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diff --git a/75452-h/75452-h.htm b/75452-h/75452-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..59afcb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/75452-h/75452-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3874 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Archimedes; or, The Future of Physics | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} +table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } +table.autotable td { padding: 0.25em; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.blockquot2 { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +.ofnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +.x-ebookmaker body {margin: 0;} +.x-ebookmaker-drop {color: inherit;} + +.ph2, .ph3, .ph4 { text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; } +.ph2 { font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; } +.ph3 { font-size: large; margin: .83em auto; } +.ph4 { font-size: medium; margin: 1.12em auto; } + +p.hanging-indent1 { + padding-left: 2.25em; + text-indent: -2.25em; +} + +hr.tiny {width: 10%; margin-left: 45%; margin-right: 45%;} + +.tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; +padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; padding-left: .5em; +padding-right: .5em;} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75452 ***</div> + + + +<div class="chapter"> +<h1> +ARCHIMEDES<br> + +OR<br> + +THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS +</h1> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph2"> +TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW<br> +</p> +<p class="ph3"><i>For a full list of this Series see the end<br> +of this Book</i><br> +</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph2"> +ARCHIMEDES<br> +</p> +<p class="ph4">OR</p> +<p class="ph3">THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS<br> +</p> +<p class="ph4">BY</p> +<p class="ph2">L. L. WHYTE<br> +</p> +<p class="ph3"> +<span class="smcap">London</span>:</p> +<p class="ph2">KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span></p> +<p class="ph3"><span class="smcap">New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.</span><br> +</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph3"> +To<br> +LOTTE<br> +<br> +</p> +<p class="ph4">Made and Printed in Great Britain by<br> +M. F. Robinson & Co. Ltd. at the Library Press, Lowestoft<br> +</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">CHAP.</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">I</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Sciences Converge</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">II</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Modern Duel: Einstein and Eddington</span> <i>v.</i> <span class="smcap">Bergson and Whitehead</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">III</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Time in Astronomy and Physics</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">IV</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">An Evolutionary Experiment</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">V</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Physics and the Human Mind</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdr">VI</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Future of the Sciences</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Notes</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> +<p class="ph2">ARCHIMEDES<br> + +OR<br> + +THE FUTURE OF PHYSICS</p> +</div> + +<hr class="tiny"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>The Sciences Converge</i></p> + + +<p>One of the most fascinating features +in the history of thought is that on +several occasions an important new idea +has come simultaneously to independent +minds. Thus after Euclid’s geometry +had remained without a rival for two +thousand years the conception of an +alternative non-Euclidean system was +reached separately by Gauss, Lobatschewsky, +and Bolyai during the years +1820-30. Bolyai’s father, while ignorant +of the fact that Gauss had already made +the same discoveries, wrote to his son +urging him to publish his results and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>used the following prophetic words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“There is some truth in this, that +many things have an epoch, in which +they are found at the same time in several +places, just as the violets appear on every +side in the spring.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Another example of the simultaneous +emergence of an idea in the minds of +different thinkers is given by Darwin +in his introduction to the <i>Origin of +Species</i>. He there calls attention to the +fact that in 1794-5 the broad idea of the +evolution of species—though not its +cause—was simultaneously formulated by +Goethe in Germany, St Hilaire in France, +and his own grandfather, Dr Darwin, +in England. Moreover Darwin himself +had the remarkable experience of finding +in an essay submitted to him in 1858 +by A. R. Wallace a complete summary +of his own unpublished theory of natural +selection as the chief cause of the evolution +of species.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> +<p>The last few years constitute another +critical period of a similar kind, since +an idea, which when made precise will +transform scientific thought, has already +come independently to many thinkers. +Since 1922 many scientists have felt +that in studying the emission and absorption +of light physics has come near +to the problem of life.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Others have +proposed that in order to straighten +out its atomic problems physics will +have to take a hint from biology, but +what this hint should be has not yet +been indicated. The following pages +suggest a definite line of advance for +physics, and interpret these isolated +flashes of intuition as evidence of a +special feature in the present situation +of the sciences.</p> + +<p>We stand at the eve of a new epoch. +Physics, biology, and psychology are +converging towards a scientific synthesis +of unprecedented importance, whose +influence on thought and social custom +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>will be so profound that it will mark a +stage in human evolution. For centuries +science has concentrated its highest +genius on the study of inanimate matter; +to-day the three great sciences are at +last reaching the problem of life. For +their researches on matter, life, and mind +are now overlapping at one common +issue: the nature of the fundamental +electrical processes which underlie radiation +and chemical combination.</p> + +<p>Thus physics is at present occupied +with the changes that occur when an +atom emits either light or electricity. +Biology is at the same problem in studying +the electrical processes which are the +basis of all organic behaviour, whether +in primitive forms of protoplasm or in +the highly developed central nervous +system of man. Meantime psychology +is dealing with an identical process when +it analyses the structure of mind, and +considers the elementary changes of +consciousness which are produced when +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>light of a given colour falls on the +retina and sends its influence to the +brain.</p> + +<p>As the result of these convergent +researches, life and consciousness will +soon be subject to the first stages of a +theoretically-grounded control, compared +with which the present tentative efforts +of medicine and psychology will be +looked back on much as we remember +the haphazard work of the alchemists +before the foundation of chemistry. But +this development of human knowledge +and powers will carry with it great +responsibilities, and scientists have to +prepare themselves for the new tasks +that will very soon fall to them. By +indicating the main ideas through which +this broad scientific synthesis may come +about, this essay aims at showing that +this possibility has to be taken seriously. +We shall first examine the situation in +physics and then turn to consider the +influence which future developments of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>physical theory may have on biology +and psychology.</p> + +<p>Two main types of process defy interpretation +within the present scheme of +physical conceptions: life itself, and the +atomic processes of radiation and the +building up of stable compounds. In +organic processes on the one hand, and +the energy-interchanges of atoms on +the other hand, we find something happening +which cannot adequately be explained +as a change in the <i>structure</i> of the system +considered. By structure is meant a +spatial pattern of particles, which are +supposed to be permanent and to move +about like cricket balls or planets. +Systems with a structure of this kind +could not display the purposive quality +of organic behaviour, and when we try +to make a structural model of the atom +we find that it fails to explain why the +atom radiates energy in the abrupt +packets which are called ‘quanta’, +instead of in a continuous wave. We +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span>shall return presently to the question +of organisms, after making an endeavour +to discover why the atom cannot be +described in terms of a particle structure.