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padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; + clear: both; } + div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; } + div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } + .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; + margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } + .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75446 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div>MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES</div> + <div class='c002'>III</div> + <div class='c002'>A History of Slavic Studies</div> + <div>in the United States</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c003'>A History of Slavic Studies in the United States</h1> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div><span class='xlarge'>Clarence A. Manning</span></div> + <div class='c002'><em>Associate Professor of Slavic Languages Columbia University</em></div> + <div class='c004'><span class='sc'>The Marquette University Press</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='sc'>Milwaukee</span> 1957 <span class='sc'>Wisconsin</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_I'>I</span><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Marquette Slavic Studies</span> are published under the direction of the Slavic Institute of Marquette University.</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Edited by</em></td> + <td class='c006'><span class='sc'>Roman Smal-Stocki</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c006'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Advisory Board</em></td> + <td class='c006'><span class='sc'>Cyril E. Smith</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c006'><span class='sc'>Alfred Sokolnicki</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c006'><span class='sc'>Christopher Spalatin</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div><span class='small'>The views expressed in the <span class='sc'>Marquette Slavic Studies</span> are those of their authors, and are not to be construed as representing the point of view of the Slavic Institute.</span></div> + <div class='c004'><span class='small'>Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57–11742</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='small'>©Copyright, 1957, Marquette University Press, Milwaukee, Wis.</span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='small'>MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_II'>II</span> + <h2 class='c007'>Contents</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_vii'>vii</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 1</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>The Slavs in America</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 2</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Mass Immigration</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 3</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Slavic Studies in the Nineteenth Century</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 4</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>The Beginning of Formal Study</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 5</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Slavic Efforts Before World War I</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 6</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>From 1914 to 1939</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 7</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Slavic Studies Since 1939</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'><em>Chapter 8</em></td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>The Future Tasks of Slavic and East European Studies</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c008'>Integration in American consciousness. The divisions of the area. Undergraduate courses. Language instruction. Graduate work. Area studies. Summary.</td> + <td class='c009'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Bibliography</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c005'> </td> + <td class='c008'><span class='sc'>Index</span></td> + <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span> + <h2 class='c007'>Introduction</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>Preparing an adequate history of Slavic and +East European studies in the United States is not an easy task. +Much of the pertinent material has never been collected. Where +it has been brought together, it has never been adequately +evaluated or put in its proper setting against the general American +cultural and educational development. Any attempt at a +synthesis of the situation must then be highly tentative, subject +to correction and amplification.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the formal sense, studies and courses in the Slavic languages, +cultures and history began to appear in American colleges +and universities at the end of the nineteenth century, +largely through individual interest and effort. Until World War +I, these courses developed slowly and aroused little interest. +We can say the same of the formation of libraries and of collections +of other materials. If then we should treat the history of +Slavic studies in this narrow sense, we would secure a creditable +but small list of courses and publications multiplying on a large +scale only since World War II began.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet, this picture would be incomplete. It fails to consider +certain factors which have greatly influenced American life and +thinking and which will in the future exert still more influence. +It likewise ignores significant achievements of earlier periods. +It ignores certain individuals who, though only tenuously connected +with universities and colleges, influenced the course of +events. It ignores also that one phenomenon that sharply differentiates +the scope of Slavic and East European studies in the +United States from such studies anywhere else in the world. +That is the presence in the United States of millions of Slavic +immigrants and their descendants. These have played a hitherto +unrecognized part in the country’s development and at the +same time have given it some unusual aspects.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Slavic studies in the United States can never be as important +as in those countries where the dominant language is Slavic, +and where a knowledge of the language is a necessity for daily +life. There the Slavic tradition, even under external pressure, is +still alive. It expresses itself in every form of culture, every +study of the local environment, natural or artificial. Thus, from +<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>late in the eighteenth century, the universities of Austria-Hungary, +especially the University of Vienna, and those in +such Slavic centers as Prague, Krakow, Lwow and Zagreb developed +flourishing centers of Slavic studies. The universities +in the Russian Empire also concentrated not only on Russian, +but on all the other tongues. It was in these countries that +Slavic languages came earliest and most completely into their +own, as they later did in the independent Slavic countries.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet Slavic and East European studies are not in the same +position as they were in past decades in Germany, France and +the British Isles. There, they were definitely intellectual disciplines +which might find practical use in certain governmental +and educational posts but which were of interest only to a +small number of specialists. In those countries there were learned +professors of Slavic. This is especially true of Germany and +France where relatively large groups of outstanding Slavs, +chiefly of the educated, professional and political classes, were +able to influence higher level thought in those countries. Few +ordinary Slavs appeared in either country. Those who did were +mostly migratory workers who did not take root in their new +environment, and exercised little influence.</p> + +<p class='c011'>That is not true in the United States. There were before +World War I a small number of outstanding representatives of +the Slavic nations, free or not. But the United States was also +brought face to face with the immigration of millions of Slavic +workmen and peasants. These brought little material or consciously +intellectual baggage to the country but took root here +and, under the leadership which they developed in the United +States, have played a steadily increasing role in American +life. They and their descendants of the second and third generations +are not a negligible force. Their children and grandchildren +may have lost a certain facility in the use of their +mother tongues but they have retained qualities, knowledge and +traditions which are vital to the United States today and which +cannot fail to have a far-reaching effect upon the entire world +in the future.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We cannot then speak of Slavic studies merely in the narrow +sense of the word. We must take into account these other +factors which are rapidly becoming tangible elements in all of +American life. In this sense we must consider Slavic and East +<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>European studies to include those means other than political +propaganda which have led to the present American knowledge +of the Slavic world, a knowledge with some striking insights +and some equally amazing gaps.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The present survey is an attempt to handle all aspects of +the growing awareness of the Slavs by the American people and +the American educational system. Yet we can hardly do this +without a brief survey of the way in which the Slavs appeared +on the American scene and the methods by which they have +come to assume their present position. The complete history +of this has never been written though we do have a fair outline +of the various stages of the movement.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 1</span><br> THE SLAVS IN AMERICA</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>We have no records of the arrival in what is +now the United States of the first Slavic nationals. We don’t +know from where they came or where they settled. But it seems +certain that at an early date Slavs appeared in all of the various +streams of colonization though primarily as individuals. We +must remember that it was not until the nineteenth century that +the world became seriously interested in the nationality and +language of a person. The medieval period had thought only +in terms of allegiance to a given monarch or to some supernational +state which embraced persons of many tongues and +origins, united in a common loyalty.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This held true for the first two centuries of American settlement +and we always have to take it into account. It may be +well to glance briefly, then, at the political situation in the +Slavic lands, from the discovery of America through the next +century.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Christopher Columbus discovered the New World less than +a half century after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks and +the liberation of Moscow from the Tatar yoke. Europe was +filled then as now with homeless people, the Christians of the +Byzantine Empire and of the Balkan Christian states, preferring +the hardships of a wandering life to existence under the Mohammedan +Turks. The armed forces of all countries were filled +with adventurers who had been driven from their homes and +were glad to fight as mercenaries.</p> + +<p class='c011'>For example, there were Greek soldiers in the armies of +Francisco de Pizarro in his conquest of Peru in 1532. Later these +same men took sides with Diego de Almagro in his revolt against +Pizarro and made for him the first cannon cast in the New +World.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c013'><sup>[1]</sup></a> This intermixture of nationalities continued throughout +the era of the discovery and the ensuing decades. This was the +height of the Spanish power and it was under the flag of Spain +<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>that men of all nationalities, especially from the Mediterranean +area, went to serve.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At this time, the most powerful Slavic state was the Polish +Republic, the <em>Rzeczpospolita Polska</em>. Yet this was far more than +ethnographic Poland. It took in almost all Ukrainian and Byelorussian +lands as well as ethnographic Lithuania and Latvia and a +considerable part of eastern Germany. It maintained the closest +connections with the Danubian principalities and even Hungary. +Thus, a person known as a Pole could very easily have been one +of several Slavic and even non-Slavic nationalities.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Czechs formed the nucleus of the Kingdom of Bohemia, +itself a subsidiary of the Hapsburg domains, the Holy Roman +Empire (which, to use the words of Voltaire, was already +ceasing to be either Holy, Roman or an Empire). The Slovaks +and the Carpathian Ukrainians were under the Crown of St. +Stephen of Hungary as were the Croats, while the Slovenes +were more particularly connected with Austria. Yet again, the +lands of the Crown of St. Stephen were also part of the Empire.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus the only Slavs not included either in the Ottoman and +Hapsburg empires or in Poland were the Muscovite Russians. +At this period few of them thought of crossing the boundaries +of their western neighbors. Those who left their original homes +traveled eastward and by the middle of the seventeenth century +had reached the Pacific ocean and were poised to cross the +north Pacific at its narrowest point.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We must keep these facts in mind when we think of the +early Slavic immigration to the United States. This jumble of +nationalities and states was still more confused by the fact that +the overwhelming majority of the educated Slavic population +used one of the three international languages of the day. The +Roman Catholics used Latin, the Orthodox employed either +Church Slavic or Greek, and these “higher” tongues supplemented +and in large part replaced the vernaculars in legal and +historical records. This was a period of religious turmoil as well, +beginning with the Hussite wars in Bohemia. These were continued +by the Protestant Reformation touched off by Martin +Luther and the Counter-Reformation under the leadership of +the Jesuits. At the same time, the new Protestantism and the +older Latin Rite were spreading among the Orthodox Slavs and +the situation was still further complicated by the Union of Brest +in 1594 which formed the so-called Uniat Church or Catholic +Church of the Eastern Rite.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>Each of these religious disputes, with the political consequences +that they involved, added to the number of displaced +persons. The adherents of every religion found shelter with their +friends in any of the countries of Western Europe—England, +France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Holland. These were added +to the number willing to risk anything to secure a new home. +This was the background of the early colonization efforts in +America.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Spanish settlements in the southwest are less easily discussed. +There can be no doubt that the leaders of the great +religious orders that spread through California and New Mexico +were of Spanish birth but there is considerable evidence to show +that some of their subordinates were probably of Slavic origin. +At least they seemed familiar with the peculiarities of Orthodox +iconography. The Spanish mission in Santa Barbara, California, +displays the Eastern form crucifix. Many of the wood paintings +of saints in New Mexico superficially resemble crude icons. Yet +little has been done to trace the early lives of the monks who +worked in these missions. It would certainly not be surprising +to find that some had made their way to the Spanish centers of +the Franciscans and Dominicans from the disturbed area of +Eastern Europe.<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c013'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>We are on far surer ground when we come to the colonies +established by the English along the Atlantic coast. In 1610, the +Virginia Company sent to Jamestown, with Lord de la Warr, a +group of Polish gentlemen as workmen. These were apparently +refugees in England from one of the many upheavals in the +<em>Rzeczpospolita</em>. Their names appear in Anglicized forms and +since we have no information about their experiences before they +reached England, many of them have been claimed by the Poles, +Ukrainians, and the other peoples included in the Polish state.<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c013'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The same situation prevailed in New Netherlands. There can +be no doubt that some of the settlers in the new Dutch colony +were Slavs. Thus for a long while, the name of the Zeboroski<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c013'><sup>[4]</sup></a> +family, one of the early settlers, was written in Jersey Dutch. +The family is proud of its Polish origin but again like so many, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>it also has been claimed by the Ukrainians. Another Slav of +this period is Augustine Herrman, a skilled surveyor from +Prague. He apparently went first to Virginia, then moved northward +to New Amsterdam and later founded Bohemia Manor in +Maryland. Efforts have been made by both the Czechs and the +Germans to prove that he was of their origin but what proof +there is favors the Czechs.<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c013'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Many other families, such as the +Roosevelts, can trace their origin to the Baltic states but leave +us to decide from which particular group the original ancestor +came.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A still more tangled situation arose in the early colony of +Delaware, while it was still New Sweden. The Swedes eliminated +the first Dutch settlement around Fort Casimir and then +in 1641 founded their own Fort Christina and sent over a population +of Swedes, Germans and Finns, and all this at a time when +the Poles and the Swedes were conducting their own warfare +behind the shelter of the Thirty Years War. At the same time +the Swedes were trying to make the Baltic a Swedish lake and +their representatives were deeply involved in negotiations with +the <em>Zaporozhian Kozaks</em> who were in an almost constant state of +revolt against Poland. The Swedes then ruled both Livonia and +Estonia. In view of all this it would have been surprising indeed +if there had not been Slavs in the colony of New Sweden, the +area in which the traditionally American form of the log cabin +seems to have originated, a form reminiscent of the architecture +of the East Baltic Slavs. The evidence for New England is less +clear, though we know that the authorities of the new Harvard +College seriously thought of inviting the distinguished Czech +educator, Jan Amos Comenius (Komensky) to serve as the first +president, in 1630. However, nothing came of it.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c013'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>In the eighteenth century there is the same uncertainty. In +1741 a group of the <em>Unitas Fratrum</em> (the Bohemian Brethren) +from Bohemia and Moravia, were led by Count Zinzendorf to a +settlement in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. It is at least possible that +some of these settlers spoke Czech as well as German. If they +did, it would explain more clearly the interest in the community +that was taken during the American Revolution by General +<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>Kasimierz Pulaski, who seems to have made a point of attending +religious services there whenever he could. The architecture of +the older buildings further suggests Slavic influence.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The American Revolution brought to the New World another +group of Slavs, of whom the best known are the two Polish leaders, +Generals Pulaski<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c013'><sup>[7]</sup></a> and Tadeusz Kosciuszko.<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c013'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Pulaski, already +a well-known figure in Poland, brought with him a number of +other East Europeans and Slavs who formed a considerable portion +of the famous Pulaski Legion. We have also the names +of others, such as Count Bienowski and Colonel Michael Kovach, +an Hungarian, a member of the Legion who was killed at +Charleston, South Carolina, in 1779. Most of the Legion’s survivors +stayed in the new country.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another possible source for inspiring Slavs, and especially +Poles, to come to America was the career of Major General +Charles Lee,<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c013'><sup>[9]</sup></a> of the American Army. He had once been in +command of the Cadet School in Warsaw founded by King +Stanislaw Poniatowski. In addition to that, most of the French +troops who served in America had previously been on duty in +western Poland supporting the Saxon claims to the throne and +helping the Poles oppose Russian domination. There is no way +of knowing whether or not this force had received Slavic recruits +during its term of duty there. The services of both Pulaski +and Kosciuszko, and the later return of Kosciuszko to the +United States in 1797, built up considerable interest for +Poland in the United States. This continued for nearly a half +century, leading to a fair amount of immigration from the former +Polish state, especially after the Polish Revolt of 1831.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Moreover, American newspapers of the time published long +accounts of events in Europe. Thus, in 1733 John Peter Zenger +included in the New York <cite>Weekly Journal</cite> an account of the +efforts of Stanislaw Leszczynski to secure the throne of Poland. +Numerous similar examples could be cited. However, no organized +interest in Slavic lands and peoples developed.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Little is heard of Russians at this period, although American +representatives had appeared in St. Petersburg during the Revolution +and the Tsars, in the early 1800’s, began to send diplomatic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>representatives to Washington. Prince Dimitry Golitsyn,<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c013'><sup>[10]</sup></a> +a member of a socially prominent Russian family, was the first +Roman Catholic priest to be fully trained and ordained by +Bishop Carroll in the United States. He continued until the end +of his life to be one of the leading Catholic priests in Pennsylvania, +and maintained contact with the Russian Ministers in +Washington. We also know that in 1800, Kutusoff mantles and +bonnets were very popular in New York society.<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c013'><sup>[11]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Until 1848, the Slavs who came to the United States came +either as individual travelers or as individual immigrants, perhaps +drawn in the train of some more prominent compatriot. +There are several interesting accounts of this period, in Polish, +such as those by Juljusz Ursin Niemciewicz who came with +Kosciuszko in 1797 and remained in the country for several +years. He visited Boston around 1799 and his diary mentions +a Polish Unitarian library, the <em>Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum</em>, +in Harvard of which nothing is now known.<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c013'><sup>[12]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation was different in the Pacific northwest.<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c013'><sup>[13]</sup></a> The +Russians during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reached +the Sea of Okhotsk and Kamchatka in their eastward advance +and began to push into the north Pacific in quest for furs. Late +in the century they started to establish more or less temporary +trading posts on the Aleutian Islands. In 1783, Grigory Shelikov +established a more permanent center at Kodiak. This center of +Russian influence was later transferred south to St. Michael on +the site of the present Sitka in 1800. (The ablest Russian +governor, Aleksander Baranov, went further. In 1811 he sent +his most trusted assistant, Ivan Kuskov, to establish a Russian +trading post at Fort Ross, not far from San Francisco). Shelikov +had founded the Russian-American Company to exploit these +new lands, and his talented successor, Nikolay Rezanov, visited +the New World in 1805, dreaming of controlling the entire +Pacific coast, including the Spanish settlements in California +with San Francisco as their head. On his return across Siberia +he died at Irkutsk as the result of a fall from his horse and his +<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>dreams largely perished with him, although later the Russians +did try to seize the Hawaiian Islands and make the north +Pacific a Russian lake.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Fortunately for the Americans, the Russian settlements were +poorly supported from St. Petersburg and the intricacies of +Russian law left Baranov and his successor without the necessary +supplies and they were compelled to indulge in illegal trade +with the British. Boston merchants also carried to Kodiak and +Sitka the goods which the Russian-American Company had +neglected to send.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Strangely enough, the Russians failed to cross the coastal +mountains either in Alaska or further to the south. They contented +themselves with the hunting of marine animals, especially the +sea otter, sending the skins back to Siberia for Asiatic distribution. +They apparently did not realize that the American +continent could be crossed by land, a peculiar oversight when +we remember their rapid crossing of the whole of Asia. +Rezanov had hoped to make Kodiak a center of Russian culture. +He had come to Russian America by sea from St. Petersburg +and brought with him a large library of books for an +academy which he proposed to establish. Apparently Shelikov +had spread excessive stories of the Russian achievements, for +Kodiak was only a wretched frontier village and not an embryonic +metropolis, Slava Rossii, as he boasted. Rezanov’s collection +remained in Kodiak until its destruction by fire on July +18, 1943.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Russian Orthodox Church also sent a mission to the +colony. The monks, largely from Valamo, were devoted men +and at least one was a martyr. The greatest of the Russian clergy +was Ivan Venyaminov, later Archbishop Innokenty, Metropolitan +of Moscow and one of the great figures of the Russian +Church. This mission converted the majority of the Aleuts and +Eskimos in the neighborhood and the Russian language was +long the common speech on most of the Aleutian Islands.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Russian expansion thus had begun to take shape seriously +at about the same time the Americans began to push westward. +After buying the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803, President +Thomas Jefferson sent an expedition under Meriwether +Lewis and William Clark to explore the northwest. In 1806 +the expedition reached the mouth of the Columbia River. Then +followed the settlement of Astoria by agents of the American +<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>fur trader, John Jacob Astor. By the time the Russians were +ready to advance to the south, the Americans were established +in the center of the area and the Russian colonies never formed a +solid belt on the west coast. For some reason the Russians did +not try to eliminate the Americans and the southern settlements +began to wither away from inability to expand. In 1841, +Fort Ross was sold to a group of Americans and the Russians +withdrew northward.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The lively trade between Sitka and Boston was interrupted +by the War of 1812 and when peace came, commerce was +further hindered by Russian efforts to impose trade restrictions +that were unacceptable to the Americans. These came at the +same time as the revolutions and declarations of independence +of the Spanish colonies and the adherence of Tsar Alexander I to +the Holy Alliance to aid Spain in recovering them. The Russian +efforts at controlling the north Pacific and the American sympathy +for the Spanish colonies led to the proclamation of the +Monroe Doctrine in 1823 which doomed European expansion +in the New World. Both President Monroe and his Secretary of +State, John Quincy Adams, had held diplomatic posts in Russia +and were aware of the differences between the Russian and +American points of view.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Monroe Doctrine and the settlement of the northwest +determined the fate of Russian America. It was blocked to the +south by the United States and the British settlements in the +Canadian West. In 1867, Russia realized the hopelessness of its +position and sold the territory now known as Alaska to the +United States. The Russians then established their bishopric in +San Francisco but during the next years the Russian colony in +the far west remained an isolated group and it was only toward +the end of the century that it merged with the general Slavic +immigration.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This, then, is the first phase of Slavic contact with the New +World. Relatively little imprint was left on American life, although +we must not undervalue certain ideas that did pass +into the young republic. They were the result of individual effort +rather than organized or mass movements which came later.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 2</span><br> MASS IMMIGRATION</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>As the middle of the century approached the +situation began to change radically. There came a marked improvement +in the accommodations and regularity of the trans-Atlantic +ships and contacts between North America and Europe +began to multiply.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Then came the Spring of the Nations, the year 1848, with +the efforts of the Germans and the peoples of Austria-Hungary +to put an end to the prevailing absolutism. This movement failed +but it led a large number of Germans who had supported the +Frankfort General Assembly to leave their native land and to +seek refuge in the United States. Most of them drifted west, +settling in many of the Central States and the Middle West. +They took up free land and settled down to become prosperous +farmers. The rumors of their success in adapting themselves +to their new environment spread beyond Germany and fired +the resolution of other discontented peoples.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The first to respond on any large scale were the Czechs. They +began to come in thousands, also tending toward the Middle +West and settling on the new frontiers which had been pushed +westward by the coming of the Germans. They soon began to +form extensive colonies in the still sparsely settled areas of +Nebraska, Iowa, and other states until the coming of the American +Civil War, which briefly checked the movement. In their +new homes, and in small communities, they formed a large segment +of the population. They endeavored to transplant their old +traditions and mode of life to America and to establish their own +institutions, making changes only as American law and environment +dictated.<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c013'><sup>[14]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The Poles were the next Slavic people to follow. The earliest +immigrants were, as we might expect, from Austrian Poland +but after the failure of the uprising of 1863, refugees from +<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>Russian Poland and the area under German control began to +flow in. The earliest immigrants, like the first Czechs, moved +west but after the Civil War the great American industrial +expansion began and the majority of later immigrants were attracted +by the possibilities for work in the mines and factories +which were being built, especially in Pennsylvania. The movement +for immigration was sponsored not only by the employers, +who desired a constant supply of unskilled and cheap labor, +but also by the steamship companies which sent their agents +through the European villages and painted in glowing terms +the possibilities of advancement and of wealth in the United +States.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Their blandishments did not fall upon empty ears in the more +backward and underprivileged areas. In a steadily increasing +stream, there began to come to the United States, Slovaks, +Ukrainians from Galicia and the Carpathian area, Croats, and, +to a lesser degree, Serbs. There was even a small settlement of +Lusatian Serbs in Texas. This process continued until the beginning +of World War I.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The immigrant ranks included a certain number of educated +people but these were to a large degree interested in +some form of art, attracted by the opportunities for practicing +their talents in the United States. The political immigrants +were relatively few for since they had hopes of affecting conditions +in their homelands they preferred to find temporary +refuge in some European country.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The majority of immigrants came from those strata which +had become accustomed to leaving their homes as migratory +and seasonal workers. Most were scarcely literate and were little +aware of the cultural progress that was going on in their homelands. +At first they came merely in the hope of saving up +enough money to return and live with more comfort in their +native villages. But it was not long before they either despaired +of this or were attracted to the American mode of living and +sent for their wives and families. Many of these early arrivals +had little national consciousness and the Slovaks and Ukrainians +in particular reflected the conditions prevailing in the last +quarter of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The change from the hard but traditional life of the Slavic +village to the confusion and grimness of the American mining +or factory town was a disagreeable shock to many of these +immigrants, for it was primarily the agricultural population of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>Eastern Europe that poured into the American factories and +mines. The newcomers were exploited everywhere and with +their ignorance of English were at a disadvantage in competing +with their neighbors.</p> + +<p class='c011'>However, they rapidly adapted themselves to their changed +environment. They began to form various kinds of associations +for their own advantage and leaders of their own groups began +to appear. Some of these were unscrupulous men who +learned some English and didn’t blush to drain money from +their less fortunate comrades. But the number of those who +seriously worked for the good of the immigration steadily grew +and finally eliminated, to a large extent, the more greedy and +grasping pseudo-leaders.<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c013'><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The Slavic communities in the United States owe much to +the priests who came to serve in the churches which they +established in all the Slavic centers. Some of them had come +with the authorization of their superiors in the Old World. +Others simply followed the outflow from their villages and +arrived in America with little more knowledge of conditions than +their flocks. Their lack of familiarity with the legal conditions +governing church property in the United States involved them +in many difficulties. Even the immigrant Roman Catholic priests +serving the Poles and Slovaks could not, at first, easily fit +themselves into the framework of their Church in the United +States and through misunderstandings they often got into controversies +with the Roman Catholic hierarchy here, consisting +mainly of Irish and Germans, and all too often they were tempted +to declare their complete independence and make needless +issues over extra-ritual customs and parish organization. The +situation was even worse for the Catholic priests of the Eastern +Rite (the Uniats) who ministered to the Ukrainians from Galicia +and the Carpathians. These people insisted at first upon a +married clergy and since they often came without proper credentials, +they were looked at askance by the hierarchy who had +no experience or personal knowledge of this Rite. In addition, +many of the priests from the Carpathians had been under strong +Hungarian influence at home and found it difficult to serve +<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>their flocks adequately in the New World. The Russian Orthodox +were somewhat better off, especially after the seat of the Archbishopric +was moved to New York. But, there again, many +parishes indulged in almost continuous appeals to the civil authority +against the administration of the church. However, by the +end of World War I, most misunderstandings had been eliminated +on all sides and the way was open for smooth and steady +development.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet it was the priests who became the first community +leaders to guide the immigrants to a new and better life in +which they retained as much as possible of their old traditions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>They and the more experienced lay leaders played a great +role in the organization of the Slavs into fraternal societies, which +had risen in the United States even before the Revolution and +since then had grown steadily and found a place both in +American life and American law. On the payment of small +sums they provided protection to their members, payments in +case of death or inability to work and, in some cases other assistance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The value of this system was early recognized by the Slavic +leaders. At first the societies were small and purely local but +in time the individual groups tended to unite into central +organizations which acquired larger and larger capital resources. +These societies, whether directly connected with churches or +not, gradually came to form a distinctive feature of Slavic-American +life. Today there is no Slavic group which does not +have one or more such organization of national significance. +Among the leaders are the Czechoslovak National Alliance, the +Polish National Alliance, the Ukrainian National Association, +the Serb National Federation, the Polish Roman Catholic Union, +the Ukrainian Workingmen’s Association, the Ukrainian Providence +Association, the Croatian National Alliance. They possess +large reserve funds and are leaders in financial, social, political +and cultural work.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Furthermore, as we shall see, it is out of these large, freely +organized, fraternal organizations, with or without church support, +that certain forms of Slavic scholarship have developed in +the United States. This was inconsiderable in the beginning but +it has grown and improved steadily and is destined to play a +very important role in the future, especially in the case of those +countries from which there has been an extensive immigration.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>Russian immigration has followed a quite different course. +During the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire tried to +channel all movement from home areas to Siberia instead of +across the ocean. For this purpose, the government appropriated +large sums of money and furnished transportation first from the +Black Sea ports to the Pacific coast and then later along the +Trans-Siberian railroad. As a result, prior to 1908, almost the +entire Russian immigration into the United States was from the +non-Russian areas in the northwest. This includes the Finns, +the Lithuanians, the Poles and the Jews who began to leave +Russia in large numbers in the nineties because of the anti-Semitic +outbreaks.