the +work. Similar disasters in other Slavic groups had similar nation-wide +effects and except for an effort to interest the Czech population in the +Chicago area to establish courses at the University of Illinois, the +period was destitute of that type of energetic development which, on the +eve of the depression, promised to bear such rich fruits. + +In a lighter vein came the establishment of courses in Russian under the +NRA. It had been hoped by some that it might be possible to give relief +to at least some of the unemployed Russians by the establishment of free +courses in the language. The attempt was almost completely a failure. +The students lacked any serious desire to learn the language and the +instructors were no more anxious to teach it. One very well educated +Russian actually prepared a set of charts on Russian grammar which +purported to show that there were no exceptions to any syntactical rule +in Russian and he blandly presented to his class word forms that he knew +never existed even in the speech of the most illiterate. When he was +reprimanded, he calmly told the NRA supervisors that he knew that none +of his students intended to learn Russian, he wanted his money, and so +there was no reason to worry about what, or how he taught. + +In 1934, a new development emerged which was to prove exceedingly +fruitful in later years. Largely under the influence of Professors Cross +and Patrick, a small sum of money was secured to establish an intensive +summer course in Russian for about 20 students. The course was held at +Harvard University the first year and was directly under the control of +Professor Patrick who had come from the University of California to +conduct it with the aid of some assistants. The experiment was +successful. In 1935, joint sessions were held at Columbia University and +were to a certain degree independent of the regular summer school +courses. Professor Patrick was assisted by Mrs. Mogilat of Columbia and +Dr. Jack A. Posin of the University of California. After 1935, the +course was held at the University of California, largely because of the +increasing illness of Professor Patrick. + +The session at Columbia was attended by two regular officers of the +United States Army, Major Frank L. Hayne and Lieutenant (later Brigadier +General) Joseph A. Michela. Their attendance was made possible by the +efforts of Colonel Burnett, officer in charge of the Military Attache +Service, who, having served several terms as United States Military +Attache in Japan, insisted that officers assigned to such posts as +Moscow and Tokyo have a speaking and reading knowledge of the local +language. This had been the case of Colonel Philip Faymonville, the +first Army man to be sent to Moscow after the restoration of diplomatic +relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. In a sense, it +was almost the beginning of serious language work by the United States +Armed Services. Both Hayne and Michela later were military attaches in +Moscow, although Hayne was transferred to Finland during the +Soviet-Finnish War. Michela remained in Moscow during the greater part +of the War and participated in the removal of the capital to Kuybyshev +when the Germans approached Moscow in the summer of 1941. At Columbia, +these officers had special courses during a two year period. In the +second year they were joined by Captain Ivan Yeaton, who had previously +served during World War I in the Siberian Expedition under General +Graves. Other officers were later added to the group but as World War II +approached, the entire project was transferred to Harvard University. + +The thirties also witnessed the beginning of a systematic interest in +Russian studies by the American Council of Learned Societies. This group +had previously considered the need for developing studies in specialized +fields and had approached foundations to secure money for limited +projects. It had been successful in fostering work in Chinese and in +completing at least a preliminary survey of American resources in the +field. It then turned its attention to Russian and established a +committee to study the general status of Russian studies. Professor +Cross was secretary of this important committee for several years. +Through the activities of the American Council, coordination of work by +the various universities and colleges, was accomplished. This was but +the beginning of a process which was to be greatly intensified during +the War. + +In the thirties, the University of Wisconsin began to offer courses in +Polish. Elaborately planned, Professor Joseph Birkenmeyer from the +University of Krakow was invited to direct the work. Unfortunately, he +returned to Poland just on the eve of World War II, but the work was +continued successfully.[37] The department at Wisconsin was established +primarily through the influence of the Polish population of the state. + +When we consider the state of affairs as a whole on the eve of World War +II it is apparent that no important university or college had +established an adequate course in Slavic languages and literatures other +than those which had done so by the end of World War I. This does not +mean that the period between the wars was lost. The departments at all +the major centers were better equipped than they had been twenty years +before; they had larger libraries, better trained instructors and what +is more, they were attracting more serious students. Further, there +were, in the United States, a considerable number of men who had had +personal experience and acquaintance with the Slavic and adjacent +countries. There were real experts in almost every field of Slavic +studies and there had been a large output of books on the languages, +literatures and histories of the Slavic nations. + +Of course, Russian predominated. Yet it is noteworthy that during the +twenties and thirties when American institutions were overrun with +would-be Communists, the Slavic departments, which might have seemed the +most vulnerable, somehow escaped with the least amount of trouble. They +had not taken sides in the fervent polemics of the period that were +carried on with more heat than light, and while there were a number of +men who had studied or visited the Soviet Union, few, if any, had become +seriously infected with Communism. + +They had, however, continued to repeat the old traditional formulas set +out by Russian scholarship before the Revolution, arbitrarily neglecting +all aspects of the nationality problem in the Soviets, treating Russia +as a single unified country, without regard for the mixed elements of +her population or the Soviet division of the republics by an official +policy of differentiation between the peoples. + +The most unsatisfactory aspect of the period concerned the non-Russian +Slavic tongues and histories. This was unfortunate, for it tended to +give instruction in the major centers a Russian, if not Soviet, +orientation, a fact which would cause repercussions in the following +period. + +Among the Slavic communities, some leaders were beginning to understand +better the peculiar problems of the American educational system, and +though they had not yet come to cooperate actively, they were rapidly +becoming aware that there was serious work being done. Their own +institutions were improving. They were securing more American-trained +teachers, even if they were members of the groups, and many second +generation Slavs were rising to prominence. + +Thus, the period represented a marked deepening, rather than an +expansion, of efforts. Slavic languages and history were no longer +considered merely artificial and exotic; the way was cleared for a +period of rapid expansion. + + + + + CHAPTER 7 + SLAVIC STUDIES SINCE 1939 + + +In the period of tension which followed the Munich Agreement of 1938, +the opening of World War II, and the period of Nazi-Soviet cooperation, +Slavic studies in the United States, as well as the studies of the +neighboring East European countries began to receive more serious +consideration. A period of more active interest began. Because +developments during World War II have continued since the ending of +hostilities, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the +War and post-war period, largely because of the Cold War and the +establishment of the Iron Curtain or, better yet, the recognition that +there were tremendous gaps between the thinking of the Western free +world and the Soviet dominated areas. + +On the surface, the reactions in 1939 differed little from those in +1914. This is well illustrated by the fact that at the annual opening +exercises of Columbia University in 1939, President Nicholas Murray +Butler repeated large extracts from his talk of 1914 on a similar +occasion. Yet, the attention of the American public was more sharply +focused on events in Eastern Europe than it had been in 1914 and the +colleges and universities during the preceding twenty-five years had +provided a larger nucleus of trained men. The events of the first months +showed, however, that far too many of these trained men were still bound +to the thinking of the past and were not prepared to take into account +recent developments on a global, and even on an East European, scale. +Such short-sightedness prevented adequate consideration of the situation +as it unfolded day by day. + +The old myth that Russia was a single country inhabited by a single +people, with boundaries defined long ago, proved remarkably vital. +President Wilson’s formulation of a Russian policy in 1918, recognizing +the need of the Russian people to choose their own form of government, +was still accepted and even the colleges and universities paid little +attention to the structure of the Soviet Union as it saw itself. The +American people and their government continued to use the word Russian +as a synonym for Soviet Union and were puzzled, as they had been in +1917, by the movements that arose in the territory. As in 1917, Finland +stood out as a distinct nationality, but the popular reaction to the +annexation of the Baltic republics was marked as much by confusion as by +indignation. Supposed “experts” even found grim relief in the fact that +after 1939 the borders of Germany and “Russia” were touching and this +seemed to confirm the validity of the pre-1914 frontiers. + +Thus the crisis tended to emphasize again the importance of Russian +history and the Russian language. In a sense this was justified. The +force of events had made the Russian language predominant in Eastern +Europe and the leaders of the USSR were almost exclusively Russian, +except the Georgian Stalin, who regularly espoused the Great Russian +cause for foreign consumption. All tendencies to stress the opponents of +Moscow and their cultures ended abruptly with the Nazi attack on the +Soviet Union and continued in the following period of Soviet-democratic +cooperation. Such emphasis on the Russian character of the USSR was +furthered by many of the Russian emigres, who at the height of the war, +were only too ready, whatever their political convictions, to serve the +cause of Mother Russia, a policy which was fostered by Stalin’s clever +use of Russian slogans. + +Many British and American authorities zealously compared the German +attack on the Soviets in 1941 to the German advance in 1918 after the +Soviet Revolution. A bitter propaganda attack was started, both inside +and outside the universities, against all national groups from the old +Russian empire having separatist aspirations. The old equation that all +who were not pro-Communist were pro-Nazi was repeated, especially after +1941. The Ukrainians received the worst criticism but they were not +alone. Even though the United States government refused to recognize the +seizure of the Baltic states, President Roosevelt acceded to the demands +of Stalin and allowed him to sign the Atlantic Charter. They did not +grant this to the representatives of the occupied countries, lest they +break the friendship with that great anti-Nazi power—“Russia.” Under +such conditions, lectures arranged by Professor Manning at Columbia +University in the spring of 1941, with the aid of the Ukrainian National +Association and a number of distinguished professors of Eastern Europe, +evoked severe criticism from many anti-Nazi radio commentators who +followed the whims of popular sentiment. + +The chief counterweight to this tendency was the arrival in the United +States of many distinguished scholars who had escaped the holocaust of +Nazi rule and the direct impact of Soviet power on Slavic scholarship. + +The circumstances of the peaceful occupation of Prague in the spring of +1939 made it difficult, if not impossible, for many Czech professors to +leave. The chief exceptions were Professor Otokar Odlozilik and +Professor Roman Jakobson who were outside the country when the storm +struck. + +The Poles were more fortunate, for during the crucial weeks of the +destruction of Poland, many of their leading scholars had been able to +escape north into Lithuania or south into Romania, from which countries +they made their way to the west. When they arrived in the United States, +the Polish organizations, working with the Polish Legation in +Washington, found funds to allow them to continue their scientific work. +To furnish a center for them and keep them from being lost in American +life, an American branch of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences in +Krakow was formed under the distinguished historian, Professor Oskar +Halecki. This was later reorganized as the Polish Institute of Arts and +Sciences in the United States. During the war years, it received +sufficient funds to publish a quarterly journal, the _Bulletin of the +Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America_, and to issue several +scholarly works on Polish subjects. Still later, when the Germans pushed +westward, other Polish scholars, such as Professor Waclaw Lednicki and +Professor Manfred Kridl, succeeded in reaching the United States. Most +of these men have since found places in the American scientific world. + +Few distinguished Russian scholars arrived at this time and there was +only one Ukrainian, Professor Nicholas Chubaty, who almost by accident, +arrived in the United States for a meeting of _Pax Romana_, an +international organization for social action under the auspices of the +Catholic Church, and remained here after the outbreak of hostilities. +The Southern Slavs and Bulgarians fared even less well. + +War produced, at first, relatively little effect upon Slavic studies as +a whole or Russian in particular. It was not until 1940 that there came +any appreciable increase in the number of students. Yet the general +reaction of the public differed from that of 1914. Despite the growth of +anti-Nazi and even anti-German feeling, there was no attempt to exclude +German from the curricula of any important institution. There was no +decline of students, but rather an increase. The same was true of +Russian, and long before 1941, the governing bodies of institutions +without Slavic departments began to think of introducing them. We can +only mention certain instances of this development.[38] + +Professor Alfred Senn, a Swiss philologist from the University of +Kaunas, who held several positions in other institutions, became +Professor of German Philology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1938. +During World War II, he offered courses in Russian, and in 1948 became +Professor of Balto-Slavic Philology and head of the Department of +Balto-Slavic Studies. As such, he was able to group around him a number +of refugee scholars. + +In 1939, Cornell University invited Dr. Jack Posin to teach Russian and +in 1941 named Ernest J. Simmons Assistant Professor of English and +Russian. In 1942 Simmons was named chairman of a newly established +department of Russian, and, in 1945, was promoted to a full +professorship. Dr. Posin, meanwhile had transferred to the University of +Iowa, in 1942, as Assistant Professor of Russian. + +At Syracuse University, Professor Albert Menut of the Department of +Romance Languages, a student of Russian, was able to develop courses in +Russian and to inaugurate a Russian program. + +The extent of Slavic development during this period is revealed in a +survey conducted by Professor Arthur P. Coleman in 1945, which showed +eighty-one institutions offering courses in Russian and eleven in +Polish. At the same time, there were 147 schools and colleges offering +courses in Slavic history and culture. The increased interest in history +seems all to the good, but it can be noted that well over fifty +institutions offering work on Russian and Slavic subjects lacked +collateral courses in the languages. This, however, was a far smaller +proportion than existed in 1914. Furthermore, it was not a peculiarity +of the United States, for as late as 1924 in Germany there were +professors of East European history who looked askance at students +wasting their time on linguistic studies, for they preferred to have +them work from translations. + +To secure a staff for the American expansion, particularly in Russian, +offered many difficulties. There had been almost no immigration of +Russians for many years and the bulk of the possible instructors were +persons who had come to the United States shortly after World War I. +These were the only ones with any special training, for during the +period between the wars, few young Russians from educated families had +seriously considered doing advanced work in Russian, even though there +were many with knowledge of the educational system. An outstanding +exception was Oleg Maslenikov who, at this time, joined the staff of the +University of California. + +The chief emphasis, in this period of expansion, was on a speaking +knowledge of the language. Wherever it was possible, instruction was +begun under the supervision of some member of the faculty with a +knowledge of Russian, while much of the actual work was done by native +assistants. This combination, originally applied to Russian by Professor +Patrick, became the general rule and was successful where it was +intelligently