</p> + +<p>In 1911 Rutherford achieved remarkable +success in accounting for the results +of his own researches in radioactivity +by adopting a model of the atom as a +miniature solar system, with planetary +electrons rotating rapidly around a +nucleus. But in order to explain the +fact that the spectrum of the light +emitted by an atom shows a characteristic +series of lines, Bohr suggested that +an electron inside an atom could emit +light only by making a discontinuous +jump from one possible orbit to another +quite distinct orbit. This apparent +discontinuity in the motion of electrons +has intrigued physicists for more than +ten years, and the following interpretations +have recently been offered for this +puzzling behaviour:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Nature is made up of electrons, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span>but neither space nor time is fundamentally +discontinuous. The electron appears to +have some freedom of choice, and to be +able to reappear unexpectedly at forbidden +places.</p> + +<p>2. Nature is not discontinuous or +arbitrary, but nevertheless something +prevents us determining all the things +we should like to know about an electron. +For instance, if we try to determine +exactly where it is, it behaves so that we +cannot simultaneously measure its exact +velocity. (Heisenberg.) This view may +perhaps be interpreted to mean that we +have made the atom model more complex +than the atom itself is, and that consequently +we have been using more +quantities than are necessary for +describing all we can observe of its +behaviour.</p> + +<p>3. Nature is not made up of electrons, +but of waves. The atom must be considered +as a system of electric waves +spread over its whole volume. ‘Electrons’ +are merely an inaccurate way of describing +some of the properties of these +waves. The wave picture of the atom +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>is, however, to be considered only as a +temporary expedient to be used until +some better description of the atom can +be invented, in which both the wave +and the corpuscular properties of atoms +will appear as aspects of some more +profound physical property. (Schrödinger.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The first alternative is a mere cry of +despair, since it does not propose any +line of advance. But the other two +suggestions may be combined thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>4. The view of the atom as a structure +of Newtonian particles is wrong since +it gives rise to discontinuities, and provides +more quantities than we at present +need. A new formulation of atomic +processes must be found using fewer +quantities which will explain why we +find wave properties, and why sometimes +the electron does behave like a small +billiard ball though really it is some +different sort of thing.</p> +</div> + +<p>Now since the Newtonian mathematics +of moving particles is inadequate for +describing the changes that go on in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>atom—just as it is for describing organic +processes—there must be some assumption +implicit in Newton’s laws which is valid +neither for atom nor for organism. Such +an assumption can be found very easily, +though physics has never given it much +attention. It is that the elementary +processes in nature are <i>reversible</i>, or +would be if they could be isolated. By +reversible is here meant that the laws +governing the process remain unchanged +when the direction of time is reversed, +i.e. when -t is substituted for +t. If the +law is changed by this substitution so that +the reversed process never occurs or is +recognizably different, then the process +is called irreversible. An irreversible +process can therefore be used to yield an +objective criterion of past and future, +when these terms have been once defined.</p> + +<p>To take an example. If I am standing +behind a hedge and take a cinematograph +film of a stone which suddenly rises in +the air and disappears from sight, I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>could not tell from an examination of +the film which way to wind it. Thus if +it is wound one way the stone appears +to rise, and if wound the other way +to fall from the sky. To tell which was +the right way I should have to use my +subjective sense of the direction of time, +i.e. remember the fact that I saw the stone +low in the air before I saw it high up. +This case, like every gravitational process, +is reversible, and motions of this kind +have provided the basis for modern +physical conceptions.</p> + +<p>But suppose that instead I had taken +a film of a cup of tea as it was cooling. +One end of the film would show the +steam above the cup and the spoon +changing in length as it changed in +temperature. Passing along the film +these effects would grow less marked until +the successive photos showed no variation +when the temperature of the tea +was nearly that of the surrounding air. +It would be obvious which way to wind +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>this film, without using any subjective +criterion supplied from memory of the +individual process which had been photographed. +This process is irreversible, +but physics has hitherto assumed that +all such processes are merely the statistical +result of a chaos of molecular motions +each of them perfectly reversible.</p> + +<p>The assumption of reversibility seems +to some physicists so fundamental that +they think there could be no science +without it. But that is a mere prejudice +arising from the fact that Newton +conceived one particular way of giving +mathematical formulation to the measurable +features of physical processes. By +suggesting that all the laws of nature +might take a form similar to his law of +gravitation, he made the implicit assumption +that all elementary processes were +reversible. Gravitational motions are +so, at any rate within the accuracy of +Newton’s law, and as a consequence of +the confirmation of his law and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span>fact that it has been taken as a model +for the whole system of modern physical +conceptions, the latter are only appropriate +for reversible processes.</p> + +<p>Apparent irreversibility, such as the +cooling of a cup of tea, is attributed to +statistical effects, and the second law +of thermodynamics, which asserts that +temperatures tend to uniformity, is +treated as merely a statement of what is +highly probable. This is probably quite +legitimate, but even where no statistical +effect can enter and the process is clearly +irreversible physics usually adopts any +measure rather than assume that a +fundamental elementary process is +irreversible.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> We cannot be surprised at +this, since if physics once admitted +that any elementary process was irreversible +it would have to give up the +whole system of Newtonian conceptions. +Matter, force, energy, action, and wave +properties are all unsuitable for the +treatment of irreversible effects since +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>they all ultimately depend on Newton’s +reversible law.</p> + +<p>An entirely new set of ideas is necessary +for describing processes which necessarily +proceed in one direction, so that one +particular state of the system must +precede another state. It appears conceivable +that an alternative set of +conceptions to replace the Newtonian +might be established by demanding the +irreversibility of all natural laws, as +well as the demands hitherto made +by physics, i.e. the permanence of matter +and the conservation of energy.</p> + +<p>The question of the reversibility of +natural processes provides the key to +a great intellectual struggle which is +now in progress behind the complexities +of philosophic and scientific thought. +The issue can be formulated thus:</p> + +<p>Is there a real temporal process in +nature? Is the passage of irreversible time +a necessary element in any view of the +structure of nature? Or, alternatively, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span>is the subjective experience of time a +mere illusion in the mind which cannot +be given objective expression? These +are not metaphysical questions that can +still be neglected by science with impunity. +For just as Einstein made his advance +by analysing conceptions such as simultaneity, +which had been thought to be +adequately understood for the purposes +of empirical science, so the next development +of physical theory will probably +be made by carrying on the analysis of +time from the point at which Einstein +left it. Moreover, the above questions +may be put into precise scientific form +by asking if the causal relations which +are studied by science are symmetrical +and reversible so that we cannot obtain +from them any criterion by which to +distinguish past and future. If, on the +other hand, they are asymmetrical and +irreversible, the laws of nature lead us +on necessarily from what went before to +what comes afterwards.