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The actual Russian population of Russian Alaska had been +small. But, during the second half of the nineteenth century, +after its sale, a number of Russians drifted across the Pacific +Ocean to San Francisco. The seat of the Archbishopric of the +Aleutian Islands and North America was moved from Sitka to +San Francisco. In 1900, there were enough Russians on the +Atlantic coast to warrant Tikhon, later Patriarch of Moscow, +moving his episcopal seat to New York.<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c013'><sup>[16]</sup></a> This was done not only +to serve the needs of the Russian Orthodox population but to +enable him to exert an influence on the Greeks and +other Orthodox who had emigrated to the east coast. About 1905, +the difficulties between the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the +Catholics of the Eastern Rite made opportune a Russian attempt +to bring the Eastern Rite adherents back to Orthodoxy. At the +outbreak of World War I the bulk of the Russian Orthodox +Church in America consisted of converts from Galicia and the +Carpathians. There also had been Russian immigration after +the revolutionary disturbances of 1905, but in 1904 the actual +Russian immigration in America was small, far less in numbers +than any other Slavic group except the Bulgarians.</p> + +<p class='c011'>By 1914, the Slavic communities in the United States especially +the Czechs, the Slovaks and the Poles, were already well organized. +These, with their national committees, played a considerable +role in securing the independence of their homeland. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>They supported directly and through their American non-Slavic +friends the work of Thomas G. Masaryk and Ignace +Paderewski. Similarly, Professor Michael I. Pupin stood out as +the leader of the Serbs and indeed of all the Yugoslavs. The +Ukrainians were less fortunate, for at the moment they had +no leader well known to the American public and they encountered +the opposition of both Russian and Polish groups, +whose nations had dominated Ukraine for centuries.</p> + +<p class='c011'>After World War I, the interrupted stream of immigration +again broke through and during the early years it assumed even +larger proportions than it had previously. In addition, many +White Russians who had fled from the Bolsheviks came to the +United States.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The cultural level of the Slavic communities rose rapidly, +assisted by better educational opportunities for them both at +home and in the immigration. A large number of highly educated +Russians had come over and the opening of Washington +legations for Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia gave the +immigrants pride in their own origin and intensified their contact +with cultural work being done in their liberated homelands. +The same effect was achieved by the Ukrainian diplomatic +mission to Washington under Dr. Bachinsky and later Dr. Luke +Myshuha, although unfortunately this did not receive final +recognition by the United States.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1924, this influx of immigrants was brought to a halt +by the passing of American immigration laws which introduced +the principle of national quotas and regulated the number of +immigrants admitted each year by a ratio based upon previous +arrivals. This penalized the Slavs severely for their immigration +had been relatively recent and their quotas were reduced almost +to the vanishing point. Contrariwise, the peoples of Northern +Europe, who had arrived earlier, were assigned quotas which +they never filled.</p> + +<p class='c011'>So, from then until World War II, the American Slavic communities +remained relatively static in numbers, growing only by +natural increases. However, this was also a period when earlier +efforts began to bear fruit and Slavic cultural and financial +importance increased rapidly. The second generation, educated +in American schools, was beginning to produce a new type of +leadership. It took its place in the general American cultural, +economic and political life with consequent results upon both +<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>the country as a whole and upon the Slavs. There was increased +cooperation between the Slavs and the rest of the American +population, a period of growth and development from within.</p> + +<p class='c011'>After World War II, the displaced persons from Europe +began to enter the United States in large numbers. From 1939 +on, there came a surprisingly large number of highly educated +persons, largely Poles, who were fleeing from both the Nazis +and the Communists. These new arrivals revivified the intellectual +and cultural interests of the older immigrants and their descendants +and, furthermore, they brought the best traditions of +education and scholarship from their homelands.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We can thus divide the growth of Slavic influence into +four periods.</p> + +<p class='c011'>I. <em>From the beginning to 1848.</em> During this period, the +immigrants arrived as individuals and with few exceptions were +absorbed rapidly and almost completely into the main streams of +American life.</p> + +<p class='c011'>II. <em>From 1848 to 1924.</em> This was the period of the mass +immigration, largely of unskilled laborers who came to secure +the material benefits of life in the United States. Yet it was also +the period when the general outlines of Slavic life in America +were being sketched, organizational and church affiliations were +made, and the immigrant groups were taking root as large units +in the United States.</p> + +<p class='c011'>III. <em>From 1924 to 1939.</em> Despite the almost complete lack of +immigration, Slavic communities were beginning to attract the +attention of the American public. Internally they were completing +their adaptation to the American mode of life with far +greater success than had seemed possible a few decades before.</p> + +<p class='c011'>IV. <em>Since World War II.</em> Most of the leaders who refused +to accept Communism have come to the United States. The +outstanding scholars and artists have also come to find refuge. +In some instances, it is no exaggeration to say that centers of the +higher culture have been transferred to the United States. +Simultaneously, the emergence of this country as the spokesman +and champion of the free world has awakened far broader +classes of the American public to the importance of the Slavs +in the modern world and has led to a greater demand for +scholarship in those fields which concern the Slavic nations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are thus two separate streams of Slavic scholarship +in the United States. The one is the normal inclusion of Slavic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>subjects, history, culture and languages into the American universities +and colleges. This has been a normal process of development, +just as in other areas of study. Side by side with this, +however, have been the efforts of the national Slavic groups in +the United States. These two streams developed for many years +in almost complete separation, but between the two World Wars +they began to affect each other. Since World War II, the two +streams are slowly but surely merging and it is probable that +in the future they will be completely consolidated to the advantage +of Slavic scholarship, the American people, and the entire +free world which still maintains those universal ideals that +have come to dominate civilization.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 3</span><br> SLAVIC STUDIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>Slavic studies were slow in making a formal +appearance in American colleges and universities. There were +many reasons for this, not the least being the general submergence +of the Slavic countries (except Russia) in the eighteenth +century. At this period, the Slavic languages were little studied +in Germany or France, far less in England and thus their absence +in the United States is readily understandable.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition, the early American colleges, especially before +the Civil War, had limited curricula. They were modelled on +Oxford and Cambridge but, restricted in finances, libraries, and +personnel, their curricula were largely adapted to the presumed +needs of the day. They were intended to prepare men for the +Protestant ministry or the law. Enrollments were small and confined +to certain groups of the population. There was relatively +little broad intellectual interest in the country although men +like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson or even Count Benjamin +T. Rumford had won recognized places in the world of +scholarship and of ideas.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The modern languages, chiefly French, were taught more +or less by the same methods as the accepted classical languages +and Hebrew. It was only in the first quarter of the nineteenth +century that George Ticknor introduced at Harvard detailed +work on modern European literatures. This was followed in the +twenties and the thirties by the introduction of some Spanish +and Italian, largely influenced by the revolt of the Spanish colonies +in South and Central America.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We should not then be surprised that the earliest interest +in the Slavic languages was shown by individuals who, by some +means or another, had had contact with the Slavic world and +whose concern was more or less amateurish. Some of these +men were college graduates. Others had had no formal connection +with the colleges of the day but had learned to know +and appreciate Slavic culture and had set themselves the task +<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>of making and publishing translations in America. These began +to appear shortly after the War of 1812. The Napoleonic Wars +and later the war with England had interfered with American +trade and commerce but had also stimulated American interest +in Europe. This interest was also aroused by the Greek war for +independence and the formation of a group of Hellenophiles in +New England. Even before this, in 1810, the Congregationalists +of Boston had established the American Board of Commissioners +for Foreign Missions. It sent missionaries to the Near East and +these, originally working to convert the Mohammedans, soon +transferred their activity to Orthodox Christians and to the +foundation of such American missionary educational institutions +as Roberts College and the American University in Beirut, later +to play so prominent a part in the Balkans and the Ottoman +Empire.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The visit of the Marquis de Lafayette in 1825 also recalled +the American Revolution and the services of the various foreign +officers who had served in the American Army, including Generals +Pulaski and Kosciuszko. Interest in Poland was again stirred +by the Polish Uprising of 1831.<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c013'><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus the growing American prosperity and the strengthening +of the American national consciousness started a ferment which +for a number of years caused a growing interest in some forms +of Slavic culture in the United States, especially in New +England. We must remember that this was before any mass +Slavic immigration to the United States, although there were a +considerable number of Slavs in the country, especially in the +north and in the ocean shipping sections.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The first translator of Russian poetry in the Anglo-Saxon +world was, in all probability, William David Lewis.<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c013'><sup>[18]</sup></a> His career +is typical of this period. Lewis was born in 1792 in Christiana, +New Castle County, Delaware. He received some education in +Clarmont Seminary and Lower Dublin Academy and was then +apprenticed to a merchant. However, his brother, John D. Lewis, +who was established in St. Petersburg as a merchant asked his +younger brother to join him in 1813. This was during the War +of 1812 and the young man, in order to get to Europe, secured +<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>a post as private secretary to the peace commissioners. He sailed +for Europe in 1814. Leaving his post at Gothenburg, he went +on to St. Petersburg where he spent most of his time until 1824.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Lewis had excellent connections in St. Petersburg. He met +and became friendly with Count Nesselrode, with the Cossack +leader, Platov, and also with Nikita Ivanovich Grech, the editor +of the <cite>Syn Otechestva</cite>. He also seems to have met the elderly +dean of Russian poetry, Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin. It was +perhaps under the influence of Derzhavin and Grech that he +began to translate Russian poetry. On January 31, 1821, apparently +while on a visit home, he published in the <cite>National Gazette +and Literary Register</cite> of Philadelphia a poem, <cite>Stanzas</cite>, by Yuri +Aleksandrovich Neledinsky-Meletsky.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Lewis was becoming especially interested in the pre-Pushkin +period of Russian poetry. However, in 1849 he also published in +Philadelphia, where he made his home, a volume of translations +entitled the <cite>Bakchesarian Fountain and Other Poems</cite>, a name +taken from one of Pushkin’s early poems. Grech saw to it that +Lewis’ book was appropriately reviewed and praised in the conservative +Russian literary journals. However, Lewis was not +primarily a man of letters and his contribution ends here. +Even before he left St. Petersburg he had embarked upon a +series of disputes with some of the American diplomatic representatives +in the Russian capital and the next decades he spent +as a successful business man and politician. For a time, 1849 to +1853, he was Collector of Customs in Philadelphia. He died +in 1881. Lewis was slightly ahead of the work of Sir John Bowring +who published in 1821–23, two volumes of <cite>Specimens of the +Russian Poets</cite>. He followed these later with translations from +Polish and Serb poetry, inspired by interest in the Serb folksongs. +The translations were widely read in the United States.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The translations of Bowring, and a special interest in the +works of Mickiewicz, determined the career of James Gates +Percival.<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c013'><sup>[19]</sup></a> He was born near Hartford, Connecticut, in 1795 and +was graduated from Yale in 1815. A student of languages, a +poet of stature, an excellent geologist, Percival was eccentric and +somewhat of a recluse. His works attracted little more than local +interest and were soon forgotten. He finally became the state +geologist of Connecticut and later of Wisconsin, where he died +<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>in 1856. For more than twenty years, though, he had done Polish +translations and contributed articles on Polish literature and +history to various periodicals. Some of these were little more +than a rewriting of articles published in European journals, +for Percival knew ten languages and was abreast of European +developments. His knowledge of Polish was not too thorough, +but at the period he influenced a group known as the “Connecticut +Wits” and is a good example of the American interests +of the time.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A more substantial contributor was the better known Talvj,<a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c013'><sup>[20]</sup></a> +the author of the <cite>Historical View of the Languages and Literatures +of the Slavonic Nations</cite>. This was the first survey of the +Slavic literatures after the works of Safarik. Talvj had a remarkable +career. Her real name was Therese Albertine Louise +von Jakob. She was born in Halle, Germany in 1797, where +her father, Ludwig Heinrich von Jakob, was a professor at the +University of Halle. In 1807 he was invited to give a series of +lectures at the University of Kharkov. Therese soon became a +competent linguist, began to translate the novels of Sir Walter +Scott into German, and in 1825 published in German a collection +of the <cite>Volkslieder der Serben</cite>, again in response to an interest +in the Serb folksongs.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1828 she married Edward Robinson, an American Congregational +minister and scholar who was then a professor in +the Union Theological Seminary in New York. Robinson was +much interested in Biblical archaeology, edited a popular religious +journal, the <cite>Biblical Repository</cite>, and spent considerable +time in the Biblical lands. He published his wife’s work on Slavic +literature in this journal. In 1850 it was issued in book form. +When Robinson died in 1863, Talvj (her pen name was taken +from the first letters of her name) returned to Germany. She died +in 1870 in Hamburg. Talvj’s book was probably the outstanding +work on the Slavs done by a non-Slav in the first half of +the century. Unfortunately it attracted little attention even +though it was much sounder than were many of the studies +written as much as a half century later. It received due recognition +only after Slavic studies in the Anglo-Saxon world had begun +to find themselves and had shown a certain independence +of thought.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>The approach of the American Civil War and American preoccupation +with western expansion turned interest away from +Slavic themes. It was only near the end of the Civil War that +we begin to find truly interested spokesmen for Slavic culture +and even then the leaders were men who had personal connections +with the Slavic World, often through service in the +American diplomatic corps.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One of these was Jeremiah Curtin.<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c013'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Born near Milwaukee, +Wisconsin in 1840, after a common school education and some +study at Carroll College, Waukesha, Wisconsin, he went to +Harvard where he received his degree in 1863. A few months +later, he met Admiral Lisovsky and the other Russian naval +officers in the fleet that visited New York. They induced him to +go to Russia and for a while, he was secretary of the American +Legation there. On his return to the United States, he did some +work on the folklore of the American Indian but later returned +to Russia and traveled extensively in the Caucasus. He wrote a +great deal about his experiences but achieved most of his fame +by his translations of the novels of the Polish writer, Henryk +Sienkiewicz. Sienkiewicz’s <cite>Quo Vadis</cite>, in Curtin’s translation, has +kept its place as the most popular piece of Slavic literature in +English. It has been produced several times in the movies and +while Curtin’s name is largely forgotten, his translations are +still read and Sienkiewicz is still the best known figure in Polish +literature among Americans.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another American born in the same year, 1840, was Eugene +Schuyler.<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c013'><sup>[22]</sup></a> A member of the celebrated Schuyler family, he was +born in Ithaca and educated at Yale, where he graduated in +1859. He then went to the Columbia Law School and on leaving +it in 1863, entered the American diplomatic service. He was +American Consul in Moscow and Revel (Tallinn) and Secretary +of the American Legations in St. Petersburg and Constantinople. +While he held the latter post he made a full report on the +Turkish atrocities against the Bulgarians in 1876. For a while +he acted as Minister Resident in Greece, Romania and Serbia. +He was regarded as somewhat too pro-Russian, though, and in +1889 the Senate refused to confirm him as Assistant Secretary +of State. Schuyler died in 1890. His chief work was a two +volume biography of Peter the Great which appeared in 1884 +<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>and was the chief American historical work dealing with a +Russian subject. While it has been outmoded by later historical +research, the biography still stands as a monument to his scholarship +and understanding of the Russian scene.</p> + +<p class='c011'>George Kennan was slightly younger.<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c013'><sup>[23]</sup></a> He was born in 1845 +in Norwalk, Ohio. He received little formal education but became +an expert telegrapher and was used on important assignments +by the Western Union Telegraph Company, including +service in the telegraph office of the White House during the +Civil War. As the Civil War drew to its close, the American and +Russian governments became interested in a plan for linking San +Francisco and St. Petersburg by telegraph. Parties of trained +men were sent to various points in the northwest and to Siberia +to make the preliminary surveys and to build the line. Kennan +was placed in charge of the section that was working in the +northern part of Siberia. He spent some years in the wilderness +there and became familiar with the life of the native population +as well as the Russians. When construction was stopped after +the completion of the Atlantic cable, Kennan traveled extensively +in the Caucasus and spent some time in St. Petersburg. He +recounted his experiences in a volume, <cite>Tent Life in Siberia</cite>, published +in 1870. His familiarity with the natives of Siberia and +the wilder tribes of the Caucasus led him to feel that Russia, +with its multi-national population, was in a way similar to the +United States of his day with its still unintegrated masses of +immigrants and its still hostile Indian population.</p> + +<p class='c011'>After working as a reporter and war correspondent, he was +sent in 1885, by the Century Company to visit and report on +the Siberian prison camps. He was able to do this because of +the many friends in high position that he had made during his +previous visit. He was profoundly shocked by the conditions +and his attitude, previously friendly to the imperial regime, +turned into utter disgust. He secured priceless material from the +Russian revolutionists whom he met on his travels and when he +published it in the Century Magazine and later in book form, in +1891 (<cite>Siberia and the Exile System</cite>), it speedily became one +of the outstanding denunciations of the imperial regime. It had +much to do with opening the eyes of the Western World to the +cruelty and barbarity of the imperial administration of justice. +George Kennan continued his work as a reporter and war correspondent +<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>in both the Spanish-American and Russo-Japanese +Wars. He died in 1924.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The last of this group of nineteenth century amateurs was +Isabel Florence Hapgood.<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c013'><sup>[24]</sup></a> She was born in Wellesley, Massachusetts +in 1850 and passed most of her early life in Worcester. +She early became interested in translating and after working in +the chief European languages, began to teach herself Russian. +She started work on translating Tolstoy and also published a +book on the byliny, <cite>Epic Songs of Russia</cite>. In 1887 she made her +first visit to Russia and met many important officials and writers. +For the next twenty years, she dominated the Russian translation +field in the United States with many translations from Tolstoy, +Turgenev and other authors. In 1906 she brought out her greatest +piece of work, a translation and adaptation of the Service +Books of the Russian Orthodox Church, for which she received +a gold watch from Tsar Nicholas II. The work was reprinted several +times then, and again after World War I by the Young Men’s +Christian Association in Paris. For years she was a well known +figure at the services of the Russian Orthodox cathedral in New +York. She rarely missed a service and she carefully explained the +ritual and its significance to the Americans who attended. Miss +Hapgood paid another visit to Russia during the winter of 1916–1917 +and on that occasion she was received by the Tsarina. She +was in St. Petersburg when the Russian Revolution broke out. +Her friends succeeded in getting her out of the capital and in +enabling her to return to the United States through Vladivostok. +Before her death in 1928, she saw her work replaced in large +part by newer translations and she keenly felt the destruction of +the old regime with which she had been connected for almost +half a century. Yet her importance as one of the first serious +translators from Russian into English must not be forgotten. She +still remains an interesting figure in American-Russian relations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This brief review of the leading figures makes it clear that +they worked outside the educational system of the United States. +They were persons who had developed, for one reason or another, +a personal interest in Slavic affairs. Many of them had +lived in one capacity or another, largely as members of the +American diplomatic service, in some Slavic country. They were +strict individualists and did not try to develop students or assistants. +They worked as they pleased and on what they pleased +<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>and if their work was later recognized, they often paid no attention +to it except for the pride any person feels in recognition +and honor.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During this entire period, the colleges and universities had +taken no part in the development. The educational system +ignored both the Slavic culture and the steadily increasing number +of Slavic immigrants. They continued the usual curricula +and developed their courses and work in the traditional languages +of Western Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet the results which these individuals had achieved cannot +be overestimated. By the end of the century the leading works +of Russian literature, especially the novel, were generally known +to American readers, though all too often from English versions +of French and German translations. The appreciation of Polish +culture had decreased during the century as the memory of +Pulaski and Kosciuszko faded, not without the active cooperation +of the representatives of Germany, Austria-Hungary and +Russia, which had succeeded in removing Poland from the +European map and in presenting Polish artists and writers as +members of their own states. The culture of the other Slavic +peoples was even less known and studied.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet when we say this, we must never forget that the situation +was little better in England. Even in France and Germany, +Slavic studies had not really found themselves. It is true that +professors like Jagic, August Leskien, E. Berneker and A. +Brueckner had already started on their brilliant careers. Morfill +and later Nevill Forbes in England were trying to hold up a +standard. Even there, though, a study of the Slavic languages +and culture, as well as the presentation of the great Russian +novelists, was done in an highly out of context manner. So it +also was in the United States where interest had been concentrated +in the hands of a few select individuals who had worked +on their own and for their own pleasure.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 4</span><br> THE BEGINNING OF FORMAL STUDY</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>The second half and particularly the last quarter +of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid development +in the American educational system. Even before the Civil War, +ambitious young men, dissatisfied with the rigid curricula of the +American colleges, had begun to go to Europe, chiefly to Germany, +to study and secure the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. +To a large extent the German universities came to take the place +of even Oxford and Cambridge, the chief goals of the few pre-Civil +War students who had gone to Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the same way, foreign scholars began to come to America. +Again these were largely German or at least German-trained. +Some of these men received, through some chance contact, direct +invitations. Others, forced by the shifts of German politics and +the Revolution of 1848, left their homes and joined the mass emigration +to America that was already beginning. In either case, +their influence was to the good.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1867, Johns Hopkins University was established as a +definite post-graduate school, granting the doctorate. It was the +first such establishment in the United States and President +Gilman secured a distinguished faculty including such foreign +scholars as Paul Haupt in Semitic Languages and Maurice Bloomfield +in Indo-Iranian. Other outstanding men were soon appointed +and the ideals of German scholarship were solidly established. +Undergraduate work at Hopkins was regarded as merely an +incidental in the first years of the institution’s life.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The example of Johns Hopkins was not directly followed +but it exerted a marked influence upon some of the more important +of the older institutions. Harvard, Columbia, Yale, +Princeton and a few others began to offer more advanced instruction +and step by step the modern American graduate school, +with its special course of study, was evolved. This process required +some decades and each institution approached the problem +in its own way, integrating the new work in accordance +with its own traditions. As these developing universities broadened +<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>their interests and the range of their activities, it was only +natural that sooner or later they would come to take into consideration +the study of the Slavic peoples and their culture, +especially of Russia.<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c013'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>The first step was taken at Harvard under the influence of +Archibald Cary Coolidge.<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c013'><sup>[26]</sup></a> In a very real sense, Coolidge was +typical of the men whom we have considered in the preceding +chapter. He was born in Massachusetts in 1866 and graduated +from Harvard in 1887. He then went to the University of Freiburg +for his doctorate, receiving it in 1892. During these five +years, however, he took time out from his actual attendance at +courses to serve as Acting Secretary of the United States Legation +in St. Petersburg in 1890–1891 and to act, in 1892, as private +secretary to his uncle, then United States Minister to France.</p> + +<p class='c011'>He returned to the United States in 1893 and took a position +in the Department of History at Harvard. The next year he introduced +a course on the history of northeastern Europe. This +was, in other words, a course in Russian and Polish history. +It was the first time anyone had offered a course covering Russia +which did not view her history solely in terms of contacts with +the West, the Eastern Question, the fate of the Ottoman Empire +and the relations of Russia with the countries of Western Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Coolidge was an enthusiast and was deeply convinced +of an American need to study the Slavic World. He expounded +these views in a paper delivered before the American +Historical Association in 1895. By the next year he had added +a course at Harvard on the Eastern Question. At about the same +time he secured the appointment of Leo Wiener as Professor +of Russian Literature. This marked the actual beginning of +Slavic studies in an American university.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Coolidge never gave up his interest in the work. +In addition to the courses that he gave, he superintended the +building of the Slavic collection in the Harvard Library and +served constantly as an adviser to the United States government +on Slavic matters. He brought out, in 1915, a volume on +the <cite>Origin of the Triple Alliance</cite> and during World War I was +one of the committee of scholars formed under the leadership +<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>of Colonel House to prepare materials for the American Delegation +at the Peace Conference. In 1918 he served as a special +representative of the American government in Sweden and +north Russia, and in 1921 he was sent by the American Red +Cross to negotiate with the Bolshevik government on famine relief. +In 1922 he founded <em>Foreign Affairs</em>, the organ of the American +Council on Foreign Relations and the leading journal in +this field. He personally acted as editor until 1927 when he relinquished +the task to Hamilton Fish Armstrong who had been +in the American service in Serbia during World War I. When +Professor Coolidge died in 1928, he was the undisputed dean +of American Slavic historians and the inspiration for a large +part of the work that was then being done in the United States. +His influence on the development of studies in history was +greater than that of Leo Wiener on languages and literature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Leo Wiener (1862–1939) published in 1902 and 1903 an +<cite>Anthology of Russian Literature</cite>. This incorporated almost all the +translations previously made, including excerpts from the greater +Russian writers. The first volume, which included Russian literature +up to Karamzin, still remains the best collection in English +of the older literature. Where translations were unavailable, Professor +Wiener made his own in prose. He also published in +1904 and 1905 a translation of the chief works of Tolstoy. Unfortunately +in his later years, he lost interest in Russian and +devoted his energies to studies of Ulfilas and the Gothic texts +and many other questions far removed from his original field.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A great many of the scholars who became prominent in +Slavic history before and during World War I were students of +Professor Coolidge, who thus became the dominant force in the +development of historical studies for many years. Among these +was Frank A. Golder (1877–1929) who developed Russian history +at Stanford University. He stressed, as we might expect, +the American contact with Russia in the north Pacific and the +Russian explorations in that area. In 1914 he published <cite>Russian +Expansion in the Pacific (1641–1850)</cite> and later edited the accounts +of Bering’s voyages.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another of Coolidge’s students was Robert J. Kerner (1887–1956), +born in Chicago. Kerner took his A.B. at the University +of Chicago and then after study in Europe received his Ph.D. +from Harvard in 1913. He was at first connected with the +University of Missouri, but in 1928 went to the University of +California at Berkeley, where he spent the rest of his life. He +<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>was made Sather Professor of European History in 1941. When +he retired, in 1954, he was also Director of the Slavic Institute +of the University of California. Professor Kerner, who was of +Czech origin, did most of his work in Czech history, especially +the period following the Battle of the White Mountain. In 1932, +he published <cite>Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century: a Study in +Political, Social and Economic History, with Special Reference to +the Reign of Leopold II (1790–1792)</cite>. He published other works +on the Western Slavs and the Balkans. He was recognized by +the scientific societies of both Czechoslovakia and Romania before +World War II and was decorated Commander of the White +Lion of Czechoslovakia, and Officer of the Crown of Romania. +Belgium also honored him for his work at the Peace Conference +of 1919 as well as for later services.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another pupil of Professor Coolidge, Robert Howard Lord +(1885–1954) took his degree in Harvard in 1910 and remained +there on the faculty. In 1915, he published <cite>The Second Division +of Poland</cite>. During and shortly after World War I he was very +active in Polish studies and served on the House Commission +of Scholars to prepare materials for the Peace Conference in +1919. However, he suddenly gave up this field of scholarship, +resigned his post, completely withdrew from previous scholarly +contacts and began to study for the Roman Catholic priesthood.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Perhaps the most important of all of the Harvard students of +this period was George Rapall Noyes (1873–1952). A native of +Massachusetts, he studied with Professor Wiener. From 1898 +to 1900, he held a Harvard University Fellowship for study at St. +Petersburg. Upon his return, he spent a year as Assistant Professor +of English at the University of Wisconsin and then went +to the University of California as Assistant Professor of English +and Russian. In the first year of his work at California he had +only five students in Russian and one in Czech, but as the numbers +grew he gradually dropped his work in English and by +World War I he was able to devote himself entirely to Slavic +studies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During the War, he secured Alexander Kaun as his assistant. +Kaun was born in Russia in 1889 and studied from 1905 to 1907 +in the Free University of St. Petersburg. He then came to the +United States and from 1909 to 1916 taught Hebrew in Chicago. +He went to California and in 1917 became Assistant in Russian. +He took his M.A. and Ph.D. there and remained on the faculty, +rising to the rank of Professor in 1943. Kaun was decidedly leftist +<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>in his sympathies and was a typical member of the Russian intelligentsia +in its narrowest sense. He was one of that group far +more interested in theoretical than practical reforms. This +brought him very close to those members of the intelligentsia +who were most inclined to sympathize with Communism; it +determined his views on Maxim Gorky and Andreyev, the +subject of two of his works. He also contributed many articles +on Soviet literature. Professor Kaun died in 1944.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1920, George Z. Patrick was added to the University of +California staff. Born in Nizhny in 1883, Patrick traced his name +and ancestry to an Irishman who went to Russia after the Battle +of the Boyne in 1690. Educated in the <em>Faculté de Droit</em> in Paris +and the Moscow Law School, from which he was graduated +in 1912, he came to America with one of the Russian commissions +sent by the Provisional government. After its fall, he +went to California and in 1920 was appointed Lecturer in French +and Russian. In 1923 he dropped his French work and devoted +himself entirely to Russian. In 1940 he was appointed to a +full professorship. However, his health was poor and after years +of suffering and long periods of inability to work, he died of +tuberculosis in 1944. Patrick was undoubtedly the best teacher +of Russian that the American universities have had. He was a +charming and sincere man and was the best beloved professor +in the field.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The addition of Kaun and Patrick to the staff at the University +of California allowed Noyes to give up most of his +Russian work and devote himself primarily to Polish. He visited +Poland in 1921 and was welcomed at the University of Krakow +where he stayed for some months. The Polish government decorated +him as Commander of <em>Polonia Restituta</em> and several +Polish scholarly societies elected him to membership.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Even in his early days at California, Noyes commenced his +work of translation. Among the earliest was a collaboration, the +<cite>Heroic Poems of Servia</cite>, with Leonard Bacon of the English department. +Later Noyes, with the aid of numerous assistants, +translated most of the important works of Mickiewicz, Slowacki +and Krasinski, and also many Russian dramas including a volume, +<cite>Masterpieces of Russian Drama</cite>, ranging from Fonvizin +to Mayakovsky. It was his practice to write out a very careful +prose translation and then have some of his students and associates +set them, when necessary, into verse. Noyes really +founded a special school of translation.