used. + +Unlike the situation in World War I, the United States government +actively encouraged these studies and assigned draftees as well as +volunteers to special units for the study of languages, and special +language schools were established for the Armed Services throughout the +country. This created still another problem. Wartime conscription +reduced the number of students alarmingly causing nearly all colleges +and universities to become dependent upon government funds for their +continued functioning. The larger institutions, with their highly +developed laboratories and opportunities for scientific training, +received most of the students to be trained in technical subjects. The +government, therefore, often opened language centers in smaller +institutions, many of which lacked necessary libraries and, in some +localities, secured a proper staff of instructors only with difficulty. +Thus, Bulgarian was assigned to the University of Denver, which was +fortunate to find in that city an educated Bulgarian lady. She agreed to +help, although she had never seriously considered teaching Bulgarian, +and was compelled to prepare most of her materials from original +Bulgarian texts which she owned. + +With the reduction of the armed forces after the War, many of these +courses were suspended, although both the Navy and Air Force still send +selected students to various universities. The Army, however, has +established its own language school at the Presidio of Monterey. With a +well selected civilian faculty, many of them former members of +university staffs, this is rapidly becoming one of the best institutions +of its kind for the study of the Slavic as well as other languages. It +is preparing, for its own use, its own courses and it promises to become +an important testing ground for Slavic and East European studies. In +addition to this, Russian has been introduced into the curriculum of +such service academies as West Point, where the work which was +tentatively started after World War I is now on a definite and secure +basis. + +This period, too, saw the beginning of the organization of the so-called +area studies. In these, the history, geography and economics of the +given area are stressed. Such efforts represent an attempt to overcome +the gaps which have developed between historical, literary and cultural +studies through the departmentalizing of institutions. But as they have +developed, historical and economic elements have been stressed more than +cultural and literary. This was perhaps natural. However, during the +War, at the height of the enthusiasm for the USSR, studies of this kind +tended to accent the Soviet version of the relations between the +nationalities of the Soviet Union, and the old Russian concept of a +single Russian people. There was thus, a perpetuation of the previous +confusion in American thinking; and, it was not overcome even when the +Ukrainian and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republics were included +as charter members in the United Nations. + +The greatest single deterrent to Slavic study was the almost +simultaneous death of nearly all the older leaders of Slavic +scholarship. To list but a few of the more prominent: Professor John +Dyneley Prince, who had retired from Columbia in 1937, died in 1945 at +the age of 77; Professor Alexander Kaun, of the University of +California, died at the age of 55 in 1944; Professor George Z. Patrick, +of the same institution, died at the age of 63 in 1945; Professor Henry +Lanz, of Stanford, died in 1945 at the age of 59; Professor Samuel +Hazzard Cross, of Harvard, died in 1944 at the age of 55.[39] Thus, +within three years practically all the older men in the field of Slavic +literature died except Professor George Rapall Noyes and Professor +Manning. The losses in history were not so severe but Professor Samuel +N. Harper, of the University of Chicago, died in 1943 at the age of 61. +As a result Professor Robert J. Kerner, for many years at the University +of California, was the only person remaining in the field of history who +had become prominent before 1914. This, in a sense, sharply delineates +the earlier period of Slavic studies. Today the leaders of Slavic +scholarship belong definitely to a different generation, one which is +certainly better trained but does not necessarily have the range of +interests which often marked the older men. + +Another, somewhat different, development needs to be noted. During the +first years of the War, when England was severely strained by the war +and the bombing of her cities, it seemed that the _Slavonic and East +European Review_ would be compelled to suspend publication. To meet the +crisis it was decided that the journal would continue under the +direction of the American contributing editors. Thus, until his untimely +death, Professor Cross was the practical editor of the magazine, +assisted by Professor Leonid I. Strakhovsky. Issues appeared with both +an American and British volume number. After the War when the British +expressed a desire to resume publication, the American editors expanded +their numbers and, with the aid of the Joint Committee on Slavic +Studies, established the American Association for the Advancement of +Slavic Studies to publish _The American Slavic and East European +Review_. The present committee of scholars in charge of the publication +is Professor Abram Bergson of Harvard; Professor George B. Cressey of +Syracuse; Professor H. H. Fisher of Stanford; Professor Alexander +Gerschenkron of Harvard; Professor Oskar Halecki of Fordham University; +Professor Roman Jakobson of Harvard; Professor Michael Karpovich of +Harvard; Professor Robert J. Kerner of California; Professor W. Lednicki +of California; Professor Philip Mosely of the Council for Foreign +Relations; Professor Geroid Robinson of Columbia; Professor Alfred Senn +of the University of Pennsylvania; Professor Ernest J. Simmons of +Columbia; Professor S. H. Thomson of the University of Colorado; +Professor George Vernadsky of Yale, and Professor Francis J. Whitfield +of the University of California. Nothing better illustrates the way in +which Slavic studies has developed than this list, for the overwhelming +majority of these scholars represent those institutions where +departments had existed before World War I. + +_The American Slavic and East European Review_ is the leading +publication in the United States for Slavic studies. However, other +journals, such as the _Publication of the Modern Language Association_, +_Speculum_, the _Journal of Central European History_ (edited by +Professor S. H. Thomson) and the _Journal of East European History_ +(edited by the University of Chicago), also contain specialized +articles. As a matter of fact, there are very few of the more +specialized journals which during the past years have not included +articles on some aspect of the East European historical and cultural +world. + +There are also several quarterlies published in the United States which +deal with East Europe. Among these are: _The Russian Review_, edited by +Professor D. von Mohrenschildt of Dartmouth College, originally founded +with the aid of the Russian Student Fund; the _Ukrainian Quarterly_, +edited by Professor Nicholas Chubaty for the Ukrainian Congress +Committee of America; and, the _Polish Review_, published by the Polish +Institute of Arts and Sciences in America. We may also place here the +_Armenian Review_, edited by Mr. Reuben Darbinian for the Hairenik +Association (Boston, Mass.). These are scholarly journals devoted to the +language, culture and history of the people for whom they are compiled, +which cannot be overlooked in any survey of the intellectual output for +East European subjects. There are also many smaller organs and bulletins +of societies, often with world wide connection, which serve a more +specialized political program. They are important for their frequent +opposition to the accepted viewpoint of history and culture, but are +essentially more political than scholarly in its content. As has been +stressed again and again, Slavic studies have developed so largely under +the influence of the imperial Russian and German traditions that truth +has often seemed to be merely what was decided in pre-World War I St. +Petersburg and Berlin. + +The Slavic group of the Modern Language Association of America is still +the leading scientific center for philologists and students of +literature in the broadest sense of the word. It holds a yearly meeting, +concurrent with the Modern Language Association, and is divided into two +parts, literary and philological. It offers the best possibilities for +the developing of personal contacts among more serious students. In time +it should become a section parallel to that of the English, Romance and +Germanic sections but the day when there are sufficient members is still +in the future. + +For many years there was no special section in the American Historical +Association and its allied societies, devoted to the study of Slavic or +East European history. This did not mean that the subject was ignored, +for numerous papers were included in the regular program and, many times +there were entire meetings devoted to Slavic problems. However, in 1955 +a special conference on Slavic and East European studies was formed to +provide continuity and concentration in the subject. This activity will +undoubtedly expand in future years. + +Another organization serving Slavic scholars is the American Association +of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, formed by Professor +Arthur P. Coleman, formerly of Columbia University and now president of +Alliance College. Founded in 1941 to parallel such groups as the +American Association of Teachers of German, this organization exists to +bring together teachers of the subject, rather than to promote research. +The association is divided both by languages and by localities. It has +appealed to many emigre scholars, and this has led it to a more definite +anti-Communist position than many other groups, which have often leaned +over backward to appear impartial and unprejudiced. It has now +established the _Slavic and East European Journal_. + +The ranks of emigre scholars, which had started to grow with the arrival +of many Poles in 1939, were augmented after 1945 by the arrival of many +displaced persons. These men, for the most part Ukrainians and often of +considerable intellectual stature, found themselves in an unenviable +position chiefly because of their inability to speak English. The +majority were already mature or even elderly. They had escaped the +holocaust caused by that interpretation of the Yalta agreements which +had led to the forcible return of many refugees to the Soviet Union. +However, they were aided by their own ability to make the most of +opportunities given them by the freakish events of the last months of +the War in Europe. In and out of the DP camps, they had created their +own scholarly groups in Germany and Austria. Thus, the Ukrainian Free +University which had been established first in Vienna and then moved to +Prague after World War I, was now reopened in Munich. An UNRRA +university was started in the same city. A less formal Baltic university +was established in Hamburg in the British zone. At one time there were +plans to transfer this latter institution to Canada, but the plan +miscarried. However, many of the leading professors of these +institutions have come to the United States and Canada and are being +absorbed into the American educational world. In the beginning, many of +these men were compelled to take non-intellectual positions. Others +found places in institutions (usually Catholic, of either the Western or +Eastern Rites) educating their compatriots, at schools such as Alliance +College, and the Ukrainian Catholic St. Basil’s College in Stamford, +Connecticut.[40] + +In addition to these institutions, the displaced persons opened many +more elementary schools on all educational levels to train their fellow +countrymen whose education had been interrupted by the War and the +limitations imposed on general education, both by the Soviets and the +Nazis. + +By a series of fortunate coincidences, the majority of the +administration of the old Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv, and a +large part of its membership were saved in the DP camps. There, this +society, which had been suppressed by the Soviets in 1939 after their +occupation of Lviv, was again revived under the same officers in Munich. +The center was later moved to Sarcelles near Paris. Many of its members +have come to the United States, and while the headquarters are still in +Sarcelles, American and Canadian branches have been established in New +York and Toronto and are working actively, publishing the results of +their studies in both Ukrainian and English. + +At about the same time, other Ukrainians in the camps, perhaps more +often from eastern Ukraine, formed the Ukrainian Free Academy of +Sciences. Its members have also come, in numbers, to America and are +functioning in New York and Winnipeg. They publish the quarterly +_Annals_ in English, greatly aided by the East European Fund set up by +the Ford Foundation. + +These two groups, which parallel the Polish Institute of Arts and +Sciences in America, have counterparts in the Francis Skorina Society +(Kryvian), and the White Ruthenian Institute of Arts and Sciences in the +U.S., the Croatian Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and the Serb +National University in Chicago. The Masaryk Institute, formed by a group +of Americans and Czechs before the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia, is +in a sense similar but it has also the features of the Kosciuszko +Foundation. It is too early to know what position these societies will +take in Slavic programs of the future, but their outstanding individuals +are securing recognition in American colleges and universities. Whether +they will ultimately form a branch of this general educational field or +whether they will develop into more highly specialized groups drawing +upon interested Americans of non-Slavic origin, cannot now be answered +with certainty. Some of them are undoubtedly ephemeral but some have had +a long cultural tradition and can be expected, in their new environment, +to exercise an influence out of proportion to their numbers. + +Many of the newly arrived scholars are already playing an important role +in the development of Slavic studies and in the reorganization of some +of the older departments. It would take too long to list all who have +found important posts. Professor Oskar Halecki is developing the study +of Polish history at Fordham University. Professor Roman Smal-Stocki at +Marquette University has taken a prominent part in the formation of a +Slavic Institute there. By such publications as _The Nationality Problem +of the Soviet Union_, he is helping acquaint the American public with +the dangers of open, as well as secret, Communism in the United States, +besides exposing the inaccuracy of the American concept that all +citizens of the former Russian empire are Russians by blood, feeling and +culture. There is, in addition, the work of Professor George Shevelov in +comparative philology at Columbia University, and that of Professor +Dmytro Chyzhevsky at Harvard, which emphasizes the older Ukrainian +literature. + +The rise of recently arrived Slavic scholars and the influence of +transplanted organizations of Slavic scholarship was earnestly needed by +American Slavic scholarship and, in fact was forced by the surprising +number of deaths during the war period. Development in the different +institutions has been conditioned, of course, by the general traditions +and spirit of each school. While growth has been rapid, it cannot be +said that all results have been unqualifiedly happy or successful, +partly because of the sporadic interest by both faculty and students in +the field as a whole. Slavic subjects (not to speak of the closely +associated non-Slavic languages like the Ural-Altaic groups, modern +Greek and Romanian, all of which have strong Slavic overtones) are +extremely broad and diverse. Yet for the average American student, +Slavic and Russian are too exclusively identified. Even interest in +Russian has been chiefly limited to either pure philology or, more +frequently, Russian literature of the nineteenth or twentieth centuries. + +As an example, consider Columbia University’s efforts to secure a +balanced course. When Professor Ernest J. Simmons joined the staff, in +1946, as professor of Russian literature and Chairman of the Department +of Slavic Languages, as it was now renamed, he hoped to build a broad +program. The department was informally divided into four sections: +Slavic and Russian philology; Czech and Slovak; Polish, and South +Slavic. To help defray expenses, the university, reversing the policy +formulated by President Butler after the unpleasant developments of the +World War I period, sought from the lesser Slavic lands, a yearly +subsidy to pay the salary of a distinguished professor. This was easily +secured from both Poland and Czechoslovakia and Professor Roman Jakobson +was appointed the Thomas G. Masaryk Professor of Slavic Philology, and +Professor Manfred Kridl was named the Adam Mickiewicz Professor of +Polish. Arrangements were made without considering developments which +might be caused by the Communists, and similar agreements were made with +many countries of the Near and Middle East. The experiment was hardly +satisfactory. After the Communist coup in Czechoslovakia, the new regime +imposed such conditions that maintenance of the chair was impossible. +Poland more slowly followed the same course. Despite other arrangements +with less possible political interference, made by the university, the +number of students in the Czech, Slovak, Polish and South Slavic +sections of the department has been scarcely larger than it was between +the wars. There was no attempt, at Columbia, to break the traditional +separation between the faculties of philosophy and political science, or +establish a single department for all Slavic, or even all Russian, +instruction. Russian history, under Professor Geroid Robinson, continued +to develop as it had, just as other areas of study continued under the +faculty of political science. + +Development at Harvard was somewhat different. There, after the interim +period following the death of Professor Cross, Professor Roman Jakobson +came to Cambridge in 1949, with a number of experts in Slavic fields. At +about the same time, work in all Slavic subjects was, at least +partially, consolidated and Professor Karpovich was named to the Curt +Hugo Reisinger Chair of Slavic Languages and Literatures, in addition to +his work in history. + +At the University of California development was severely affected by the +death of Professors Patrick and Kaun, until the staff was rebuilt by the +appointment of Professor Gleb Struve and Waclaw Lednicki, and the +promotion of Professor Oleg Maslenikov.