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>A modern duel: Einstein and Eddington +v. Bergson and Whitehead</i></p> + + +<p>In this battle over the importance +of time and process great names stand +out as representatives of the two opposed +views: Einstein and Bergson, with +their lieutenants, Eddington and Whitehead. +The two leaders use very different +methods. Einstein, as mathematical +physicist, suggests that physical laws +can best be expressed if we assume that +space and time are so similar that physics +can make no absolute distinction between +them. Thus in relativity theory the +symmetry of space involves the symmetry +of time, and therefore the reversibility +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>of physical laws, as has been shown +by Birkhoff. Bergson, as biologist and +philosopher, denies that the view of time +which is implicit in relativity mathematics +is adequate when a wider range +of experience is taken into account.</p> + +<p>Einstein starts by excluding all but +a very narrow range of physical experience, +and finds that he can make successful +predictions about light and gravitation +by treating the irreversibility of the +passage of time as of no importance for +scientific measurements. Bergson, by +studying a wide range of biological and +subjective experience, comes to assert +the existence of a creative process, though +the inherent limitations of the intellect +and of science may leave the essence of +this process outside their reach.</p> + +<p>Both protagonists have left their +flanks exposed, by omitting to present +their view as a consistent logical system, +Einstein because he is concerned only +with the equations that can be empirically +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span>tested, and Bergson because his chief +interest is non-intellectual. It is here +that their lieutenants step forward to +develop the two points of view, and +hence to intensify the conflict.</p> + +<p>Eddington provides a logical basis for +the theory of relativity and reveals +that the significance of physical laws is +not quite what we used to think. They +are, he argues, identities which the human +mind discovers in its search for something +permanent that it can call <i>matter</i> beneath +all the changing appearances of the world. +We have made matter the real thing +by demanding permanence or indestructibility +as the basis of physical reality. +Now that we know that we have done +this it need not trouble us too much to +find that absolute unchanging matter +doesn’t exist, since this merely means +that we started out with a demand +that nature cannot fulfil. Unfortunately +Eddington doesn’t discuss what alternative +demand we might now make in order +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>to build up a more satisfactory system +of scientific ideas. But in spite of his +enthusiastic support of Einstein’s theory, +with its implicit assumption of reversibility, +Eddington hesitates at least once +in his advocacy of reversible laws, for +facts are turning up which suggest that +this undiscussed presupposition may not +prove valid.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime Whitehead has been at +work on the other side, and by sharpening +his logic till few can understand him +has made the idea of temporal process +the basis of all intellectual and scientific +thought, whereas up to now process has +always presented many difficult problems +for the intellect. He proposes that +since the conception of matter has been +found to be unsatisfactory we must +start from the basic idea of process in +building up a new physical theory. +As a consequence of his line of thought, +Whitehead found it necessary to reject +some of Einstein’s arguments and to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>show that Einstein’s law could be reached +from quite different postulates. For +instance, Whitehead assumed that the +motion of light was irreversible, and +that light did not travel with the same +velocity in the two opposed directions.</p> + +<p>So much for one aspect of the conflict, +its logical and philosophical basis. But +the issue must be decided by appeal to +experimental confirmation over the widest +range of phenomena. Orthodox physics +still assumes reversibility, and has on its +side the explicit statement made by Einstein +in 1925,<a href="#Page_96" class="ofnanchor">[4]</a> but by doing so it excludes +at the start any reference to organic +processes. Conceptions based on this +assumption could never be legitimately +applied to life, and all attempts made +hitherto to explain the central controlling +processes of organisms in terms of classical +physics have necessarily failed. We +know now that this failure could have been +foreseen.</p> + +<p>The same objection cannot be made +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>against the basic ideas of Bergson and +Whitehead, nor against the new atomic +physics as interpreted by Born, as we shall +see in a moment. To Bergson and Whitehead, +as to many others amongst whom +Lloyd Morgan must be mentioned, the +process of nature is creative, i.e. it involves +the coming into being of the new, the appearance +of new combinations essentially +precluded before. This probably means +that the laws of physics which are to +describe what is actually happening in +the world must be given irreversible +form. For reversible equations make no +distinction between to-day and to-morrow, +and cannot express the fact that at later +moments new forms may emerge, either +in the evolution of organisms or of stars. +On the other hand irreversible laws can +be arranged so as to display time as an +active factor in causation, i.e. to emphasize +the fact that a certain period of +time necessarily has to pass before some +new combination can be attained.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> +<p>The upholders of a real process in nature +can appeal to the facts of organic life, +human memory, and to biological and +stellar evolution. But their case is still +weak because fundamental irreversibility +has not yet received explicit mathematical +formulation suitable for experimental +test. When this has been done +the intellectual battle will be brought +to its decision, and if irreversibility +wins the day biology and psychology +will find themselves in possession of a +physical basis well suited to the facts +with which they have to deal.</p> + +<p>There is reason to believe that the +decision will be made very soon. We saw +that the implicit assumption of reversibility +underlies all Newtonian conceptions. +It may therefore be that the reason why +we cannot interpret atomic behaviour in +terms of particle motions is that electrical +and radiational processes are essentially +irreversible. Particle motion and wave +propagation—the two ideas on which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>all modern theories of matter are based—are +both represented by mathematical expressions +which are essentially reversible +since time enters only through the +square of ‘dt’. If the quantum processes +should prove to be irreversible, +we have already found a reason why the +old conceptions of particles and waves +must be inadequate.</p> + +<p>This speculation may indeed be found +correct, since Born, one of the leading +experts in Quantum Dynamics, asserts +that all quantum processes are +irreversible and that the apparent +reversibility of classical processes is +only an approximation due to the fact +that their irreversibility happens to be +negligible.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> We may therefore hope that +the atomic physicists will soon formulate +the quantum laws in a clearly irreversible +form which admits of precise experimental +test.</p> + +<p>But this may take some years, and in +the meantime we must look around and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>see how this issue is affecting current +thought. We find the doubt about +process presented by Mr Sullivan (in +<i>Gallio</i>), who has not yet made up his +mind to which side science will grant +the victory. Thus on one page he writes: +“it seems to be true that events do not +really take place, we come across them” +and suggests that process may be “a +totally irrelevant idea when applied to +reality”. But later we learn to our +surprise that “it seems likely that (in +scientific theory) the world will have +to be regarded as an evolutionary process, +where patterns of value emerge”. However, +this inconsistency need not bother +us, since we are told that “the teachings +of science so far as the spiritual problems +of man are concerned are merely +irrelevant”.