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>He was an earnest and sincere student, mild but demanding, +especially of himself. He carefully laid out his projected work +for years in advance and maintained a rigid schedule. Any +pressure of university duties or unforeseen calls upon his time +he met by including in his work schedule all those periods which +he had left himself for vacations. When he died in 1952, he +was the last of the old generation. He left a gap in Slavic +scholarship that has not yet been filled.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The interest in Russian on the Pacific coast was reflected not +only in the appointment of Golder to Stanford’s history department. +In 1918, Henry Lanz was appointed Professor of Russian +Literature and Philosophy there. Lanz had been born in +Moscow in 1886. He was not a very prolific writer but one of +his works on rhythm of language received a prize from Sweden. +Just before the outbreak of World War II, he made another +trip to Europe and stayed for some time in one of the monasteries +on Mount Athos. He died in 1945.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another outstanding figure of the period was Samuel N. +Harper (1882–1943) of the University of Chicago. Harper was +the son of the first president of the University of Chicago. He +studied in the <em>Ecole des Langues Orientales</em> in Paris and was +closely associated with the group of English Slavists who, under +the leadership of Sir Bernard Pares, K.B.E., gathered at the +University of Liverpool and after the war formed the School +of Slavonic Studies at the University of London. Harper was in +Russia with Pares during the Revolution of 1905 and was very +friendly with such liberal Russian leaders as Paul Milyukov. +In 1906 he published an English translation of Boyer and Speranski’s +Russian Reader and in 1908 a volume on the <cite>New Electoral +Law for the Duma</cite>. Through his connections at the university +and Charles R. Crane, both Milyukov and Maxim Kovalevsky +were brought to Chicago for lectures. Harper was a constant +adviser to the United States government on Russian affairs. He +was convinced that the Russian people, if they had the power, +would definitely accept the Anglo-Saxon theories of democracy, +a position which he maintained in his dealing with the Russian +emigres after the Revolution. He was solidly anti-Bolshevik but +in the thirties he accepted an invitation to visit Moscow, about +the same time as Pares did.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Harper had a wide knowledge of Russian history, and when +he was not traveling, lectured in Chicago and conducted courses +in Russian. Yet he did not build a department of Russian and, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>despite the large Slavic population of the city, showed little +interest in introducing other Slavic languages or cultures.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another important center, started just as World War I was +beginning, was at Columbia University. Although Dr. Judah +A. Joffe had been appointed a lecturer in Russian for one year, +in 1909, to prepare some articles and lectures on Russian literature +for a volume on European literatures which the university +was publishing, the serious work was begun only when John +Dyneley Prince, then Professor of Semitic Languages and an +authority on Assyrian and Sumerian, offered courses in Russian +and Slavonic philology. Prince was born in Paterson, New +Jersey, in 1868 and was an 1888 graduate of Columbia. He took +his doctorate at Johns Hopkins in Semitic and conducted excavations +in Mesopotamia. He was later Dean of the graduate +school of New York University and then was brought to Columbia.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition to his academic work, Prince was greatly interested +in conservative New Jersey Republican politics. He +served as both Speaker of the House and President of the New +Jersey Senate when Woodrow Wilson was Governor. In 1921, +President Harding appointed him United States Minister to +Denmark and President Coolidge in 1926 transferred him to +Yugoslavia. He was absent from the university therefore from +1921 to 1933, when as an ardent Republican he retired from the +diplomatic service after the election of President Franklin +Delano Roosevelt.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Prince was an unusually talented linguist who fluently spoke +nearly all European languages, including Hungarian and Turkish. +He was also a master of several Algonquin Indian dialects +and a masterly singer of folksongs. He had previously turned +this unusual ability to good use in his political campaigns +among the New Jersey voters of various foreign nationalities. +When he turned to Slavic, he easily mastered nearly all the +languages and soon was able to speak them readily. In addition, +he was an excellent philologist and it was in this field +that he most enjoyed himself. He published a <cite>Russian Grammar</cite> +in 1919 under great difficulties because of the general lack of +proper type. Later he published grammars of both Latvian and +Serbo-Croatian. He was also a great friend of Professor Michael +I. Pupin, the distinguished Serb professor of electricity.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All these abilities made him determined not to allow the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>department, at Columbia, to be limited only to Russian. He offered +courses in 1914 on a graduate level with Ivan S. Andreyevsky +as assistant. At the same time, through University Extension, +he started credit courses in Polish with Dr. Albert +Morawski-Nawench as instructor. Dr. Morawski-Nawench was a +Polish journalist and editor who had received his doctorate at +the University of Vienna. Czech was offered by Alois Koukol, +a Presbyterian minister, born in Kutna Hora and educated in +Prague.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition to these courses, Prince opened in Columbia +University Extension a special school of spoken languages. These +were non-credit courses and Prince hoped to develop them, in +time, into something like the <em>Ecole des Langues Orientales</em>. +Courses were offered in some twenty languages. This undertaking +was nipped in its infancy by Prince’s appointment to +Denmark, for after his departure the original program was +abandoned. It had considerable effect for some years, however, +both upon the Department of Slavonic Languages and several +others.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1917, Prince invited Clarence A. Manning to be Lecturer +in Slavonic languages. Manning had received his doctorate in +Greek and Latin at Columbia in 1915 and had become interested +in Russian while on a Cutting Fellowship, traveling in Europe +at the outbreak of World War I. He was on leave of absence +from the university in 1918–1919 while serving in the Corps of +Intelligence Police and the Translation section (M.I. 6) of the +United States Army War College. During Prince’s absence, he +served as acting executive officer of the department.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On his return to Columbia, in 1933 Prince resumed his +professorship but because of failing health and eyesight he +retired in 1937. He died in 1945. In this early period, two doctorates +were conferred. One was conferred on Mr. Avrahm +Yarmolinsky, Director of the Slavic department of the New +York Public Library, for a study of Dostoyevsky’s ideology; the +other on Milivoy S. Stanoyevich, for a work on early Yugoslav +literature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition to these main centers, there were several other +developments worthy of mention. Professor William Lyon Phelps, +the distinguished professor of English at Yale University, published +in 1911 a popular work, <cite>Essays on the Russian Novelists</cite>. +He was assisted in preparing this by Max S. Mandell who for +<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>a decade continued to give courses in the Russian language. +Mandell also published a translation of the plays of Turgenev +and several other works.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Clarence L. Meader of the Department of Classics +at the University of Michigan also introduced courses in Russian +and published a translation of the plays of Andreyev. +Professor Harold H. Bender of Princeton, starting from a study +of linguistics, came to stress the influence of the Baltic and +Slavic languages, especially Lithuanian. In neither case was +there a department definitely established at this time.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There were also a great many professors in various other +fields who did valuable work on Slavic subjects. It would be +impossible to list all of these works though some should be +mentioned.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Vladimir Simkhovich was appointed a professor of +Economic History at Columbia in 1904. There he continued work +which he had started at the University of Jena in 1899 on +<cite>Die Feldgemeinschaft in Russland</cite> and, in 1908, <cite>Die Bauernbefreiung +in Russland</cite>. Several dissertations on Slavic subjects +were accepted by the faculty of political science at Columbia, +such as the <cite>Eastern Question</cite> by Professor Stephan Duggan in +1902 and the <cite>Making of the Balkan States</cite> by W. S. Murray in +1910.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Ales Hrdlicka, the distinguished Czech anthropologist +and authority on the population of the Aleutian Islands, +published several works on the Czechs and on the <cite>Races of +Russia</cite> for the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection for 1919.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor E. A. Ross, a sociologist of the University of Wisconsin, +was in Russia during the Revolution and published +<cite>Russia in Upheaval</cite> in 1918, <cite>Russian Bolshevik Revolution</cite> in +1921, and <cite>Russian Soviet Republics</cite> in 1924.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Paul R. Radosavljevich, Professor of Experimental Psychology +at New York University, published in 1919 the two volume work, +<cite>Who are the Slavs?</cite> This was a serious attempt to study Slavic +psychology and to identify, if possible, features common to all +Slavic nations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A psychology professor, Will S. Monroe of the New Jersey +State Normal School in Montclair, traveled extensively in both +Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria and published <cite>Bohemians and +Czechs</cite> in 1910 and <cite>Bulgaria and its People</cite> in 1914.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Other men who were active, some of them students of Professor +Coolidge, were: Professor Arthur I. Andrews, Tufts College; +<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>Professor A. J. Shipman, Princeton; Professor Sidney Bradshaw +Fay, Smith College, and Professor Bernadotte Schmitt, +University of Chicago. Most of these knew Russian or one of +the Slavic languages but at this period there was no generally +accepted rule that the students of Slavic themes had to be +familiar with the original sources and many of the dissertations +and books published were by men who used materials available +in French, German, or rarely, Latin.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There were also many scholarly books by persons who had +little or no university connections. Included in these are the +translations of <cite>Russian Poetry</cite> by Babette Deutsch, the wife of +Dr. Yarmolinsky, and the volumes by Julius F. Hecker.</p> + +<p class='c011'>America’s entrance into World War I revealed the American +people’s need for more accurate knowledge of Slavic affairs. +This was especially shown by the confusion which prevailed, +even in official circles, concerning the Russian Revolution and +the rise of Bolshevism.<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c013'><sup>[27]</sup></a> It became still more apparent when the +committee, brought together through the efforts of Col. Edward +M. House, to consider the effect of the peace found themselves +hampered by lack of material on the non-Russian peoples +of the Russian Empire. The German materials on these people +were suspect, and the Russian a sealed book to all except a very +few of the committee members, and there was almost no one to +deal with materials in the native languages, especially when +the material was not Slavic.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Before the War, German had been the chief foreign language +taught in the American schools and universities. However, hostilities +brought general anger against the Germans and also +against certain German professors who placed themselves all too +readily at the service of the German government. This resulted +in widespread opposition to the use of German and, in fact, +to any foreign language. Some states, such as Nebraska, where +there was a large population of German origin, went so far as +to forbid the teaching of any foreign language within the limits +of the state, a ban which was later overruled by the United +States Supreme Court. Even where this extreme was not +reached, the number of students of German declined almost to +nothing and many members of the university faculties either +were dropped from their posts or were faced with that possibility.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>In this crisis, and in the hope that the Russian Revolution +would promote democratic contacts and trade with the United +States, some of these former German professors announced +courses in Russian. There was often something humorous and +grotesque about this, for there were few if any textbooks and +the professors themselves had little knowledge of the language. +The situation in some cases was scandalous. There is little reason +to do more than mention the existence of this situation. Even +well-known scholars lent themselves to it, only to report a few +years later that there was no call for Russian. As a result, the +sudden flurry of Russian courses was without result and in the +years after the War, they were more or less quietly abandoned. +It accentuated the common notion that Russian could not be +learned, an idea energetically fostered for various reasons. No +one took the trouble to realize that the necessary preliminaries, +such as the publication of grammars, were yet to be done. There +were no books available, save a few published in England, and +no real teachers, save some chance immigrants who owed their +opportunities more to good fortune than to ability or training. +Yet the war period did serve to strengthen those departments +which had been previously established. It brought a few new +individuals into the picture and above all it aroused a sense +of need that was slowly to be satisfied.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 5</span><br> SLAVIC EFFORTS BEFORE WORLD WAR I</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>In the preceding chapters, dealing with the +gradual development of an intellectual interest in Slavic questions, +we have largely ignored the activity of Slavic groups in +the United States. This was deliberate, for the early stages of +Slavic study were almost completely apart from the work of the +Slavs themselves and involved only those persons who had come +to the United States and achieved prominence or success outside +of their own communities and background.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These early Slavic efforts could make little imprint upon +the American public, for the first steps were taken under most +adverse conditions. The Slavic masses were composed for the +most part of the underprivileged groups who had come to +America in the hope of working for a few years and then returning. +Later they became American citizens, but until 1914 +a surprising percentage of the Slavs had not taken out citizenship +papers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>For their self-protection and mutual advantage these masses +had formed their own churches and fraternal organizations. +There were in the nineteenth century many difficulties to be +encountered by each and the communities lived apart with relatively +little social or political contact with the rest of the population.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As entire families began to settle, their children were compelled +to attend the American public schools where instruction +was given only in English. It was not long before the preservation +of their native languages became a burning question, to be +acted on by the establishment of language schools held outside of +regular school hours, in the late afternoons, evenings and on +Saturdays. For example, the first Czech school was founded in +1862 by the <em>Slovanska Lipa</em> Society of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. +In 1864, the first Czech schools were established in Chicago and, +in 1866, in New York. The example of the Czechs was followed +later by the Poles, the Slovaks, the Croatians, the Serbs and +the Ukrainians.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>These schools were conducted by the best educated men or +women in the community, though this did not of necessity mean +much. Classes were usually held in the building of a church or +other organization, but sometimes in private homes or in public +school buildings, the use of which was given free by the American +school authorities. The textbooks were inadequate, often +being those which the teacher had studied years before in the +home country. Sometimes they were heavily laden with political +propaganda, as were the books prepared for the Carpathian population +by the Hungarian government which exercised a considerable +influence through the Greek Catholic priests who were +Magyaron in tendency as a result of their early upbringing. +The situation was made worse by the fact that the schools in +the homelands were themselves unsatisfactory, either in the +hands of the alien rulers or the products of the vague stirrings +of the population to secure their own more or less illegal +schools.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c013'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Despite all this, these schools did achieve some success but +not enough to be regarded as a satisfactory solution of the +problem. Life in America, even with its lack of legal barriers or +restraints, was unfavorable to active continuation of a foreign +tongue. The contrast between these impromptu courses and the +developing American school system was too striking to escape +the attention of the pupils in the two types of schools as well +as the more intelligent leaders of the community. In addition to +this, these schools failed to give the students an adequate picture +of the progress that their relatives at home were making.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Roman Catholic schools were gradually remodelled on +the normal parochial school system. The teachers were, for the +most part, nuns and brothers from orders working among a +particular national group. Their quality of teaching was often +quite low but the Church schools did enjoy the possibility of +incorporating the innovations which were coming into the +parochial schools. Thus as the parochial schools were improved, +so were the foreign schools under Church auspices.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the Orthodox and Catholic Uniat Churches, such instruction +was usually given by the dyak or cantor, a layman who +superintended the choirs and took a part in the services. +These men had some education but little training in teaching +<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>and their efforts were largely directed along the same lines as +in their homelands.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Protestant and anti-clerical groups endeavored to find +competent laymen. These stressed the holding of classes in some +lay building or on the property of some secular organization.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As early as 1881, a journal in Johnson County, Iowa, the +<cite>Slovan Americky</cite>, started a campaign to raise money for a Czech +college in America. The newspaper believed that it could accomplish +its purpose if it succeeded in raising $20,000. The +proposal, being launched by a single newspaper, did not secure +the support of rival papers and the entire enterprise was dropped +as a failure.<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c013'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Out of this chaotic and thoroughly unsatisfactory situation +two tendencies became evident just before World War I. Those +Catholic schools which had acquired some stability and organization +began to take the shape of the other parochial schools +and where there was sufficient demand and a sufficient concentration +of worshippers, they began to approximate the parochial +high schools and then to pass over to be two or three year +colleges. The work of these was still not of high calibre but +the leaders were constantly striving to make them so. Thus, +the Czech Benedictines founded a school in Chicago in 1887. +This passed through the usual changes and after its removal +to Lisle, Illinois, in 1901 it was reorganized as St. Procopius +College, now a duly accredited Catholic institution. St. Vincent +College, Latrobe, Pennsylvania, with a marked emphasis on +Slovak, is another of these institutions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We find the same activity among the Poles. St. Mary’s +Seminary, Orchard Lake, Michigan, early included Polish in its +curriculum, as did St. Francis Seminary, Milwaukee. Various religious +orders have long conducted courses in the Polish language +on the high school level in various centers of population. +The Polish Roman Catholic Union, with its library, was highly +developed by Mieczyslaw Haiman, especially in publishing +studies of the career of such Polish soldiers in the United States +as Tadeusz Kosciuszko and the other Poles who fought in the +American Revolution. The Polish Historical Society also has +done outstanding work. All these represent the natural development +of the Poles and their descendants in America, and deserve +more than passing mention.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>At the turn of the century, the fraternal organizations also +began to give the question of schools due consideration. Almost +all appointed committees on education and they too decided +that the primary need was the foundation of special colleges +where instruction could be given in the language of the homeland. +Thus, in 1902 there was formed in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, an +institution, <em>Matice Vyssoho Vzdelani</em>, a center of higher studies, +by Bohumil Simek and G. F. Severa to work for the establishment +of a Czech college, but it also met with no success.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1903, the Polish National Alliance also created a committee +on education and schools, which worked for ten years +and then in 1912, at Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania, opened +the Polish National Alliance College which was incorporated in +1914. Although it was rather on the level of a high school, it +profited by the opportunity to establish a branch of the Student +Army Training Corps during World War I. Its first rector was +Professor Romuald Piatkowski. In 1915, the work of the high +school or academy was augmented by the foundation of a Technical +Institute. It was in this status that the institution passed +into the next general period.<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c013'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Other forces were at work, however, to preserve the native +languages by introducing the Slavic languages into the already +established American institutions. While the motives were varied +the efforts were made first by the less clerical and the more +Protestant parts of the population. Thus, in 1887, the Congregational +Church in Ohio persuaded the authorities of Oberlin College +at Oberlin, Ohio<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c013'><sup>[31]</sup></a> to introduce a course in Czech for candidates +to the Congregational ministry who would minister to the +Czech communities. Professor Louis F. Miskovsky was appointed +instructor, and his became the first chair of Slavic studies +in an American institution. Oberlin’s program differed from the +later attempts at Harvard and elsewhere in that it was frankly +intended only to teach the language. Any Slavic cultural work +in a broader sense was insignificant. It is small wonder then +that on Professor Miskovsky’s death in the 1920’s, the chair +was quickly abandoned and the money used for a course of +lectures on Central European affairs given by Professor Oskar +<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>Jaszy, a liberal Hungarian who opposed both Communism and +the regime of Admiral Horthy.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In somewhat the same way, and for the same purpose, instruction +in the Polish language was introduced into Notre +Dame University in 1909.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Efforts to include a Slavic language, usually Czech, in the +curricula of state and private colleges were particularly intense +in Nebraska and Iowa.<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c013'><sup>[32]</sup></a> In these states, the Czech population +had been among the earliest settlers; many had prospered and +secured appointive and elective posts in the state governments, +which gave them the opportunity to work for the introduction +of their native language into various institutions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1903, Professor Bohumil Simek of the University of Iowa +and F. J. Pipal, a student of the University of Nebraska, established +at Lincoln the first of the Komensky Educational Clubs. +These clubs were intended to unite the Czech-Americans who +had some education. The movement, which included plans for +building a monument to the Czech educator Jan Amos Komensky +(Comenius), spread extensively and finally included twenty-nine +societies, chiefly in the states of Nebraska and Iowa, although +there were some in Texas, Chicago and New York. For +a while this loosely knit organization was even able to publish +a periodical bulletin.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c013'><sup>[33]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>These clubs petitioned at once for the establishment of Czech +language courses at the University of Nebraska. Although the +request was turned down on the ground that there was a lack +of interest in such a project among the Czechs, a new attempt +was made during the winter of 1906–07. John Rosicky, an outstanding +publisher of Czech newspapers in Nebraska, and +Vaclav Bures, both of Omaha, met the Regents of the state +university along with Frank Rejcha, a member of the Nebraska +legislature. The Chancellor of the university, in refusing the request, +proposed a political deal whereby a tax of one mill would +be laid on certain railroad properties and earmarked for the +university. By clever lobbying, the Czechs secured passage for +the bill. Then the Governor of the state cut the grants to the +university and the Chancellor again declined to set up a Slavonic +department. Later the same summer, however, another request +was more successful and courses were started in the fall of 1907.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The first instructor was Jeffrey Dolezal Hrbek, a graduate +<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>of Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania, and, at the time, a +student in the University of Iowa. He was appointed head of the +new Department of Slavonic and instructor in the Germanic +languages and literatures. Unfortunately Hrbek, a young man +of great promise, became ill and died on December 4, 1907.</p> + +<p class='c011'>He was succeeded by his sister Sarka B. Hrbkova, who +graduated from the University of Iowa in 1909 and received +an M.A. from Nebraska in 1914. Under her period of teaching, +the department flourished. In 1910 she was named adjunct professor; +in 1914, an assistant professor; and in 1918, she became a +full professor. She was also very active during the war in various +aspects of Czech-American relations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During World War I, the outburst against the use of German +spread in Nebraska to all foreign languages. The courses in the +university were dropped and the department was abolished, +while Professor Hrbkova moved to New York and became the +manager of the Czechoslovak Section of the Foreign Language +Information Service, ancestor of the Common Council for American +Unity. The outburst was even worse against Czech courses +in the lower schools and in 1919 the so-called Siman Bill provided +that “no person, individually or as a teacher, shall, in any +private, denominational, parochial or public school, teach any +subject to any person in any language other than the English +language.” This was made more stringent in 1921 but in 1923, +the measures were declared unconstitutional by the United +States Supreme Court.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the meantime, the break in the university courses was +less prolonged. In 1919–20, during the meeting of the State +Constitutional Convention, two members of Czech origin raised +the question of a renewal of the courses. After negotiations, the +teaching of Czech was renewed in the autumn of 1920 under +Professor Orin Stepanek. Stepanek, a native of Nebraska, received +his A.B. from the University of Nebraska in 1913 and an +A.M. from Harvard in 1914. After service in the U.S. Marine +Corps he returned to Harvard and then went to serve under +General Snejdarek on the Magyar frontier. After this, he returned +to Nebraska and there became Assistant Professor of +English. While there, he was also giving courses in Czech and +Russian under the auspices of the Department of Modern Language +and, later, of Romance Languages.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We have stressed the history of the establishment of Slavic +work at the University of Nebraska because the Czechs were +<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>sufficiently numerous and influential to be able to reach the +university authorities and the state legislature. More than that, +they were persistent and finally succeeded in securing recognition. +Yet in its way, the same type of politics, in addition to +formal applications, was going on with various degrees of success +in many different places.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At about the same time, Czech was included in the University +of Iowa where Miss Anna Heyberger conducted the +work. Still later she changed to Coe College at Cedar Rapids +where she became Professor of French and took a doctorate, +with a dissertation on the Czech educator Jan Amos Comenius, +at the University of Paris. Alois Barta was then giving instructions +at Dubuque College and Seminary. For a while before +World War I, B. Prokosch gave courses in Czech at the University +of Wisconsin and Leon Zelenka Lerando at Ohio State +University but more lasting results were obtained by Mr. Charles +Knizek at the University of Texas, where Czech has continued +almost without a break since its introduction.<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c013'><sup>[34]</sup></a> At this time, +still other developments, largely connected with the various +churches, were ensuing. For example, Reverend Andrew Slabey +was appointed to the International Baptist Seminary in Montclair, +New Jersey, an institution greatly concerned with training +clergymen for missionary work among various non-English +groups and extensively staffed for such foreign languages as +Slovak, Ukrainian and Hungarian. On the other hand, the Russian +Orthodox Archbishop of the Aleutian Islands and North +America established a small Russian seminary at Minneapolis, +Minnesota. This was later moved to Tenafly, New Jersey, and its +head was Reverend Leonid Turkevich, the present Archbishop +Leonty of the Russian Orthodox Church in North America.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We could extend this list even further, but the institutions at +this period cared for little more than the giving of elementary instruction +in a Slavic language, usually either Czech or Polish. +The period witnessed the publication of a considerable number +of elementary grammars, dictionaries and readers. Many of +these were not of high quality but they did reflect the growing +maturity of the various Slavic communities and their efforts to +secure the introduction of their languages into the curricula +of American institutions. Furthermore, at this period, it was +rare that any person in one of these smaller state institutions +<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>could secure a post exclusively in Slavic studies. The best and +most scholarly were compelled to carry almost a full load in +some other subject. But the mere fact that this was possible +accents the increasing number of young Slavs who were securing +college and university educations. The situation was still not +healthy but at the beginning of World War I it was by no +means as hopeless as it had seemed earlier.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 6</span><br> FROM 1914 TO 1939</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>As we have seen, Slavic studies were in their +infancy when World War I broke out. The American reaction to +the War was, as we might have expected, a plain paradox.</p> + +<p class='c011'>American public opinion concentrated on the Western Front +and the campaign in France and only slowly did it begin to +react to the enormous forces that were working in the central +and eastern parts of Europe. As in most countries of Europe, +the only persons who took a deep interest in these areas were +the immigrants and the few persons who had already been +awakened to the great problems which the Slavic world of the +time presented.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The clash of Great Britain, France and Russia against Germany, +Austria-Hungary and Italy, the Triple Entente versus the +Triple Alliance, seemed real only in its relations to the Western +Front. The Eastern Front and the titanic passions released in the +Slavic lands under both Russia and Austria-Hungary seemed +fantastic to public opinion and even to the opinion of the educated +and intelligent classes. At the same time, it did have a +message for the Slavic communities in the United States which +sought every opportunity to raise their voice in hope of national +liberation. The average American was more moved by the Armenian +massacres than he was by the astounding Russian advances +and retreats in the East. The causes which led the United +States into the War were almost wholly connected with the respective +influences of Great Britain, France and Germany and it +was the armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918 that +convinced the American people that the War was over and that +the whole of Europe would very soon return to normalcy.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Consistent with American preoccupation with the developments +in Germany, the agitation for the disintegration of Austria-Hungary +vigorously sponsored by the Slavic colonies in the +United States and the various national committees in Europe +found a hearing chiefly as a means of curtailing German influence. +Furthermore, as a result of propaganda diligently spread +<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>during the War, the Russian Revolution seemed to the majority +of the American people another step in the development of +democracy and the break up of the control of Russia by a +Germanized royal family and a Germanized bureaucracy. It +might even be said that the initial distrust of Lenin came because +the German General Staff allowed him to cross to Russia +from Switzerland. The disintegration of the Russian front was +laid entirely to German propaganda and the most ridiculous +stories were advanced in order to justify this point of view. This +attitude prompted the American reaction to the efforts of liberation +of the various peoples of the old Russian empire and +nearly all the nationalist movements were laid to German influences.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We may see this in the phrasing of the sixth of Wilson’s +Fourteen Points touching Russia:</p> + +<p class='c014'>The evacuation of all Russian territory, and such a settlement +of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the +best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the +world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed +opportunity for the independent determination of +her own political development and national policy, and +assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free +nations under institutions of her own choosing and more +than a welcome, assistance of every kind that she may +need and may herself desire.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the other hand the non-Russian peoples of the old empire +paid no attention to these remarks by President Wilson. They +saw rather the general principles enunciated in the Fifth Point, +“A free, open-minded and absolutely impartial adjustment of +all colonial claims based upon a strict observance of the principle +that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the +interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight +with the equitable claims of the Government whose title is to +be determined.” In fact he went further and on July 4, 1918 +he declared in the “Four Ends” speech: “The settlement of +every question, whether of territory or sovereignty, of economic +arrangement, or of political relationship, upon the basis of the +free acceptance of that settlement by the people immediately +concerned, and not upon the basis of the material interest or +advantage of any other nation or people which may desire a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>different settlement for the sake of its exterior influence or +mastery.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus the doctrine of self-determination definitely pronounced +by President Wilson was carried still further by the people of the +old Russian empire than he had himself intended. He only provided +for independence for Finland, Poland and Armenia, three +peoples who had won the special sympathy of the American +people. In the case of all others, he was prepared to rest upon +his Sixth Point and neglect careful and accurate study of the +conditions prevailing in Eastern Europe.</p> + +<p class='c011'>If space permitted, we could trace this idea in the American +attitude to the Peace of Brest Litovsk, the actions of the American +Expeditionary Forces in Archangel and Vladivostok, the +attitude toward the Russian White armies, the refusal to grant +an Eastern border to Poland under the Treaties of Versailles +and Saint Germain, the refusal to recognize the cession of Bessarabia +by Russia to Romania and many other questions. It +insured high favor from those entirely removed from Austria-Hungary +and Germany and relative disfavor from all peoples +trying to separate themselves from Russia.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is true that from the very beginning of the conflict the +leading intelligence officers like Colonels Ralph Van Deman and +Marlborough Churchill, the real moving spirits of the military +intelligence branch of the General Staff, recognized the importance +of the Slavic languages, and Colonel Graham D. Fitch +included the Slavic languages among those handled in the Translation +Section of which he was the chief. Yet on the whole, the +Corps of Interpreters and other concerned branches and units +paid little attention to them and nearly all the American agents +in the Slavic territories were persons who had already known +the languages. Even in the case of the Siberian and Archangel +expeditions, the problem of interpreters was not placed on a +firm basis. For some years after the War, almost all the officers +and men in the State Department were persons who had served +in these forces and had attained a certain amount of Russian +or some other language without any formal training.