[41] There was no attempt to +integrate the work in history under Professor Robert J. Kerner, although +the department broadened with an increase of students. + +In the same period, Slavic studies at Catholic universities, especially +those administered by the Society of Jesus, have been greatly +strengthened. While Georgetown University, alone, achieved standing in +language instruction following World War I, the situation has changed +since World War II and Fordham, Notre Dame, and Marquette are all +setting new standards in the range of courses offered and in the +thoroughness of their work. These institutions have also contributed by +studying the contrasts and similarities between the Russian Empire and +the Soviet Union, with emphasis on the nationality problem of +Russia-USSR. Numerous conferences have been held and addresses have been +published. + +Marquette University, located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where there is a +considerable population of Slavic descent, has established a Slavic +Institute under the direction of Professor Roman Smal-Stocki. In the +announcement of its first publication, _The Doctrine of Anarchism of +Michael A. Bakunin_, the Institute stated its goal: + + ... to strengthen the knowledge of Slavic matters and problems in + America through this special series of monographs on Slavic nations, + their history, culture, civilization and their great personalities. + Simultaneously we would like to cultivate through original research, + the Slavic heritage of more than twelve million of America’s + citizens. According to our anniversary motto, we dedicate the series + to the “Pursuit of Truth to Make Men Free” and in this spirit we + shall approach all Slavic nations, large and small, with a deep + sense of their fundamental equality, disregarding all Slavic + imperialisms and colonialisms, and with a warm respect for their + fine heritage, which has become a component part of our American + culture and civilization. + +Scholarly purposes of this sort, which respect the culture of the Slavic +peoples apart from political dominations, and the avowal to study +changes of Slavic culture in the New World, bid fair to mark a new era +for such studies. + +Leading American colleges as a whole have introduced Russian into their +curricula. Most courses are taught by men trained while in American +government service during World War II, who have continued their +preparation in graduate programs at one of the longer established Slavic +departments.[42] + +Much of the recent development in Slavic scholarship must be credited to +the work of the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies. Started before World +War II by the American Council of Learned Societies, a committee was +established in the Slavic area, based on the prototype which existed to +aid the reorganization and development of studies in Chinese. Later the +Social Science Research Council established a committee for the +development of Slavic studies in the social sciences. The committees of +these organizations combined to form the Joint Committee, which was able +to secure large subsidies from foundations for the development of +courses, faculty salaries and scholarship grants. + +The initiative of this committee, working with influential and alert +university officials, has aided the expansion of wartime area studies +into institutes, organized programs and centers of research and +training. This approach to academic organization is, in a sense, +borrowed from European university organization which used institutes, +such as the Slavic Institute in Prague, as a means of coordinating the +activities of previously isolated chairs. In the United States, where +the organization of courses led to the establishment of cohesive +departments, the institutes became a means of coordinating departments +which were in different faculties, sometimes in isolation and even +competition, especially in courses on national cultures which almost of +necessity impinge on history. + +In addition, the institutes had a more practical side, for along with +the development of pure research, they aspired to supply trained men and +women for special technical work in both government and civilian +enterprises. We can scarcely summarize this activity better than by +quoting the purposes of the Russian Institute as reported in the +Announcement of the Faculty of Philosophy of Columbia University, for +1957 (p. 146): + + The Russian Institute, established in 1946 with the assistance of + the Rockefeller Foundation, has two major objectives: the + development of _research_ in the social sciences and the humanities, + as they relate to Russia, and the training of a limited number of + well-qualified Americans for scholarly or professional careers, as + Russian-Soviet specialists in business, in finance, in journalism, + in various branches of government service, and in academic research + and teaching in the social sciences and in literature. It is + believed that such prospective specialists should acquire (a) a + broad and thoroughly integrated knowledge of Russia and the Soviet + Union; (b) command of a well-developed specialty in a selected + academic discipline, as applied to that country; and (c) a broad + training in the more general aspects of this selected discipline. To + this end, each candidate for the two year certificate will pursue + certain survey courses on Russia, while giving special emphasis, + within the Institute, to one of five fields: Russian history, + economy, government and law, foreign relations, the social and + ideological aspects of literature. At the same time, the candidate + will be expected to follow outside the Institute, a parallel program + of work in the graduate school or department of the University that + is most closely allied with his Russian specialty within the + Institute. + +All of these institutes, wherever they have been founded and whether +they are Institutes, Studies or Programs have been faced with the same +fundamental dilemma: how is the term “Russia” to be defined? A certain +number of scholars, who have been labeled by Professor Lev Dobriansky of +Georgetown University as the “Russia Firsters,” have stubbornly insisted +that it was their duty to devote themselves to the study of Russia in +the traditional sense of the word, i.e. the consideration of Russian +culture, history and economics without regard to the linguistically and +culturally heterogeneous character of the old Russian empire. To +students of this school, every person within the old Russian empire is a +Russian, whether their studies concern economics or concentration camps. +They refuse to separate the statistics in any way that might show +increased pressure on the non-Russian peoples by the Soviet government. +They feel themselves free to do this, even though Stalin himself after +World War II specifically attributed the victory of the Soviet Union to +the loyalty of the Great Russians, i.e. Russians in the narrower sense +of the word. + +This attitude, despite the prominence of its supporters, has been +steadily opposed by those students who stress the cultural and +linguistic differences which existed in the old Russian empire as well +as in the modern Soviet Union. These students emphasize the similarities +between the Russian and Soviet concepts of dominance of the Great +Russians, and argue for a proper recognition of the oppressed nations of +the USSR who sought their independence during the Revolution and have +since been restrained by force of arms to adopt Communism. They +accordingly see in the restoration of the political independence of +these nations the best answer to the Communist menace to freedom. This +viewpoint has been expressed by Professor Roman Smal-Stocki, and by +James Burnham, formerly of the Department of Philosophy of New York +University, who in all his writings has stressed the need to eliminate +the new Russian Communism. + +A further requirement of this in a historical survey is expressed by a +Russian in speaking of the failure of the anti-Communist movements +during the Civil Wars: + + Those who were adverse to the new (Communist) regime could thus be + divided into two very different groups; one comprising the + property-owning classes (who had been deprived of their all by the + Bolsheviks), the officers, the civil servants and all those devoted + to the ideals of the Russian State as constituted before the October + Revolution; the other, the national separatist groups, which desired + complete separation from Russia. It is easy to see that, no matter + how antagonistic these two groups might be to Communism, their aims + were absolutely dissociated. The unity of the Russian State could + only be reestablished in one of two ways: either by a restoration of + the Monarchy or by federation. Neither alternative appealed to the + anti-Bolshevik groups; and this circumstance explains the absence of + cooperation in the Civil War which broke out in many parts of the + country in 1918. It must be noted also, that the majority of the + population, the peasantry, stood entirely aloof from the activities + of both groups, and remained during the initial stages of the Civil + War absolutely neutral.[43] + +With the practical elimination of the monarchist influences, the line is +still drawn with the greatest bitterness between the so-called Russian +democratic elements who insist upon the unity of Russia and the +representatives of the non-Russian peoples, especially the Ukrainians, +Baltic, Caucasian and Turkestanian nations. During the first post-war +years this latter tendency was little regarded in the American +universities and even now is less well represented than it should be; +but recent years have seen the publication of several studies such as +John Reshetars’s _Ukrainian Revolution_ and John A. Armstrong’s +_Ukrainian Nationalism_ (1939–1943). + +The same division can be seen in the distribution of aid, in the early +years, of the work of the East European Fund, Inc., which was created by +the Ford Foundation and has done much valuable work. In its later years +it has given more money to aid in the preparation and publication of +works by Ukrainian, Byelorussian and other scholars and is publishing a +series of Ukrainian texts, either original works or books suppressed by +the Soviet government. But all of these publishing activities fall far +short of the work of the Chekhov Publishing House which has issued over +100 Russian books and received for this, grants (up to 1954) totaling +$1,238,000. However, on the average, as shown by the Fund’s report for +1954, the grants to the several Ukrainian and Byelorussian +(Whiteruthenian) scholarly and relief institutions have never been more +than a third, at most, of that contributed for similar Russian purposes, +in spite of its stated position of refraining from “favoring or +supporting any single Russian political grouping.” The report shows how +the Fund has tended however to see more value in the Russian projects +than in the Ukrainian and Byelorussian (Whiteruthenian).[44] + +Gradual changes of attitude can also be noted in the American-supported +publications of the Institute for the Study of the USSR in Munich, which +is intended as a means for assistance to refugee scholars from the USSR, +and in the various American radio and other organizations intended to +aid in the fight against Communism, such as the American Committee for +Liberation from Bolshevism. It is to be noted also in the policy of +George Kennan, formerly of the State Department and now connected with +the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, who is +considered an outstanding American authority on the USSR. His entire +policy of “containment” has long been based on the same idea of Russian +unity as expressed by his uncle, George Kennan (See Chapter III). + +To supplement these and similar tendencies in the study of the satellite +states menaced by Communism, there has been established in New York +another series of organizations to secure American help, to furnish +scholarly opportunities for displaced scholars from the countries +liberated after World War I and to assist in training new students. This +is the Mid-European Studies Center. Its counterparts in Europe are Radio +Free Europe and in the university field in the United States, the +Mid-European Studies Program at Columbia University. This is more or +less on the pattern of the Russian Institute and it is but one example +of the efforts that are being made to develop interest in the culture of +the satellite states, which, save for the efforts of their compatriots +in the United States, have been largely neglected. + +A point often raised regarding studies in this area is the limitation +placed upon them by the American distrust of Communism which has +expressed itself in many Congressional investigations as well as the +public and private attempts to root out from the various important +fields open or secret Communists or fellow-travellers. This point is +raised by Professor James F. Clarke of the University of Indiana:[45] + + In more recent times a similar blind emotional reaction to Communism + as well as partisan evaluations of the Soviet Union have constituted + a threat to the free and rational expansion of East European + studies. Today, college students, teachers, and administrators + interested in the area dominated by Communism, while they may not + yield to anti-Communist hysterics, must at the same time heed its + potential effect on parents, taxpayers, legislators, trustees and + employers. + +It is the opinion of the present writer that such arguments serve merely +to cover the failure of the scholars to interpret the complications of +the Soviet mode of thought to an American audience. The Aesopian +language in which so much of the current Communist propaganda is +couched, both for home and foreign consumption, and the belief that +truth is what is best at the moment for the Communist Party, have laid a +responsibility upon students of Eastern Europe, a burden not borne by +the more established subjects where the sources are less subject to +deliberate falsification. In addition to this, certain men who followed, +during World War II, the tendency to gloss over the cruelties of the +Soviet Union on behalf of mutual understanding and a misinterpreted +liberalism now find it difficult to disavow some of their most +tendentious writings. This by no means implies that they are either +Communists or fellow-travellers but they deliberately closed their eyes +to unpleasant situations, and now shrink from admitting the full truth. + +As we have noted above, few, if any, of the outstanding scholars of +Slavic have accepted Communist ideas. The burden of Communist +infiltration in the past, and in the present, has been in departments +and subjects that might be considered most immune to them, especially +some of the natural sciences which have only recently become subjects +for international intrigue and spying. For this reason, the fears of +being labeled a Communist are far less vital than the pressure that has +been exerted at many different periods to present Communism as a liberal +doctrine that is in harmony with American ideals. It is this misplaced +liberalism that has been responsible for what the author of the article +quoted calls “anti-Communist hysterics.” + +In addition to this, any objective study of the Communist-dominated +world is rendered impossible, if the supplemental goal is to promote +mutual understanding. This of course is an object of study when the +system of two distinct peoples is founded upon the same general +principles, and when words are used on both sides with similar meanings. +In a study of the Communist world, far more can be effected by a +rigorous emphasis on the differences than can be gained by soft-pedaling +and concealing them. + +Another important factor that has worked against the increase of +students in the East European field has been the nature of the +opportunities which are offered to students. Immediately after the +liberation of the Slavic countries, after World War I, there seemed to +be a chance that students who acquired some knowledge of Slavic could +put it to use in their ordinary vocations. Those opportunities for +employment abroad that loomed so large in the calculations of students +of Spanish proved to be conspicuously absent in view of Communist +actions. + +The spurt that occurred after World War II came to an end when the Iron +Curtain descended over almost the entire Slavic world, at least so far +as the average student was concerned. Men who had received some +instruction while in the Armed Services were able to take advantage of +the GI Bill of Rights and continue their studies. Yet most very soon +found that unless they intended to become real specialists, they would +not have the opportunity to use their knowledge. + +The colleges and universities needed more men in view of the widespread +conviction that Russian, especially, was a proper and necessary subject. +Yet the field was relatively limited and did not require many +generations of post-graduate students to adequately staff the +departments. The chief opportunity besides teaching was government +service and this absorbed the