</p> + +<p>These views reflect perfectly the uncertainty +of the time, and will be looked +back on as a precious record of the state +of mind which preceded the scientific +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>synthesis. Perhaps the most interesting +feature of the essay is the indecision it +displays with regard to the spiritual +importance of science. This is a relic +from the days when there were two worlds, +the world of science and the world of religion +and art. No one ever knew which +of these worlds they were living in, and +this is no wonder. For the division was +made only because at one time it looked +as though the scientific method could +only deal with <i>quantities</i>, and therefore +that science could have nothing to say +about values or qualities. This view is +no longer tenable. For instance, there is +a quality in organic integration which +most of us value, and without this and +many other such conceptions biology +and psychology could not get far.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding any further it is +necessary to correct a common misunderstanding +with regard to the significance +of Einstein’s theory of relativity. +This theory is mathematical, and is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>based on a series of postulates which +rule out any claim to present an ultimate +theory of space and time. One of these +postulates<a href="#Page_96" class="ofnanchor">[6]</a> asserts that all our physical +knowledge can be reduced to the space-time +coincidences of pairs of point-events, +or in other words the intersection of the +world-lines of electrons. No respect for +the supreme genius who predicted two +experimental results and eliminated the +chief discrepancies remaining in Newtonian +theory should restrain scientists +from pointing out that this postulate +assumes something that has never been +known to occur, and has no valuable +reference to the world of physical experiment. +The confirmation of Einstein’s +final equations cannot give any validity +to this postulate. For it is difficult to think +of any physical experience considered +by theoretical physics which does not +involve the perception of light or colour, +and one cannot assume that the perception +of light is a perception of coincidences. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>Light varies in colour and intensity; +coincidence in space is too abstract to +account for an effect which is subject +to variation. Moreover all physical +experience requires a certain amount of +time, and this fact is neglected if perception +is reduced to the recognition of +instantaneous coincidences. Even if these +two criticisms are left on one side we still +have to notice that Einstein’s postulate +rules out from the range of physics the +important fact that many processes are +irreversible. For instance, if we accept +Einstein’s definition of physical experience, +then the interesting fact that radioactivity +is only observed in the form of +disintegration, and not also as the reverse +process of a spontaneous building up of +heavier elements from lighter, has to be +left over by physics to be dealt with by +some other science.</p> + +<p>It almost always happens that the +formulations of genius are exaggerated +and form the basis of a pernicious orthodoxy, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>and it has certainly happened to +relativity theory. Against a tide of +exaggerated praise Whitehead, Larmor, +and Bridgman, as well as some Continental +astronomers, have debated the general +assumption that the theory of relativity +is adequate to its task, but those in whose +hands the power of orthodoxy lies have not +yet answered their criticisms in print. +Neglect has always been the weapon by +which orthodoxy has unknowingly +hindered the advance of new ideas. But +while this neglect is easy to understand, +it is really remarkable that the postulates +of relativity theory were not subjected to +closer examination before it was made the +basis of wide philosophical speculation. +The experimental confirmation of Einstein’s +law of gravitation does not +guarantee his postulates, since Whitehead +has reached a similar law (identical +within the accuracy of the observations) +from different assumptions.</p> + +<p>Einstein’s profound creative intuition +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>and use of a difficult technique compel +our deepest respect, but his work should +never have been regarded as a <i>general</i> +theory of time and space. Not only does +he neglect the question of irreversibility +but it is very doubtful if periodic processes +can be made to fit into his scheme, as +has been pointed out by Russell and +Bridgman during the last year. Probably +Einstein himself has never regarded his +theory as more than a stage in the attempt +to create a still wider physical synthesis, +and we must not interpret in a broad +sense his statement that one of the +demands of his theory “takes away from +space and time the last remnant of physical +objectivity”.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> This could only be true if +physical time shared the absolute +symmetry of space, i.e. if physical processes +were all reversible. But there are +processes from which we can obtain an +objective criterion of the direction of +time, and hence time does retain an +element of physical objectivity as distinct +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>from the absolute symmetry of space. +One of the most interesting features in +the future of physics will be the explanation +of the fact that Einstein reached a +correct law from postulates of limited +validity, and in this connection Whitehead’s +alternative derivation may prove +to be of importance.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>Time in Astronomy and Physics</i></p> + + +<p>The real discrepancy between the world +of physics and that of life lies in the fact +that physics has never recognized the +irreversibility of time, while this is fundamental +to life. We may even feel a doubt +if the ‘t’ of physics has the same significance +as the time of biology, evolution, +history, and human experience. The +physical conception of time arose from +the practical utility of clocks for describing +natural processes, and finally took the +form of defining astronomical time in +terms of the rotation of the earth. The +day was in fact taken as an absolute +measure of time, and this remained quite +satisfactory so long as the laws of physics +were found to take a simple form with +reference to the time so defined.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> +<p>But then a complication arose. The +study of the moon’s motion suggested to +astronomers that the earth’s rotation +was slowing down, i.e. to account for the +apparent motion of the moon they had +to assume that the day was increasing in +length. The theory of the tides revealed +a possible cause for this slowing down +in the tidal friction on the bottom of +shallow water basins, for instance the +rush of the Atlantic tides into the Irish +Sea provides an appreciable frictional +force retarding the spin of the earth. In +addition to this slowing down there appears +to be a very slow periodic variation in +the length of the day such as would be +accounted for by a rhythmic expansion +and contraction of the earth’s crust.</p> + +<p>The astronomers declare that our old +measure of time is not only getting slower +and slower, it is even varying rhythmically! +It is clear that they have thrown over the +earth as their definition of equal time +intervals and have surreptitiously substituted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>something else. Yet one cannot +discover any formal announcement of +this, or find out if they realize that by +doing this they have altered the theoretical +significance of all physical measurements. +In earlier days physics defined time in +terms of a selected clock, and then set +about finding the laws of nature. But +the old ways aren’t good enough for the +modern astronomer who gives us our +time and sets the clocks of our physical +laboratories. He has reasons for disapproving +of the earth, and has almost +reversed the procedure. In order to save +the laws of inertia and gravitation in +connection with the moon’s motion—and +to a lesser degree in the cases of the +planets and the sun—he has made these +laws his standard of equal time intervals +in place of the earth’s rotation.</p> + +<p>It is a curious situation, especially in +view of the fact that Einstein’s law, which +has superseded Newton’s, is not very +suitable for use as an astronomical clock, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>as has been pointed out by Larmor. +Perhaps the physicist will soon be able +to use the atom as the theoretical clock +for physics, and we can go on using the +corrected rotation of the earth as our +practical standard. There is a faint +chance, for instance, that if physics can +invent some way of measuring the minute +time intervals along the track of an +electron, then electrons might be used +as giving the fundamental measure of +time. Thus if the velocity of an electron +were first measured by some indirect +method the electron itself might then +be used as a clock. But in the meantime +the astronomers should make a formal +announcement to the Royal Society of +what they have been up to. It then +might be found necessary to appoint +a commission to discover exactly what +physics is now doing. For by using an +astronomical clock of the new type it +is assuming classical laws while researching +on processes which are already known +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>to undermine the absolute validity of +these laws. Theoretical physics cannot +hope to clear up its fundamental problems +until it has considered exactly what +is involved in this suspicious procedure.