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation was the same in the committee formed by +Colonel Edward House to study the peace settlement. It is true +that most of the professors of Slavic were connected with this +but it was very soon discovered that much of the available material +could not be used unless it was in one of the Western +<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>languages or, in some cases, in Russian (and, of course, with a +Russian bias).</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus the World War, and American participation in it, did +not result in any marked increase in interest and there was for +some years a strong feeling that a knowledge of the languages +was secondary. The old divisions between language and the +historical sciences were still perpetuated, gradually breaking +down between the wars.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is true that after the War, the War Department made a +half-hearted attempt to train certain regular officers in various +subjects with a possible eye for making them instructors in West +Point. These included two men who had been on the Siberian +Expedition. Lt. Col. Benjamin B. McCroskey and Captain William +Gent were sent to study in the Department of Slavonic +Languages at Columbia University. With the growth of isolationism +the experiment was not pressed, and step by step all +of the government services lost interest except for a few young +men in the State Department who were often sent in some indefinite +capacity to the Baltic republics with the intent of learning +Russian.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus, at the end of the War, there had come no important +change in the general picture. The departments of language +in Harvard, California and Columbia continued, perhaps with +increased staffs, and Professor Harper in Chicago went on with +his work also. On the other hand, there were a number of +universities and colleges, chiefly in the Middle West, where one +or more Slavic languages were taught, often under the pressure +of local Slavic groups. These included Nebraska where Orin +Stepanek was teaching. Czech was also added to the curriculum +of Creighton University in Omaha and the University of Texas +in Austin. There were energetic stirrings among the Poles to +introduce their language at the University of Wisconsin. There +were men in various other institutions such as Professor Leon +Zelenka Lerando in Lafayette College who, in at least part +of their work, handled one or another language. Yet in the +course of the years many of those institutions which had included +Russian during the War abandoned it.<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c013'><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>A rather unique case occurred at Dartmouth College. Professor +R. W. Jones, who was in the German department, knew +some Russian. But, one of the professors of the English department +was Eric P. Kelly, who had been in Poland with the +YMCA during the War and had become vitally interested in the +country and its culture. In 1928 he published a very successful +boy’s story on medieval Poland, <cite>The Trumpeter of Krakow</cite>, +which won the Newberry Prize for Juvenile Books. Later he +wrote two more on Polish themes, <cite>The Blacksmith of Wilno</cite> and +<cite>The Golden Star of Halich</cite>. Through their influence, William J. +Rose, a Canadian and later the Director of the School of Slavonic +and East European Studies in the University of London, was +brought to Dartmouth for a few years. At one time it looked +as if Dartmouth would establish a full department with Kelly +attracting large classes to courses in Polish in translation. Kelly +became important in Polish intellectual work but for some reason, +despite his popularity, reverted to work in journalism, although +he continued his interest in things Polish outside the +institution.<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c013'><sup>[36]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>All this was at a time when the bulk of the work on East +European history was still being carried on in the small institutions +by men who had no language training. In far too many +places we still can find traces of this habit.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another important event of the period, following the Bolshevik +Revolution, was the arrival in the United States of a +number of Russian emigres, on all intellectual levels. Some of +them like Professors M. Rostovtseff and A. A. Vasilieff, were +among the most distinguished Russian scholars. They easily +found outstanding positions for themselves in the leading universities +and were able to exert a considerable influence. They +brought with them, in various capacities, men like Professor +George Vernadsky who were to become the heads of their subjects +during the next decades. It would take too long to list all of +these men but among them was Professor Leonid Strakhovsky, +Rostovtseff’s nephew, who taught history at Georgetown University +and later moved to the University of Maryland, then +to Harvard and is now at the University of Toronto. Professor +Serge Eliseeff of Harvard was also in the field of Far Eastern +<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>languages. For a while, Nicholas Martinovitch, formerly of the +University of Petersburg, was at Columbia in the field of Turkic +studies. Many more of the younger group have gradually secured +good positions and worked themselves up in the American university +system, sometimes with a change of their names.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The same period saw the arrival in the United States of such +outstanding Ukrainian scholars as the architect and engineer, +Professor Stephen Timoshenko of Stanford University, and +his brother the economist Volodymyr Timoshenko of the same +institution, and Professor Alexander Granovsky, an entomologist, +of the University of Minnesota. Professor Dmytro Doroshenko +of the Ukrainian Free University in Prague paid several visits +to Canada. All of these men were very active in arousing interests +in Ukrainian culture as were the choral leader, Alexander +Koshits, and the sculptor, Alexander Archipenko.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There were also a few young men of Slavic origin, born and +educated in the United States, who devoted themselves to Russian +fields. Among them was Leo Pasvolsky who worked for +many years at the Brookings Institute in Washington and was +the son of one of the foremost Russian editors in the pre-war +United States. Yet the situation was so discouraging that relatively +few of the really young emigres who came to the United +States after 1918 and secured an education went into Slavic +studies. They usually chose some other field and gradually +lost all practical influence in the extension of Slavic culture, +though in a few cases they did some unofficial work in their +own languages.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation in the languages and cultures of the liberated +Slavic countries was very different. The restoration of the independence +of Czechoslovakia and Poland and the formation +of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) +involved the “Slavonization” of many institutions that +formerly had been under German and Austrian control. As a +result, there was a strong call for professors in those lands and +very few of the outstanding men came to America during the +early years. When they did, it was usually for a limited time, +a semester or perhaps a full year, and the funds for this purpose +were often supplied by the Slavic community in the neighborhood. +Thus the Poles of Detroit brought Professor Thaddeus +Mitana to the University of Michigan. This had been intended +as the beginning of a Polish chair, but the attempt broke down +and Professor Mitana remained at Alliance College, the institution +<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>of the Polish National Association. Professor Roman Dyboski +of the University of Krakow was likewise brought to the +University of Chicago for a period, but his lectures were not +connected in any sense with the work of Professor Harper. In +1928, Professor Otakar Vocadlo of the University of Bratislava +spent almost a full year lecturing throughout the United States. +All this did much to promote an appreciation of Slavic scholarship, +but since most of the visitors were in technical and scientific +fields they did not increase interest in distinctively Slavic +subjects.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many of these visits were arranged through the Institute +of International Education which, as part of an international +policy, brought to the United States not only professors on lecture +tours but many students from the Slavic lands. The same +institute also administered a series of fellowships, usually for +advanced study, which were chiefly offered to Americans of +Czech and Slovak parentage by the Czechoslovak Ministry of +Education. A similar program among the Poles was carried on by +the distinctively Polish-American Kosciuszko Foundation begun +in 1926. It was able to take many American Polish students to +Poland by offering them not only free tuition but also greatly +reduced rates on the Polish-American line steamships.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During the 1920’s those American universities most interested +in Slavic subjects developed rather independently. In the field of +history, there were few real innovations. During the twenties, +and especially during the period of the New Economic Policy +in the USSR, a few young men were able, on fellowships from +various institutions, to study in the Soviet universities and +familiarize themselves with conditions there. Among these men +we may mention two important scholars of the present time: +Professor Philip Mosely of the American Council of Foreign +Relations, formerly of Columbia University, and Professor Geroid +T. Robinson of Columbia. Other men similarly visited other +Slavic lands for varying periods. Their studies have been an +application of the accepted method of historical research to the +history of the Slavic countries by men who were as well trained +in Slavic as earlier generations had been in French and German.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation was different in the field of language, literature +and culture, in the general sense of the word, for these +subjects had been very largely ignored in the earlier periods +except in those institutions where Slavic departments had been +established. Even the masterpieces of Russian literature had +<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>been handled purely on the basis of translations, with few efforts +to equate them with the general life of Russia. This had +produced the jaundiced view of Russian literature satirized by +Stephen Leacock of McGill University. In fact during a large +part of the period between the wars, one of the largest groups +of students of Slavic literature were persons who had no desire +to learn the language or to read Slavic literature in the original. +They were merely interested in including Russian in courses of +comparative literature, or they were instructors obliged to treat +some of the Russian masterpieces in translation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This broad cultural need was met in different ways by the +various Slavic departments. Thus, during these years, the department +at the University of California, under Professor George +Rapall Noyes, decidedly stressed the development of translation, +and courses in which a knowledge of Russian was not +primarily required. The department grew steadily but largely +maintained its original staff supplemented by visiting lecturers. +This policy continued until the eve of World War II. During +most of this time Professor Noyes did not make any special +effort to establish contacts with the Slavic groups on the +Pacific coast.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation at Columbia University was different. Professor +Clarence A. Manning, who was acting department head +during the twelve years which Professor Prince spent in the +American diplomatic service, tried to continue the policy of +Professor Prince in fostering a study of all the Slavic languages +and in establishing contacts with the Slavic communities in the +New York area. In terms of administration, the chief development +was the transfer of most instruction in the Slavic languages +from the faculty of philosophy, where it had originated, to the +Columbia Extension Teaching, later revamped as the School of +General Studies. This school had been planned originally for +adult education but as it acquired a special form it furnished +a convenient vehicle for many years, for giving language instruction. +For some years it conducted a series of extramural +courses, especially in Polish, as far away as Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The first addition to what eventually became a full time +staff was Mrs. Elena T. Mogilat who, from 1922 until the eve +of World War II, conducted practically all the courses in the +Russian language. In 1927, Arthur P. Coleman, the first American +<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>of non-Slavic origin to receive a doctorate in Slavic languages +in the United States, was appointed Lecturer and devoted himself +chiefly to courses in Polish.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The rest of the staff, some of whom served for many years, +was composed chiefly of educated journalists employed on the +Slavic papers in New York or persons occupying responsible +positions in various institutions of learning and business. Almost +without interruption, yearly courses were given in Polish, Czechoslovak +and Serbo-Croatian or Slovene. We must specifically +mention the courses in Albanian given by Nelo Drizari who published, +at this period, an Albanian-English grammar and a small +Albanian-English dictionary. Most of the students in these non-Russian +courses were second generation Slavs. Few of these +ever worked toward higher degrees.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During the twenties, most students for the doctorate were +Russians or persons of Russian descent who had come to the +United States after the Revolution seeking positions in the American +educational world. Those who took the master’s degree +were largely of the second generation or of non-Slavic origin.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The department made its most extensive efforts in 1929 in +providing a summer course on the history of all Slavic literatures. +The lectures on Russian were given by Prince D. S. Mirsky +of the University of London; on Czech, by Professor Otakar +Vocadlo; on Polish, by Professor Kelly of Dartmouth; and, on +Yugoslav, by Dr. D. Subotic of the University of London. One +lecture on Bulgarian was prepared by Dimitar Shishmanov, the +son of the distinguished professor of Slavic philology at the University +of Sofia and a well-known Bulgarian author who was executed +by the Communists after World War II. The response of +students was not sufficient to justify the repetition of the experiment +in the next years, although the numbers exceeded anything +achieved in England at that time for similar programs.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the time it was the idea of Professor Manning that the +future of Slavic studies, especially in those languages spoken by +considerable communities in the United States, lay in the development +of interest and support from those communities. +This notion was, at the time, warmly supported by Columbia’s +President Nicholas Murray Butler and led to the formation of an +Institute of Polish Culture and an Institute of Czechoslovak +Studies. Both met with initial success but the depression with +its pressure upon the Slavic population of the United States, led +<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>to a practical suspension of the institutes after the publication of +a Polish number of the American archaeological journal, <cite>Art +and Archaeology</cite>, and a translated <cite>Anthology of Czechoslovak +Poetry</cite> compiled in the United States and Canada.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the return of Professor Prince in 1933, the name of the +department was changed to East European Languages and +Professor Prince made a new effort to realize his dream of +founding something that would include all of the peoples of +Eastern Europe. It proved premature, once again. The department +underwent further change after the retirement of Professor +Prince. Then in the fall of 1938, Professor Max Vasmer +of the University of Berlin lectured for one semester; he was +followed by Professor Boris Unbegaun of the University of +Strassburg. Still later Professor Karl Menges was added to the +faculty to give courses in Slavic and Altaic philology.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In still a different field, Professor Manning and Dean +Hawkes, of Columbia College, were both active in the establishment +of St. Vladimir’s Russian Orthodox Seminary in New +York, to train candidates for the priesthood of the Russian Orthodox +Church of North America. This developed later into St. +Vladimir’s Orthodox Seminary and Theological Academy. To +this were invited many of the leading emigrant Russian theologians +from Paris and elsewhere.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The development at Harvard was somewhat different. Few +changes were made in the situation which existed prior to +World War I, until the retirement of Professor Wiener. Then +in 1927 Professor Samuel Hazzard Cross (born in 1891, A.B. +and Ph.D. at Harvard before 1917), rejoined his alma mater +and after some years of service in the German department was +made, in 1930, Professor of Slavic Languages. With the appointment +of Professor Cross, Slavic work at Harvard went through +a new period of development and expansion. Into the revised +department Cross brought Professor Ernest J. Simmons who had +taken his doctorate in 1928 with a study of English influence +on Russian literature of the eighteenth century. A larger staff +of Russian assistants was also engaged.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Cross, who had translated the <cite>Russian Primary +Chronicle</cite>, stressed the older period of Russian literature, perhaps +because of his Germanic interests. He also became the +managing editor of <cite>Speculum</cite>, the organ of the Mediaeval Academy +of America. In his interest in the medieval period, Professor +<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>Cross was not alone in Harvard for from the School of Architecture +came the work of Professor Kenneth J. Conant on St. +Sofia Cathedral in Kiev and from the English department the +work by Francis P. Magoun, Jr. on the spreading in East Slavic +lands of the medieval <em>gestes</em> of Alexander.</p> + +<p class='c011'>During the following years, Professor Cross became the +center of the developing Slavic activity, which was not limited +to Harvard, but which was responsible for the publication of +various works in connection with the Pushkin Centennial in +1937. The death of Cross in 1946 was a great loss to American-Russian +scholarship.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Still another attempt to promote Slavic studies was made at +the University of Pittsburgh by the establishment of national +rooms in the Cathedral of Learning to serve as centers for the +national interests of the students. The Slavic communities, in +and around the city, were urged to provide funds to furnish these +rooms in native style and appeals were frequently made to the +governments of the Slavic countries to help in the work.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1927 also, Professor Michael Karpovich, joined the faculty +at Harvard as Professor of Russian History. Professor Karpovich +had been trained as a lawyer and diplomat in Russia before +the Revolution of 1917 and he soon became a leading spokesman +for the Russian liberal groups in the United States and in +America’s scholarly communities.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the end of World War I, it was proposed that a scientific +society be established to unite Slavic scholars. The constitution +and practice of existing organizations in history seemed sufficiently +broad to include the professors of those subjects but a +more complicated situation prevailed in the fields of language +and literature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Consequently, in 1919, there was organized the Society for +the Advancement of Slavonic Study. The nucleus of this group +was Slavs from various organizations, especially Czechs and +Yugoslavs. The first president was Miss Sarka B. Hrbkova who +had come to New York from Nebraska after the dissolution of +the department at the state university there. The secretary was +Leon Zelenka Lerando of Lafayette College. A few meetings +were held in 1922 with the final one at Columbia. The society +did not prove to be a success, however, largely because of the inability +of the founders to realize the aims of the society. It published +a few numbers of a bulletin but the addresses at the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>meetings were made largely under the mistaken impression +that the “findings” of the society would pass for final pronunciamentos +on many of the most disputed subjects of Slavic +scholarship. It must be confessed, also, that many of these +“findings” were based upon the political decisions made at +Versailles and previously advanced by movements such as the +Czechoslovak National Committee. As a result, the organization +rapidly lost standing and it very soon ceased to exist.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet the seed which it had sown was not entirely wasted. In +1922, Professor Manning discussed with the Modern Language +Association the possibility of organizing the scholars of Slavic +languages and literatures under its auspices. From the very +beginning, the attitude of Professor Manning and the other +founders was to avoid the difficulties that had arisen earlier between +the Association and the Society for the Advancement of +Slavonic Study. The first meeting, under the chairmanship of +Professor Manning, was poorly attended and some of the papers +read were decidedly amateurish; but the group continued. During +the intervening years, the original group has been developed +into two: one for Slavic literatures and one for Slavic philology. +The attendance is composed of members of the Association who +are either actively or passively interested in Slavic studies. This +is very different from the early years when it became necessary +to do everything possible to secure an audience for the few persons +who ventured to submit papers. During the early years, +Professor Manning remained as chairman and the secretary was +usually chosen from one of the representatives of the Slavic communities +who had shown some interest in the undertaking. +Now the posts of chairman and secretary are rotated, more or +less regularly, and most professors of Slavic in the country +have filled a position at least once. Even so, the group has not +sufficiently developed to apply for recognition as a section parallel +to those for English, Romance and Germanic. Despite this, +one of its members, Professor Ernest J. Simmons, has been +elected to the post of Director of the Modern Language Association +for one term.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A somewhat different development came in the foundation +of the <cite>Slavonic Review</cite> by Professor Sir Bernard Pares and Professor +R. W. Seton-Watson at the University of London in 1922. +From the beginning, this journal, the first purely scholarly Slavic +journal in English, had as American co-editors, Professor Harper, +Professor Noyes and Professor Kerner, then at the University +<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>of Missouri. In 1923, once the journal was fairly launched, +Professor Seton-Watson came to the United States in the hope +of dissuading American Slavists from starting a competing +journal. The proposal was broached at a meeting of the American +Historical Association in Richmond, Virginia, but was decidedly +disapproved by some of those present, and the idea was +tacitly dropped without prejudice to the cooperation between +the scholars of the two countries.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In a somewhat different vein, mention should be made of +the monthly magazine <cite>Poland</cite>. This was started in 1919 by the +Polish Legation in Washington at the suggestion of the Baldwin +Locomotive Works which had taken a prominent part in the +rehabilitation of the Polish railroads after World War I. The +Baldwin company furnished the permanent staff, an editor, Paul +Le Tallec, a young Frenchman, and Eric Lord as business manager. +The journal received a subsidy from the Legation. It was +started purely as a trade journal, but Le Tallec had other views. +Under Clarence Dawson, who succeeded Paul Le Tallec as +editor, it rapidly developed into a general magazine covering all +aspects of Polish life, art and literature, as well as economics and +business. The journal proved successful for over ten years but +when Dawson resigned as editor, it began to fail. The magazine +changed its character considerably and finally, in the early +thirties, was allowed to lapse.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It was during this same decade that energetic work was done +in building the libraries of various institutions. Even before the +Russian Revolution, the Library of Congress had acquired a +large, uncatalogued collection of Russian books and the New +York Public Library developed a very large and extensive Russian +department. There were large Russian collections at both +Harvard and Yale. At Columbia, the Russian collections prior +to 1914 were negligible, while at the University of California, +Professor Noyes had specialized largely in translations of Russian +literature. Most of the institutions took advantage of the +large number of Russian books that were thrown upon the +market after the Soviet Revolution and purchased whole libraries +from emigres and other sources.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Columbia collections were increased by the gift of a +large library on Russian literature, collected for many years by +Dr. Samuel Abel, a graduate of the College of Physicians and +Surgeons. It numbered several thousand volumes. The establishment +of the Hoover War Library at Stanford University brought +<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>to that institution a vast amount of material, especially concerning +Slavic countries, that had been collected by American Relief +workers, under the direction of Herbert Hoover.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We must also mention the work that developed at Georgetown +University under the direction of Father Edmund Walsh +who had served in Russia after the Revolution. Work was +done in the various schools but especially in the School for +Foreign Service of which Father Walsh was the founder. +Georgetown’s example was seconded by the continual improvement +in the standards of other institutions such as that of the +Czech Benedictines at Lisle, Illinois, and further, by the establishment, +in 1933, of such institutions as St. Basil’s College in +Stamford, Connecticut, by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Exarchate +of Philadelphia.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There was also a large number of Slavic books and translations +from Slavic in the public library in Cleveland, Ohio, +where Mrs. Eleanor Ledbetter had worked long and hard with +the Slavic groups in that city. Thus, by the outbreak of World +War II, there were in the United States a considerable number +of libraries that were fairly adequate in nearly all the centers +where Slavic subjects were treated with the importance that +they deserved.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1931 work in Russian literature in English was also +started at the University of Washington, in Seattle, by Ivar +Spector. In 1943, a course in Russian history was added. In +addition to these courses, Professor Spector did considerable +lecturing before various groups interested in Russian affairs. +The interest in Seattle is especially noticeable because of the +possible contacts with Siberia across the Pacific Ocean. Whatever +contact is had with the Soviet Union comes almost inevitably +through the seacoast cities on the Pacific Ocean. The +same motives have led to a strengthening of Russian work in +the other California universities, the University of California at +Los Angeles and the University of Southern California.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Strange to say, the recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933 +by the United States did not produce a marked increase in +interest in Russian Slavic affairs. Student interest flagged and +it was soon evident that the need for Russian in the business +world would not at all parallel the situation which a few years +earlier had sparked the great development in Spanish studies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The years of the depression, in many ways, produced another +period of marking time in Slavic studies. For the most +<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>part efforts of the Slavic groups to introduce their languages +into the American educational system were retarded, while +available finances were restricted to relief purposes. In other +cases, as among the Czechs, the hardships were complicated +by the death of such leaders as Reverend Vincent Pisek and +Professor Michael Pupin who had been active in stimulating +cooperation between the immigrant communities and the American +educational system. Their deaths at a critical period disrupted +much of the work. Further, the 1931 failure of the Bank +of Europe Trust company in New York under conditions which +almost completely reimbursed the depositors, nonetheless lessened +the effectiveness of Thomas Capek, a leader in the work. +Similar disasters in other Slavic groups had similar nation-wide +effects and except for an effort to interest the Czech population +in the Chicago area to establish courses at the University of +Illinois, the period was destitute of that type of energetic +development which, on the eve of the depression, promised +to bear such rich fruits.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In a lighter vein came the establishment of courses in Russian +under the NRA. It had been hoped by some that it might +be possible to give relief to at least some of the unemployed +Russians by the establishment of free courses in the language. +The attempt was almost completely a failure. The students +lacked any serious desire to learn the language and the instructors +were no more anxious to teach it. One very well educated +Russian actually prepared a set of charts on Russian grammar +which purported to show that there were no exceptions to any +syntactical rule in Russian and he blandly presented to his class +word forms that he knew never existed even in the speech of +the most illiterate. When he was reprimanded, he calmly told +the NRA supervisors that he knew that none of his students intended +to learn Russian, he wanted his money, and so there was +no reason to worry about what, or how he taught.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1934, a new development emerged which was to prove +exceedingly fruitful in later years. Largely under the influence +of Professors Cross and Patrick, a small sum of money was +secured to establish an intensive summer course in Russian for +about 20 students. The course was held at Harvard University +the first year and was directly under the control of Professor +Patrick who had come from the University of California to +conduct it with the aid of some assistants. The experiment was +successful. In 1935, joint sessions were held at Columbia University +<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>and were to a certain degree independent of the regular +summer school courses. Professor Patrick was assisted by +Mrs. Mogilat of Columbia and Dr. Jack A. Posin of the University +of California. After 1935, the course was held at the +University of California, largely because of the increasing illness +of Professor Patrick.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The session at Columbia was attended by two regular officers +of the United States Army, Major Frank L. Hayne and Lieutenant +(later Brigadier General) Joseph A. Michela. Their attendance +was made possible by the efforts of Colonel Burnett, officer +in charge of the Military Attache Service, who, having +served several terms as United States Military Attache in Japan, +insisted that officers assigned to such posts as Moscow and +Tokyo have a speaking and reading knowledge of the local language. +This had been the case of Colonel Philip Faymonville, +the first Army man to be sent to Moscow after the restoration of +diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and the United +States. In a sense, it was almost the beginning of serious language +work by the United States Armed Services. Both Hayne +and Michela later were military attaches in Moscow, although +Hayne was transferred to Finland during the Soviet-Finnish War. +Michela remained in Moscow during the greater part of the +War and participated in the removal of the capital to Kuybyshev +when the Germans approached Moscow in the summer of 1941. +At Columbia, these officers had special courses during a two +year period. In the second year they were joined by Captain +Ivan Yeaton, who had previously served during World War I +in the Siberian Expedition under General Graves. Other officers +were later added to the group but as World War II approached, +the entire project was transferred to Harvard University.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The thirties also witnessed the beginning of a systematic +interest in Russian studies by the American Council of Learned +Societies. This group had previously considered the need for +developing studies in specialized fields and had approached +foundations to secure money for limited projects. It had been +successful in fostering work in Chinese and in completing at +least a preliminary survey of American resources in the field. +It then turned its attention to Russian and established a committee +to study the general status of Russian studies. Professor +Cross was secretary of this important committee for several +years. Through the activities of the American Council, coordination +<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>of work by the various universities and colleges, was accomplished. +This was but the beginning of a process which +was to be greatly intensified during the War.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the thirties, the University of Wisconsin began to offer +courses in Polish. Elaborately planned, Professor Joseph Birkenmeyer +from the University of Krakow was invited to direct the +work. Unfortunately, he returned to Poland just on the eve of +World War II, but the work was continued successfully.<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c013'><sup>[37]</sup></a> The +department at Wisconsin was established primarily through the +influence of the Polish population of the state.</p> + +<p class='c011'>When we consider the state of affairs as a whole on the eve +of World War II it is apparent that no important university +or college had established an adequate course in Slavic languages +and literatures other than those which had done so +by the end of World War I. This does not mean that the period +between the wars was lost. The departments at all the major +centers were better equipped than they had been twenty years +before; they had larger libraries, better trained instructors and +what is more, they were attracting more serious students. +Further, there were, in the United States, a considerable number +of men who had had personal experience and acquaintance with +the Slavic and adjacent countries. There were real experts in +almost every field of Slavic studies and there had been a large +output of books on the languages, literatures and histories of +the Slavic nations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Of course, Russian predominated. Yet it is noteworthy that +during the twenties and thirties when American institutions +were overrun with would-be Communists, the Slavic departments, +which might have seemed the most vulnerable, somehow +escaped with the least amount of trouble. They had not taken +sides in the fervent polemics of the period that were carried +on with more heat than light, and while there were a number +of men who had studied or visited the Soviet Union, few, if +any, had become seriously infected with Communism.</p> + +<p class='c011'>They had, however, continued to repeat the old traditional +formulas set out by Russian scholarship before the Revolution, +arbitrarily neglecting all aspects of the nationality problem in the +Soviets, treating Russia as a single unified country, without regard +for the mixed elements of her population or the Soviet division +<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>of the republics by an official policy of differentiation between +the peoples.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The most unsatisfactory aspect of the period concerned the +non-Russian Slavic tongues and histories. This was unfortunate, +for it tended to give instruction in the major centers a Russian, +if not Soviet, orientation, a fact which would cause repercussions +in the following period.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Among the Slavic communities, some leaders were beginning +to understand better the peculiar problems of the American educational +system, and though they had not yet come to cooperate +actively, they were rapidly becoming aware that there was +serious work being done. Their own institutions were improving. +They were securing more American-trained teachers, even +if they were members of the groups, and many second generation +Slavs were rising to prominence.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus, the period represented a marked deepening, rather than +an expansion, of efforts. Slavic languages and history were no +longer considered merely artificial and exotic; the way was +cleared for a period of rapid expansion.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 7</span><br> SLAVIC STUDIES SINCE 1939</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>In the period of tension which followed the +Munich Agreement of 1938, the opening of World War II, and +the period of Nazi-Soviet cooperation, Slavic studies in the +United States, as well as the studies of the neighboring East +European countries began to receive more serious consideration. +A period of more active interest began. Because developments +during World War II have continued since the ending of hostilities, +it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the +War and post-war period, largely because of the Cold War and +the establishment of the Iron Curtain or, better yet, the recognition +that there were tremendous gaps between the thinking +of the Western free world and the Soviet dominated areas.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the surface, the reactions in 1939 differed little from +those in 1914. This is well illustrated by the fact that at the +annual opening exercises of Columbia University in 1939, President +Nicholas Murray Butler repeated large extracts from his +talk of 1914 on a similar occasion. Yet, the attention of the +American public was more sharply focused on events in Eastern +Europe than it had been in 1914 and the colleges and universities +during the preceding twenty-five years had provided a +larger nucleus of trained men. The events of the first months +showed, however, that far too many of these trained men were +still bound to the thinking of the past and were not prepared +to take into account recent developments on a global, and even +on an East European, scale. Such short-sightedness prevented +adequate consideration of the situation as it unfolded day by +day.