greatest number. But, for those who did +not care for government work the range of opportunities soon became +restricted. + +Most of these men and women, who are today specializing actively, are +persons who have received fellowships of some kind or value from one or +another of the larger foundations (the Rockefeller, Carnegie Corporation +and the Ford Foundation). As in other branches of scholarship, and even +the sciences, or those humanistic subjects which almost insure teaching +positions, these fellowships and scholarships play a more important part +in the economic life of the graduate student than ever before and any +increase or decrease in them is reflected almost immediately in the +number of students. The result has been a steady but perceptible drop in +graduate students during the past years. This has not been a bad sign in +reality, even though it may superficially seem a lack of interest. + +We can be very sure, the world and human nature being what it is, that +there will be no such reaction against foreign languages as there was +during and after World War I. There are already signs that the number of +students has dropped to the point where it will remain stationary, or +from which it will perhaps rise slightly, during the next years. + +The study of Slavic and East European subjects has followed a very +definite pattern in the last ten years with its shifts of emphasis +reflecting the changes that have taken place in that part of the globe. +It has followed political and economic relationships of the United +States and we can be confident that it will continue to do so. + +Thus, since the beginning of World War I, the picture of Slavic and East +European studies in the United States has changed markedly. The +prospects today are far brighter than they ever have been. The +foundations have been laid and it only remains to build a superstructure +to fit into American life and at the same time present a consistent and +coherent picture of what that American life, and Slavic studies, really +need. The first period of test is over. Now is the time to present +Slavic scholarship to the American public and the scholarly world in +such a form that it can be assimilated and incorporated in the +intellectual life of the nation, and at the same time take account of +the possibilities offered by the large section of the population with +Slavic traditions. + + + + + CHAPTER 8 + THE FUTURE TASKS OF SLAVIC AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES + + +It is obviously impossible, under present conditions in America, even to +dream of offering any outline for a definite organization of studies of +that large area east of Scandinavia, Germany and Italy. We are dealing +with several linguistic and cultural entities which historically have +been subjected to widely differing influences. Especially in the field +of history and of culture in general, the old notion that a boundary +could be drawn between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, or +between the Christian and the Islamic Worlds, is definitely antiquated. +It was non-existent during the earlier periods of history although it +was partially valid for a few centuries. Even at the height of religious +separation, the Slavic World was itself divided, the Western Slavs and +some Southern Slavs on one side and the Eastern and most Southern Slavs +on the other. Today, with the general movements that are sweeping both +Europe and Asia, these lines are obliterated. + +We are forced, thus, to recognize a far more complicated situation than +seemed possible even a few decades ago when the early students of Slavic +blindly, though sincerely, followed either the German or the Russian +cultural views of the area. + +Studies in the United States in these fields must find, despite the many +obstacles, a new path, acquire a new breadth of vision, and work out a +new outline wherever the old has been shown to be deficient. This can +only be done by cooperation among both scholars and institutions. Though +the leading colleges and universities have found during the past century +their own methods for departmentalizing their courses and faculty, there +is hardly one which cannot adapt its resources to contribute to the +common cause. We will therefore content ourselves with sketching briefly +some of the problems, and their possible solutions, in the field of +organization. + + +_I. Integration in American Consciousness_ + +At the present time, educated Americans seem to find it impossible to +integrate the concepts that have been forced upon them by events since +1914. The older generation, and too large a part of the younger, view +the expanded practical concern for Eastern Europe and Asia as a serious +and troublesome addition to the range of knowledge which it is compelled +to acquire. This attitude has been fostered by the way in which the +expansion has occurred. Under the pressure of World War II, and its +accompanying developments, the government and the foundations alike have +been spending money to train men in present-day problems and have looked +askance at what we may call basic work in the evolution of the +situation. + +Let us glance at this for a moment. Courses in ancient history, chiefly +of Greece and Rome, are an established part of all college and +university curricula and are even found in many high schools. Yet +invariably, these courses fail to discuss Greece and Greek culture after +the rise of Philip of Macedon and the Roman conquest of Greece. Studies +of the Roman Empire rarely extend beyond the reigns of Diocletian and +Constantine, where they are lost in vagueness about the Dark Ages and +the barbarian migrations. Even in the earlier period, almost no +attention has been given to vestiges of Greek and Roman culture outside +of Greece, Asia Minor and the Roman possessions in the West. + +Thus, there is a cloudy realization that the Code of Roman Law was +finally drawn up in Constantinople, but the historical significance of +the past is not keenly appreciated. At the same time, anything that can +be labeled Byzantine is either treated separately or not considered at +all. There is even no realization that the Scandinavian Vikings extended +their activities to the East as well as to the West and such striking +evidence of this as the marriage of the daughter of Harold the Saxon, +the last Saxon King of England, to Volodymyr Monomakh of Kiev, seems an +incredible and isolated event. The scholars at Dumbarton Oaks and the +Mediaeval Academy of America are indeed doing work on Byzantine history, +culture and institutions but the other scholars working on the +foundations and development of the modern Western World have not +attempted to take their work into account, and are still limiting the +modern Western World to the British Isles, France, Germany, the Holy +Roman Empire and its descendants, ignoring the contacts of that world +with Byzantium in the early and later Middle Ages. + +With a similar lack of understanding, the average student, though aware +of the fight between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Popes, rarely knows +that the Empire was then pushing into Slavic territory or that Saints +Cyril and Methodius, the Apostles to the Slavs, were in Rome as well as +Constantinople. + +There is a scattered appreciation of such events as the Latin seizure, +and the Turkish capture, of Constantinople but only for their impact +upon the life of the West. The arrival in Western Europe of scholars +from Constantinople is taught as a great influence in the Renaissance +but no attention is paid to their origin or where they had studied. + +The situation is even worse for later periods. There has been an almost +complete neglect not only of the history of the Balkan Slavs but of the +Greeks as well. For years after the establishment of the Gennadeion in +Athens, one of the few still unplundered collections of Greek and Slavic +manuscripts, Slavic scholars were as unaware of the existence of this +collection as the classical scholars were unaware of its importance. + +One result of this traditional lack of understanding of early Eastern +history has been the tendency of American scholars to accept without +hesitation either the German view of Eastern Europe as a relatively +primitive region, or the Russian view that in some way everything in the +East was Russian and that it was only natural that Catherine II of +Russia should dream of becoming the Empress of the Byzantine Empire with +her capital still at St. Petersburg. + +Thus all the peoples of Eastern Europe disappear from European history +shortly after the time of Constantine and do not reappear until the +foundation of St. Petersburg and the development of the Eastern Question +in the late eighteenth century. Even the national struggles in Vienna +during the reign of Francis Joseph II are not evaluated, and far too +many would-be-students of Eastern Europe are still under the impression +that movements for national independence during World War I and the +Russian Revolution arose out of thin air. + +The complicated events of the last decades pre-empt the concentration of +students and give them little time to grasp the background which +underlay the past and gave rise to the complexities of the present. + +It would be presumptuous to expect adequate and detailed knowledge of +Eastern history to be added to the intellectual burden of all students, +even though it would be desirable. The most that can be hoped is that +students and scholars interested in this field will be able eventually +to focus more attention, in the general curricula, on a few of the major +trends that worked openly and secretly in Eastern history for over a +thousand years, culminating in the present situation. + +The last years have seen a few attempts, like those of the late Dr. +Bilmanis, Minister of Latvia in Washington, to prepare a history of +Latvia. We now have histories of Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and +two or three of Ukraine. But there is still lacking a general survey +presenting in readable, popular and general form the outstanding +developments in the Slavic area. The development of such a synthesis of +the East European culture, in a form that could be included with the +more detailed studies of the Western countries, would go far in +overcoming the vague and unrealistic ideas which are fostered either by +ignorance or by the propagandistic works of the formerly dominating +nations. + +When we remember that it was nearly the end of the seventeenth century +before Eastern Europe acquired the form that it had on the eve of World +War I and that this order was seriously challenged throughout the +nineteenth century, we can see the necessity of a complete revision of +many of the established and traditional concepts. Such a need must be +recognized by the educational leaders as a whole, for Eastern Europe has +greatly and consistently influenced the West. No greater step forward +can be taken than to emphasize this historical fact and to show the +important role of Eastern Europe, both positively and negatively, in +shaping the world as we knew it at the beginning of the twentieth +century. + + +_II. The Divisions of the Area_ + +Awakening the American intellectual world to the need for reassessing +its concept of Eastern Europe is, of course, an essential problem for +Slavic students, but it can be fully accomplished only in cooperation +with those individuals and institutions concerned with the general +outline of human history. Far more than a mere multiplication of +courses, of lectures and of journals is needed. Yet if we assume that +steps are being taken toward this end, there still remains the very +pertinent question of what divisions and subdivisions of the area are to +be used in any detailed study. It is at this moment that we come face to +face with the tremendous historical and linguistic complications. + +First considering linguistics, Slavic easily can be placed at the +center, for the greater number of the inhabitants of Eastern Europe +speak one of the Slavic tongues. The traditional point of view, which is +now being challenged by linguists, is to divide the Slavs into Western +(Czech, Slovak, Polish and Lusatian), Southern (Serb, Croatian, Slovene +and Bulgarian) and Eastern (Great Russian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian), +and to emphasize common linguistic aspects. + +This is of advantage from the strictly philological point of view; it is +less valid when considering culture and history and the influence +exerted throughout the last millenium by the neighboring states and +cultures. As has been noted already, the constantly shifting line +between Eastern and Western churches cuts directly across the Slavic +world. On one side are the Czechs, Slovaks, Poles and Croatians, all of +whom have been primarily under Western influence. On the other are the +rest of the southern and eastern Slavs who have drawn their original +inspiration from Byzantium and have then undergone, in varying degrees, +cultural influence from the Latin and Germanic west, the Scandinavian +north, the Mongol and Tatar east and the Turkish south. Ukraine, and to +a lesser degree Byelorussia (Whiteruthenia), have felt a consistently +strong Western influence throughout their history. Western influence +among the Serbs has been more spasmodic, while Russia (Moscow) remained +relatively free from such influences almost until the time of Peter I. + +Furthermore, the area also includes the Uralic-Altaic peoples, the +Finns, Estonians, Hungarians, Turks and many less developed peoples. +These can hardly all be treated as offshoots of Slavic. The Uralic +peoples, especially those who are most highly developed, have shared the +influences of the Slavs, and have been closely connected with Western +Europe. The Finns and Estonians have had strong Scandinavian contacts +and the Hungarians have been closely associated with the Empire, the +Poles and the Czechs. The Altaic peoples, largely Mohammedan, have +become an inherent part of Islamic culture and yet, despite their +distinct linguistic and cultural heritage, their fate has been closely +linked with that of the Slavs. In addition, there are the modern Greeks, +direct heirs of the Byzantine tradition with their own sharply defined +culture; the Romanians, who are proud of their Latin traditions; and the +Albanians, who form a distinct Indo-European linguistic group crowded +between the Southern Slavs and the Greeks. Neither can there be excluded +such peoples of the Caucasus as the Georgians, the Armenians and the +Azerbaijanians, nor other Christian and Mohammedan peoples formerly +included in the Russian Empire. + +The time is long past when all of these national groups can be studied +only in terms of the Russian and Ottoman Empires. Their history and +their struggles for liberation create many cultural subsections which +cut across linguistic boundaries and, in part, natural geographical +subdivisions. It is difficult to name satisfactorily these cultural +subsections, for they vary in the different periods of history. Yet, the +definition of courses of detailed study or area programs, which have +become so popular at the present time, demands it. + +There is another difficulty which arises. The events of World War II and +the creeping Soviet imperialism have succeeded in dominating all of the +states which were established, or attempted after World War I. In the +western extension of the Iron Curtain, only Finland in the north and +Greece and Turkey in the south have succeeded in maintaining a +precarious independence. As a result, all of the programs of instruction +that have been arbitrarily set up exclude these three countries. +Whatever value such a division may have at present, it is certainly no +guide to the past, for at times Finland was under Swedish rule, which +extended south of the Gulf of Finland. Likewise, for centuries Greece, +the Southern Slavs and Romania (then divided between Wallachia, Moldavia +and Transylvania), together with Ukraine, formed another definite +cultural block, which to a large degree shared the same political fate. + +For many years, the nations of the Balkan Peninsula were treated as a +Balkan block and, because of the ways these states secured their +political independence, they shared years of stormy political life. The +term “Balkans” was then, with considerable contempt, applied to Greece, +Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania and Romania. Yet after World War +I, when the Adriatic littoral was added to Serbia and Montenegro to form +Yugoslavia and Romania recovered Transylvania and Bessarabia, the name +came to have little meaning. Now with Turkey playing a positive role, +efforts have been made to use the name Southeastern Europe, but with +little success. “Danubian Europe” is worse, for the Danube crosses both +Austria and Hungary, and avoids Greece and Albania. + +At the present time, the term “Eastern Europe” is probably the least +objectionable but it is ridiculous to apply this term to Czechoslovakia +and Hungary which are almost in the heart of Europe. Still, this is the +term, added to Slavic or Slavonic, used as a general title by both the +British _Slavonic and East European Review_ and _The American Slavic and +East European Review_. But the culture area also includes all of the +former Russian possessions in Asia, for the Urals owe their position as +the boundary of Europe more to the fact that they run roughly north and +south at the eastern end of the Caspian Sea, and so are useful to +cartographers, than to any historical importance. + +The term “Mid-Europe” has been introduced lately to cover the history of +that strip of countries which won their independence after World War I +and lost it after World War II. It is an attempt to unify the +non-unifiable, except in terms of their present fate, for during much of +the last thousand years the fate of Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary +has been intertwined, but Poland has been involved with Lithuania, +Byelorussia (White Ruthenia), and Ukraine, while the main relations of +Latvia and Estonia have been with the Scandinavian