</p> + +<p>Like most professions, physics includes +a good deal of bluff, but unlike the others +physics is now occupied on a campaign +to get rid of all pretence. For instance, +physical text-books have been filled for +twenty years with phrases of this kind: +“an electron with a velocity of so many +cms per sec.” Yet the professors omitted +to tell their students the awful secret that +this hypothesis of electron velocities is +one that has never yet received direct +experimental confirmation. To-day a +reaction has set in and the demand is +being made that physical theory shall not +make use of conceptions that do not +correspond to directly observed quantities. +Thus the latest theories of the +atom have eliminated the idea of electron +orbits because it was realized that these +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>were nothing more than a mathematical +trick for calculating something quite +different: the wave-length of the light +an atom can emit. In place of the orbits +it is hoped to substitute something which +only makes use of the directly-observed +features of the atom, but this new picture +is not complete.</p> + +<p>Yet physics still makes use of ideas +that have not been adequately justified. +For though the idea of moving electrons +has been removed from the latest atomic +model, no substitute for it has yet been +proposed for the case of electrons outside +the atom. It therefore becomes very +important for the experimental physicist +to discover whether he can measure the +distance travelled by an electron in a +measured fraction of a second. As yet +we have no proof that nature has not +confused us by making electrons behave +rather like moving particles, though +really they are something different. In +fact we have not yet made enough direct +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>experiments to know even whether the +dimensional system which is used for +electrons is correct. Since no electron +velocity has ever been directly measured +we cannot be sure that the dimensions +of the new constant ‘h’—called Planck’s +constant—are really what we suppose, +energy multiplied by time. Until a +way has been invented of making a +direct measurement of some <i>time</i> involved +in electronic motions, it is impossible for +physical theory to know how it should +deal with the quantum processes.</p> + +<p>When we realize how uncertain are the +conceptions on which the whole of electron +theory is based, we may wonder what is +really known about the atom itself. Yet +it is possible that we know more about the +atom than we think, and that what are +talked about as facts concerning electrons +and radiation may really be better viewed +as information about individual atoms +and the way in which they influence +one another. The emission of light is an +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>atomic process, and we only know about +light when it has reached some atom +and been at least partially absorbed. +Some un-understood change of condition +occurs in an atom when it radiates and +passes this changed condition on to +another atom. The absorbed energy +may cause chemical change, as on a +photographic plate. But if a human mind +is to become aware of this change of +condition, then sooner or later, directly +or indirectly, its influence must be passed +on to an atom in the retina. We know +very little about this change of atomic +condition, and though it is usually called +a change of the internal electrical energy +of the atom this supposes more than we +really know until some electron velocity +has been directly measured. The dimensions +of electrical energy are taken as +those of kinetic energy, i.e. mass times +square of velocity, but we do not yet +know if this describes atomic changes +correctly. Since no one has ever measured +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>a <i>time</i> involved in an electronic process, the +scale of time in the atom might be quite different +from that given by our calculations.</p> + +<p>Our ignorance of what this change of +atomic condition really signifies is so +profound that some writers have begun +to treat the atom as though it were an +organism, alive when the atom is excited, +and dead when in a state of minimum +energy. Thus Whitehead proposes that +we should call the atom an organism, +though this of course may only muddle +us since we know even less about +life than we do about the atom.</p> + +<p>Yet we do know one very interesting +thing about this change which happens +to atoms but cannot be reduced to a +change of structure. When light reaches +an atom in the retina, an electrical +stimulus passes up a nerve and alters +the condition of the protoplasm somewhere +in the brain. This change in brain condition +is known to us directly as the +perception of colour. Therefore in one +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>sense we know more about this change +of atomic condition than we ever did +about ‘electric fields’ or ‘gravitational +potential’ or any other of the mathematical +conveniences used by physics in +correlating observed quantities. The +change in a sodium atom when we put +salt in a flame is not a change in the +consciousness of the sodium atom, because +it is not part of a complex nervous system +with the same high co-ordination as is +found in the human being, and therefore +the atom has no consciousness. But +when an atom in the brain undergoes the +same change we may become conscious +of it, and the changes in matter which +occur when light is absorbed are undoubtedly +associated with the problem of +consciousness.</p> + +<p>Thus we are led to ask: how are single +atoms built up into complex systems which +have the characteristics of life, and +finally into still more complex systems +which have human consciousness?</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>An Evolutionary Experiment</i></p> + + +<p>Questions are often made unnecessarily +difficult by their being expressed +in an abstract or theoretical form, and +instead of asking What is life? it will be +more valuable to put forward a practical +issue for discussion: Could an infinitely +wise physicist order the necessary +chemicals to-day, and to-morrow put +together a synthetic man? If not, why +not? What are we really up against, +that seems to put some aspects of life +beyond our control?</p> + +<p>Let us watch this ambitious physicist +as he enters his laboratory. He has +started quite easily and has in a moment +prepared some simple molecules from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>their elements. Now he has completed +the first colloid that he will require, +and is starting on his first organic synthesis. +But his infinite wisdom does +not give him eternity within a minute, +and we notice that he is getting on more +slowly. While the actual combination +of the first molecules took only about +a thousandth of a second, once he had the +apparatus ready, the simplest colloid +took about a second. The organic colloid +has taken him about a minute; it seems +that nature won’t work faster than that. +She has her own rhythm and won’t be +rushed. If we wait patiently till the +end of the day our friend may have his +first speck of protoplasm, and all the +skill in the world would only have helped +him to make more of it, not to have got +any further in his game of evolution.</p> + +<p>But look at him now! He is making +a hasty calculation as though he had +just realized some great secret of +nature, and knew that he could never +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>create his homunculus. We look over +his shoulder and read:</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Estimated minimum time required by the +synthetic processes of nature to attain +various evolutionary stages.</i></p> +</div> + + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Starting from the elements, to</td> +<td class="tdl">Minimum Time</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Simple inorganic compound</td> +<td class="tdl">¹⁄₁₀₀₀ sec.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Simple colloid</td> +<td class="tdl">1 sec.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Protein</td> +<td class="tdl">1 hour</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Primitive protoplasm</td> +<td class="tdl">1 month</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Simplest uni-cellular organism</td> +<td class="tdl">10 years</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Flagellate</td> +<td class="tdl">1,000 years</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Mammal, including <i>Homo sapiens</i></td> +<td class="tdl">1,000,000 years</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p>This highly speculative estimate is +based on suggestive facts. A certain +amount of time is necessary for two +atoms to approach one another and form +a molecule. The time required will be +greater if many atoms have to settle +down together into some special arrangement. +For instance, the metal silver is +normally crystalline, but if silver vapour +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>is condensed too quickly the atoms will +not have time to arrange themselves, and +it is found that they pile up anyhow into +an amorphous mass.