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The old myth that Russia was a single country inhabited by +a single people, with boundaries defined long ago, proved remarkably +vital. President Wilson’s formulation of a Russian +policy in 1918, recognizing the need of the Russian people to +choose their own form of government, was still accepted and +even the colleges and universities paid little attention to the +structure of the Soviet Union as it saw itself. The American +<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>people and their government continued to use the word Russian +as a synonym for Soviet Union and were puzzled, as they +had been in 1917, by the movements that arose in the territory. +As in 1917, Finland stood out as a distinct nationality, but the +popular reaction to the annexation of the Baltic republics was +marked as much by confusion as by indignation. Supposed +“experts” even found grim relief in the fact that after 1939 +the borders of Germany and “Russia” were touching and this +seemed to confirm the validity of the pre-1914 frontiers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus the crisis tended to emphasize again the importance of +Russian history and the Russian language. In a sense this was +justified. The force of events had made the Russian language +predominant in Eastern Europe and the leaders of the USSR +were almost exclusively Russian, except the Georgian Stalin, who +regularly espoused the Great Russian cause for foreign consumption. +All tendencies to stress the opponents of Moscow +and their cultures ended abruptly with the Nazi attack on the +Soviet Union and continued in the following period of Soviet-democratic +cooperation. Such emphasis on the Russian character +of the USSR was furthered by many of the Russian emigres, who +at the height of the war, were only too ready, whatever their +political convictions, to serve the cause of Mother Russia, a +policy which was fostered by Stalin’s clever use of Russian +slogans.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many British and American authorities zealously compared +the German attack on the Soviets in 1941 to the German advance +in 1918 after the Soviet Revolution. A bitter propaganda +attack was started, both inside and outside the universities, +against all national groups from the old Russian empire having +separatist aspirations. The old equation that all who were not +pro-Communist were pro-Nazi was repeated, especially after +1941. The Ukrainians received the worst criticism but they were +not alone. Even though the United States government refused +to recognize the seizure of the Baltic states, President Roosevelt +acceded to the demands of Stalin and allowed him to sign the +Atlantic Charter. They did not grant this to the representatives +of the occupied countries, lest they break the friendship with +that great anti-Nazi power—“Russia.” Under such conditions, +lectures arranged by Professor Manning at Columbia University +in the spring of 1941, with the aid of the Ukrainian National Association +and a number of distinguished professors of Eastern +<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Europe, evoked severe criticism from many anti-Nazi radio commentators +who followed the whims of popular sentiment.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The chief counterweight to this tendency was the arrival in +the United States of many distinguished scholars who had +escaped the holocaust of Nazi rule and the direct impact of +Soviet power on Slavic scholarship.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The circumstances of the peaceful occupation of Prague +in the spring of 1939 made it difficult, if not impossible, for +many Czech professors to leave. The chief exceptions were +Professor Otokar Odlozilik and Professor Roman Jakobson who +were outside the country when the storm struck.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Poles were more fortunate, for during the crucial weeks +of the destruction of Poland, many of their leading scholars had +been able to escape north into Lithuania or south into Romania, +from which countries they made their way to the west. When +they arrived in the United States, the Polish organizations, working +with the Polish Legation in Washington, found funds to +allow them to continue their scientific work. To furnish a center +for them and keep them from being lost in American life, an +American branch of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences +in Krakow was formed under the distinguished historian, Professor +Oskar Halecki. This was later reorganized as the Polish +Institute of Arts and Sciences in the United States. During the +war years, it received sufficient funds to publish a quarterly +journal, the <cite>Bulletin of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences +in America</cite>, and to issue several scholarly works on Polish subjects. +Still later, when the Germans pushed westward, other +Polish scholars, such as Professor Waclaw Lednicki and Professor +Manfred Kridl, succeeded in reaching the United States. +Most of these men have since found places in the American +scientific world.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Few distinguished Russian scholars arrived at this time and +there was only one Ukrainian, Professor Nicholas Chubaty, who +almost by accident, arrived in the United States for a meeting +of <em>Pax Romana</em>, an international organization for social action +under the auspices of the Catholic Church, and remained here +after the outbreak of hostilities. The Southern Slavs and Bulgarians +fared even less well.</p> + +<p class='c011'>War produced, at first, relatively little effect upon Slavic +studies as a whole or Russian in particular. It was not until +1940 that there came any appreciable increase in the number +<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>of students. Yet the general reaction of the public differed from +that of 1914. Despite the growth of anti-Nazi and even anti-German +feeling, there was no attempt to exclude German from +the curricula of any important institution. There was no decline +of students, but rather an increase. The same was true of +Russian, and long before 1941, the governing bodies of institutions +without Slavic departments began to think of introducing +them. We can only mention certain instances of this +development.<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c013'><sup>[38]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Professor Alfred Senn, a Swiss philologist from the University +of Kaunas, who held several positions in other institutions, became +Professor of German Philology at the University of Pennsylvania +in 1938. During World War II, he offered courses in Russian, +and in 1948 became Professor of Balto-Slavic Philology and +head of the Department of Balto-Slavic Studies. As such, he was +able to group around him a number of refugee scholars.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In 1939, Cornell University invited Dr. Jack Posin to teach +Russian and in 1941 named Ernest J. Simmons Assistant Professor +of English and Russian. In 1942 Simmons was named +chairman of a newly established department of Russian, and, +in 1945, was promoted to a full professorship. Dr. Posin, meanwhile +had transferred to the University of Iowa, in 1942, as +Assistant Professor of Russian.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At Syracuse University, Professor Albert Menut of the Department +of Romance Languages, a student of Russian, was able +to develop courses in Russian and to inaugurate a Russian +program.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The extent of Slavic development during this period is revealed +in a survey conducted by Professor Arthur P. Coleman in +1945, which showed eighty-one institutions offering courses in +Russian and eleven in Polish. At the same time, there were +147 schools and colleges offering courses in Slavic history and +culture. The increased interest in history seems all to the good, +but it can be noted that well over fifty institutions offering work +on Russian and Slavic subjects lacked collateral courses in the +languages. This, however, was a far smaller proportion than existed +in 1914. Furthermore, it was not a peculiarity of the United +States, for as late as 1924 in Germany there were professors of +East European history who looked askance at students wasting +<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>their time on linguistic studies, for they preferred to have them +work from translations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>To secure a staff for the American expansion, particularly +in Russian, offered many difficulties. There had been almost no +immigration of Russians for many years and the bulk of the +possible instructors were persons who had come to the United +States shortly after World War I. These were the only ones +with any special training, for during the period between the +wars, few young Russians from educated families had seriously +considered doing advanced work in Russian, even though there +were many with knowledge of the educational system. An +outstanding exception was Oleg Maslenikov who, at this time, +joined the staff of the University of California.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The chief emphasis, in this period of expansion, was on a +speaking knowledge of the language. Wherever it was possible, +instruction was begun under the supervision of some member +of the faculty with a knowledge of Russian, while much of the +actual work was done by native assistants. This combination, +originally applied to Russian by Professor Patrick, became the +general rule and was successful where it was intelligently used.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Unlike the situation in World War I, the United States +government actively encouraged these studies and assigned +draftees as well as volunteers to special units for the study of +languages, and special language schools were established for the +Armed Services throughout the country. This created still another +problem. Wartime conscription reduced the number of students +alarmingly causing nearly all colleges and universities to +become dependent upon government funds for their continued +functioning. The larger institutions, with their highly developed +laboratories and opportunities for scientific training, received +most of the students to be trained in technical subjects. The +government, therefore, often opened language centers in smaller +institutions, many of which lacked necessary libraries and, in +some localities, secured a proper staff of instructors only with +difficulty. Thus, Bulgarian was assigned to the University of +Denver, which was fortunate to find in that city an educated +Bulgarian lady. She agreed to help, although she had never +seriously considered teaching Bulgarian, and was compelled to +prepare most of her materials from original Bulgarian texts +which she owned.</p> + +<p class='c011'>With the reduction of the armed forces after the War, many +<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>of these courses were suspended, although both the Navy and +Air Force still send selected students to various universities. +The Army, however, has established its own language school at +the Presidio of Monterey. With a well selected civilian faculty, +many of them former members of university staffs, this is +rapidly becoming one of the best institutions of its kind for +the study of the Slavic as well as other languages. It is preparing, +for its own use, its own courses and it promises to become +an important testing ground for Slavic and East European +studies. In addition to this, Russian has been introduced into +the curriculum of such service academies as West Point, where +the work which was tentatively started after World War I is +now on a definite and secure basis.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This period, too, saw the beginning of the organization of the +so-called area studies. In these, the history, geography and +economics of the given area are stressed. Such efforts represent +an attempt to overcome the gaps which have developed between +historical, literary and cultural studies through the departmentalizing +of institutions. But as they have developed, historical +and economic elements have been stressed more than cultural +and literary. This was perhaps natural. However, during the +War, at the height of the enthusiasm for the USSR, studies of +this kind tended to accent the Soviet version of the relations between +the nationalities of the Soviet Union, and the old Russian +concept of a single Russian people. There was thus, a perpetuation +of the previous confusion in American thinking; and, it was +not overcome even when the Ukrainian and the Byelorussian +Soviet Socialist Republics were included as charter members in +the United Nations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The greatest single deterrent to Slavic study was the almost +simultaneous death of nearly all the older leaders of Slavic +scholarship. To list but a few of the more prominent: Professor +John Dyneley Prince, who had retired from Columbia in 1937, +died in 1945 at the age of 77; Professor Alexander Kaun, of the +University of California, died at the age of 55 in 1944; Professor +George Z. Patrick, of the same institution, died at the +age of 63 in 1945; Professor Henry Lanz, of Stanford, died in +1945 at the age of 59; Professor Samuel Hazzard Cross, of +Harvard, died in 1944 at the age of 55.<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c013'><sup>[39]</sup></a> Thus, within three years +<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>practically all the older men in the field of Slavic literature +died except Professor George Rapall Noyes and Professor Manning. +The losses in history were not so severe but Professor Samuel +N. Harper, of the University of Chicago, died in 1943 at the +age of 61. As a result Professor Robert J. Kerner, for many years +at the University of California, was the only person remaining +in the field of history who had become prominent before +1914. This, in a sense, sharply delineates the earlier period of +Slavic studies. Today the leaders of Slavic scholarship belong +definitely to a different generation, one which is certainly better +trained but does not necessarily have the range of interests +which often marked the older men.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another, somewhat different, development needs to be noted. +During the first years of the War, when England was severely +strained by the war and the bombing of her cities, it seemed +that the <cite>Slavonic and East European Review</cite> would be compelled +to suspend publication. To meet the crisis it was decided that +the journal would continue under the direction of the American +contributing editors. Thus, until his untimely death, Professor +Cross was the practical editor of the magazine, assisted by Professor +Leonid I. Strakhovsky. Issues appeared with both an +American and British volume number. After the War when the +British expressed a desire to resume publication, the American +editors expanded their numbers and, with the aid of the Joint +Committee on Slavic Studies, established the American Association +for the Advancement of Slavic Studies to publish <cite>The American +Slavic and East European Review</cite>. The present committee +of scholars in charge of the publication is Professor Abram Bergson +of Harvard; Professor George B. Cressey of Syracuse; Professor +H. H. Fisher of Stanford; Professor Alexander Gerschenkron +of Harvard; Professor Oskar Halecki of Fordham University; +Professor Roman Jakobson of Harvard; Professor Michael +Karpovich of Harvard; Professor Robert J. Kerner of California; +Professor W. Lednicki of California; Professor Philip Mosely of +the Council for Foreign Relations; Professor Geroid Robinson of +Columbia; Professor Alfred Senn of the University of Pennsylvania; +Professor Ernest J. Simmons of Columbia; Professor S. H. +Thomson of the University of Colorado; Professor George Vernadsky +of Yale, and Professor Francis J. Whitfield of the University +of California. Nothing better illustrates the way in which +Slavic studies has developed than this list, for the overwhelming +<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>majority of these scholars represent those institutions where departments +had existed before World War I.</p> + +<p class='c011'><cite>The American Slavic and East European Review</cite> is the leading +publication in the United States for Slavic studies. However, +other journals, such as the <cite>Publication of the Modern Language +Association</cite>, <cite>Speculum</cite>, the <cite>Journal of Central European +History</cite> (edited by Professor S. H. Thomson) and the <cite>Journal +of East European History</cite> (edited by the University of Chicago), +also contain specialized articles. As a matter of fact, there are +very few of the more specialized journals which during the past +years have not included articles on some aspect of the East +European historical and cultural world.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are also several quarterlies published in the United +States which deal with East Europe. Among these are: <cite>The +Russian Review</cite>, edited by Professor D. von Mohrenschildt of +Dartmouth College, originally founded with the aid of the +Russian Student Fund; the <cite>Ukrainian Quarterly</cite>, edited by Professor +Nicholas Chubaty for the Ukrainian Congress Committee +of America; and, the <cite>Polish Review</cite>, published by the Polish +Institute of Arts and Sciences in America. We may also place +here the <cite>Armenian Review</cite>, edited by Mr. Reuben Darbinian +for the Hairenik Association (Boston, Mass.). These are scholarly +journals devoted to the language, culture and history of the +people for whom they are compiled, which cannot be overlooked +in any survey of the intellectual output for East European +subjects. There are also many smaller organs and bulletins +of societies, often with world wide connection, which serve a +more specialized political program. They are important for their +frequent opposition to the accepted viewpoint of history and +culture, but are essentially more political than scholarly in its +content. As has been stressed again and again, Slavic studies +have developed so largely under the influence of the imperial +Russian and German traditions that truth has often seemed +to be merely what was decided in pre-World War I St. Petersburg +and Berlin.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The Slavic group of the Modern Language Association of +America is still the leading scientific center for philologists and +students of literature in the broadest sense of the word. It holds +a yearly meeting, concurrent with the Modern Language Association, +and is divided into two parts, literary and philological. It +offers the best possibilities for the developing of personal contacts +<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>among more serious students. In time it should become a +section parallel to that of the English, Romance and Germanic +sections but the day when there are sufficient members is still +in the future.</p> + +<p class='c011'>For many years there was no special section in the American +Historical Association and its allied societies, devoted to the +study of Slavic or East European history. This did not mean that +the subject was ignored, for numerous papers were included in +the regular program and, many times there were entire meetings +devoted to Slavic problems. However, in 1955 a special conference +on Slavic and East European studies was formed to provide +continuity and concentration in the subject. This activity +will undoubtedly expand in future years.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another organization serving Slavic scholars is the American +Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, +formed by Professor Arthur P. Coleman, formerly of +Columbia University and now president of Alliance College. +Founded in 1941 to parallel such groups as the American Association +of Teachers of German, this organization exists to +bring together teachers of the subject, rather than to promote +research. The association is divided both by languages and by +localities. It has appealed to many emigre scholars, and this has +led it to a more definite anti-Communist position than many +other groups, which have often leaned over backward to appear +impartial and unprejudiced. It has now established the <cite>Slavic and +East European Journal</cite>.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The ranks of emigre scholars, which had started to grow +with the arrival of many Poles in 1939, were augmented after +1945 by the arrival of many displaced persons. These men, for +the most part Ukrainians and often of considerable intellectual +stature, found themselves in an unenviable position chiefly +because of their inability to speak English. The majority were +already mature or even elderly. They had escaped the holocaust +caused by that interpretation of the Yalta agreements +which had led to the forcible return of many refugees to the Soviet +Union. However, they were aided by their own ability to make +the most of opportunities given them by the freakish events of +the last months of the War in Europe. In and out of the DP +camps, they had created their own scholarly groups in Germany +and Austria. Thus, the Ukrainian Free University which had been +established first in Vienna and then moved to Prague after World +<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>War I, was now reopened in Munich. An UNRRA university was +started in the same city. A less formal Baltic university was +established in Hamburg in the British zone. At one time there +were plans to transfer this latter institution to Canada, but the +plan miscarried. However, many of the leading professors of +these institutions have come to the United States and Canada +and are being absorbed into the American educational world. +In the beginning, many of these men were compelled to take +non-intellectual positions. Others found places in institutions +(usually Catholic, of either the Western or Eastern Rites) educating +their compatriots, at schools such as Alliance College, and +the Ukrainian Catholic St. Basil’s College in Stamford, Connecticut.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c013'><sup>[40]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition to these institutions, the displaced persons opened +many more elementary schools on all educational levels to train +their fellow countrymen whose education had been interrupted +by the War and the limitations imposed on general education, +both by the Soviets and the Nazis.</p> + +<p class='c011'>By a series of fortunate coincidences, the majority of the +administration of the old Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv, +and a large part of its membership were saved in the DP camps. +There, this society, which had been suppressed by the Soviets +in 1939 after their occupation of Lviv, was again revived under +the same officers in Munich. The center was later moved to +Sarcelles near Paris. Many of its members have come to the +United States, and while the headquarters are still in Sarcelles, +American and Canadian branches have been established in +New York and Toronto and are working actively, publishing +the results of their studies in both Ukrainian and English.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At about the same time, other Ukrainians in the camps, +perhaps more often from eastern Ukraine, formed the Ukrainian +Free Academy of Sciences. Its members have also come, in +numbers, to America and are functioning in New York and +Winnipeg. They publish the quarterly <cite>Annals</cite> in English, greatly +aided by the East European Fund set up by the Ford Foundation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These two groups, which parallel the Polish Institute of +Arts and Sciences in America, have counterparts in the Francis +Skorina Society (Kryvian), and the White Ruthenian Institute of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>Arts and Sciences in the U.S., the Croatian Academy of Liberal +Arts and Sciences, and the Serb National University in Chicago. +The Masaryk Institute, formed by a group of Americans and +Czechs before the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia, is in a +sense similar but it has also the features of the Kosciuszko +Foundation. It is too early to know what position these societies +will take in Slavic programs of the future, but their outstanding +individuals are securing recognition in American colleges and +universities. Whether they will ultimately form a branch of +this general educational field or whether they will develop into +more highly specialized groups drawing upon interested Americans +of non-Slavic origin, cannot now be answered with certainty. +Some of them are undoubtedly ephemeral but some have had a +long cultural tradition and can be expected, in their new environment, +to exercise an influence out of proportion to their +numbers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Many of the newly arrived scholars are already playing an +important role in the development of Slavic studies and in the +reorganization of some of the older departments. It would take +too long to list all who have found important posts. Professor +Oskar Halecki is developing the study of Polish history at Fordham +University. Professor Roman Smal-Stocki at Marquette University +has taken a prominent part in the formation of a Slavic +Institute there. By such publications as <cite>The Nationality Problem +of the Soviet Union</cite>, he is helping acquaint the American public +with the dangers of open, as well as secret, Communism +in the United States, besides exposing the inaccuracy of the +American concept that all citizens of the former Russian empire +are Russians by blood, feeling and culture. There is, in addition, +the work of Professor George Shevelov in comparative philology +at Columbia University, and that of Professor Dmytro Chyzhevsky +at Harvard, which emphasizes the older Ukrainian literature.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The rise of recently arrived Slavic scholars and the influence +of transplanted organizations of Slavic scholarship was earnestly +needed by American Slavic scholarship and, in fact was forced +by the surprising number of deaths during the war period. Development +in the different institutions has been conditioned, of +course, by the general traditions and spirit of each school. While +growth has been rapid, it cannot be said that all results have +been unqualifiedly happy or successful, partly because of the +sporadic interest by both faculty and students in the field as +<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>a whole. Slavic subjects (not to speak of the closely associated +non-Slavic languages like the Ural-Altaic groups, modern Greek +and Romanian, all of which have strong Slavic overtones) are +extremely broad and diverse. Yet for the average American student, +Slavic and Russian are too exclusively identified. Even +interest in Russian has been chiefly limited to either pure philology +or, more frequently, Russian literature of the nineteenth or +twentieth centuries.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As an example, consider Columbia University’s efforts to +secure a balanced course. When Professor Ernest J. Simmons +joined the staff, in 1946, as professor of Russian literature and +Chairman of the Department of Slavic Languages, as it was now +renamed, he hoped to build a broad program. The department +was informally divided into four sections: Slavic and Russian +philology; Czech and Slovak; Polish, and South Slavic. To help +defray expenses, the university, reversing the policy formulated +by President Butler after the unpleasant developments of the +World War I period, sought from the lesser Slavic lands, a yearly +subsidy to pay the salary of a distinguished professor. This was +easily secured from both Poland and Czechoslovakia and Professor +Roman Jakobson was appointed the Thomas G. Masaryk +Professor of Slavic Philology, and Professor Manfred Kridl was +named the Adam Mickiewicz Professor of Polish. Arrangements +were made without considering developments which might be +caused by the Communists, and similar agreements were made +with many countries of the Near and Middle East. The experiment +was hardly satisfactory. After the Communist coup in +Czechoslovakia, the new regime imposed such conditions that +maintenance of the chair was impossible. Poland more slowly +followed the same course. Despite other arrangements with +less possible political interference, made by the university, the +number of students in the Czech, Slovak, Polish and South Slavic +sections of the department has been scarcely larger than it was +between the wars. There was no attempt, at Columbia, to break +the traditional separation between the faculties of philosophy +and political science, or establish a single department for all +Slavic, or even all Russian, instruction. Russian history, under +Professor Geroid Robinson, continued to develop as it had, just +as other areas of study continued under the faculty of political +science.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Development at Harvard was somewhat different. There, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>after the interim period following the death of Professor Cross, +Professor Roman Jakobson came to Cambridge in 1949, with a +number of experts in Slavic fields. At about the same time, work +in all Slavic subjects was, at least partially, consolidated and +Professor Karpovich was named to the Curt Hugo Reisinger +Chair of Slavic Languages and Literatures, in addition to his +work in history.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the University of California development was severely +affected by the death of Professors Patrick and Kaun, until the +staff was rebuilt by the appointment of Professor Gleb Struve +and Waclaw Lednicki, and the promotion of Professor Oleg +Maslenikov.<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c013'><sup>[41]</sup></a> There was no attempt to integrate the work in +history under Professor Robert J. Kerner, although the department +broadened with an increase of students.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the same period, Slavic studies at Catholic universities, +especially those administered by the Society of Jesus, have been +greatly strengthened. While Georgetown University, alone, +achieved standing in language instruction following World +War I, the situation has changed since World War II and Fordham, +Notre Dame, and Marquette are all setting new standards +in the range of courses offered and in the thoroughness of their +work. These institutions have also contributed by studying the +contrasts and similarities between the Russian Empire and the +Soviet Union, with emphasis on the nationality problem of +Russia-USSR. Numerous conferences have been held and addresses +have been published.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Marquette University, located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, +where there is a considerable population of Slavic descent, has +established a Slavic Institute under the direction of Professor +Roman Smal-Stocki. In the announcement of its first publication, +<cite>The Doctrine of Anarchism of Michael A. Bakunin</cite>, the +Institute stated its goal:</p> + +<p class='c014'>... to strengthen the knowledge of Slavic matters and problems +in America through this special series of monographs +on Slavic nations, their history, culture, civilization and their +great personalities. Simultaneously we would like to cultivate +through original research, the Slavic heritage of more +than twelve million of America’s citizens. According to +our anniversary motto, we dedicate the series to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>“Pursuit of Truth to Make Men Free” and in this spirit +we shall approach all Slavic nations, large and small, with a +deep sense of their fundamental equality, disregarding all +Slavic imperialisms and colonialisms, and with a warm respect +for their fine heritage, which has become a component +part of our American culture and civilization.</p> + +<p class='c015'>Scholarly purposes of this sort, which respect the culture of the +Slavic peoples apart from political dominations, and the avowal +to study changes of Slavic culture in the New World, bid fair to +mark a new era for such studies.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Leading American colleges as a whole have introduced Russian +into their curricula. Most courses are taught by men trained +while in American government service during World War II, +who have continued their preparation in graduate programs at +one of the longer established Slavic departments.<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c013'><sup>[42]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>Much of the recent development in Slavic scholarship must +be credited to the work of the Joint Committee on Slavic Studies. +Started before World War II by the American Council of +Learned Societies, a committee was established in the Slavic +area, based on the prototype which existed to aid the reorganization +and development of studies in Chinese. Later the Social +Science Research Council established a committee for the development +of Slavic studies in the social sciences. The committees +of these organizations combined to form the Joint Committee, +which was able to secure large subsidies from foundations +for the development of courses, faculty salaries and scholarship +grants.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The initiative of this committee, working with influential and +alert university officials, has aided the expansion of wartime +area studies into institutes, organized programs and centers of +research and training. This approach to academic organization +is, in a sense, borrowed from European university organization +which used institutes, such as the Slavic Institute in Prague, as +a means of coordinating the activities of previously isolated +chairs. In the United States, where the organization of courses +led to the establishment of cohesive departments, the institutes +became a means of coordinating departments which were in +different faculties, sometimes in isolation and even competition, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>especially in courses on national cultures which almost of necessity +impinge on history.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition, the institutes had a more practical side, for along +with the development of pure research, they aspired to supply +trained men and women for special technical work in both +government and civilian enterprises. We can scarcely summarize +this activity better than by quoting the purposes of the Russian +Institute as reported in the Announcement of the Faculty of +Philosophy of Columbia University, for 1957 (p. 146):</p> + +<p class='c014'>The Russian Institute, established in 1946 with the assistance +of the Rockefeller Foundation, has two major objectives: +the development of <em>research</em> in the social sciences and +the humanities, as they relate to Russia, and the training +of a limited number of well-qualified Americans for scholarly +or professional careers, as Russian-Soviet specialists in +business, in finance, in journalism, in various branches of +government service, and in academic research and teaching +in the social sciences and in literature. It is believed that +such prospective specialists should acquire (a) a broad and +thoroughly integrated knowledge of Russia and the Soviet +Union; (b) command of a well-developed specialty in a +selected academic discipline, as applied to that country; +and (c) a broad training in the more general aspects of this +selected discipline. To this end, each candidate for the +two year certificate will pursue certain survey courses on +Russia, while giving special emphasis, within the Institute, +to one of five fields: Russian history, economy, government +and law, foreign relations, the social and ideological aspects +of literature. At the same time, the candidate will be expected +to follow outside the Institute, a parallel program +of work in the graduate school or department of the University +that is most closely allied with his Russian specialty +within the Institute.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All of these institutes, wherever they have been founded and +whether they are Institutes, Studies or Programs have been faced +with the same fundamental dilemma: how is the term “Russia” +to be defined? A certain number of scholars, who have been +labeled by Professor Lev Dobriansky of Georgetown University +as the “Russia Firsters,” have stubbornly insisted that it was +their duty to devote themselves to the study of Russia in the +traditional sense of the word, i.e. the consideration of Russian +<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>culture, history and economics without regard to the linguistically +and culturally heterogeneous character of the old Russian empire. +To students of this school, every person within the old +Russian empire is a Russian, whether their studies concern +economics or concentration camps. They refuse to separate the +statistics in any way that might show increased pressure on the +non-Russian peoples by the Soviet government. They feel themselves +free to do this, even though Stalin himself after World +War II specifically attributed the victory of the Soviet Union to +the loyalty of the Great Russians, i.e. Russians in the narrower +sense of the word.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This attitude, despite the prominence of its supporters, has +been steadily opposed by those students who stress the cultural +and linguistic differences which existed in the old Russian empire +as well as in the modern Soviet Union. These students emphasize +the similarities between the Russian and Soviet concepts of +dominance of the Great Russians, and argue for a proper recognition +of the oppressed nations of the USSR who sought their +independence during the Revolution and have since been restrained +by force of arms to adopt Communism. They accordingly +see in the restoration of the political independence of +these nations the best answer to the Communist menace to +freedom. This viewpoint has been expressed by Professor Roman +Smal-Stocki, and by James Burnham, formerly of the Department +of Philosophy of New York University, who in all his +writings has stressed the need to eliminate the new Russian Communism.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A further requirement of this in a historical survey is expressed +by a Russian in speaking of the failure of the anti-Communist +movements during the Civil Wars:</p> + +<p class='c014'>Those who were adverse to the new (Communist) regime +could thus be divided into two very different groups; one +comprising the property-owning classes (who had been deprived +of their all by the Bolsheviks), the officers, the civil +servants and all those devoted to the ideals of the Russian +State as constituted before the October Revolution; the +other, the national separatist groups, which desired complete +separation from Russia. It is easy to see that, no matter +how antagonistic these two groups might be to Communism, +their aims were absolutely dissociated. The unity of the +Russian State could only be reestablished in one of two +<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>ways: either by a restoration of the Monarchy or by federation. +Neither alternative appealed to the anti-Bolshevik +groups; and this circumstance explains the absence of cooperation +in the Civil War which broke out in many parts +of the country in 1918. It must be noted also, that the +majority of the population, the peasantry, stood entirely +aloof from the activities of both groups, and remained during +the initial stages of the Civil War absolutely neutral.<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c013'><sup>[43]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'>With the practical elimination of the monarchist influences, +the line is still drawn with the greatest bitterness between the +so-called Russian democratic elements who insist upon the unity +of Russia and the representatives of the non-Russian peoples, +especially the Ukrainians, Baltic, Caucasian and Turkestanian +nations. During the first post-war years this latter tendency was +little regarded in the American universities and even now is less +well represented than it should be; but recent years have seen +the publication of several studies such as John Reshetars’s +<cite>Ukrainian Revolution</cite> and John A. Armstrong’s <cite>Ukrainian Nationalism</cite> +(1939–1943).