and other Baltic +peoples. + +For purposes of detailed study then, a division can be made between the +eastern Baltic shore in the north, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary in +the center, and the states of the Balkan Peninsula, including Turkey, in +the south. + +What then can we do with Ukraine and Byelorussia, two of the three East +Slavic states? For both countries connections with Moscow have been of a +special character with a long record of turbulence, opposition and +attempts at independence. They have lived their own lives with +intermittent contact with the West; in fact, it was through them that +most of the purely Western influences drifted into Moscow and the land +of the Great Russians, which in ancient times was more closely connected +through the Volga River with the Caucasian group of peoples and the +Golden Horde. + +Attempts to divide the entire area into regional sections with common +problems and cultural development produces only confusion, for such +divisions are applicable only to short periods in the ever-changing +kaleidoscope of history. The realization of this fact presents one of +the greatest obstacles to the student of present problems. The idea, +fostered in Prague, that the key to all East European problems could be +the assumption of a single Slavic history and Slavic culture can be +easily proved to be as vain as Pan-Germanism, Pan-Turanianism, and +Pan-Asianism. + +Yet, today this over-simplification has been twisted by the Russian +Messianic concept into a formidable weapon against the rest of the +world. The Communist theories, like the old Tsarist theories of Moscow +as the Third Rome, cannot be laughed away. They must be met by accurate +and careful study and this does necessitate some sort of recognizable +division. But, the solution to these contradictions cannot be found in +either the Russian or the old Germanic theories; it demands the most +serious consideration from the modern scholars of the entire world +outside the Iron Curtain. + + +_III. Undergraduate Courses_ + +Considering the material that can be reasonably included in the +curriculum of the average American college, we must severely limit our +expectations. Because the average college aims to give a well rounded +education in many fields of knowledge, the number of persons +specializing in Slavic and East European subjects will be very limited. +The amount of time that the average student can spend on these subjects +and the amount of effort that the average institution will expend to +make them effective, is limited. Furthermore, there will be few +colleges, not connected with universities, either inclined to embark +upon an ambitious program, or supplied with the resources to undertake +it. But, this does not mean that nothing is to be done or that it is to +be done carelessly. + +Until that time when the main facts of the history of Eastern Europe and +of Eastern European and Slavic culture are included in the general +scheme of the development of the modern world or in courses in the +development of contemporary civilization, interested persons on the +faculty must work out a minimum program. This will vary according to the +general content, either in history or literature, and will fall into its +proper place in the general curriculum, whether or not a special +department is established. There are some things that can be expected +and we will divide these into four headings: history, literature, +culture and language. We will here consider the first three. + +The prime requirement in all these subjects is scientific accuracy, +something which is far too often honored in the breach. There has been +in the past too great a tendency to accept some superficial treatment +composed of half truths. We must remember that ignorance, and conscious +ignorance at that, is often better than incorrect knowledge. The problem +lies not so much in what a person does not know as in what he knows +wrong. + +At the present time, there scarcely can be given a course in modern +history which overlooks and omits the questions that have been forced +upon the attention of the world by Russian Communism. There is, +therefore, little or no reason why the main facts of the present +situation should not be correctly given with proper weight laid on the +Soviet structure and methods. This involves a clear recognition that +there are important differences not only between the old capitalistic +and the new communistic Russia, but also that there is an ostensible +stress which the Soviet Union lays upon the differences between the +populations inhabiting her republics, subject as they all are to the +same Russianization. There can be no excuse for the oft repeated view +that all the people of the Soviet Union are Russians in the old sense of +the word. There is no reason for the arbitrary omission of the +nationality problem on the ground that it has no validity in fact or +experience just because it was denied by the Tsars a century ago. There +have been too many instances of even responsible publications omitting +from accurate surveys references to such problems, at the will of +certain anti-Communist nationalist Russian groups. Although there is +available today adequate and easily accessible literature, far too +little of it has penetrated the scholarly world which is still burdened +with the traditions of the past. + +The same can be said of literature. For many years masterpieces of +Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky and Gorky have been included in courses +on modern European literature. Still, far too often, they have been +presented in a vacuum, without any attempt to equate them with Russian +life and thought. This is perhaps less common today, but immediately +after World War I, it is not extreme to say, there was a Western science +of Russian literature almost as far from reality as that first French +translation of _Anna Karenina_ which, in the interest of clarity, calmly +omitted the entire Levin-Kitty story. + +On the other hand, with the number of available translations of nearly +all the prominent Russian authors of the nineteenth and twentieth +centuries, there is no reason why courses on Russian literature in +translation should not be offered. The material can be easily gathered +to give an adequate picture of the development of the literature for the +non-specialist. Whether this is done as part of a general course, or as +a special course, will depend upon the program of the institution but it +will benefit not only the general student but also the person who is +endeavoring to learn the language. + +The problem is more complicated for the other East European languages. +Perhaps Polish literature is the only one that has been translated with +even near minimal adequacy. Still, there are a number of translations +from the Czech, especially from Karel Capek, the popular dramatist who +was active before World War II. There are some good Ukrainian +translations, especially of poetry done by the late Percival Cundy and +the selections already in English give a fair representation of all the +major Ukrainian authors. The literatures of the other Slavic groups are +still poorly represented in translations. + +There is a real need therefore for the preparation of a series of +anthologies in translation, not only from the Slavic languages, but also +from the other literatures of East Europe. There may be difficulties in +securing publication of such works, and hesitation in introducing them +with success into the various courses, but there is no reason why any +college library should not work to build a collection of such works, +even if it is not interested in expanding its study in this field. + +Where there are courses in one or more of the languages of the area, it +will be, of course, easy to prepare courses on the literature with +readings in the original. Yet, these can never replace the full need for +courses in translation or courses in which the originals are +supplemented by translations. + +The same applies to courses in the fine arts, especially music and +painting, both of which have flourished in Slavic lands. There are +special difficulties here that are not present in the literature, for in +the past, and especially the nineteenth century, most of the Slavic +artists appeared in the Western World as either Russian, Austrian or +Italian. As such, their contributions have been hidden even beyond their +own desires, for in 1918 the world discovered that many artists, who had +been invited as representatives of the dominating empires, rebelled and +proudly declared themselves Poles or Czechs, much to the surprise of +their audiences. + +We can be sadly confident that it will be some time before undergraduate +courses in East European history and culture will everywhere acquire a +proper direction and clear acceptance. But year by year, as these +studies expand in the colleges, an increasing number of students are +affected and Slavic studies are coming closer and closer to the academic +level and seriousness of the older disciplines. This offers hope for the +future and, while we cannot expect a Slavic department to become one of +the numerically larger departments, it can rise to its opportunities and +exercise its functions both in training specialists and in broadening +the knowledge of a larger and larger number of students. The lag in +Slavic studies is diminishing with each year and it will soon vanish +entirely if developments of the present day are carefully regarded. + + +_IV. Language Instruction_ + +The first task of a Slavic or East European language department is of +course to teach the language. It should be taken for granted that any +person who claims to be a specialist in the history and culture of any +country should be able to read, write, speak and understand its +language. The language courses in any department are intended to satisfy +these requirements. This however is a goal and the merest contact with +even good students will show how far it is from being fully realized. +Yet it must be the goal even though we accept something far short of it +as that which can be reasonably attained. + +There is no easy way to learn a foreign language and to maintain fluency +in it. And fluency can be best secured by a constant use of the +language, hardly possible in the United States despite the aspiration of +the student. Somewhere, somehow there must be a compromise. + +There are, of course, scattered individuals like the late Professor John +Dyneley Prince, who seemed to have a special gift for speaking foreign +tongues. As a matter of fact, Prince built his entire scholarly and +political career on this inborn gift. His knowledge of spoken tongues +was fantastic, but it should be recognized that he maintained it only by +a constant preoccupation with language. The time that others spent on +bridge and other hobbies, he dedicated to reading dictionaries and +annotating grammars. He continued, so long as his health allowed, the +labor which made it possible for him to perform his almost incredible +feats. Men like Prince are exceptional, but they emphasize the fact that +there is no single road to success. Every individual learns languages in +his own way and hence there can easily be a wide divergence of +educational methods recommended. + +There was a time when instruction in modern languages followed the +methods used in studying Greek and Latin, with an excessive emphasis on +knowledge of grammar and a corresponding neglect both of the finer +points of usage and the ability to read fluently. The old joke that the +object of learning the classical languages was to be able to distinguish +the different uses of the genitive case was true only when scholars +ceased using Latin as a medium of communication. While this was a +passing phase, it left its mark on the study of modern languages. The +Slavic languages, from their inception as subjects of university study, +have been subject to this temptation. But even before the application of +so-called modern methods, there was a larger proportion of serious +students able to express themselves satisfactorily in the Slavic +languages than there was in the more common tongues, such as French and +German. + +On the other hand, the great increase of interest in Slavic languages +came during World War II and this left its imprint on the methods of +instruction. For military and governmental purposes, speaking knowledge +was very important and became even more so when the schools were charged +with training men for intelligence work. The emphasis on a speaking +knowledge of Slavic languages was important in World War II because the +number of young Americans who knew these languages well was seriously +declining. Thirty years before, there were many young Slavs who had but +recently migrated to the United States or were the children of parents +who spoke their native languages fluently though grammatically +incorrectly. The children of these people, trained in American schools, +have lost most of their facility in their fathers’ tongues and need +fundamental training. + +At the same time the slow but persistent strengthening of the Iron +Curtain and the refusal of the Soviet government to allow free +emigration of its citizens has reduced the number of young instructors +available. The majority of competent instructors in America have lived +in this country since the close of World War I and many of them are +unfamiliar with the latest turns of the language as used in the Soviet +Union. + +The difficulty of obtaining instructors is counterbalanced by the great +improvement in methods of recording and reproducing sounds. It is now +possible in almost all institutions to give students accurate and well +rendered records and tapes of the leading Russian dramas and speeches as +recorded and broadcast by the Soviet authorities themselves. It is also +possible for the students to record their own pronunciation and compare +it with the accepted standards. The use of these modern scientific and +technical aids is undoubtedly improving pronunciation, though it is by +no means certain that it is equally satisfactory in teaching fluency +when the student is called upon to express his own thoughts. + +At the same time, the new interest in language often overlooks the fact +that students may desire to learn a Slavic language for widely differing +purposes. In this respect he does not differ from the average English +speaking person who may fully master the language and still be almost +completely ignorant of the technical terms (jargon) of some particular +profession or activity. Disregarding the notion that a foreign language +should be learned only to read _belles-lettres_, we far too often +replace it with the ability to carry on ordinary conversations on +general subjects. There is of course, in all languages, an irreducible +minimum of words of universal applicability, but methods must be found +to include special vocabularies for students with special interests. +This has been met in part by the production of technical dictionaries +for the several sciences but much work remains to be done. + +These remarks apply to all the languages of East Europe. However, modern +methods have received their fullest application in teaching Russian, +although auspicious beginnings have been made for others, especially +Polish. It is highly desirable that textbooks and other aids be +increased in the near future to provide all Slavic languages with +adequate materials, adapted to the use of English-speaking students. +Russian is still the language in which most American students are +interested. In a way this is natural because Russian, both by its +political importance, the number of persons speaking it and the +reputation of some Russian writers, is undoubtedly the most important. +Other Slavic and East European tongues are adequately taught only in +some of the larger universities or in smaller institutions with special +interests, be it circumstances of the administration or the character of +the student body. Yet it is hardly true that any person interested in +the broader studies of Eastern Europe can be adequately equipped if he +possesses only a knowledge of Russian, though this does not make the +situation as hopeless as it might seem. + +There are so many common roots and forms of expression in all Slavic +languages that it is possible to prepare a course which will emphasize +the salient features of each language, equip the student with a +knowledge of any one Slavic language, and still enable him to handle, +for scientific purposes, the others without too much difficulty. This +was successfully done by Professor Prince at Columbia when, with a fine +disregard for special grammatical features of the different languages, +he arranged a general reading course in the Slavic tongues. For some +years, Professor Manning followed his example. The course was finally +dropped because of other departmental needs but there is no reason why +such a course could not be standardized and made available in many +institutions which are unable to afford a complete university staff to +teach the different languages individually. + +The greatest obstacle to the study of Slavic languages is the fact that, +until very recently, few students reached the graduate level with an +adequate background in the languages. This has been somewhat relieved by +the introduction of Russian and other Slavic languages in the colleges, +but often language instruction could be advantageously introduced in +high schools. Furthermore, there are many institutions, largely +supported by churches or societies, which give instruction for which +colleges should be willing to give appropriate credit. + +Such credit could be granted by a rigid insistence upon accomplishment +coupled with a liberal reading of the requirements for college entrance. +Thus, despite the lesser emphasis paid to definite entrance +examinations, it should be possible for educational institutions and +state organizations to arrange examinations in East European languages +even where they were not learned in a recognized school. In many +instances the efficiency of summer courses, such