</p> + +<p>Colloidal processes require even longer +periods, because great clumsy molecules +have to arrange themselves on the surface +of the colloidal particles. In elementary +forms of protoplasm the molecular patterns +are still more complex, and yet +more time must be necessary to get the +molecules properly adjusted.</p> + +<p>It is probable that only our ignorance +prevents us from building up protoplasm, +but that we shall require rapidly increasing +amounts of time for each successive +stage of evolution. This will certainly +be the case when we have reached organisms +which can only be rendered more +complex by controlling their environment +while they reproduce themselves for many +generations. A higher organism cannot +be built up directly; the molecular +arrangements in its body can only be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>reached through the synthesis of some +simple form of life which must then be +allowed to evolve through countless generations. +Organic heredity resides in molecular +patterns which can only be built +up by this very slow process of repeated +reproduction. Thus it is <i>shortage of time</i> +that our ambitious scientist is up against +in his haste to create a homunculus. +Only the synthetic alchemy of time can +build up organisms, each bearing within +itself a long heredity.</p> + +<p>The estimates given for the minimum +time required in each case are about a +thousandth of the actual time taken in a +laboratory experiment or in the history +of evolution as known from geological +records. It may have taken a million +years or more for the first mobile cells +to have developed from inorganic materials +and a thousand million years for the +mammals. Yet perhaps these processes +might have gone on more quickly. The +times given are mere suggestions of a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>minimum time which may be necessary +under ideal conditions. We waste a lot +of time adjusting the apparatus in a +laboratory experiment, and in evolution +there may have been stationary periods +with little or no new development. But +it seems likely that when we know more +about it we shall discover that a certain +time is required for the formation of +organic systems of given complexity. In +this sense we may say that then human +spermatozoon and ovum carry within +them the synthesis of at least a million +years.</p> + +<p>Only an International Institute of +Evolutionary Research under the most +stable of Leagues of Nations could hope +to create an artificial man, and even +then man could hardly take the credit, +for Time would have done more than +man. But with sufficient consistency +of purpose man could do this, provided +he learnt how to make use of every +moment of the creative power of time, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>and never made a slip by which the +accumulated treasure of the years (i.e. +heredity) might be broken. How man +would learn to value life, and how profoundly +such an experiment might alter +his view of human beings, each one a +priceless miracle, fruit of a million years!</p> + +<p>In twenty years’ time scientific knowledge +will be adequate for the beginning +of this giant task, and we shall be +subscribing our guineas for the foundation +of the Institute. Time has created +man; man may use time to create man +once more. With a million years ahead +of us before we reach the sensitive +mammals, we need hardly fear criticism +from the Society for the Prevention +of Cruelty to Animals. We are simply +going to allow life to evolve itself under +ideal conditions with Switzerland as the +State for Evolutionary Research.</p> + +<p>It may happen that under such perfect +conditions life will evolve more swiftly +than it did on this rough-and-ready +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>planet. But equally well we—or rather +our descendants—may find that the +Darwinian struggle for survival is essential +for evolution, and then the nations +would have to debate on the morals of +reproducing the ‘cruelty of nature’ +inside the World’s Evolutionary Zoo. +Perhaps a wrathful god will seek to +punish mankind for attempting to build +this ladder to the secret of life, this +modern Tower of Babel, and amuse himself +by watching the community of scientists +stricken by a plague of inconsistency +amongst their weights and measures.</p> + +<p>The possibilities of such grand schemes +have to be taken seriously. We are now +highly self-conscious beings with a tremendous +technique for research. Men +with genuine creative imagination who +reverence life must shoulder the responsibilities +of the twentieth-century consciousness, +and use scientific technique +for creative not life-destroying purposes. +One can imagine a growing fraction of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>the interest now given to war, other +people’s adultery, and greyhound racing, +turned towards Switzerland, whence at +critical moments wireless bulletins would +announce that the first amoeba had just +successfully taken nourishment. If we +wish it, the future of science can be +such as to recompense for its recent +occupation with gunpowder. Governments +would be powerless to make war +if the physicists refused to make the +guns and the Royal Society called upon +scientists to go on strike until each war +crisis had been settled by arbitration.</p> + +<p>The problem of life may be seen in a +new light if the speculations of the last +section are accepted and we assume that +a definite period of time is necessary for +the building up of any living organism. +For if this is so the laws which govern +life must involve the age of the organism +since some definite moment in its history. +We might choose for this moment the +instant when the parent spermatozoon +entered the ovum in the case of a higher +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>organism, or in the evolutionary experiment +just described the age might be +reckoned from the moment when the +first elementary chemicals were combined +into molecules. The point is that this +whole evolutionary process must be +described by laws which take into +account the age of the system under +consideration.</p> + +<p>Let us take a very simple, indeed the +simplest possible, example. If two +hydrogen atoms having just the correct +total energy for the formation of a +hydrogen molecule have approached one +another and combined, the law describing +what has happened must indicate that +at a definite moment the combination +was complete and the process at an end. +This is an example of an irreversible +process, since the molecule does not +<i>spontaneously</i> break up again. Moreover, +the mathematical formulation of this +process must include the definite age +of the system at which the process was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>complete, this age being measured from +some selected initial moment.</p> + +<p>This process provides an interesting +limitation to a principle put forward +by Maxwell as the basis of physical +science. He suggested that the laws of +physics must be considered to be eternal +and unchanging and that therefore they +must be expressed in a form which does +not contain the time explicitly. This +means that for physical laws there can +be no difference between to-day and +to-morrow. The laws are concerned with +small changes which systems undergo +in small time intervals, and need not +express any fundamental distinction +between one moment and another.</p> + +<p>Such laws cannot express the fact +that anything sudden ever occurs which +makes an essential change in the system +as when two systems become one, or +when one system breaks up into two. The +laws of organic growth or the evolution +of individual systems must display the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>fact that at a certain age of the system +special things happen, such as the combination +of two hydrogen atoms, or the +attainment of maturity by an organism. +Maxwell’s principle puts a limitation on +the form of physical laws which precisely +eliminates the laws that would be appropriate +for organisms. But there is no +reason why a broader physics should +not try to frame this new type of law +that would be applicable to the history +and development of individual systems, +and it is probable that if this could be +done the reversible laws of Newton, +Maxwell, and Einstein would appear as +approximations which were valid when +nothing of special interest was happening, +i.e. when only spatial movements were +involved without synthesis, disintegration +or the emission of light.