</p> + +<p class='c011'>The same division can be seen in the distribution of aid, in +the early years, of the work of the East European Fund, Inc., +which was created by the Ford Foundation and has done much +valuable work. In its later years it has given more money to aid +in the preparation and publication of works by Ukrainian, Byelorussian +and other scholars and is publishing a series of Ukrainian +texts, either original works or books suppressed by the Soviet +government. But all of these publishing activities fall far short +of the work of the Chekhov Publishing House which has issued +over 100 Russian books and received for this, grants (up to 1954) +totaling $1,238,000. However, on the average, as shown by the +Fund’s report for 1954, the grants to the several Ukrainian and +Byelorussian (Whiteruthenian) scholarly and relief institutions +have never been more than a third, at most, of that contributed +for similar Russian purposes, in spite of its stated position of +refraining from “favoring or supporting any single Russian political +grouping.” The report shows how the Fund has tended +however to see more value in the Russian projects than in the +Ukrainian and Byelorussian (Whiteruthenian).<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c013'><sup>[44]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>Gradual changes of attitude can also be noted in the American-supported +publications of the Institute for the Study of the +USSR in Munich, which is intended as a means for assistance +to refugee scholars from the USSR, and in the various American +radio and other organizations intended to aid in the fight against +Communism, such as the American Committee for Liberation +from Bolshevism. It is to be noted also in the policy of George +Kennan, formerly of the State Department and now connected +with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, +who is considered an outstanding American authority on the +USSR. His entire policy of “containment” has long been based +on the same idea of Russian unity as expressed by his uncle, +George Kennan (See Chapter III).</p> + +<p class='c011'>To supplement these and similar tendencies in the study of +the satellite states menaced by Communism, there has been +established in New York another series of organizations to secure +American help, to furnish scholarly opportunities for displaced +scholars from the countries liberated after World War +I and to assist in training new students. This is the Mid-European +Studies Center. Its counterparts in Europe are Radio Free +Europe and in the university field in the United States, the +Mid-European Studies Program at Columbia University. This +is more or less on the pattern of the Russian Institute and it is +but one example of the efforts that are being made to develop +interest in the culture of the satellite states, which, save for the +efforts of their compatriots in the United States, have been +largely neglected.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A point often raised regarding studies in this area is the +limitation placed upon them by the American distrust of Communism +which has expressed itself in many Congressional investigations +as well as the public and private attempts to root out +from the various important fields open or secret Communists or +fellow-travellers. This point is raised by Professor James F. +Clarke of the University of Indiana:<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c013'><sup>[45]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c014'>In more recent times a similar blind emotional reaction +to Communism as well as partisan evaluations of the Soviet +Union have constituted a threat to the free and rational +expansion of East European studies. Today, college students, +teachers, and administrators interested in the area +<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>dominated by Communism, while they may not yield to +anti-Communist hysterics, must at the same time heed its +potential effect on parents, taxpayers, legislators, trustees +and employers.</p> + +<p class='c011'>It is the opinion of the present writer that such arguments +serve merely to cover the failure of the scholars to interpret the +complications of the Soviet mode of thought to an American +audience. The Aesopian language in which so much of the current +Communist propaganda is couched, both for home and +foreign consumption, and the belief that truth is what is best +at the moment for the Communist Party, have laid a responsibility +upon students of Eastern Europe, a burden not borne by the +more established subjects where the sources are less subject to +deliberate falsification. In addition to this, certain men who +followed, during World War II, the tendency to gloss over the +cruelties of the Soviet Union on behalf of mutual understanding +and a misinterpreted liberalism now find it difficult to disavow +some of their most tendentious writings. This by no means implies +that they are either Communists or fellow-travellers but +they deliberately closed their eyes to unpleasant situations, and +now shrink from admitting the full truth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>As we have noted above, few, if any, of the outstanding +scholars of Slavic have accepted Communist ideas. The burden +of Communist infiltration in the past, and in the present, has +been in departments and subjects that might be considered most +immune to them, especially some of the natural sciences which +have only recently become subjects for international intrigue +and spying. For this reason, the fears of being labeled a Communist +are far less vital than the pressure that has been exerted +at many different periods to present Communism as a liberal +doctrine that is in harmony with American ideals. It is this misplaced +liberalism that has been responsible for what the author +of the article quoted calls “anti-Communist hysterics.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>In addition to this, any objective study of the Communist-dominated +world is rendered impossible, if the supplemental +goal is to promote mutual understanding. This of course is +an object of study when the system of two distinct peoples is +founded upon the same general principles, and when words are +used on both sides with similar meanings. In a study of the +Communist world, far more can be effected by a rigorous emphasis +<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>on the differences than can be gained by soft-pedaling and +concealing them.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another important factor that has worked against the increase +of students in the East European field has been the nature +of the opportunities which are offered to students. Immediately +after the liberation of the Slavic countries, after World War I, +there seemed to be a chance that students who acquired some +knowledge of Slavic could put it to use in their ordinary vocations. +Those opportunities for employment abroad that loomed +so large in the calculations of students of Spanish proved to be +conspicuously absent in view of Communist actions.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The spurt that occurred after World War II came to an end +when the Iron Curtain descended over almost the entire Slavic +world, at least so far as the average student was concerned. Men +who had received some instruction while in the Armed Services +were able to take advantage of the GI Bill of Rights and continue +their studies. Yet most very soon found that unless they intended +to become real specialists, they would not have the opportunity +to use their knowledge.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The colleges and universities needed more men in view of +the widespread conviction that Russian, especially, was a proper +and necessary subject. Yet the field was relatively limited and +did not require many generations of post-graduate students to +adequately staff the departments. The chief opportunity besides +teaching was government service and this absorbed the greatest +number. But, for those who did not care for government work +the range of opportunities soon became restricted.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Most of these men and women, who are today specializing +actively, are persons who have received fellowships of some +kind or value from one or another of the larger foundations (the +Rockefeller, Carnegie Corporation and the Ford Foundation). +As in other branches of scholarship, and even the sciences, +or those humanistic subjects which almost insure teaching positions, +these fellowships and scholarships play a more important +part in the economic life of the graduate student than ever before +and any increase or decrease in them is reflected almost +immediately in the number of students. The result has been +a steady but perceptible drop in graduate students during the +past years. This has not been a bad sign in reality, even though +it may superficially seem a lack of interest.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We can be very sure, the world and human nature being +<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>what it is, that there will be no such reaction against foreign +languages as there was during and after World War I. There +are already signs that the number of students has dropped to +the point where it will remain stationary, or from which it will +perhaps rise slightly, during the next years.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The study of Slavic and East European subjects has followed +a very definite pattern in the last ten years with its shifts of +emphasis reflecting the changes that have taken place in that +part of the globe. It has followed political and economic relationships +of the United States and we can be confident that it +will continue to do so.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus, since the beginning of World War I, the picture of +Slavic and East European studies in the United States has +changed markedly. The prospects today are far brighter than +they ever have been. The foundations have been laid and it +only remains to build a superstructure to fit into American life +and at the same time present a consistent and coherent picture +of what that American life, and Slavic studies, really need. The +first period of test is over. Now is the time to present Slavic +scholarship to the American public and the scholarly world in +such a form that it can be assimilated and incorporated in the +intellectual life of the nation, and at the same time take account +of the possibilities offered by the large section of the population +with Slavic traditions.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> + <h2 class='c007'><span class='c012'>CHAPTER 8</span><br> THE FUTURE TASKS OF SLAVIC AND EAST EUROPEAN STUDIES</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c010'>It is obviously impossible, under present conditions +in America, even to dream of offering any outline for a +definite organization of studies of that large area east of Scandinavia, +Germany and Italy. We are dealing with several linguistic +and cultural entities which historically have been subjected to +widely differing influences. Especially in the field of history and +of culture in general, the old notion that a boundary could be +drawn between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, or +between the Christian and the Islamic Worlds, is definitely antiquated. +It was non-existent during the earlier periods of history +although it was partially valid for a few centuries. Even at the +height of religious separation, the Slavic World was itself divided, +the Western Slavs and some Southern Slavs on one side +and the Eastern and most Southern Slavs on the other. Today, +with the general movements that are sweeping both Europe and +Asia, these lines are obliterated.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We are forced, thus, to recognize a far more complicated +situation than seemed possible even a few decades ago when +the early students of Slavic blindly, though sincerely, followed +either the German or the Russian cultural views of the area.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Studies in the United States in these fields must find, despite +the many obstacles, a new path, acquire a new breadth of vision, +and work out a new outline wherever the old has been shown +to be deficient. This can only be done by cooperation among +both scholars and institutions. Though the leading colleges and +universities have found during the past century their own +methods for departmentalizing their courses and faculty, there is +hardly one which cannot adapt its resources to contribute to the +common cause. We will therefore content ourselves with sketching +briefly some of the problems, and their possible solutions, +in the field of organization.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span> + <h3 class='c016'><em>I. Integration in American Consciousness</em></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>At the present time, educated Americans seem to find it impossible +to integrate the concepts that have been forced upon +them by events since 1914. The older generation, and too large +a part of the younger, view the expanded practical concern for +Eastern Europe and Asia as a serious and troublesome addition +to the range of knowledge which it is compelled to acquire. +This attitude has been fostered by the way in which the expansion +has occurred. Under the pressure of World War II, and its +accompanying developments, the government and the foundations +alike have been spending money to train men in present-day +problems and have looked askance at what we may call +basic work in the evolution of the situation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Let us glance at this for a moment. Courses in ancient history, +chiefly of Greece and Rome, are an established part of all college +and university curricula and are even found in many high +schools. Yet invariably, these courses fail to discuss Greece and +Greek culture after the rise of Philip of Macedon and the Roman +conquest of Greece. Studies of the Roman Empire rarely extend +beyond the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, where they are +lost in vagueness about the Dark Ages and the barbarian migrations. +Even in the earlier period, almost no attention has been +given to vestiges of Greek and Roman culture outside of Greece, +Asia Minor and the Roman possessions in the West.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus, there is a cloudy realization that the Code of Roman +Law was finally drawn up in Constantinople, but the historical +significance of the past is not keenly appreciated. At the same +time, anything that can be labeled Byzantine is either treated +separately or not considered at all. There is even no realization +that the Scandinavian Vikings extended their activities to the +East as well as to the West and such striking evidence of this as +the marriage of the daughter of Harold the Saxon, the last Saxon +King of England, to Volodymyr Monomakh of Kiev, seems an +incredible and isolated event. The scholars at Dumbarton Oaks +and the Mediaeval Academy of America are indeed doing work +on Byzantine history, culture and institutions but the other +scholars working on the foundations and development of the +modern Western World have not attempted to take their work +into account, and are still limiting the modern Western World to +the British Isles, France, Germany, the Holy Roman Empire and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>its descendants, ignoring the contacts of that world with Byzantium +in the early and later Middle Ages.</p> + +<p class='c011'>With a similar lack of understanding, the average student, +though aware of the fight between the Holy Roman Emperors +and the Popes, rarely knows that the Empire was then pushing +into Slavic territory or that Saints Cyril and Methodius, the +Apostles to the Slavs, were in Rome as well as Constantinople.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is a scattered appreciation of such events as the Latin +seizure, and the Turkish capture, of Constantinople but only for +their impact upon the life of the West. The arrival in Western +Europe of scholars from Constantinople is taught as a great +influence in the Renaissance but no attention is paid to their +origin or where they had studied.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The situation is even worse for later periods. There has been +an almost complete neglect not only of the history of the Balkan +Slavs but of the Greeks as well. For years after the establishment +of the Gennadeion in Athens, one of the few still unplundered +collections of Greek and Slavic manuscripts, Slavic scholars were +as unaware of the existence of this collection as the classical +scholars were unaware of its importance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>One result of this traditional lack of understanding of early +Eastern history has been the tendency of American scholars to +accept without hesitation either the German view of Eastern +Europe as a relatively primitive region, or the Russian view that +in some way everything in the East was Russian and that it was +only natural that Catherine II of Russia should dream of becoming +the Empress of the Byzantine Empire with her capital +still at St. Petersburg.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus all the peoples of Eastern Europe disappear from European +history shortly after the time of Constantine and do not +reappear until the foundation of St. Petersburg and the development +of the Eastern Question in the late eighteenth century. +Even the national struggles in Vienna during the reign of Francis +Joseph II are not evaluated, and far too many would-be-students +of Eastern Europe are still under the impression that movements +for national independence during World War I and the Russian +Revolution arose out of thin air.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The complicated events of the last decades pre-empt the concentration +of students and give them little time to grasp the +background which underlay the past and gave rise to the complexities +of the present.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>It would be presumptuous to expect adequate and detailed +knowledge of Eastern history to be added to the intellectual burden +of all students, even though it would be desirable. The most +that can be hoped is that students and scholars interested in this +field will be able eventually to focus more attention, in the +general curricula, on a few of the major trends that worked +openly and secretly in Eastern history for over a thousand years, +culminating in the present situation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The last years have seen a few attempts, like those of the late +Dr. Bilmanis, Minister of Latvia in Washington, to prepare a +history of Latvia. We now have histories of Lithuania, Poland, +Czechoslovakia and two or three of Ukraine. But there is still +lacking a general survey presenting in readable, popular and +general form the outstanding developments in the Slavic area. +The development of such a synthesis of the East European culture, +in a form that could be included with the more detailed +studies of the Western countries, would go far in overcoming +the vague and unrealistic ideas which are fostered either by +ignorance or by the propagandistic works of the formerly dominating +nations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>When we remember that it was nearly the end of the seventeenth +century before Eastern Europe acquired the form that +it had on the eve of World War I and that this order was seriously +challenged throughout the nineteenth century, we can see +the necessity of a complete revision of many of the established +and traditional concepts. Such a need must be recognized by +the educational leaders as a whole, for Eastern Europe has +greatly and consistently influenced the West. No greater step +forward can be taken than to emphasize this historical fact and +to show the important role of Eastern Europe, both positively +and negatively, in shaping the world as we knew it at the beginning +of the twentieth century.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>II. The Divisions of the Area</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>Awakening the American intellectual world to the need for +reassessing its concept of Eastern Europe is, of course, an essential +problem for Slavic students, but it can be fully accomplished +only in cooperation with those individuals and institutions +concerned with the general outline of human history. Far more +than a mere multiplication of courses, of lectures and of journals +is needed. Yet if we assume that steps are being taken toward +this end, there still remains the very pertinent question of what +<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>divisions and subdivisions of the area are to be used in any +detailed study. It is at this moment that we come face to face +with the tremendous historical and linguistic complications.</p> + +<p class='c011'>First considering linguistics, Slavic easily can be placed at +the center, for the greater number of the inhabitants of Eastern +Europe speak one of the Slavic tongues. The traditional point of +view, which is now being challenged by linguists, is to divide +the Slavs into Western (Czech, Slovak, Polish and Lusatian), +Southern (Serb, Croatian, Slovene and Bulgarian) and Eastern +(Great Russian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian), and to emphasize +common linguistic aspects.</p> + +<p class='c011'>This is of advantage from the strictly philological point of +view; it is less valid when considering culture and history and +the influence exerted throughout the last millenium by the +neighboring states and cultures. As has been noted already, the +constantly shifting line between Eastern and Western churches +cuts directly across the Slavic world. On one side are the Czechs, +Slovaks, Poles and Croatians, all of whom have been primarily +under Western influence. On the other are the rest of the southern +and eastern Slavs who have drawn their original inspiration +from Byzantium and have then undergone, in varying degrees, +cultural influence from the Latin and Germanic west, the Scandinavian +north, the Mongol and Tatar east and the Turkish +south. Ukraine, and to a lesser degree Byelorussia (Whiteruthenia), +have felt a consistently strong Western influence throughout +their history. Western influence among the Serbs has been +more spasmodic, while Russia (Moscow) remained relatively +free from such influences almost until the time of Peter I.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Furthermore, the area also includes the Uralic-Altaic peoples, +the Finns, Estonians, Hungarians, Turks and many less developed +peoples. These can hardly all be treated as offshoots of +Slavic. The Uralic peoples, especially those who are most highly +developed, have shared the influences of the Slavs, and have +been closely connected with Western Europe. The Finns and +Estonians have had strong Scandinavian contacts and the Hungarians +have been closely associated with the Empire, the Poles +and the Czechs. The Altaic peoples, largely Mohammedan, have +become an inherent part of Islamic culture and yet, despite +their distinct linguistic and cultural heritage, their fate has been +closely linked with that of the Slavs. In addition, there are the +modern Greeks, direct heirs of the Byzantine tradition with their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>own sharply defined culture; the Romanians, who are proud of +their Latin traditions; and the Albanians, who form a distinct +Indo-European linguistic group crowded between the Southern +Slavs and the Greeks. Neither can there be excluded such +peoples of the Caucasus as the Georgians, the Armenians and the +Azerbaijanians, nor other Christian and Mohammedan peoples +formerly included in the Russian Empire.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The time is long past when all of these national groups can be +studied only in terms of the Russian and Ottoman Empires. +Their history and their struggles for liberation create many cultural +subsections which cut across linguistic boundaries and, in +part, natural geographical subdivisions. It is difficult to name +satisfactorily these cultural subsections, for they vary in the different +periods of history. Yet, the definition of courses of detailed +study or area programs, which have become so popular at +the present time, demands it.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is another difficulty which arises. The events of World +War II and the creeping Soviet imperialism have succeeded in +dominating all of the states which were established, or attempted +after World War I. In the western extension of the Iron Curtain, +only Finland in the north and Greece and Turkey in the south +have succeeded in maintaining a precarious independence. As a +result, all of the programs of instruction that have been arbitrarily +set up exclude these three countries. Whatever value +such a division may have at present, it is certainly no guide to +the past, for at times Finland was under Swedish rule, which +extended south of the Gulf of Finland. Likewise, for centuries +Greece, the Southern Slavs and Romania (then divided between +Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania), together with Ukraine, +formed another definite cultural block, which to a large degree +shared the same political fate.</p> + +<p class='c011'>For many years, the nations of the Balkan Peninsula were +treated as a Balkan block and, because of the ways these states +secured their political independence, they shared years of stormy +political life. The term “Balkans” was then, with considerable +contempt, applied to Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania +and Romania. Yet after World War I, when the Adriatic +littoral was added to Serbia and Montenegro to form Yugoslavia +and Romania recovered Transylvania and Bessarabia, the +name came to have little meaning. Now with Turkey playing a +positive role, efforts have been made to use the name Southeastern +<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>Europe, but with little success. “Danubian Europe” is +worse, for the Danube crosses both Austria and Hungary, and +avoids Greece and Albania.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the present time, the term “Eastern Europe” is probably +the least objectionable but it is ridiculous to apply this term to +Czechoslovakia and Hungary which are almost in the heart of +Europe. Still, this is the term, added to Slavic or Slavonic, used +as a general title by both the British <cite>Slavonic and East European +Review</cite> and <cite>The American Slavic and East European Review</cite>. +But the culture area also includes all of the former Russian +possessions in Asia, for the Urals owe their position as the +boundary of Europe more to the fact that they run roughly north +and south at the eastern end of the Caspian Sea, and so are useful +to cartographers, than to any historical importance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The term “Mid-Europe” has been introduced lately to cover +the history of that strip of countries which won their independence +after World War I and lost it after World War II. It is an +attempt to unify the non-unifiable, except in terms of their +present fate, for during much of the last thousand years the fate +of Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary has been intertwined, +but Poland has been involved with Lithuania, Byelorussia +(White Ruthenia), and Ukraine, while the main relations of Latvia +and Estonia have been with the Scandinavian and other +Baltic peoples.</p> + +<p class='c011'>For purposes of detailed study then, a division can be made +between the eastern Baltic shore in the north, Poland, Czechoslovakia +and Hungary in the center, and the states of the Balkan +Peninsula, including Turkey, in the south.</p> + +<p class='c011'>What then can we do with Ukraine and Byelorussia, two of +the three East Slavic states? For both countries connections with +Moscow have been of a special character with a long record of +turbulence, opposition and attempts at independence. They have +lived their own lives with intermittent contact with the West; +in fact, it was through them that most of the purely Western +influences drifted into Moscow and the land of the Great Russians, +which in ancient times was more closely connected through +the Volga River with the Caucasian group of peoples and the +Golden Horde.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Attempts to divide the entire area into regional sections with +common problems and cultural development produces only confusion, +for such divisions are applicable only to short periods in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>the ever-changing kaleidoscope of history. The realization of +this fact presents one of the greatest obstacles to the student of +present problems. The idea, fostered in Prague, that the key to +all East European problems could be the assumption of a single +Slavic history and Slavic culture can be easily proved to be as +vain as Pan-Germanism, Pan-Turanianism, and Pan-Asianism.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Yet, today this over-simplification has been twisted by the +Russian Messianic concept into a formidable weapon against +the rest of the world. The Communist theories, like the old +Tsarist theories of Moscow as the Third Rome, cannot be laughed +away. They must be met by accurate and careful study and this +does necessitate some sort of recognizable division. But, the +solution to these contradictions cannot be found in either the +Russian or the old Germanic theories; it demands the most +serious consideration from the modern scholars of the entire +world outside the Iron Curtain.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>III. Undergraduate Courses</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>Considering the material that can be reasonably included in +the curriculum of the average American college, we must +severely limit our expectations. Because the average college +aims to give a well rounded education in many fields of knowledge, +the number of persons specializing in Slavic and East +European subjects will be very limited. The amount of time +that the average student can spend on these subjects and the +amount of effort that the average institution will expend to make +them effective, is limited. Furthermore, there will be few colleges, +not connected with universities, either inclined to embark +upon an ambitious program, or supplied with the resources to +undertake it. But, this does not mean that nothing is to be done +or that it is to be done carelessly.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Until that time when the main facts of the history of Eastern +Europe and of Eastern European and Slavic culture are included +in the general scheme of the development of the modern world +or in courses in the development of contemporary civilization, +interested persons on the faculty must work out a minimum +program. This will vary according to the general content, either +in history or literature, and will fall into its proper place in the +general curriculum, whether or not a special department is established. +There are some things that can be expected and we will +divide these into four headings: history, literature, culture and +language. We will here consider the first three.</p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>The prime requirement in all these subjects is scientific accuracy, +something which is far too often honored in the breach. +There has been in the past too great a tendency to accept some +superficial treatment composed of half truths. We must remember +that ignorance, and conscious ignorance at that, is often +better than incorrect knowledge. The problem lies not so much +in what a person does not know as in what he knows wrong.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the present time, there scarcely can be given a course in +modern history which overlooks and omits the questions that +have been forced upon the attention of the world by Russian +Communism. There is, therefore, little or no reason why the main +facts of the present situation should not be correctly given with +proper weight laid on the Soviet structure and methods. This +involves a clear recognition that there are important differences +not only between the old capitalistic and the new communistic +Russia, but also that there is an ostensible stress which the Soviet +Union lays upon the differences between the populations inhabiting +her republics, subject as they all are to the same Russianization. +There can be no excuse for the oft repeated view that +all the people of the Soviet Union are Russians in the old sense +of the word. There is no reason for the arbitrary omission of the +nationality problem on the ground that it has no validity in fact +or experience just because it was denied by the Tsars a century +ago. There have been too many instances of even responsible +publications omitting from accurate surveys references to such +problems, at the will of certain anti-Communist nationalist Russian +groups. Although there is available today adequate and +easily accessible literature, far too little of it has penetrated the +scholarly world which is still burdened with the traditions of +the past.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The same can be said of literature. For many years masterpieces +of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky and Gorky have been +included in courses on modern European literature. Still, far +too often, they have been presented in a vacuum, without any +attempt to equate them with Russian life and thought. This is +perhaps less common today, but immediately after World War +I, it is not extreme to say, there was a Western science of Russian +literature almost as far from reality as that first French translation +of <cite>Anna Karenina</cite> which, in the interest of clarity, calmly +omitted the entire Levin-Kitty story.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the other hand, with the number of available translations +<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>of nearly all the prominent Russian authors of the nineteenth +and twentieth centuries, there is no reason why courses on Russian +literature in translation should not be offered. The material +can be easily gathered to give an adequate picture of the development +of the literature for the non-specialist. Whether this +is done as part of a general course, or as a special course, will +depend upon the program of the institution but it will benefit +not only the general student but also the person who is endeavoring +to learn the language.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The problem is more complicated for the other East European +languages. Perhaps Polish literature is the only one that has +been translated with even near minimal adequacy. Still, there are +a number of translations from the Czech, especially from Karel +Capek, the popular dramatist who was active before World War +II. There are some good Ukrainian translations, especially of +poetry done by the late Percival Cundy and the selections already +in English give a fair representation of all the major +Ukrainian authors. The literatures of the other Slavic groups are +still poorly represented in translations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is a real need therefore for the preparation of a series +of anthologies in translation, not only from the Slavic languages, +but also from the other literatures of East Europe. There may +be difficulties in securing publication of such works, and hesitation +in introducing them with success into the various courses, +but there is no reason why any college library should not work +to build a collection of such works, even if it is not interested in +expanding its study in this field.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Where there are courses in one or more of the languages of +the area, it will be, of course, easy to prepare courses on the +literature with readings in the original. Yet, these can never +replace the full need for courses in translation or courses in +which the originals are supplemented by translations.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The same applies to courses in the fine arts, especially music +and painting, both of which have flourished in Slavic lands. +There are special difficulties here that are not present in the +literature, for in the past, and especially the nineteenth century, +most of the Slavic artists appeared in the Western World as either +Russian, Austrian or Italian. As such, their contributions have +been hidden even beyond their own desires, for in 1918 the world +discovered that many artists, who had been invited as representatives +of the dominating empires, rebelled and proudly declared +<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>themselves Poles or Czechs, much to the surprise of their audiences.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We can be sadly confident that it will be some time before +undergraduate courses in East European history and culture +will everywhere acquire a proper direction and clear acceptance. +But year by year, as these studies expand in the colleges, an +increasing number of students are affected and Slavic studies +are coming closer and closer to the academic level and seriousness +of the older disciplines. This offers hope for the future and, +while we cannot expect a Slavic department to become one of +the numerically larger departments, it can rise to its opportunities +and exercise its functions both in training specialists and in +broadening the knowledge of a larger and larger number of +students. The lag in Slavic studies is diminishing with each year +and it will soon vanish entirely if developments of the present +day are carefully regarded.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>IV. Language Instruction</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>The first task of a Slavic or East European language department +is of course to teach the language. It should be taken for +granted that any person who claims to be a specialist in the +history and culture of any country should be able to read, write, +speak and understand its language. The language courses in any +department are intended to satisfy these requirements. This +however is a goal and the merest contact with even good students +will show how far it is from being fully realized. Yet it +must be the goal even though we accept something far short of +it as that which can be reasonably attained.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is no easy way to learn a foreign language and to maintain +fluency in it. And fluency can be best secured by a constant +use of the language, hardly possible in the United States despite +the aspiration of the student. Somewhere, somehow there must +be a compromise.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are, of course, scattered individuals like the late Professor +John Dyneley Prince, who seemed to have a special gift +for speaking foreign tongues. As a matter of fact, Prince built +his entire scholarly and political career on this inborn gift. His +knowledge of spoken tongues was fantastic, but it should be +recognized that he maintained it only by a constant preoccupation +with language. The time that others spent on bridge and +other hobbies, he dedicated to reading dictionaries and annotating +grammars. He continued, so long as his health allowed, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>the labor which made it possible for him to perform his almost +incredible feats. Men like Prince are exceptional, but they emphasize +the fact that there is no single road to success. Every +individual learns languages in his own way and hence there +can easily be a wide divergence of educational methods recommended.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There was a time when instruction in modern languages +followed the methods used in studying Greek and Latin, with +an excessive emphasis on knowledge of grammar and a corresponding +neglect both of the finer points of usage and the ability +to read fluently. The old joke that the object of learning the +classical languages was to be able to distinguish the different +uses of the genitive case was true only when scholars ceased +using Latin as a medium of communication. While this was a +passing phase, it left its mark on the study of modern languages. +The Slavic languages, from their inception as subjects of university +study, have been subject to this temptation. But even +before the application of so-called modern methods, there was a +larger proportion of serious students able to express themselves +satisfactorily in the Slavic languages than there was in the more +common tongues, such as French and German.