as those given by the +Ukrainian National Association under the supervision of the Ukrainian +Free University, could be checked by some central body. If instruction +were satisfactory, credits could be accepted _in toto_, or the graduates +could be given the opportunity of an individual examination in order to +receive credit. It would seem that almost all major churches and +societies in the United States interested in the study of a foreign +language would react favorably if there were any assurance that students +in their courses would receive proper recognition. + +The American educational system is neglecting, at present, those +resources for study of East European and Slavic languages which already +exist. While it is true that formerly instruction was often given by +ill-prepared and incompetent teachers, the arrival in this country of +large numbers of educated DP’s, often with teaching experience in their +own lands, has changed the situation, and made it possible to build up a +large cadre of language students, prepared to undertake more advanced +work at an earlier stage. + +In the language field as nowhere else, we can clearly see marked +improvement in the past thirty years. There are better textbooks and +better instructors. If there is a negative aspect, it is in an excessive +emphasis on what is conceived to be a modern system of study, which +rests too much upon adherence to hypothetical rules regarding how a +language should be learned, and a tendency to look askance at any +exceptions to this, regardless of what results may have been attained. +There is still much more to be done before the knowledge of these +languages is sufficiently spread throughout the intellectual and +research organs of the country. + + +_V. Graduate Work_ + +Considering the problems of graduate study in American universities, we +must not overlook the fact that Slavic studies in Europe developed +entirely under the methods and system of German scholarship. Although +this may seem surprising, it was at Vienna, Leipzig, and Berlin that the +outlines of the modern sciences were laid. The early universities at St. +Petersburg and Moscow were largely staffed by Germans and the oldest +university in Slavic lands, the Charles University of Prague, lost its +Czech character during the Thirty Years War. A Czech section of the +university was begun as an adjunct only in the 1880’s and did not +recover its original insignia until after the liberation of +Czechoslovakia. Hence, the German system of scholarship was considered +basic, even though it was greatly altered by later development of Slavic +studies at the universities of Prague and Krakow. The influence of +Prague and Krakow was natural, for it was in Slavic universities in +Slavic lands that Slavic would become the cornerstone of humanistic +teaching, acquiring a position similar to that of English and American +literature and history in American institutions. We can never hope to +equal or surpass the work in these institutions though we can admit it +without any sense of failure. + +Since American graduate schools have been based on German models, they +inherited the German division of faculty with history and its allied +subjects separated from literature and philology. Nor have these +divisions been changed noticeably by grouping various chairs in allied +subjects into departments. While there have been attempts, as at +Harvard, to bring together in the Slavic pattern, all courses dealing +with Slavic subjects, this practice has not been generally followed. The +result is that history and literature have been taught separately and +have been combined only in part in more recent Russian and Slavic +institutes. + +In both general fields, the usual methods and regulations can be applied +easily and completely; hence, the introduction of Slavic and East +European into the general curriculum has not caused difficulties. There +remains only this question: should there be some provision for normally +including one or more general courses from either section in the +curriculum of the other to augment the background of those students +tempted to specialize too closely, who might thus fail to see the +general cultural problems which any literature or history presents. + +There are, however, certain limitations which the student will +encounter, due largely at the present time to the rule in the free world +which prohibits a free exchange of students between countries. A student +desiring to work in English, French and German history can go freely to +the appropriate intellectual center to consult sources; a relatively +large number of students in these fields have studied at the +universities and archives of the country in which they were interested. +This was also true to a certain degree, between the wars, in the +so-called succession states when every year students went to the +universities of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, the +Baltic and Greece. Today this is impossible and the administration of +students’ programs must take this fact into account. The limitation +severely restricts research in certain slightly explored areas such as +the remains of Slavic literature from the Middle Ages, the unpublished +memoirs and manuscripts of many modern writers, and memorabilia from +many periods of historical and economic importance. + +These limitations can be partly overcome by increased research in the +archives of many of the countries still free. There is doubtless much +material in the libraries of Western Europe, the Scandinavian countries, +Greece and Turkey which has never been adequately studied by a Slavic +expert. + +Limitations exist to an even greater degree in archaeology and +ethnology, since research before World War I was still in its infancy +and subsequent discoveries have been filtered through the exigencies of +Russian Communist propaganda. This imposes upon the student the +necessity for a most thorough and careful analysis of all Soviet +references and newly published material, often edited to suit the policy +of the moment, for it often involves a direct contradiction to what the +Soviets declared to be true in the period between the two World Wars. +This is the situation not only in history, but also in the literature of +the past and present. The theses issued by the Communist Party for the +three hundredth anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654–1954), +after the death of Stalin and under the “new” Soviet policy, stand in +sharp contrast to the published statements of Soviet scholarship during +the 1920’s and 1930’s. Similarly, the rewriting of the biographies, +during the relatively unhampered conditions of the early 1920’s, of such +authors as Dostoyevsky, Shevchenko, Franko, Mickiewicz and many others, +makes it impossible to accept uncritically either the older Soviet +accounts or even much of the material published under the Tsarist +regime. + +There is then imposed upon faculty and students, the need to recognize +that Slavic studies cannot merely accept the latest discoveries and +statements as a correction of the past, as in other fields, but must +include the most careful consideration of whether in the present or the +past they have been more grossly falsified. Reportedly new discoveries +in the humanistic and cultural fields may be only a dialectic exercise +of the organs of the Tsarist or Communist regimes in order to deceive +the outside world. For example, the declaration of the validity of +“socialist realism” meant a deliberate misinterpretation of the writings +of earlier Communist authors, which can be understood only in terms of +politics, not literature. Promulgated ideas were accepted only after the +publication of the official list of writings as decided by Communist +authorities. Similarly, the original philological theories of Marr soon +lost what validity they possessed when they were adopted by Marr’s +fellow-Georgian, Stalin, as the Soviet system and were imposed for +twenty-five years to serve Communist purposes. Even what remained valid +suffered when Marr, after his death, was officially discredited and his +original ideas went through a second period of wilful perversion. Such +instances could be multiplied by the hundreds, even including Sosyura’s +poem _Love Ukraine_, which was deemed worthy of a Stalin Prize only to +be condemned, a few years later, as anti-Communist and “bourgeois +nationalist.” + +This constant shifting of Soviet truth has involved strange deviations +by even distinguished scholars who have tried to combine their sense of +scholarship and accuracy with their desire to be admitted to the Soviet +Union for further study. It has also increased the American public fear +of Communism and has aided the rise of the so-called “anti-Communist +hysteria” which has restrained men who, though not Communist themselves, +are unwilling to be accused by the Soviets of open hostility. + +There is still another unsatisfied need in Slavic studies. The Western +World, since the seventeenth century, for good or ill, has relegated +religion, or the lack of it, to a subordinate place in modern history. +While recognition is given both religious and non-religious authors and +movements, nowhere have religious motives played the ultimate primary +role. The contrary is true in the East European area, where religion, or +opposition to it, plays the same role it did in medieval Europe. In +Russian literature of the nineteenth century both Leo Tolstoy and +Dostoyevsky were absorbed in the world of the Orthodox Church and, in +their reaction to it, were leaders of the westernizing intelligentsia. +Neither’s influence can be understood without a consideration of the +ethos of Russian Orthodoxy, but this is rarely treated as a serious +subject, even though it furnishes the key to that Russian Messianistic +dream which so frequently emerges in the stream of Russian culture. In a +lesser degree, the same can be said of the more negative Messianism of +Mickiewicz and other Polish writers, of the goals of Shevchenko and, +above all, of the patriotic works of the Serb poet, Nyegosh. In +addition, there is the almost completely unknown world of the Russian +Old Believers, or Starovyery, who have left an imprint on many fields of +Russian culture. Although rarely mentioned, they are far better known in +the Russian revolutionary movement, particularly for their preservation +of old Russian icons. + +Still another field for which material is available, is the history of +the Slavs and Slavic culture in the Western World. Professor Jaroslav +Rudnyckyj of the University of Manitoba has detailed changes of the +Ukrainian language in Canada, and H. L. Mencken has provided startling +information on Slavic languages in America, in his _The American +Language_, but the full extent of these changes and the effect of +American life on Slavic folklore and folk art, as well as the history of +the settlements, has not yet been fully studied. At present, because of +support given by foundations and the government, stress is laid upon +present Slavic conditions and culture. This is only natural, but the +present, and indeed the future, can only be understood by the past. +There is much historical study to be done with the resources that the +United States and Western Europe can furnish. Slavic history has been so +consistently neglected, or studied in such narrow contexts, that its +general lines of contact with the West and Asia have not yet been +established with any degree of certainty, even in the Slavic countries. +If interest has been shown in the relations between Kiev and the +Scandinavians, it has not been extended to the contacts with Byzantium +during all ages. Nor have scholars examined the Swedish-Polish relations +from the viewpoint of both countries. The interplay of the Balkan Slavs +with both Italy and the Ottomans is still veiled in darkness. + +All these subjects can be studied by Slavic scholars in America without +limiting the study to an assumed narrow sphere which has, too often, +been the fate of studies both in Europe and the Slavic lands. The +viewpoint of American students, therefore, with a broader perspective +may result in a new school of Slavic studies, oriented by an impartial +attitude to either the Russian imperialistic claims or the German desire +to treat Eastern Europe, in the broader sense, as a subordinate arena in +the world’s history. These traditional viewpoints are today being +outmoded rapidly by current history; therefore, the sooner American +Slavic and East European scholarship realizes its own possibilities and +its subject matter, the more valuable will be its contribution to the +welfare of the United States and the world. + + +_VI. Area Studies_ + +The development of area studies, which first attracted wide attention +during World War II, fills a certain gap in the general organization of +Slavic and East European studies. They compensate for a deficiency in +the education and application of students but they can never fully +replace the work of the graduate school. Area studies are at their best +when they train young men and women in a knowledge of regions relatively +unknown to the general public, which for one reason or another are so +inaccessible that few, if any, of the students will have an opportunity +to visit them in the course of their studies. They can then be regarded +in two quite different ways, for they are either a desirable prelude to +more serious work or they are vocational schools of the highest class. +In either respect, they will prove their value if properly handled. + +To understand the place of area studies, it must be recognized that the +American university system has sharply differentiated between the +cultural linguistic phases and historical and economic aspects of any +given section of the world. Both areas of understanding require a +knowledge of the general geography, the outstanding products of the +region, its population and characteristics. It has been far too easy, in +the past, for students of Slavic, as well as other cultures, to secure a +knowledge of the literature of a period without an adequate realization +of the background against which that literature was produced. To cite an +example from Russian literature, during the first half of the nineteenth +century, very few Russian writers ever visited Kiev and apart from the +visit of Pushkin to the south of Russia and the service of Lermontov and +Leo Tolstoy in the Caucasus, there are few works which picture anything +but St. Petersburg, Moscow and a small area south of Moscow. While the +average student does not expect such a limitation of subject matter, it +is at once obvious from the most superficial knowledge of the expanse of +Russia. We could parallel this case with any number of others. + +From this point of view, area studies represent but a slight increase of +detailed knowledge over that which the average student acquires before +he begins specialization in any linguistic or historical field. This +knowledge must be supplemented by detailed studies in one of the +accepted fields of learning if the student is not to remain a talented +amateur. + +But there is another aspect of area studies which has given them their +vogue at the present time. The global complexion of World War II brought +home to the American government, all far-sighted educators and even to +members of the general public, the tremendous ignorance which existed in +the United States concerning all parts of the world except some sections +of Western Europe. It was urgently necessary to prepare, in the minimum +time, relatively large numbers of individuals to serve throughout the +world. The involvement of the Soviet Union and the Nazi overrunning of +the states to its west further emphasized this need. Area studies were +the result. + +These studies were definitely geared to educate men and women who could +be quickly called in case of need. That need still exists and +undoubtedly a large percentage of the students who enter such +concentrated programs hope to put their knowledge to practical use, for +the most part, outside the universities. There is still a great demand +for area courses and if ever the Iron Curtain were lifted and free +commercial relations reestablished, we would speedily find that even +with all these courses, the demand would outstrip the supply. + +But, it seems likely that area studies will diminish in popularity if +Slavic and other East European studies find their rightful place in the +undergraduate curriculum and provide students with a real appreciation +of the significance and general culture of the area. If that were so, +they might continue with still greater detail, for an area study +including the entire Soviet Union and the satellites becomes almost a +contradiction in terms. It would be the same as if a student selected +North and South America for a single area study. It becomes very little +more than a brief survey of conditions in some particular field. This +danger has appeared already in places where area studies have been given +on the Slavic lands and have tended to become mere adjuncts of certain +phases of Russian and Communist politics and thought. + +Taken in the true sense, these courses have amply fulfilled the purpose +for which they were intended. They have served to focus attention on +many neglected problems. More than this, they have served to round out +the point of view of many students, but their unfortunate preoccupation +with the present has also created _lacunae_ which can only be filled by +other means. Area studies, in their present sense and scope, are a +welcome sign of progress but they are not an adequately developed source +of our knowledge of Slavic and East European subjects. They are a step +in the right direction, have contributed much to overcome the almost +complete ignorance with which our country entered World War II, but they +fall short of the full needs. + + +_VII. Summary_ + +We have now reviewed the history of Slavic studies in the United States +indicating their scope, their limitations and their prospects. It +remains to summarize all this and, in terms of past experiences, to make +some