</p> + +<p>Laws of the Newtonian type which +Maxwell had in mind assume that one +can adequately describe the present +state of a system without specifying +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>its past history. But we cannot say +anything very precise about the inside +of a living organism, and it is found far +more efficient to describe what is known +of its past history. We do not try to +say where atoms are in an organism; +instead we mention its species, age, etc. +Organisms might be defined as systems +whose future behaviour is more easily +estimated from their past history than +from what can be known about their +immediate internal structure. The most +convenient formulation of organic laws +will therefore be expressed in terms of +the age of the organism and take account +of how its life has been spent. These +laws are necessarily irreversible, since +the assimilation of oxygen or food is +always going on in a manner which can +never be reversed. Life is like a function +which must always alter in one direction; +when this development ceases life has +disappeared.</p> + +<p>The contrast of living and dead now +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>appears less important than the following +classification of natural processes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Processes which are reversible and +whose laws can be expressed independently +of the age of the system, e.g. +gravitational and mechanical motions +which do not involve light or heat.</p> + +<p>2. Processes which are irreversible, +the laws being best expressed in terms +of the total time which has passed since +some initial state, e.g. chemical combination, +growth, evolution, radioactivity, +and all changes involving light or heat.</p> +</div> + +<p>Physics has always asserted that +processes of the first type were +fundamental in nature, and astronomy +provided the ideal example in planetary +motion. It was this assertion that gave +rise to the essential issue behind the +conflict of mechanism and vitalism. +But if Born is right, and the fundamental +atomic processes are irreversible, then +the situation is completely altered. There +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>is no longer a question of life being an +arbitrary irruption in a world of mechanical +law, since the laws of gravitation +and mechanics must then be looked on +as the limiting case, when the irreversibility +is vanishingly small, of a whole +series of irreversible processes which +constitute the most important examples +of the fundamental order in nature. +This series would include the atomic +processes connected with heat, light, +and electricity, chemical combination, +colloidal effects, organic growth and +evolution, and the highly co-ordinated +electrical processes which form the +physiological basis of consciousness.</p> + +<p>If this view is correct the atomic +processes of radiation and chemical combination +should be just what the biologist +needs to build up organisms. Instead +of a chaos of little particles obeying +inverse square laws, the modern physicist +offers to the biologist a new kind of atom +with electrical and magnetic properties +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>which cause it to build up stable compounds.</p> + +<p>The biologist may reply: “Yes, but +organisms have four chief characteristics, +their behaviour is irreversible, and displays +growth, memory, and purposiveness. +If you tell me that your atoms obey +irreversible laws, so much the better, +because my organisms certainly do. +But your crystals grow very differently +from my cells and organisms, and you +can’t explain away the apparent purposiveness +of all life.”</p> + +<p>To which the physicist may answer: +“Suppose that two hydrogen atoms are +some distance apart with the total energy +necessary to make a molecule. If they +begin to move towards one another +under some attractive influence which +they exert we display no surprise. But +they are moving towards a final end, +which is an end, even though they are +of course unconscious of it; and provided +that nothing interferes they will reach +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>one another, form a molecule, and the +process will be consummated. The +atoms move under an irresistible law of +attraction towards a final condition which +is unavoidable unless outside influences +prevent it. The system of the two atoms +develops necessarily towards a consummation, +and the process has in this +sense a teleological quality, though this +need not mean that any god or man had +consciously planned the end for these +particular hydrogen atoms.</p> + +<p>“This quality was not present in +Newton’s law of gravitation precisely +because it failed to say what happens at +the end of any process, for instance +when a meteorite hits the earth. Newtonian +laws avoid the responsibility of +dealing with all the exciting events, +like the wedding of the atoms or the +death of the meteorite. On the other +hand it appears probable that all irreversible +laws can be interpreted as leading +either from or to some critical end +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>condition. Thus all heat processes tend +towards an approximate uniformity of +temperature, and chemical reactions also +move towards a final condition.</p> + +<p>“Such systems as these display the +rudiments of unconscious purpose. One +must imagine these systems made much +more complex so that it takes a long +time and considerable nourishment before +their unconscious purpose is fulfilled, +whether this be the instinctive reproduction +of their kind or any other +biological function.”</p> + +<p>“Maybe. I like the unconscious +purpose which you have revealed in +irreversible physics, because I am troubled +by colleagues who see conscious mind +everywhere.</p> + +<p>“But if I grant that your view of the +atom, and hence of molecules and colloids, +allows me two of the four features I +find in life, i.e. irreversibility and +unconscious purpose, you have still to +deal with growth and organic memory.”</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p> +<p>“Yes. Growth and memory are things +that physics has as yet little to say +about. But we have at any rate reduced +the problem of life to smaller proportions. +It is no longer the question what is life? +but, how do colloidal processes build +themselves up into continuously-active, +developing systems which can react +to their surroundings so that some distant +condition can ultimately be attained? +This is a much less difficult question. +Moreover, since the problem of radiation +underlies all the chemical processes which +are associated with the maintenance of +life, we may expect considerable assistance +when physics has cleared up this +crucial problem.”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>Physics and Mind</i></p> + + +<p>If a psychologist who was not a behaviourist +had been listening to this +conversation he might break in:</p> + +<p>“Does the physicist seriously propose +that we should try to leave mind out of +our picture of the human organism? +Even if we can eventually explain the +unconscious purposes of the lower +organisms as ends towards which they +are driven by physical laws, yet man +has the supreme distinction of a conscious +mind, he can select his aim, and +if he likes renounce it again for something +else. You must therefore allow in your +picture for the emergence of mind at +some point during the course of evolution.”</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> +<p>“Wait a moment,” replies the physicist. +“Your whole outlook towards consciousness +betrays not only an anthropomorphic +standpoint, but one limited to a single +stage in man’s development. There is +no single condition adequately described +by the word ‘conscious’. There are in +fact a great many different states of +awareness which may grade into one +another, or may form a series of distinct +conditions. We do not know much +about them yet, but their variety is most +striking. There is the dim sentience as +we awake from chloroform, the awareness +of the dreaming state, the passive +experiencing that accompanies any intensely +rhythmic activity such as running. +Again, quite different states are known +in day-dreaming, intellectual concentration +and the delicately-balanced semi-consciousness +of creative thought.</p> + +<p>“Consider especially the states of +awareness associated with love, or with +the supreme creative activities of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>mind. Free-will, or the deliberate choice +of a purpose, is completely lost in a +whole-natured falling in love, as it is also +in the artist’s need to follow some dimly-conscious +intuition of a task he must +attempt. At these important occasions +free-will disappears before a sense of +inner organic necessity.