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the other hand, the great increase of interest in Slavic +languages came during World War II and this left its imprint +on the methods of instruction. For military and governmental +purposes, speaking knowledge was very important and became +even more so when the schools were charged with training men +for intelligence work. The emphasis on a speaking knowledge +of Slavic languages was important in World War II because the +number of young Americans who knew these languages well +was seriously declining. Thirty years before, there were many +young Slavs who had but recently migrated to the United +States or were the children of parents who spoke their native +languages fluently though grammatically incorrectly. The children +of these people, trained in American schools, have lost most +of their facility in their fathers’ tongues and need fundamental +training.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the same time the slow but persistent strengthening of the +Iron Curtain and the refusal of the Soviet government to allow +free emigration of its citizens has reduced the number of young +instructors available. The majority of competent instructors in +America have lived in this country since the close of World War +<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>I and many of them are unfamiliar with the latest turns of the +language as used in the Soviet Union.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The difficulty of obtaining instructors is counterbalanced +by the great improvement in methods of recording and reproducing +sounds. It is now possible in almost all institutions to +give students accurate and well rendered records and tapes of +the leading Russian dramas and speeches as recorded and broadcast +by the Soviet authorities themselves. It is also possible for +the students to record their own pronunciation and compare it +with the accepted standards. The use of these modern scientific +and technical aids is undoubtedly improving pronunciation, +though it is by no means certain that it is equally satisfactory +in teaching fluency when the student is called upon to express +his own thoughts.</p> + +<p class='c011'>At the same time, the new interest in language often overlooks +the fact that students may desire to learn a Slavic language +for widely differing purposes. In this respect he does not differ +from the average English speaking person who may fully master +the language and still be almost completely ignorant of the +technical terms (jargon) of some particular profession or activity. +Disregarding the notion that a foreign language should be +learned only to read <em>belles-lettres</em>, we far too often replace it +with the ability to carry on ordinary conversations on general +subjects. There is of course, in all languages, an irreducible +minimum of words of universal applicability, but methods must +be found to include special vocabularies for students with special +interests. This has been met in part by the production of technical +dictionaries for the several sciences but much work remains +to be done.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These remarks apply to all the languages of East Europe. +However, modern methods have received their fullest application +in teaching Russian, although auspicious beginnings have +been made for others, especially Polish. It is highly desirable +that textbooks and other aids be increased in the near future +to provide all Slavic languages with adequate materials, adapted +to the use of English-speaking students. Russian is still the +language in which most American students are interested. In a +way this is natural because Russian, both by its political importance, +the number of persons speaking it and the reputation +of some Russian writers, is undoubtedly the most important. +Other Slavic and East European tongues are adequately taught +<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>only in some of the larger universities or in smaller institutions +with special interests, be it circumstances of the administration +or the character of the student body. Yet it is hardly true that +any person interested in the broader studies of Eastern Europe +can be adequately equipped if he possesses only a knowledge of +Russian, though this does not make the situation as hopeless +as it might seem.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are so many common roots and forms of expression in +all Slavic languages that it is possible to prepare a course which +will emphasize the salient features of each language, equip the +student with a knowledge of any one Slavic language, and still +enable him to handle, for scientific purposes, the others without +too much difficulty. This was successfully done by Professor +Prince at Columbia when, with a fine disregard for special grammatical +features of the different languages, he arranged a general +reading course in the Slavic tongues. For some years, Professor +Manning followed his example. The course was finally dropped +because of other departmental needs but there is no reason why +such a course could not be standardized and made available in +many institutions which are unable to afford a complete university +staff to teach the different languages individually.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The greatest obstacle to the study of Slavic languages is the +fact that, until very recently, few students reached the graduate +level with an adequate background in the languages. This has +been somewhat relieved by the introduction of Russian and other +Slavic languages in the colleges, but often language instruction +could be advantageously introduced in high schools. Furthermore, +there are many institutions, largely supported by churches +or societies, which give instruction for which colleges should +be willing to give appropriate credit.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Such credit could be granted by a rigid insistence upon +accomplishment coupled with a liberal reading of the requirements +for college entrance. Thus, despite the lesser emphasis +paid to definite entrance examinations, it should be possible for +educational institutions and state organizations to arrange examinations +in East European languages even where they were not +learned in a recognized school. In many instances the efficiency +of summer courses, such as those given by the Ukrainian National +Association under the supervision of the Ukrainian Free +University, could be checked by some central body. If instruction +were satisfactory, credits could be accepted <em>in toto</em>, or the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>graduates could be given the opportunity of an individual examination +in order to receive credit. It would seem that almost all +major churches and societies in the United States interested in +the study of a foreign language would react favorably if there +were any assurance that students in their courses would receive +proper recognition.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The American educational system is neglecting, at present, +those resources for study of East European and Slavic languages +which already exist. While it is true that formerly instruction +was often given by ill-prepared and incompetent teachers, the +arrival in this country of large numbers of educated DP’s, often +with teaching experience in their own lands, has changed the +situation, and made it possible to build up a large cadre of language +students, prepared to undertake more advanced work at +an earlier stage.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the language field as nowhere else, we can clearly see +marked improvement in the past thirty years. There are better +textbooks and better instructors. If there is a negative aspect, it +is in an excessive emphasis on what is conceived to be a modern +system of study, which rests too much upon adherence to hypothetical +rules regarding how a language should be learned, and +a tendency to look askance at any exceptions to this, regardless +of what results may have been attained. There is still much +more to be done before the knowledge of these languages is +sufficiently spread throughout the intellectual and research organs +of the country.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>V. Graduate Work</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>Considering the problems of graduate study in American universities, +we must not overlook the fact that Slavic studies in +Europe developed entirely under the methods and system of +German scholarship. Although this may seem surprising, it was +at Vienna, Leipzig, and Berlin that the outlines of the modern +sciences were laid. The early universities at St. Petersburg and +Moscow were largely staffed by Germans and the oldest +university in Slavic lands, the Charles University of Prague, lost +its Czech character during the Thirty Years War. A Czech section +of the university was begun as an adjunct only in the 1880’s +and did not recover its original insignia until after the liberation +of Czechoslovakia. Hence, the German system of scholarship +was considered basic, even though it was greatly altered +by later development of Slavic studies at the universities of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>Prague and Krakow. The influence of Prague and Krakow was +natural, for it was in Slavic universities in Slavic lands that Slavic +would become the cornerstone of humanistic teaching, acquiring +a position similar to that of English and American literature and +history in American institutions. We can never hope to equal +or surpass the work in these institutions though we can admit +it without any sense of failure.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Since American graduate schools have been based on German +models, they inherited the German division of faculty with +history and its allied subjects separated from literature and +philology. Nor have these divisions been changed noticeably +by grouping various chairs in allied subjects into departments. +While there have been attempts, as at Harvard, to bring together +in the Slavic pattern, all courses dealing with Slavic subjects, this +practice has not been generally followed. The result is that +history and literature have been taught separately and have been +combined only in part in more recent Russian and Slavic institutes.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In both general fields, the usual methods and regulations can +be applied easily and completely; hence, the introduction of +Slavic and East European into the general curriculum has not +caused difficulties. There remains only this question: should +there be some provision for normally including one or more +general courses from either section in the curriculum of the +other to augment the background of those students tempted to +specialize too closely, who might thus fail to see the general +cultural problems which any literature or history presents.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There are, however, certain limitations which the student will +encounter, due largely at the present time to the rule in the free +world which prohibits a free exchange of students between countries. +A student desiring to work in English, French and German +history can go freely to the appropriate intellectual center to consult +sources; a relatively large number of students in these fields +have studied at the universities and archives of the country in +which they were interested. This was also true to a certain degree, +between the wars, in the so-called succession states when +every year students went to the universities of Poland, Czechoslovakia, +Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, the Baltic and Greece. Today +this is impossible and the administration of students’ programs +must take this fact into account. The limitation severely restricts +research in certain slightly explored areas such as the remains +<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>of Slavic literature from the Middle Ages, the unpublished memoirs +and manuscripts of many modern writers, and memorabilia +from many periods of historical and economic importance.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These limitations can be partly overcome by increased research +in the archives of many of the countries still free. There is +doubtless much material in the libraries of Western Europe, the +Scandinavian countries, Greece and Turkey which has never +been adequately studied by a Slavic expert.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Limitations exist to an even greater degree in archaeology and +ethnology, since research before World War I was still in its +infancy and subsequent discoveries have been filtered through +the exigencies of Russian Communist propaganda. This imposes +upon the student the necessity for a most thorough and careful +analysis of all Soviet references and newly published material, +often edited to suit the policy of the moment, for it often involves +a direct contradiction to what the Soviets declared to be true in +the period between the two World Wars. This is the situation +not only in history, but also in the literature of the past and +present. The theses issued by the Communist Party for the three +hundredth anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654–1954), +after the death of Stalin and under the “new” Soviet policy, stand +in sharp contrast to the published statements of Soviet scholarship +during the 1920’s and 1930’s. Similarly, the rewriting of the +biographies, during the relatively unhampered conditions of the +early 1920’s, of such authors as Dostoyevsky, Shevchenko, Franko, +Mickiewicz and many others, makes it impossible to accept uncritically +either the older Soviet accounts or even much of the +material published under the Tsarist regime.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is then imposed upon faculty and students, the need to +recognize that Slavic studies cannot merely accept the latest +discoveries and statements as a correction of the past, as in +other fields, but must include the most careful consideration of +whether in the present or the past they have been more grossly +falsified. Reportedly new discoveries in the humanistic and cultural +fields may be only a dialectic exercise of the organs of the +Tsarist or Communist regimes in order to deceive the outside +world. For example, the declaration of the validity of “socialist +realism” meant a deliberate misinterpretation of the writings of +earlier Communist authors, which can be understood only in +terms of politics, not literature. Promulgated ideas were accepted +only after the publication of the official list of writings as decided +<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>by Communist authorities. Similarly, the original philological +theories of Marr soon lost what validity they possessed when +they were adopted by Marr’s fellow-Georgian, Stalin, as the +Soviet system and were imposed for twenty-five years to serve +Communist purposes. Even what remained valid suffered when +Marr, after his death, was officially discredited and his original +ideas went through a second period of wilful perversion. Such +instances could be multiplied by the hundreds, even including +Sosyura’s poem <cite>Love Ukraine</cite>, which was deemed worthy of a +Stalin Prize only to be condemned, a few years later, as anti-Communist +and “bourgeois nationalist.”</p> + +<p class='c011'>This constant shifting of Soviet truth has involved strange +deviations by even distinguished scholars who have tried to combine +their sense of scholarship and accuracy with their desire to +be admitted to the Soviet Union for further study. It has also +increased the American public fear of Communism and has +aided the rise of the so-called “anti-Communist hysteria” which +has restrained men who, though not Communist themselves, are +unwilling to be accused by the Soviets of open hostility.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is still another unsatisfied need in Slavic studies. The +Western World, since the seventeenth century, for good or ill, +has relegated religion, or the lack of it, to a subordinate place in +modern history. While recognition is given both religious and +non-religious authors and movements, nowhere have religious +motives played the ultimate primary role. The contrary is true +in the East European area, where religion, or opposition to it, +plays the same role it did in medieval Europe. In Russian literature +of the nineteenth century both Leo Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky +were absorbed in the world of the Orthodox Church and, in their +reaction to it, were leaders of the westernizing intelligentsia. +Neither’s influence can be understood without a consideration of +the ethos of Russian Orthodoxy, but this is rarely treated as a +serious subject, even though it furnishes the key to that Russian +Messianistic dream which so frequently emerges in the stream +of Russian culture. In a lesser degree, the same can be said of +the more negative Messianism of Mickiewicz and other Polish +writers, of the goals of Shevchenko and, above all, of the patriotic +works of the Serb poet, Nyegosh. In addition, there is the almost +completely unknown world of the Russian Old Believers, or +Starovyery, who have left an imprint on many fields of Russian +culture. Although rarely mentioned, they are far better +<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>known in the Russian revolutionary movement, particularly for +their preservation of old Russian icons.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Still another field for which material is available, is the +history of the Slavs and Slavic culture in the Western World. +Professor Jaroslav Rudnyckyj of the University of Manitoba has +detailed changes of the Ukrainian language in Canada, and +H. L. Mencken has provided startling information on Slavic +languages in America, in his <cite>The American Language</cite>, but the +full extent of these changes and the effect of American life +on Slavic folklore and folk art, as well as the history of the settlements, +has not yet been fully studied. At present, because of +support given by foundations and the government, stress is laid +upon present Slavic conditions and culture. This is only natural, +but the present, and indeed the future, can only be understood +by the past. There is much historical study to be done with the +resources that the United States and Western Europe can furnish. +Slavic history has been so consistently neglected, or studied in +such narrow contexts, that its general lines of contact with the +West and Asia have not yet been established with any degree +of certainty, even in the Slavic countries. If interest has been +shown in the relations between Kiev and the Scandinavians, it +has not been extended to the contacts with Byzantium during +all ages. Nor have scholars examined the Swedish-Polish relations +from the viewpoint of both countries. The interplay of the +Balkan Slavs with both Italy and the Ottomans is still veiled in +darkness.</p> + +<p class='c011'>All these subjects can be studied by Slavic scholars in America +without limiting the study to an assumed narrow sphere +which has, too often, been the fate of studies both in Europe +and the Slavic lands. The viewpoint of American students, +therefore, with a broader perspective may result in a new school +of Slavic studies, oriented by an impartial attitude to either +the Russian imperialistic claims or the German desire to treat +Eastern Europe, in the broader sense, as a subordinate arena +in the world’s history. These traditional viewpoints are today +being outmoded rapidly by current history; therefore, the sooner +American Slavic and East European scholarship realizes its own +possibilities and its subject matter, the more valuable will be +its contribution to the welfare of the United States and the world.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>VI. Area Studies</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>The development of area studies, which first attracted wide +<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>attention during World War II, fills a certain gap in the general +organization of Slavic and East European studies. They compensate +for a deficiency in the education and application of students +but they can never fully replace the work of the graduate +school. Area studies are at their best when they train young +men and women in a knowledge of regions relatively unknown +to the general public, which for one reason or another are +so inaccessible that few, if any, of the students will have an +opportunity to visit them in the course of their studies. They +can then be regarded in two quite different ways, for they are +either a desirable prelude to more serious work or they are +vocational schools of the highest class. In either respect, they +will prove their value if properly handled.</p> + +<p class='c011'>To understand the place of area studies, it must be recognized +that the American university system has sharply differentiated +between the cultural linguistic phases and historical +and economic aspects of any given section of the world. Both +areas of understanding require a knowledge of the general +geography, the outstanding products of the region, its population +and characteristics. It has been far too easy, in the past, +for students of Slavic, as well as other cultures, to secure a +knowledge of the literature of a period without an adequate +realization of the background against which that literature was +produced. To cite an example from Russian literature, during +the first half of the nineteenth century, very few Russian writers +ever visited Kiev and apart from the visit of Pushkin to the +south of Russia and the service of Lermontov and Leo Tolstoy +in the Caucasus, there are few works which picture anything but +St. Petersburg, Moscow and a small area south of Moscow. While +the average student does not expect such a limitation of subject +matter, it is at once obvious from the most superficial knowledge +of the expanse of Russia. We could parallel this case with any +number of others.</p> + +<p class='c011'>From this point of view, area studies represent but a slight +increase of detailed knowledge over that which the average +student acquires before he begins specialization in any linguistic +or historical field. This knowledge must be supplemented by +detailed studies in one of the accepted fields of learning if the +student is not to remain a talented amateur.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But there is another aspect of area studies which has given +them their vogue at the present time. The global complexion +<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>of World War II brought home to the American government, +all far-sighted educators and even to members of the general +public, the tremendous ignorance which existed in the United +States concerning all parts of the world except some sections +of Western Europe. It was urgently necessary to prepare, in the +minimum time, relatively large numbers of individuals to serve +throughout the world. The involvement of the Soviet Union and +the Nazi overrunning of the states to its west further emphasized +this need. Area studies were the result.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These studies were definitely geared to educate men and +women who could be quickly called in case of need. That need +still exists and undoubtedly a large percentage of the students +who enter such concentrated programs hope to put their +knowledge to practical use, for the most part, outside the universities. +There is still a great demand for area courses and +if ever the Iron Curtain were lifted and free commercial relations +reestablished, we would speedily find that even with all these +courses, the demand would outstrip the supply.</p> + +<p class='c011'>But, it seems likely that area studies will diminish in popularity +if Slavic and other East European studies find their rightful +place in the undergraduate curriculum and provide students with +a real appreciation of the significance and general culture of the +area. If that were so, they might continue with still greater detail, +for an area study including the entire Soviet Union and +the satellites becomes almost a contradiction in terms. It would +be the same as if a student selected North and South America +for a single area study. It becomes very little more than a brief +survey of conditions in some particular field. This danger has +appeared already in places where area studies have been given +on the Slavic lands and have tended to become mere adjuncts +of certain phases of Russian and Communist politics and thought.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Taken in the true sense, these courses have amply fulfilled +the purpose for which they were intended. They have served to +focus attention on many neglected problems. More than this, +they have served to round out the point of view of many students, +but their unfortunate preoccupation with the present has +also created <em>lacunae</em> which can only be filled by other means. +Area studies, in their present sense and scope, are a welcome +sign of progress but they are not an adequately developed +source of our knowledge of Slavic and East European subjects. +They are a step in the right direction, have contributed much to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>overcome the almost complete ignorance with which our country +entered World War II, but they fall short of the full needs.</p> + +<h3 class='c016'><em>VII. Summary</em></h3> + +<p class='c017'>We have now reviewed the history of Slavic studies in the +United States indicating their scope, their limitations and their +prospects. It remains to summarize all this and, in terms of past +experiences, to make some tentative predictions of needs for the +future.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The number of students of Slavic and East European subjects +increased many times during and after World War II, because +public attention was centered on this area. There are now +signs which indicate that this marked increase is coming to an +end. For propaganda purposes, sometimes deliberate and sometimes +based upon ignorance, slackening interest is attributed to +the fear of being labeled a Communist. Yet there are deeper +reasons, for it is rare that the rush of American students into +any subject, whether a science or a humanistic study, lasts more +than a few years. One reason is, in many cases, purely materialistic. +The overwhelming majority of students who pursue higher +studies do so for purely professional reasons, either in government +service, scholarship, journalism or business. An added complication +today is the fact that most students expect to receive +scholarships or fellowships during their period of study, and +these have been distributed liberally by the Foundations, colleges +and universities. Yet, at the very moment when the number of +students in Slavic studies show signs of diminishing, we are also +given an intensive barrage of propaganda on the need for increasing +the number of students in the natural sciences. There +will be increased future assistance for the sciences resulting in +more available and far better positions than in the Slavic and +East European field.</p> + +<p class='c011'>We must remember, too, that because of the rapid development, +most of the key men in Slavic studies, no matter what +their fields, are still relatively young. Few are over fifty-five and, +unless the mortality rate experienced during World War II is +repeated, we can only accept the fact that the rate of promotion +will be slow and attrition by retirement and death will be at a +low level. Prospects for advancement, then, are not as good as +they were even ten years ago although there will always be +openings for the well trained scholars.</p> + +<p class='c011'>A need will probably last longest in Eastern non-Russian +<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>languages for, with the passing of time, the present lack of +competent scholars in many of these countries will be felt more +and more. There will also be a lack of those who have really +studied the origins of the present situation, the past history of +these lands and even of the Russian people and are familiar +with those currents which have led to the development of the +present situation. We need, in other words, to study the Byzantine +relationships with the Slavs, the pre-eighteenth century German +contacts with the Slavs, the nineteenth century, and those +more specialized subjects such as archaeology, and ethnology, +which are still ignored.</p> + +<p class='c011'>The second aspect closely connected to this, both in the +present and future, is the furnishing of an instructional staff. +In some fields there are still too few men now available and +while the younger generation is being trained, the United States +is wasting the services of many competent scholars who have +arrived since World War II began, who, because of their ignorance +of English, are often compelled to take menial and unintellectual +positions. This is a tragic waste at a time when +so much half-knowledge is being disseminated. There must be +more contact between these newly arrived specialists and the +general educational system. Some of these men undoubtedly +need special training to equip them to function advantageously +in the American system, but it is sheer folly for the country and +the universities alike to discount them wholly, or to confine them +to minor institutions maintained by their own groups. American +scholarly societies should make every effort to bring into their +membership the newly arrived scholars and to cooperate with +those institutions which have been recently transplanted to +America, such as the Shevchenko Scientific Society. By neglecting +to do so, American education is overlooking a large reservoir +of trained personnel with long experience and a wide range +of knowledge and ideas.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Another pressing problem is the need for money, money for +the payment of faculties, for scholarships, for the expansion and +establishment of libraries and museums. The lack of financial resources +in the past has often been the greatest handicap, for before +World War II contributions for this type of work were few. +While the Foundations have contributed handsomely to make +the present expansion possible, it is hardly to be expected that +they will continue indefinitely. Thus, even now the East European +<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>Fund of the Ford Foundation seems to be in the process +of liquidation.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Similarly, with the pressure exerted on universities, we can +scarcely hope that they, already pressed for funds to conduct +research in other branches, will be able to provide the money +needed for Slavic and East European studies. At the present +time, there is a movement on foot to secure large grants, on a +one-time or yearly basis, from many of the larger corporations. +The plans offer encouragement but there is always the danger +that funds will be diverted to those subjects which promise the +most direct advantage to the donors, and while this may set +free certain university funds, it may also serve to furnish those +favored departments something more than their regular share +of the institutional income.</p> + +<p class='c011'>On the other hand, many societies of the larger groups of +Slavic and East European peoples possess relatively large +sums of money which can be used for cultural purposes. Some +of these societies have already awakened to their responsibility +and are doing praiseworthy work in publishing materials in +English, in supporting refugee scholars and in maintaining cultural +institutions. It can only be hoped that all of the societies +will consider carefully the opportunities that are offered for +aiding in the development of endowment funds and gifts for +Slavic and other study.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In connection with this, the universities have an obligation +to keep an open mind about these offers and not to judge them +in terms of the teaching accepted in Hohenzollern Germany, +Hapsburg Austria-Hungary, Romanov Russia and the Communist +Soviet Union. This is not asking the universities to alter +their demands for objectivity, but it is asking them to recognize +that points of view which serve the political aspirations of the +old imperialists should not be maintained because of their +prestige alone, for they have been challenged in large part by +outstanding scholars since World War I. The epigoni of the old +Russian professors are by no means as sure of their ground as +were their masters and it is ridiculous to suggest that no new +ideas have been developed by a reworking of the old and new +material. We may still be far from the time when there will be +professors in the history and culture of every one of the Slavic +and East European groups, in a single institution, but scholarship +has advanced beyond the simple view which lumps all the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>nations of Eastern Europe into one or two convenient sections +and accepts the view of the dominant nation as absolute truth.</p> + +<p class='c011'>There is, in addition, a great need for the collection and +preservation of material on Slavic and Eastern Europe. At the +time of World War I, the American Relief Commission under +instructions from its chief, Herbert Hoover, collected enormous +masses of material now preserved in the Hoover War Library +at Stanford University. Slavic groups, societies and associations +have brought together relatively large collections of the most +valuable material that has appeared during and after World +War II. Much of this material has been saved at tremendous +risks, but is still scattered in various repositories, not always +under ideal conditions. In addition, the libraries of American +universities are becoming so crowded that they often hesitate to +accept copies of works which may seem superfluous at first sight.</p> + +<p class='c011'>Thus, it would be highly desirable to form a new institution, +sponsored by interested universities and the scholarly societies +of the new immigration, to preserve in a convenient place, under +modern library conditions, all this material. Such a project, admittedly +ambitious, would require assistance from some foundation, +the cooperation of all the factions among the new immigration, +as well as the American institutions. Administered by a +joint board, it could easily be made a center which would soon +be unrivalled in the world. Even ephemeral material, such as +newspapers and programs, which seem of little or no intrinsic +importance, should be preserved, for in a few years they will be +hotly bargained for by the greatest libraries. Why should this +not now be brought together and made available for duly qualified +students? Such a collection would soon prove to be more +important than many apparently more valuable sources.</p> + +<p class='c011'>In the same way, perhaps under the same roof, there could +be a Slavic museum not only for the major arts but also for +articles of domestic use. Early immigrants brought with them +home-made utensils, weavings, carpets, and dishes which now +seem crude and are discarded. However, their real value is +suggested by the fact that the New York State Historical Society +has organized in Cooperstown an agricultural museum to preserve +similar articles made in the early United States. The disappearance +of the old way of life in Eastern Europe, evident +even before the Communist wave of devastation and the ravages +of the War, have given these articles, now in the United States +<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>a value far beyond anything imagined a few years ago. Some +organizations such as the Polish Roman Catholic Union in +Chicago, the Ukrainian Museums in Ontario, California, Chicago +and Cleveland, and other groups have made small scale +efforts to establish collections and libraries; some of them, such +as the Shevchenko Society library, the Ukrainian Academy of +Sciences library and the Hungarian Feleky library, have not yet +found proper housing. There are many other small and scattered +museums and collections. The development of a project on +a continental scale would at once reveal the similarities and +dissimilarities existing among the Slavic and East European +peoples.</p> + +<p class='c011'>No single institution can possibly hope to achieve all this or +to cover adequately the subjects included in a careful survey and +study of Eastern Europe. Some new form of cooperation must be +devised, if the burden is not to become overwhelming and thus +be neglected. It cuts sharply in some respects across some of the +American educational traditions but the establishments of atomic +laboratories sponsored by several institutions, such as the Brookhaven +laboratory, shows that cooperation is possible.</p> + +<p class='c011'>These, then, are but a few possibilities for future expansion +of Slavic studies. The Slavic and East European studies in the +United States are still in their infancy and American scholars, +whether of Slavic or non-Slavic origin, have an enormous opportunity +to push forward to solve many of the problems which +have, until now, isolated the peoples of Eastern Europe and +have barred them from playing their proper role in world affairs.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span> + <h2 class='c007'>Bibliography</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c018'>Aldrich, Col. H. S. “Aims and Techniques in Language Teaching +Today.” (abstract) <cite>AATSEEL Bulletin</cite>, V (March, 1948), +pp. 60–1.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Andrews, A. I. “University Courses Given in the United States +of America on Slavic and other Eastern European History, +Languages and Literature.” Reprinted from <cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, +1936.</p> + +<p class='c019'>“Area Study Programs—The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,” +edited by Royden Dangerfield. 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(Slavonic +Group).” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, XI (1933), p. 521.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Slavonic Studies in the United States.” <cite>Modern Language +Journal</cite>, XIX (March, 1935), pp. 425–32.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “American Slavonic.” <cite>American Speech</cite>, XI (1936), pp. 370–1.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “The University and East European Cultures.” <cite>Columbia +University Quarterly</cite>, XXXIII (1941), pp. 242–51.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Maslenikov, O. A. “Slavic Studies in America, 1939–1946.” <cite>Slavonic +Review</cite>, XXV (April, 1946), pp. 528–37.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Matthews, W. K. “The Language Pattern of the U.S.S.R.” <cite>Slavonic +Review</cite>, XXVI (April, 1946), pp. 427–51.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Mohrenschildt, D. von. “Russian Studies in the U.S.” <cite>AATSEEL +Bulletin</cite>, (March, 1953), pp. 46–7.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Russian Area Studies and Research since World War II.” +<cite>Russian Review</cite>, X (April, 1953), pp. 111–19.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Nagurney, M. J. “The Teaching of Ukrainian in the U.S.” <cite>American +Slavic Review</cite>, IV (December, 1945), pp. 186–94.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Noyes, G. R. “Slavic Languages at the University of California.” +<cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, XXII [American Series, III] (October, +1944), pp. 53–60.</p> + +<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>Ornstein, Jacob. “A Romance Language Instructor Looks at the +Slavic Languages.” <cite>Modern Language Journal</cite>, XXXIII +(March, 1949), pp. 185–92.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “A Decade of Russian Teaching: Notes on Methodology +and Textbooks.” <cite>Modern Language Journal</cite>, XXXV (April, +1951), pp. 263–79.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Facilities and Activities of the Library of Congress in the +Slavic and East European Field.” <cite>American Slavic Review</cite>, +XII (December, 1953), pp. 549–54.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Parry, Albert. “Teaching Russian in our Schools.” <cite>Tomorrow</cite>, +X (December, 1950), pp. 31–5.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Pei, M. A. “A Rational Program for Teaching Languages in +American High Schools.” <cite>American Slavic Review</cite>, IV (August, +1945), pp. 138–41.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Posin, J.A. “Russian Studies in American Colleges.” <cite>Russian +Review</cite>, VII (Spring, 1948), pp. 62–75.