tentative predictions of needs for the future. + +The number of students of Slavic and East European subjects increased +many times during and after World War II, because public attention was +centered on this area. There are now signs which indicate that this +marked increase is coming to an end. For propaganda purposes, sometimes +deliberate and sometimes based upon ignorance, slackening interest is +attributed to the fear of being labeled a Communist. Yet there are +deeper reasons, for it is rare that the rush of American students into +any subject, whether a science or a humanistic study, lasts more than a +few years. One reason is, in many cases, purely materialistic. The +overwhelming majority of students who pursue higher studies do so for +purely professional reasons, either in government service, scholarship, +journalism or business. An added complication today is the fact that +most students expect to receive scholarships or fellowships during their +period of study, and these have been distributed liberally by the +Foundations, colleges and universities. Yet, at the very moment when the +number of students in Slavic studies show signs of diminishing, we are +also given an intensive barrage of propaganda on the need for increasing +the number of students in the natural sciences. There will be increased +future assistance for the sciences resulting in more available and far +better positions than in the Slavic and East European field. + +We must remember, too, that because of the rapid development, most of +the key men in Slavic studies, no matter what their fields, are still +relatively young. Few are over fifty-five and, unless the mortality rate +experienced during World War II is repeated, we can only accept the fact +that the rate of promotion will be slow and attrition by retirement and +death will be at a low level. Prospects for advancement, then, are not +as good as they were even ten years ago although there will always be +openings for the well trained scholars. + +A need will probably last longest in Eastern non-Russian languages for, +with the passing of time, the present lack of competent scholars in many +of these countries will be felt more and more. There will also be a lack +of those who have really studied the origins of the present situation, +the past history of these lands and even of the Russian people and are +familiar with those currents which have led to the development of the +present situation. We need, in other words, to study the Byzantine +relationships with the Slavs, the pre-eighteenth century German contacts +with the Slavs, the nineteenth century, and those more specialized +subjects such as archaeology, and ethnology, which are still ignored. + +The second aspect closely connected to this, both in the present and +future, is the furnishing of an instructional staff. In some fields +there are still too few men now available and while the younger +generation is being trained, the United States is wasting the services +of many competent scholars who have arrived since World War II began, +who, because of their ignorance of English, are often compelled to take +menial and unintellectual positions. This is a tragic waste at a time +when so much half-knowledge is being disseminated. There must be more +contact between these newly arrived specialists and the general +educational system. Some of these men undoubtedly need special training +to equip them to function advantageously in the American system, but it +is sheer folly for the country and the universities alike to discount +them wholly, or to confine them to minor institutions maintained by +their own groups. American scholarly societies should make every effort +to bring into their membership the newly arrived scholars and to +cooperate with those institutions which have been recently transplanted +to America, such as the Shevchenko Scientific Society. By neglecting to +do so, American education is overlooking a large reservoir of trained +personnel with long experience and a wide range of knowledge and ideas. + +Another pressing problem is the need for money, money for the payment of +faculties, for scholarships, for the expansion and establishment of +libraries and museums. The lack of financial resources in the past has +often been the greatest handicap, for before World War II contributions +for this type of work were few. While the Foundations have contributed +handsomely to make the present expansion possible, it is hardly to be +expected that they will continue indefinitely. Thus, even now the East +European Fund of the Ford Foundation seems to be in the process of +liquidation. + +Similarly, with the pressure exerted on universities, we can scarcely +hope that they, already pressed for funds to conduct research in other +branches, will be able to provide the money needed for Slavic and East +European studies. At the present time, there is a movement on foot to +secure large grants, on a one-time or yearly basis, from many of the +larger corporations. The plans offer encouragement but there is always +the danger that funds will be diverted to those subjects which promise +the most direct advantage to the donors, and while this may set free +certain university funds, it may also serve to furnish those favored +departments something more than their regular share of the institutional +income. + +On the other hand, many societies of the larger groups of Slavic and +East European peoples possess relatively large sums of money which can +be used for cultural purposes. Some of these societies have already +awakened to their responsibility and are doing praiseworthy work in +publishing materials in English, in supporting refugee scholars and in +maintaining cultural institutions. It can only be hoped that all of the +societies will consider carefully the opportunities that are offered for +aiding in the development of endowment funds and gifts for Slavic and +other study. + +In connection with this, the universities have an obligation to keep an +open mind about these offers and not to judge them in terms of the +teaching accepted in Hohenzollern Germany, Hapsburg Austria-Hungary, +Romanov Russia and the Communist Soviet Union. This is not asking the +universities to alter their demands for objectivity, but it is asking +them to recognize that points of view which serve the political +aspirations of the old imperialists should not be maintained because of +their prestige alone, for they have been challenged in large part by +outstanding scholars since World War I. The epigoni of the old Russian +professors are by no means as sure of their ground as were their masters +and it is ridiculous to suggest that no new ideas have been developed by +a reworking of the old and new material. We may still be far from the +time when there will be professors in the history and culture of every +one of the Slavic and East European groups, in a single institution, but +scholarship has advanced beyond the simple view which lumps all the +nations of Eastern Europe into one or two convenient sections and +accepts the view of the dominant nation as absolute truth. + +There is, in addition, a great need for the collection and preservation +of material on Slavic and Eastern Europe. At the time of World War I, +the American Relief Commission under instructions from its chief, +Herbert Hoover, collected enormous masses of material now preserved in +the Hoover War Library at Stanford University. Slavic groups, societies +and associations have brought together relatively large collections of +the most valuable material that has appeared during and after World War +II. Much of this material has been saved at tremendous risks, but is +still scattered in various repositories, not always under ideal +conditions. In addition, the libraries of American universities are +becoming so crowded that they often hesitate to accept copies of works +which may seem superfluous at first sight. + +Thus, it would be highly desirable to form a new institution, sponsored +by interested universities and the scholarly societies of the new +immigration, to preserve in a convenient place, under modern library +conditions, all this material. Such a project, admittedly ambitious, +would require assistance from some foundation, the cooperation of all +the factions among the new immigration, as well as the American +institutions. Administered by a joint board, it could easily be made a +center which would soon be unrivalled in the world. Even ephemeral +material, such as newspapers and programs, which seem of little or no +intrinsic importance, should be preserved, for in a few years they will +be hotly bargained for by the greatest libraries. Why should this not +now be brought together and made available for duly qualified students? +Such a collection would soon prove to be more important than many +apparently more valuable sources. + +In the same way, perhaps under the same roof, there could be a Slavic +museum not only for the major arts but also for articles of domestic +use. Early immigrants brought with them home-made utensils, weavings, +carpets, and dishes which now seem crude and are discarded. However, +their real value is suggested by the fact that the New York State +Historical Society has organized in Cooperstown an agricultural museum +to preserve similar articles made in the early United States. The +disappearance of the old way of life in Eastern Europe, evident even +before the Communist wave of devastation and the ravages of the War, +have given these articles, now in the United States a value far beyond +anything imagined a few years ago. Some organizations such as the Polish +Roman Catholic Union in Chicago, the Ukrainian Museums in Ontario, +California, Chicago and Cleveland, and other groups have made small +scale efforts to establish collections and libraries; some of them, such +as the Shevchenko Society library, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences +library and the Hungarian Feleky library, have not yet found proper +housing. There are many other small and scattered museums and +collections. The development of a project on a continental scale would +at once reveal the similarities and dissimilarities existing among the +Slavic and East European peoples. + +No single institution can possibly hope to achieve all this or to cover +adequately the subjects included in a careful survey and study of +Eastern Europe. Some new form of cooperation must be devised, if the +burden is not to become overwhelming and thus be neglected. It cuts +sharply in some respects across some of the American educational +traditions but the establishments of atomic laboratories sponsored by +several institutions, such as the Brookhaven laboratory, shows that +cooperation is possible. + +These, then, are but a few possibilities for future expansion of Slavic +studies. The Slavic and East European studies in the United States are +still in their infancy and American scholars, whether of Slavic or +non-Slavic origin, have an enormous opportunity to push forward to solve +many of the problems which have, until now, isolated the peoples of +Eastern Europe and have barred them from playing their proper role in +world affairs. + + + + + Bibliography + + + Aldrich, Col. H. S. “Aims and Techniques in Language Teaching Today.” + (abstract) _AATSEEL Bulletin_, V (March, 1948), pp. 60–1. + + Andrews, A. I. “University Courses Given in the United States of + America on Slavic and other Eastern European History, Languages and + Literature.” Reprinted from _Slavonic Review_, 1936. + + “Area Study Programs—The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,” edited by + Royden Dangerfield. Institute of Government and Public Affairs, + University of Illinois, 1955. + + Bennett, W. 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A. “Slavic Studies in America, 1939–1946.” _Slavonic + Review_, XXV (April, 1946), pp. 528–37. + + Matthews, W. K. “The Language Pattern of the U.S.S.R.” _Slavonic + Review_, XXVI (April, 1946), pp. 427–51. + + Mohrenschildt, D. von. “Russian Studies in the U.S.” _AATSEEL + Bulletin_, (March, 1953), pp. 46–7. + + — “Russian Area Studies and Research since World War II.” _Russian + Review_, X (April, 1953), pp. 111–19. + + Nagurney, M. J. “The Teaching of Ukrainian in the U.S.” _American + Slavic Review_, IV (December, 1945), pp. 186–94. + + Noyes, G. R. “Slavic Languages at the University of California.” + _Slavonic Review_, XXII [American Series, III] (October, 1944), pp. + 53–60. + + Ornstein, Jacob. “A Romance Language Instructor Looks at the Slavic + Languages.” _Modern Language Journal_, XXXIII (March, 1949), pp. + 185–92. + + — “A Decade of Russian Teaching: Notes on Methodology and + Textbooks.” _Modern Language Journal_, XXXV (April, 1951), pp. + 263–79. + + — “Facilities and Activities of the Library of Congress in the + Slavic and East European Field.” _American Slavic Review_, XII + (December, 1953), pp. 549–54. + + Parry, Albert. “Teaching Russian in our Schools.” _Tomorrow_, X + (December, 1950), pp. 31–5. + + Pei, M. A. “A Rational Program for Teaching Languages in American High + Schools.” _American Slavic Review_, IV (August, 1945), pp. 138–41. + + Posin, J.A. “Russian Studies in American Colleges.” _Russian Review_, + VII (Spring, 1948), pp. 62–75. + + Riazanovsky, N. V. “Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe.” + _American Slavic Review_, XI (October, 1952), pp. 171–88. + + Rose, W. J. _Cradle Days of Slavic Studies—Some Reflections._ + (Slavistica No. 23) Winnipeg, 1955. + + Rosenbaum, M. W. “Slavonic Studies in America.” _Journal of Higher + Education_, XVI (January, 1943), pp. 9–14. + + Rosicky, Rose. _A History of the Czechs (Bohemians) in Nebraska._ + Omaha, 1929. + + — “Russian Studies at Michigan, 1908–1943.” _AATSEEL Bulletin_, V + (June, 1948), p. 85. + + Schmidt, G. P. “Colleges in Ferment.” _American Historical Review_, + LIX (October, 1953), pp. 19–42. + + Senn, A. “College Russian: Objectives and Methods.” _American Slavic + Review_, V (May, 1946), pp. 176–86. + + — “Obstacles in the Way of Slavic Studies.” _AATSEEL Bulletin_, VI + (March, 1949), pp. 59–62. + + Smal-Stocki, R. _The Nationality Problem of the Soviet Union and the + Russian Communist Imperialism._ Milwaukee, 1952. + + Spector, Ivan. “Russian Studies in the Pacific Northwest.” _Slavonic + Review_ XXII [American Series, III] (October, 1944), pp. 61–9. + + Steward, J. H. _Area Research: Theory and Practice._ (SSRC Bulletin + No. 63) New York, 1950, pp. xix and 164. + + — “The Slavonic Conference at Richmond (Va).” _Slavonic Review_, + III (March, 1925), pp. 684–93. + + Tolpin, J. G. “Teaching of Scientific Russian.” _American Slavic + Review_, IV (August, 1945), pp. 158–64. + + Vakar, N. P. “Teaching Russian Civilization.” _AATSEEL Bulletin_, VI + (June, 1949), pp. 101–3. + + — “Teaching Russian Civilization.” _AAUP Bulletin_ XXXV (Winter, + 1949), pp. 651–60. + + Wellemeyer, J. F., Jr. and M. H. North. “American Personnel in Asian, + African and Eastern European Studies.” [Mimeographed preliminary + analysis]. (ACLS) Washington, 1953. + + Wiener, Leo. “The Teaching of the Slavonic Languages.” _Training for + Foreign Service._ (U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 27) + Washington, 1921, pp. 136–8. + + Wiren, A. R. “The Russian Student Fund 1920–1945.” _Russian Review_, V + (Autumn, 1945), pp. 104–13. + + Zenkovsky, S. A. “Periodicals in the Russian Language Program.” + _AATSEEL Bulletin_, XI (September, 1953), pp. 9–11. + + + + + Index + + + Abel, Samuel, 56. + + Alliance College, 39, 49, 70, 71. + + American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 68. + + American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, + 70. + + American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 18. + + American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism, 79. + + American Council of Learned Societies, 59, 75. + + American Council on Foreign Relations, 27, 50, 68. + + American Historical Association, 26, 56, 70. + + American Relief Commission, 107. + + _American Slavic and East European Review_, 68, 69, 89. + + Andrews, Arthur I., 33. + + Archipenko, Alexander, 49. + + _Armenian Review_, 69. + + Armstrong, Hamilton F., 27. + + Armstrong, John A., 78. + + Army Language School, 67. + + + Bachinsky, Dr., 14. + + Bacon, Leonard C., 29. + + Baranov, Aleksander, 6, 7. + + Barta, Alois, 42. + + Bender, Harold H., 33. + + Bergson, Abram, 68. + + Bienowski, Count, 5. + + Bilmanis, Dr., 86. + + Birkenmeyer, Joseph, 60. + + Bloomfield, Maurice, 25. + + Bowring, Sir John, 19. + + Brookings Institute, 49. + + Bures, Vaclav, 40. + + Burnett, Col., 59. + + Burnham, James, 77. + + Butler, Nicholas M., 52, 62. + + + Cadet School of Warsaw, 5. + + California, University of, 27, 28, 29, 47, 51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 66, 67, + 74. + + Cambridge University, 25. + + Capek, Thomas, 58. + + Carnegie Corporation, 81. + + Carroll College, 21. + + Chekhov Publishing House, 78. + + Chicago, University of, 27, 30, 34, 47, 50, 68, 69. + + Chubaty, Nicholas, 64, 69. + + Churchill, Marlborough, 46. + + Chyzhevsky, Dmytro, 72. + + Clarke, James F., 79. + + Cleveland Public Library, 57. + + Coe College, 42. + + Coleman, Arthur P., 51, 65, 70. + + Colorado, University of, 68. + + Columbia University, 25, 31, 32, 33, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, + 58, 59, 62, 63, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 76, 79. + + Comenius (Komensky), Jan A., 4. + + Conant, Kenneth J., 54. + + Coolidge, Archibald C., 26. + + Cornell University, 65. + + Crane, Charles R., 30. + + Creighton University, 47. + + Cressey, George B., 68. + + Croatian Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences, 72. + + Croatian National Alliance, 12. + + Cross, Samuel H., 53, 54, 58, 59, 67, 68, 74. + + Cundy, Percival, 92. + + Curtin, Jeremiah, 21. + + Czechoslovak National Alliance, 12. + + + Darbinian, Reuben, 69. + + Dartmouth College, 48, 52, 69. + + Dawson, Clarence, 56. + + Denver, University of, 66. + + Deutsch, Babette, 34. + + Dobriansky, Leo, 76. + + Doroshenko, Dmytro, 49. + + Drizari, Nelo, 52. + + Dubuque College and Seminary, 42. + + Duggan, Stephan P., 