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Riazanovsky, N. V. “Old Russia, the Soviet Union, and Eastern +Europe.” <cite>American Slavic Review</cite>, XI (October, 1952), pp. +171–88.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Rose, W. J. <cite>Cradle Days of Slavic Studies—Some Reflections.</cite> +(Slavistica No. 23) Winnipeg, 1955.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Rosenbaum, M. W. “Slavonic Studies in America.” <cite>Journal of +Higher Education</cite>, XVI (January, 1943), pp. 9–14.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Rosicky, Rose. <cite>A History of the Czechs (Bohemians) in Nebraska.</cite> +Omaha, 1929.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Russian Studies at Michigan, 1908–1943.” <cite>AATSEEL Bulletin</cite>, +V (June, 1948), p. 85.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Schmidt, G. P. “Colleges in Ferment.” <cite>American Historical Review</cite>, +LIX (October, 1953), pp. 19–42.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Senn, A. “College Russian: Objectives and Methods.” <cite>American +Slavic Review</cite>, V (May, 1946), pp. 176–86.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Obstacles in the Way of Slavic Studies.” <cite>AATSEEL Bulletin</cite>, +VI (March, 1949), pp. 59–62.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Smal-Stocki, R. <cite>The Nationality Problem of the Soviet Union +and the Russian Communist Imperialism.</cite> Milwaukee, 1952.</p> + +<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Spector, Ivan. “Russian Studies in the Pacific Northwest.” <cite>Slavonic +Review</cite> XXII [American Series, III] (October, 1944), pp. +61–9.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Steward, J. H. <cite>Area Research: Theory and Practice.</cite> (SSRC Bulletin +No. 63) New York, 1950, pp. xix and 164.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “The Slavonic Conference at Richmond (Va).” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, +III (March, 1925), pp. 684–93.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Tolpin, J. G. “Teaching of Scientific Russian.” <cite>American Slavic +Review</cite>, IV (August, 1945), pp. 158–64.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Vakar, N. P. “Teaching Russian Civilization.” <cite>AATSEEL Bulletin</cite>, +VI (June, 1949), pp. 101–3.</p> + +<p class='c020'>— “Teaching Russian Civilization.” <cite>AAUP Bulletin</cite> XXXV +(Winter, 1949), pp. 651–60.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Wellemeyer, J. F., Jr. and M. H. North. “American Personnel in +Asian, African and Eastern European Studies.” [Mimeographed +preliminary analysis]. (ACLS) Washington, 1953.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Wiener, Leo. “The Teaching of the Slavonic Languages.” <cite>Training +for Foreign Service.</cite> (U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin +No. 27) Washington, 1921, pp. 136–8.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Wiren, A. R. “The Russian Student Fund 1920–1945.” <cite>Russian +Review</cite>, V (Autumn, 1945), pp. 104–13.</p> + +<p class='c019'>Zenkovsky, S. A. “Periodicals in the Russian Language Program.” +<cite>AATSEEL Bulletin</cite>, XI (September, 1953), pp. 9–11.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span> + <h2 class='c007'>Index</h2> +</div> + +<ul class='index c004'> + <li class='c021'>Abel, Samuel, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Alliance College, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Council of Learned Societies, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Council on Foreign Relations, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Historical Association, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>American Relief Commission, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>American Slavic and East European Review</cite>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Andrews, Arthur I., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Archipenko, Alexander, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Armenian Review</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Armstrong, Hamilton F., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Armstrong, John A., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Army Language School, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Bachinsky, Dr., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bacon, Leonard C., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Baranov, Aleksander, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Barta, Alois, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bender, Harold H., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bergson, Abram, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bienowski, Count, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bilmanis, Dr., <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Birkenmeyer, Joseph, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bloomfield, Maurice, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bowring, Sir John, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Brookings Institute, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Bures, Vaclav, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Burnett, Col., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Burnham, James, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Butler, Nicholas M., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Cadet School of Warsaw, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>California, University of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cambridge University, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Capek, Thomas, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Carnegie Corporation, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Carroll College, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Chekhov Publishing House, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Chicago, University of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Chubaty, Nicholas, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Churchill, Marlborough, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Chyzhevsky, Dmytro, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>Clarke, James F., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cleveland Public Library, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Coe College, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Coleman, Arthur P., <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Colorado, University of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Columbia University, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Comenius (Komensky), Jan A., <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Conant, Kenneth J., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Coolidge, Archibald C., <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cornell University, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Crane, Charles R., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Creighton University, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cressey, George B., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Croatian Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Croatian National Alliance, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cross, Samuel H., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Cundy, Percival, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Curtin, Jeremiah, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Czechoslovak National Alliance, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Darbinian, Reuben, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dartmouth College, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dawson, Clarence, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Denver, University of, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Deutsch, Babette, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dobriansky, Leo, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Doroshenko, Dmytro, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Drizari, Nelo, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dubuque College and Seminary, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Duggan, Stephan P., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dumbarton Oaks, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Dyboski, Roman, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>East European Fund, Inc., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Eliseeff, Serge, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Fay, Sidney B., <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Faymonville, Philip, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Feleky Library, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Fisher, H. H., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Fitch, Graham D., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ford Foundation, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Fordham University, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Foreign Affairs</cite>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Foreign Language Information Service, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Francis Skorina Society (Kryvian), <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Franklin, Benjamin, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Freiburg, University of, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'><span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>Gallitzin (Golitsyn), Prince Dimitry, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Gent, William, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Georgetown University, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Gerschenkron, Alexander, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Gilman, Pres., <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Golder, Frank A., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Golitsyn (Gallitzin), Prince Dimitry, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Granovsky, Alexander, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Graves, W., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Haiman, Mieczyslaw, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hairenik Association, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Halecki, Oskar, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hapgood, Isabel F., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Harper, Samuel N., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Harvard University, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Haupt, Paul, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hayne, Frank L., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hawkes, Dean H., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hecker, Julius F., <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Herrman, Augustine, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Heyberger, Anna, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hoover, Herbert, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hoover War Library, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>House, Edward M., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hrbek, Jeffrey D., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hrbkova, Sarka B., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Hrdlicka, Ales, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Indiana, University of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Institute for Study of the USSR, Munich, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>International Baptist Seminary, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Iowa, University of, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Jakobson, Roman, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Jaszy, Oskar, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Jefferson, Thomas, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Jena, University of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Joffe, Judah A., <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Johns Hopkins University, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Joint Committee on Slavic Studies, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Jones, R. W., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Journal of Central European History</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Journal of East European History</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Karpovich, Michael, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kaun, Alexander, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kaunas, University of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kelly, Eric P., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kennan, George, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kennan, George F., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kerner, Robert J., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>Knizek, Charles, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kodiak, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Komensky (Comenius), Jan A., <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Komensky Educational Clubs, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kosciuszko Foundation, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Koshits, Alexander, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Koukol, Alois E., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kovach, Michael, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kovalevsky, Maxim, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Krakow, University of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Kridl, Manfred, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Lafayette College, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lanz, Henry, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Leacock, Stephen, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ledbetter, Eleanor, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lednicki, Waclaw, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lee, Charles, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lerando, Leon Z., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Le Tallec, Paul, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lewis, John D., <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lewis, William D., <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Library of Congress, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lisovsky, Adm., <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Liverpool, University of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>London, University of; School of Slavonic and East European Studies, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lord, Eric, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Lord, Robert H., <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Magoun, Francis P., Jr., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mandell, Max S., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Manitoba, University of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Manning, Clarence A., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Marquette University, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Martinovitch, Nicholas N., <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Maryland, University of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Masaryk Institute, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Masaryk, Thomas G., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Maslenikov, Oleg, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Matice Vyssoho Vzdelani, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>McCroskey, Benjamin B., <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>McGill University, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Meader, Clarence L., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mediaeval Academy of America, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mencken, H. L., <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Menges, Karl H., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Menut, Albert, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Michela, Joseph A., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Michigan, University of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mid-European Studies Center, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Milyukov, Paul, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Minnesota, University of, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mirsky, Prince D. S., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Miskovsky, Louis F., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Missouri, University of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mitana, Thaddeus, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Modern Language Association of America, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>Mogilat, Elena T., <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mohrenschildt, D. von, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Monroe, Will S., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Morawski-Nawench, Albert, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Mosely, Philip S., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Murray, W. S., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Myshuha, Luke, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>NRA, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Nebraska, University of, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>New Jersey Normal School, Montclair, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>New York Public Library, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>New York State Historical Society, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>New York University, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Niemciewicz, Juljusz U., <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Notre Dame University, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Noyes, George R., <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Oberlin College, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Odlozilik, Otokar, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ohio State University, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Oxford University, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Paderewski, Ignace J., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pares, Sir Bernard, K.B.E., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pasvolsky, Leo, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Patrick, George Z., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pennsylvania, University of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Percival, James G., <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Phelps, William Lyon, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Piatkowski, Romuald, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pipal, F. J., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pisek, Rev. Vincent, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pittsburgh, University of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Poland</cite>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Polish Historical Society, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America; <cite>Bulletin</cite>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Polish National Alliance, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Polish Review</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Polish Roman Catholic Union, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Posin, Jack A., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Prince, John D., <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Princeton University, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Prokosch, B., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pulaski, Casimir, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Pupin, Michael I., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Radio Free Europe, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Radosavljevich, Paul R., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rejcha, Frank, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Reshetar, John, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rezanov, Nikolay, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Robinson, Rev. Edward, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Robinson, Geroid T., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rockefeller Foundation, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rose, William J., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>Rosicky, John, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rostovtseff, M., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rudnyckyj, Jaroslav, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Rumford, Count Benjamin T., <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Russian Orthodox Seminary, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Russian Review</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>St. Basil’s College, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>St. Francis Seminary, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>St. Mary’s Seminary, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>St. Procopius College, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>St. Vincent College, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>St. Vladimir’s Russian Orthodox Seminary, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Santa Barbara Mission, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Schmitt, Bernadotte, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Schuyler, Eugene, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Senn, Alfred, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Serb National Federation, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Serb National University, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Seton-Watson, R. W., <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Severa, G. F., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Shelikov, Grigory, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Shevchenko Scientific Society, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Shevelov, George, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Shipman, A. J., <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Shishmanov, Dimitar, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Simek, Bohumil, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Simkhovich, Vladimir, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Simmons, Ernest J., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Slabey, Rev. Andrew, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Slavic and East European Journal</cite>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Slavonic and East European Review</cite>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Slovan Americky</cite>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Slovanska Lipa Society, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Smal-Stocki, Roman, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Smith College, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Smithsonian Institution, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Social Science Research Council, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Society for Advancement of Slavonic Study, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Southern California, University of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Spector, Ivar, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Speculum</cite>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Stanoyevich, Milivoy S., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Stanford University, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Stepanek, Orin, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Strakhovsky, Leonid I., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Strassburg, University of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Struve, Gleb, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Subotic, D., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Syracuse, University of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Talvj, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Texas, University of, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Thomson, S. H., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>Tikhon, Patriarch, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Timoshenko, Stephen, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Timoshenko, Volodymyr, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Toronto, University of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Tufts College, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Turkevich, Rev. Leonid, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ukrainian Free University, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ukrainian Museums, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ukrainian National Association, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ukrainian Providence Association, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'><cite>Ukrainian Quarterly</cite>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Ukrainian Workingmen’s Association, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Unbegaun, Boris, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Van Deman, Ralph, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Vasilieff, A. A., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Vasmer, Max, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Vernadsky, George, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Vienna, University of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Vocadlo, Otakar, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Walsh, Rev. Edmund, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Washington, University of, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>White Ruthenian Institute of Arts and Sciences, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Whitfield, Francis J., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Wiener, Leo, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Wisconsin, University of, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Yale University, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Yarmolinsky, Avrahm, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Yeaton, Ivan, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> + <li class='c004'>Zeboroski (Zabriskie), <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Zenger, John Peter, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> + <li class='c021'>Zinzendorf, Count, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class='c022'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. W. H. Prescott, <cite>Conquest of Peru</cite>, Philadelphia, (1902), II, p. 199.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Professor Otokar Vocadlo of the University of Bratislava visited in 1929 +some of the missions and came to the conclusion that they included +Slavic monks.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. M. Haiman, <cite>Polish Past in America, 1608–1865</cite> (Chicago: <cite>Polish Roman +Catholic Union</cite>).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. J. D. Prince, “The Jersey Dutch Dialect,” <cite>Dialect Notes, III</cite>, (1910), pp. +459–484. The usual modern form is “Zabriskie.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Thomas Capek, <cite>Augustin Herrman zakladatel Bohemia Manor r. 1660 +a autor mapy statu Virginie a Marylandu</cite>. (Praha: Vytiskla statni tiskarna, +1930); <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite> (New York: Charles +Scribner’s Sons, 1932), VIII, p. 592.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Robert J. Kerner, <cite>Bohemia in the Eighteenth Century</cite> (New York: Macmillan, +1932), p. 315.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. Clarence Manning, <cite>Soldier of Liberty, Casimir Pulaski</cite> (New York: Philosophical +Library, 1945), p. 253.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. M. Haiman, <cite>Poland and the American Revolutionary War</cite> (Chicago: +Polish Roman Catholic Union, 1932).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. For data on Major General Charles Lee, see <em>ibid.</em>, p. 4.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. For data on Prince Gallitzin (Golitsyn), <em>cf.</em> <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite> +(New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1932), VIII, p. 113; D. +Sargent: <cite>Mitri, The Story of Prince Demitrius Augustine Gallitzin</cite>, 1770–1840 +(New York: Longmans, Green and Co., Inc., 1945).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. H. C. Brown, <cite>Valentine’s Manual of the City of New York</cite>, New Series +I (New York: Valentine Co., 1916), p. 24.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. Haiman, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 178.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Clarence Manning, <cite>Russian Influence in Early America</cite> (New York: Library +Publisher, 1953), pp. 17–142.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. Thomas Capek, <cite>History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in America</cite> (Chicago, +1920); Rose Rosicky, <cite>A History of Czechs (Bohemians) in Nebraska</cite> +(Omaha; Czech Historical Society of Nebraska, 1929), p. 33 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. There is a large literature on various facets of this mass immigration: +T. Capek, <cite>The History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in America</cite>; the +works of various Polish sociologists; <cite>Propamyatna Knyha</cite> (<cite>Jubilee Book</cite> of +the Ukrainian National Association), (Jersey City, N.J.: Svoboda Press, +1936); M. I. Pupin, <cite>From Immigrant to Inventor</cite> (New York: Chas. +Scribner’s Sons, 1923).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. Clarence A. Manning, <cite>Russian Influence in Early America</cite>; also, the +following articles on the history and development of Russian institutions—Bishop +Leonty, “History of Russian Orthodox Church in America,” +<cite>Russian Orthodox Journal</cite>, Vol. XVI, No. 11, 12 (March-Apr. 1943); +Vol. XVII, No. 2, 4, 11 (June, Aug. 1944, March 1945); Vol. XVIII, +No. 2, 4, 11 (June, Aug. 1945, March 1946); Vol. XIX, No. 4, 6 (Aug., +Oct. 1946).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. Cf., A. P. Coleman, “A New England City and the November Uprisings,” +<cite>Annals of the Polish Roman Catholic Union Archives and Museum</cite>, +(Chicago, 1939), IV, p. 31 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite>, XI, p. 226; L. Wiener, <cite>Anthology +of Russian Literature</cite> (New York: G. P. Putnam’s 1902–3), I, viii; II, v.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite>, XIV, p. 460; A. P. Coleman, “James +Gates Percival and Slavonic Culture,” <cite>Slavia</cite>, (San Francisco), XVI, No. +3, pp. 65–75.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. For Talvj (Mrs. Edward Robinson), see <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite>, +XVI, p. 55; L. Wiener, <em>op. cit.</em>, I, ix.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite>, IV, p. 608.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. <em>Ibid.</em>, XVI, p. 471.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. <em>Ibid.</em>, X, p. 331.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. <em>Ibid.</em>, VIII, p. 233.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. For the general history of Slavic studies during the period, see: Kerner, +“Slavonic Studies in America,” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, III, pp. 244–258; Manning, +“Slavonic Studies in the United States,” <cite>Modern Language Journal</cite>, +XIII (1929), pp. 280–288; XIX (1935), pp. 425–432; “Polish and +the American Universities,” <cite>Poland America</cite>, (N.Y.) XIII, pp. 489–491.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. For Coolidge, see <cite>Dictionary of American Biography</cite>, IV, p. 393.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. For a recent description of this, see George Kennan, <cite>Russia Leaves the +War</cite>, (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1956).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. <em>Cf.</em> <cite>Propamyatna Knyha</cite> (Jubilee Book), especially, O. Stetkevych (Joseph +Stetkewych), “Ukrayinske Shkilnytstvo v Amerytsi,” pp. 325 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. Thomas Capek, <cite>History of the Bohemians (Czechs) in America</cite>, p. 241 f.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. Facts concerning the history of Alliance college have been supplied by +President Coleman.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. Concerning Oberlin, cf. “Teaching of Area and Language Course in the +Field of Slavic and East European Studies,” <cite>American Slavic and East +European Review</cite>, IV (1945), pp. 85 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f32'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. Rosicky, <em>op. cit.</em>, pp. 412 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f33'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. <em>Ibid.</em>, pp. 422 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f34'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. Thomas Capek, <cite>History of Bohemians (Czechs) in America</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f35'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. C. W. Hasek, <cite>The Slavonic Languages and Literatures in American +Colleges and Universities</cite> (Washington, 1920); Manning, “Slavonic +Studies in the United States,” <cite>Modern Language Journal</cite>, XIX, (1935), +pp. 425 ff.; “Slavonic Group of the Modern Language Association +of U.S.A. (Slavonic Group),” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite>, XI (1933), p. 521; “The +University and East European Cultures,” <cite>Columbia University Quarterly</cite>, +XXXIII (1941), pp. 242–251; “Die slawische Wissenschaft in den Vereinigten +Staaten,” <cite>Osteuropa</cite>, V (1930), pp. 171–176.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f36'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Kelly left Slavonic studies in 1929 to take up journalism. For details +on his career, <em>cf.</em> <cite>Who’s Who In America</cite>, Vol. 29, p. 1380.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f37'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. <cite>Bulletin of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America</cite>, I, p. 161, +carries the obituary of Joseph Birkenmeyer.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f38'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. Oleg Maslenikov, “Slavic Studies in America, 1939–1946,” <cite>Slavonic +Review</cite> (1947), XXV, pp. 528–537.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f39'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. Obituaries of these leaders appear as follows: Prince, <cite>American Slavic +and East European Review</cite>, IV; Cross, <em>ibid.</em>, V; Lanz, <em>ibid.</em>, IV; Patrick, +<em>ibid.</em>, IV; Kaun, <em>ibid.</em>, IV.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f40'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. M. J. Nagurney, “The Teaching of Ukrainian in the U.S.,” <cite>American +Slavic and East European Review</cite>, IV (1945), pp. 186–194.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f41'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. Noyes, “Slavic Languages at the University of California,” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite> +(American Series III, 1944), XXII, pp. 53–60.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f42'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. I. Spector, “Russian Studies in the Pacific Northwest,” <cite>Slavonic Review</cite> +(American Series III, 1944), XXII, pp. 61–69.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f43'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. P. N. Malevsky-Malevich, <em>ed.</em>, <cite>Russia-USSR</cite> (New York, 1933), p. 65.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f44'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. <cite>Third Annual Report</cite>, 1953–1954, The East European Fund, Inc. (New +York, 1954), pp. 48, 86.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f45'> +<p class='c011'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. <cite>Area Study Program—The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe</cite>, (University +of Illinois, 1955), p. 37.</p> +</div> +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c002'> +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div>THE MARQUETTE SLAVIC STUDIES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>Published by the Marquette University Press</div> + <div>Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin</div> + </div> +</div> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>I.</dt> + <dd><cite>The Doctrine of Anarchism of Michael A. Bakunin</cite> (1955) by Eugene Pyziur. + </dd> + <dt>II.</dt> + <dd><cite>Hitler’s Occupation of Ukraine (1941–1944)</cite> (1956) by Ihor Kamenetsky. + </dd> + <dt>III.</dt> + <dd><cite>History of Slavic Studies in the United States</cite> (1957) by Clarence A. Manning. + </dd> + </dl> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div><em>Available in paper or case bindings.</em> <em>Prices on application.</em></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div><span class='color_red'>History of Slavic Studies in the United States</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<p class='c010'><span class='color_red'>Both World Wars during the twentieth century originated in +the Slavic countries and in the efforts of various Slavic groups +to obtain and retain their national independence and the right +to their own language and culture. Currently, Russian Communist +imperialism overshadows the Slavic countries, once again +threatening their national heritage and creating new world tensions.</span></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='color_red'>Since aggression in the Slavic countries has twice resulted +in global wars, the United States, as well as the entire Western +world, has begun to concentrate attention upon the Slavs, +their history, their culture, their aspirations.</span></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='color_red'>One phenomenon which sharply differentiates the scope of +Slavic and East European studies in the United States from the +purely academic studies elsewhere in the world, is the presence +in this country of ten million Slavic immigrants and their descendents, +who have played an increasingly vital role in our +national culture by blending their native qualities, knowledge +and traditions into the American heritage.</span></p> + +<p class='c011'><span class='color_red'>Public and educational leaders in the United States are seriously +supporting attempts to develop a Slavic scholarship commensurate +with American educational traditions. <cite>A History of +Slavic Studies in the United States</cite> points to the gradual evolution +of Slavic and East European studies in this country and +points out some of the more hopeful paths for future education, +so that the United States may make the best use of the resources, +both intellectual and material, that it has at its disposal.</span></p> + +<div class='figright id001'> +<img src='images/i_cover_back.jpg' alt='MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div><span class='color_red'>THE MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY PRESS</span></div> + <div><span class='color_red'>1131 W. Wisconsin Avenue,</span></div> + <div><span class='color_red'>Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='section'> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c002'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c001'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + + <ul class='ul_1 c004'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75446 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2025-02-22 19:13:53 GMT --> +</html> + diff --git a/75446-h/images/cover.jpg b/75446-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bd3f02 --- /dev/null +++ b/75446-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75446-h/images/i_cover_back.jpg b/75446-h/images/i_cover_back.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e026adc --- /dev/null +++ b/75446-h/images/i_cover_back.jpg |