33. + + Dumbarton Oaks, 84. + + Dyboski, Roman, 50. + + + East European Fund, Inc., 78, 105. + + Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris, 32. + + Eliseeff, Serge, 48. + + + Fay, Sidney B., 34. + + Faymonville, Philip, 59. + + Feleky Library, 108. + + Fisher, H. H., 68. + + Fitch, Graham D., 46. + + Ford Foundation, 78, 81. + + Fordham University, 68, 72, 74. + + _Foreign Affairs_, 27. + + Foreign Language Information Service, 41. + + Francis Skorina Society (Kryvian), 71. + + Franklin, Benjamin, 17. + + Freiburg, University of, 26. + + + Gallitzin (Golitsyn), Prince Dimitry, 6. + + Gent, William, 47. + + Georgetown University, 48, 57, 74, 76. + + Gerschenkron, Alexander, 68. + + Gilman, Pres., 25. + + Golder, Frank A., 27, 30. + + Golitsyn (Gallitzin), Prince Dimitry, 6. + + Granovsky, Alexander, 49. + + Graves, W., 59. + + + Haiman, Mieczyslaw, 38. + + Hairenik Association, 69. + + Halecki, Oskar, 64, 68, 72. + + Hapgood, Isabel F., 23. + + Harper, Samuel N., 30, 47, 55, 68. + + Harvard University, 4, 6, 25, 26, 27, 28, 41, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58, + 67, 72, 73, 98. + + Haupt, Paul, 25. + + Hayne, Frank L., 59. + + Hawkes, Dean H., 53. + + Hecker, Julius F., 34. + + Herrman, Augustine, 4. + + Heyberger, Anna, 42. + + Hoover, Herbert, 107. + + Hoover War Library, 56. + + House, Edward M., 27, 34, 46. + + Hrbek, Jeffrey D., 40. + + Hrbkova, Sarka B., 41, 54. + + Hrdlicka, Ales, 33. + + + Indiana, University of, 79. + + Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 79. + + Institute for Study of the USSR, Munich, 79. + + International Baptist Seminary, 42. + + Iowa, University of, 40, 41, 42, 65. + + + Jakobson, Roman, 64, 68, 73, 74. + + Jaszy, Oskar, 40. + + Jefferson, Thomas, 7. + + Jena, University of, 33. + + Joffe, Judah A., 31. + + Johns Hopkins University, 25, 31. + + Joint Committee on Slavic Studies, 68, 75. + + Jones, R. W., 48. + + _Journal of Central European History_, 69. + + _Journal of East European History_, 69. + + + Karpovich, Michael, 54, 68, 74. + + Kaun, Alexander, 28, 67, 74. + + Kaunas, University of, 65. + + Kelly, Eric P., 48, 52. + + Kennan, George, 22, 79. + + Kennan, George F., 79. + + Kerner, Robert J., 27, 28, 55, 68, 74. + + Knizek, Charles, 42. + + Kodiak, 6, 7. + + Komensky (Comenius), Jan A., 4. + + Komensky Educational Clubs, 40. + + Kosciuszko Foundation, 50, 72. + + Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, 5, 6, 18. + + Koshits, Alexander, 49. + + Koukol, Alois E., 32. + + Kovach, Michael, 5. + + Kovalevsky, Maxim, 30. + + Krakow, University of, 29, 60. + + Kridl, Manfred, 64, 73. + + + Lafayette College, 47, 54. + + Lanz, Henry, 30, 67. + + Leacock, Stephen, 51. + + Ledbetter, Eleanor, 57. + + Lednicki, Waclaw, 64, 68, 74. + + Lee, Charles, 5. + + Lerando, Leon Z., 42, 47, 54. + + Le Tallec, Paul, 56. + + Lewis, John D., 18. + + Lewis, William D., 18, 19. + + Library of Congress, 56. + + Lisovsky, Adm., 21. + + Liverpool, University of, 30. + + London, University of; School of Slavonic and East European Studies, + 30, 48, 52, 55. + + Lord, Eric, 56. + + Lord, Robert H., 28. + + + Magoun, Francis P., Jr., 54. + + Mandell, Max S., 32, 33. + + Manitoba, University of, 101. + + Manning, Clarence A., 32, 51, 52, 53, 55, 63, 68, 96. + + Marquette University, 72, 74. + + Martinovitch, Nicholas N., 49. + + Maryland, University of, 48. + + Masaryk Institute, 72. + + Masaryk, Thomas G., 14. + + Maslenikov, Oleg, 66, 74. + + Matice Vyssoho Vzdelani, 39. + + McCroskey, Benjamin B., 47. + + McGill University, 51. + + Meader, Clarence L., 33. + + Mediaeval Academy of America, 84. + + Mencken, H. L., 101. + + Menges, Karl H., 53. + + Menut, Albert, 65. + + Michela, Joseph A., 59. + + Michigan, University of, 33, 49. + + Mid-European Studies Center, 79. + + Milyukov, Paul, 30. + + Minnesota, University of, 49. + + Mirsky, Prince D. S., 52. + + Miskovsky, Louis F., 39. + + Missouri, University of, 55. + + Mitana, Thaddeus, 49. + + Modern Language Association of America, 55, 69. + + Mogilat, Elena T., 51, 59. + + Mohrenschildt, D. von, 69. + + Monroe, Will S., 33. + + Morawski-Nawench, Albert, 32. + + Mosely, Philip S., 50, 68. + + Murray, W. S., 33. + + Myshuha, Luke, 14. + + + NRA, 58. + + Nebraska, University of, 34, 40, 41, 47. + + New Jersey Normal School, Montclair, 33. + + New York Public Library, 56. + + New York State Historical Society, 107. + + New York University, 33, 77. + + Niemciewicz, Juljusz U., 6. + + Notre Dame University, 40, 74. + + Noyes, George R., 28, 29, 51, 55, 68. + + + Oberlin College, 39. + + Odlozilik, Otokar, 64. + + Ohio State University, 42. + + Oxford University, 25. + + + Paderewski, Ignace J., 14. + + Pares, Sir Bernard, K.B.E., 30, 55. + + Pasvolsky, Leo, 49. + + Patrick, George Z., 29, 58, 59, 66, 67, 74. + + Pennsylvania, University of, 65, 68. + + Percival, James G., 19. + + Phelps, William Lyon, 32. + + Piatkowski, Romuald, 39. + + Pipal, F. J., 40. + + Pisek, Rev. Vincent, 58. + + Pittsburgh, University of, 54. + + _Poland_, 56. + + Polish Historical Society, 38. + + Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America; _Bulletin_, 64, 71. + + Polish National Alliance, 12, 39. + + _Polish Review_, 69. + + Polish Roman Catholic Union, 12, 38, 108. + + Posin, Jack A., 59, 65. + + Prince, John D., 31, 51, 53, 67, 94, 96. + + Princeton University, 25, 33, 34. + + Prokosch, B., 42. + + Pulaski, Casimir, 5, 18. + + Pupin, Michael I., 14, 31, 58. + + + Radio Free Europe, 79. + + Radosavljevich, Paul R., 33. + + Rejcha, Frank, 40. + + Reshetar, John, 78. + + Rezanov, Nikolay, 6, 7. + + Robinson, Rev. Edward, 20. + + Robinson, Geroid T., 50, 68, 73. + + Rockefeller Foundation, 81. + + Rose, William J., 48. + + Rosicky, John, 40. + + Rostovtseff, M., 48. + + Rudnyckyj, Jaroslav, 101. + + Rumford, Count Benjamin T., 17. + + Russian Orthodox Seminary, 42. + + _Russian Review_, 69. + + + St. Basil’s College, 57, 71. + + St. Francis Seminary, 38. + + St. Mary’s Seminary, 38. + + St. Procopius College, 38, 57. + + St. Vincent College, 38. + + St. Vladimir’s Russian Orthodox Seminary, 53. + + Santa Barbara Mission, 3. + + Schmitt, Bernadotte, 34. + + Schuyler, Eugene, 21. + + Senn, Alfred, 65, 68. + + Serb National Federation, 12. + + Serb National University, 72. + + Seton-Watson, R. W., 55, 56. + + Severa, G. F., 39. + + Shelikov, Grigory, 6, 7. + + Shevchenko Scientific Society, 71, 105, 108. + + Shevelov, George, 72. + + Shipman, A. J., 34. + + Shishmanov, Dimitar, 52. + + Simek, Bohumil, 39, 40. + + Simkhovich, Vladimir, 33. + + Simmons, Ernest J., 53, 55, 65, 68, 73. + + Slabey, Rev. Andrew, 42. + + _Slavic and East European Journal_, 70. + + _Slavonic and East European Review_, 55, 68, 89. + + _Slovan Americky_, 38. + + Slovanska Lipa Society, 36. + + Smal-Stocki, Roman, 72, 74, 77. + + Smith College, 34. + + Smithsonian Institution, 33. + + Social Science Research Council, 75. + + Society for Advancement of Slavonic Study, 54, 55. + + Southern California, University of, 57. + + Spector, Ivar, 57. + + _Speculum_, 53, 69. + + Stanoyevich, Milivoy S., 32. + + Stanford University, 27, 30, 49, 56, 67, 68, 107. + + Stepanek, Orin, 41, 47. + + Strakhovsky, Leonid I., 48, 68. + + Strassburg, University of, 53. + + Struve, Gleb, 74. + + Subotic, D., 52. + + Syracuse, University of, 65, 68. + + + Talvj, 20. + + Texas, University of, 42, 47. + + Thomson, S. H., 68, 69. + + Tikhon, Patriarch, 13. + + Timoshenko, Stephen, 49. + + Timoshenko, Volodymyr, 49. + + Toronto, University of, 48. + + Tufts College, 33. + + Turkevich, Rev. Leonid, 42. + + + Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences, 71, 108. + + Ukrainian Free University, 49, 96. + + Ukrainian Museums, 108. + + Ukrainian National Association, 12, 63, 96. + + Ukrainian Providence Association, 12. + + _Ukrainian Quarterly_, 69. + + Ukrainian Workingmen’s Association, 12. + + Unbegaun, Boris, 53. + + + Van Deman, Ralph, 46. + + Vasilieff, A. A., 48. + + Vasmer, Max, 53. + + Vernadsky, George, 48, 68. + + Vienna, University of, 32. + + Vocadlo, Otakar, 52. + + + Walsh, Rev. Edmund, 57. + + Washington, University of, 57. + + White Ruthenian Institute of Arts and Sciences, 71. + + Whitfield, Francis J., 68. + + Wiener, Leo, 26, 27, 28, 53. + + Wisconsin, University of, 28, 33, 42, 47, 60. + + + Yale University, 19, 21, 25, 32, 56, 68. + + Yarmolinsky, Avrahm, 32, 34. + + Yeaton, Ivan, 59. + + + Zeboroski (Zabriskie), 3. + + Zenger, John Peter, 5. + + Zinzendorf, Count, 4. + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + W. H. Prescott, _Conquest of Peru_, Philadelphia, (1902), II, p. 199. + +Footnote 2: + + Professor Otokar Vocadlo of the University of Bratislava visited in + 1929 some of the missions and came to the conclusion that they + included Slavic monks. + +Footnote 3: + + M. Haiman, _Polish Past in America, 1608–1865_ (Chicago: _Polish Roman + Catholic Union_). + +Footnote 4: + + J. D. Prince, “The Jersey Dutch Dialect,” _Dialect Notes, III_, + (1910), pp. 459–484. The usual modern form is “Zabriskie.” + +Footnote 5: + + Thomas Capek, _Augustin Herrman zakladatel Bohemia Manor r. 1660 a + autor mapy statu Virginie a Marylandu_. (Praha: Vytiskla statni + tiskarna, 1930); _Dictionary of American Biography_ (New York: Charles + Scribner’s Sons, 1932), VIII, p. 592. + +Footnote 6: + + Robert J. Kerner, _Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century_ (New York: + Macmillan, 1932), p. 315. + +Footnote 7: + + Clarence Manning, _Soldier of Liberty, Casimir Pulaski_ (New York: + Philosophical Library, 1945), p. 253. + +Footnote 8: + + M. Haiman, _Poland and the American Revolutionary War_ (Chicago: + Polish Roman Catholic Union, 1932). + +Footnote 9: + + For data on Major General Charles Lee, see _ibid._, p. 4. + +Footnote 10: + + For data on Prince Gallitzin (Golitsyn), _cf._ _Dictionary of American + Biography_ (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1932), VIII, p. 113; D. + Sargent: _Mitri, The Story of Prince Demitrius Augustine Gallitzin_, + 1770–1840 (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., Inc., 1945). + +Footnote 11: + + H. C. Brown, _Valentine’s Manual of the City of New York_, New Series + I (New York: Valentine Co., 1916), p. 24. + +Footnote 12: + + Haiman, _op. cit._, p. 178. + +Footnote 13: + + Clarence Manning, _Russian Influence in Early America_ (New York: + Library Publisher, 1953), pp. 17–142. + +Footnote 14: + + Thomas Capek, _History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in America_ (Chicago, + 1920); Rose Rosicky, _A History of Czechs (Bohemians) in Nebraska_ + (Omaha; Czech Historical Society of Nebraska, 1929), p. 33 ff. + +Footnote 15: + + There is a large literature on various facets of this mass + immigration: T. Capek, _The History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in + America_; the works of various Polish sociologists; _Propamyatna + Knyha_ (_Jubilee Book_ of the Ukrainian National Association), (Jersey + City, N.J.: Svoboda Press, 1936); M. I. Pupin, _From Immigrant to + Inventor_ (New York: Chas. Scribner’s Sons, 1923). + +Footnote 16: + + Clarence A. Manning, _Russian Influence in Early America_; also, the + following articles on the history and development of Russian + institutions—Bishop Leonty, “History of Russian Orthodox Church in + America,” _Russian Orthodox Journal_, Vol. XVI, No. 11, 12 (March-Apr. + 1943); Vol. XVII, No. 2, 4, 11 (June, Aug. 1944, March 1945); Vol. + XVIII, No. 2, 4, 11 (June, Aug. 1945, March 1946); Vol. XIX, No. 4, 6 + (Aug., Oct. 1946). + +Footnote 17: + + Cf., A. P. Coleman, “A New England City and the November Uprisings,” + _Annals of the Polish Roman Catholic Union Archives and Museum_, + (Chicago, 1939), IV, p. 31 ff. + +Footnote 18: + + _Dictionary of American Biography_, XI, p. 226; L. Wiener, _Anthology + of Russian Literature_ (New York: G. P. Putnam’s 1902–3), I, viii; II, + v. + +Footnote 19: + + _Dictionary of American Biography_, XIV, p. 460; A. P. Coleman, “James + Gates Percival and Slavonic Culture,” _Slavia_, (San Francisco), XVI, + No. 3, pp. 65–75. + +Footnote 20: + + For Talvj (Mrs. Edward Robinson), see _Dictionary of American + Biography_, XVI, p. 55; L. Wiener, _op. cit._, I, ix. + +Footnote 21: + + _Dictionary of American Biography_, IV, p. 608. + +Footnote 22: + + _Ibid._, XVI, p. 471. + +Footnote 23: + + _Ibid._, X, p. 331. + +Footnote 24: + + _Ibid._, VIII, p. 233. + +Footnote 25: + + For the general history of Slavic studies during the period, see: + Kerner, “Slavonic Studies in America,” _Slavonic Review_, III, pp. + 244–258; Manning, “Slavonic Studies in the United States,” _Modern + Language Journal_, XIII (1929), pp. 280–288; XIX (1935), pp. 425–432; + “Polish and the American Universities,” _Poland America_, (N.Y.) XIII, + pp. 489–491. + +Footnote 26: + + For Coolidge, see _Dictionary of American Biography_, IV, p. 393. + +Footnote 27: + + For a recent description of this, see George Kennan, _Russia Leaves + the War_, (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1956). + +Footnote 28: + + _Cf._ _Propamyatna Knyha_ (Jubilee Book), especially, O. Stetkevych + (Joseph Stetkewych), “Ukrayinske Shkilnytstvo v Amerytsi,” pp. 325 ff. + +Footnote 29: + + Thomas Capek, _History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in America_, p. 241 + f. + +Footnote 30: + + Facts concerning the history of Alliance college have been supplied by + President Coleman. + +Footnote 31: + + Concerning Oberlin, cf. “Teaching of Area and Language Course in the + Field of Slavic and East European Studies,” _American Slavic and East + European Review_, IV (1945), pp. 85 ff. + +Footnote 32: + + Rosicky, _op. cit._, pp. 412 ff. + +Footnote 33: + + _Ibid._, pp. 422 ff. + +Footnote 34: + + Thomas Capek, _History of Bohemians (Czechs) in America_. + +Footnote 35: + + C. W. Hasek, _The Slavonic Languages and Literatures in American + Colleges and Universities_ (Washington, 1920); Manning, “Slavonic + Studies in the United States,” _Modern Language Journal_, XIX, (1935), + pp. 425 ff.; “Slavonic Group of the Modern Language Association of + U.S.A. (Slavonic Group),” _Slavonic Review_, XI (1933), p. 521; “The + University and East European Cultures,” _Columbia University + Quarterly_, XXXIII (1941), pp. 242–251; “Die slawische Wissenschaft in + den Vereinigten Staaten,” _Osteuropa_, V (1930), pp. 171–176. + +Footnote 36: + + Kelly left Slavonic studies in 1929 to take up journalism. For details + on his career, _cf._ _Who’s Who In America_, Vol. 29, p. 1380. + +Footnote 37: + + _Bulletin of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America_, I, + p. 161, carries the obituary of Joseph Birkenmeyer. + +Footnote 38: + + Oleg Maslenikov, “Slavic Studies in America, 1939–1946,” _Slavonic + Review_ (1947), XXV, pp. 528–537. + +Footnote 39: + + Obituaries of these leaders appear as follows: Prince, _American + Slavic and East European Review_, IV; Cross, _ibid._, V; Lanz, + _ibid._, IV; Patrick, _ibid._, IV; Kaun, _ibid._, IV. + +Footnote 40: + + M. J. Nagurney, “The Teaching of Ukrainian in the U.S.,” _American + Slavic and East European Review_, IV (1945), pp. 186–194. + +Footnote 41: + + Noyes, “Slavic Languages at the University of California,” _Slavonic + Review_ (American Series III, 1944), XXII, pp. 53–60. + +Footnote 42: + + I. Spector, “Russian Studies in the Pacific Northwest,” _Slavonic + Review_ (American Series III, 1944), XXII, pp. 61–69. + +Footnote 43: + + P. N. Malevsky-Malevich, _ed._, _Russia-USSR_ (New York, 1933), p. 65. + +Footnote 44: + + _Third Annual Report_, 1953–1954, The East European Fund, Inc. (New + York, 1954), pp. 48, 86. + +Footnote 45: + + _Area Study Program—The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe_, (University + of Illinois, 1955), p. 37. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + THE MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES + + + Published by the Marquette University Press + Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin + + I. _The Doctrine of Anarchism of Michael A. Bakunin_ (1955) by + Eugene Pyziur. + + II. _Hitler’s Occupation of Ukraine (1941–1944)_ (1956) by Ihor + Kamenetsky. + + III. _History of Slavic Studies in the United States_ (1957) by + Clarence A. Manning. + + _Available in paper or case bindings._ _Prices on application._ + + + + + History of Slavic Studies in the United States + + +Both World Wars during the twentieth century originated in the Slavic +countries and in the efforts of various Slavic groups to obtain and +retain their national independence and the right to their own language +and culture. Currently, Russian Communist imperialism overshadows the +Slavic countries, once again threatening their national heritage and +creating new world tensions. + +Since aggression in the Slavic countries has twice resulted in global +wars, the United States, as well as the entire Western world, has begun +to concentrate attention upon the Slavs, their history, their culture, +their aspirations. + +One phenomenon which sharply differentiates the scope of Slavic and East +European studies in the United States from the purely academic studies +elsewhere in the world, is the presence in this country of ten million +Slavic immigrants and their descendents, who have played an increasingly +vital role in our national culture by blending their native qualities, +knowledge and traditions into the American heritage. + +Public and educational leaders in the United States are seriously +supporting attempts to develop a Slavic scholarship commensurate with +American educational traditions. _A History of Slavic Studies in the +United States_ points to the gradual evolution of Slavic and East +European studies in this country and points out some of the more hopeful +paths for future education, so that the United States may make the best +use of the resources, both intellectual and material, that it has at its +disposal. + +[Illustration: MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS] + + + THE MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS + 1131 W. Wisconsin Avenue, + Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + + + ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last + chapter. + ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75446 *** |