</p> + +<p>“These examples seem to me to make it +clear that ‘conscious purpose’ is not +in any sense the ultimate or highest +criterion of human behaviour, and that +free-will need not be taken necessarily +to mean the power to over-ride any laws +of nature. In my view ‘free-will’ is +simply the apparent characteristic of +organic behaviour when no complete +integration of the personality has been +achieved and the mind seems to be able +to oscillate from one purpose to another. +We really have to deal in human beings +with a whole series of forms of behaviour +of increasing complexity and integration: +reflex and instinctive actions, deliberate +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>activity, and finally the intuitive whole-natured +creative functioning which leads +to ends which could not have been intellectually +foreseen. To each of these +must correspond a certain type of awareness, +and in my view, a brain process of +a definite degree of complexity. By +analogy with our own experience of +different modes of consciousness, we may +be able to infer from the structure of the +central nervous system of an organism +what sort of awareness it can experience.</p> + +<p>“Eventually we must expect to be able +to give a complete scheme of all organic +behaviour in terms of the organic processes +and their laws, but none the less it will +remain a great deal more convenient in +some cases to refer to what happens to +human beings by using words that +suggest their conscious experience. The +behaviourist denies the scientific significance +of all but the very barest elements +of conscious experience, but of course he +has to start from the human perception +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>of light and colour. Science cannot get on +without ideas which obtain their whole +meaning from the qualities of conscious +experience, and hence the extreme +behaviourist position merely arises from +a prejudice which prevents clear thinking. +But as a campaign to put more stress +on the direct observation of what really +happens to living beings in terms of +physical movements, behaviourism can +only do good by bringing more unbiassed +knowledge about life.</p> + +<p>“My own interpretation of the question +may be put in this way. The thing that +is given in nature is a process in time. +According to its complexity and degree of +co-ordination an organic process has +different degrees of awareness. There +is no one condition called human consciousness, +because the human organism can +function with different degrees of co-ordination, +and if we ask if an atom in +absorbing light is conscious, the question +has no definite meaning. But in a few +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>years those who are studying the physiology +of the central nervous system will +be able to indicate how many steps of +synthesis and integration occur between +the simplest cell and the creative thinker, +and to each of these stages will be ascribed +a mode of awareness. But below a certain +degree of organic complexity this ‘awareness’, +will cease to be anything that can +be consciously imagined by man, e.g. +below the dimmest sentience one might +allow an undifferentiated knowledge of +mere continuance, based in turn on the +rhythmic pulsation of the elementary +cells.”</p> + +<p>“Your scheme is of course still rather +vague, but in its main outlines it appears +satisfactory”, replies the psychologist. +“But tell me outright, can mind influence +matter? If I understand you rightly, +you suggest that matter certainly influences +mind.”</p> + +<p>“On the contrary, I do not! You +are back at the meaningless questions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>on which philosophers have wasted much +time. To ask if mind can influence +matter does not mean anything until +you know what you mean by mind and +matter, and to a scientist that means +knowing the laws they obey. Now, +on the one hand, relativity and modern +quantum theory indicate that there is +no matter in the old sense of particles +made of some unchanging stuff, and +physical science recognizes atomic +and other <i>processes</i> as fundamental +in the place of ‘matter’. On the other +hand, you really mean by ‘mind’ one +particular form of conscious activity: +the deliberate selection of a purpose. +Therefore to give your question real +meaning I have to ask instead ‘Does +the conscious selection of a purpose alter +the physical processes going on in the +human organism?’</p> + +<p>“But that is an absurd question. It +is like asking: Does a dint in the outside +of a hat <i>cause</i> an alteration in the shape +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>of the inside of the hat? To which the +only reply is that the dint on the outside +is merely another way of describing the +dint on the inside. There is no <i>causing</i> +of the one by the other any more than +if you fold a bit of paper you can say that +the crease on one side causes the crease +on the other side. They are identical +and the double method of description +used in the question creates a meaningless +problem.</p> + +<p>“‘Conscious selection of a purpose’ +is one way of describing a particular +process, and after this process has occurred +the brain will be different from before. +The old theories of the correlation or +interaction of mind and matter presupposed +that they were separate things +in themselves. The important questions +become quite different when one realizes +that mind and matter do not exist +independently, but that they are both +somewhat inadequate ways of describing +certain <i>aspects</i> of one organic process. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>The spatial aspect of organic process +is called the physical organism. The +temporal aspect of organic process corresponds +to the content of its consciousness. +The physical body is a group of spatial +characteristics. Consciousness is a system +of temporal elements; memory, anticipation, +deliberate repetition, creative +longing, hope and fear are all things +set in time.</p> + +<p>“Professor Alexander has said ‘Time is +the mind of Space.’ He attempts to +explain space and time by an anthropomorphic +analogy. It is a very +suggestive idea, though for the searcher +whose goal is the nature of consciousness +itself it is more valuable to put it the +other way round: mind is the temporal +aspect of process, body the spatial aspect. +But it is very important indeed to notice +that we have not yet found the adequate +terms for describing these two aspects +of process. Matter is unsatisfactory for +the spatial aspect, because there are no +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>unchanging particles. But nor is mind +sufficient for the temporal aspect, +because there is a temporal aspect to the +combination of hydrogen atoms and to +chemical and colloidal processes, and yet +we must not speak of these as having +mind. When the new words for these two +aspects are invented they will form the +foundation of the scientific synthesis which +I am expecting.”</p> + +<p>To which the psychologist may answer: +“Well, at heart I have always been a +thorough-going determinist like you, at +least in dealing with my patients. Moreover +I find it works, because I have +always included in my picture of the +patient a life-impulse of some sort, which +can be influenced by my personality. +Thus if the behaviour of my patient is +absolutely determined, the conditions +which determine what happens to him +include some inner life tendency, and also +the effects produced on him by all the +people he meets.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span></p> +<p>“But if one attempts to formulate such +an absolute determinism, or to apply it +to oneself, one gets into deep waters, and +I haven’t the courage to try it. It seems +you must be right at bottom, but that +only a god could believe it without its +upsetting his mental balance or his sense +of moral responsibility.”</p> + +<p>“There I agree,” replies the physicist, +“as long as one does not simultaneously +revise one’s whole view of life in terms of +this new organic knowledge. That is a +very big task, but I should like one day +to attempt it. Two things especially would +attract me to such a revision of human +values. One is that people who ought to +know better still go about making moral +judgments about their acquaintances. Now +that we know how profound is the influence +on a child of the treatment it receives +during its first five years of life, moral +judgments become rather old-fashioned +and only show that the person making +them has himself not yet learnt to find +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>emotional fulfilment in healthier ways. +An analysis of human behaviour +along the lines of organic determinism +might do something to show that moral +condemnations, whether of bolshevism or +of the sins of one’s children, are never +effective unless immediately accompanied +by positive example or creative +suggestion.</p> + +<p>“But there is another more attractive +reason why I should like to attempt this +transvaluation of values. If organic +determinism is valid, then the artist’s +aspiration to create is a natural consequence +of some organic law. Creative +aspiration may then be looked on as the +natural destiny of certain human beings, +though they no more know where they are +going than did the two hydrogen atoms. +But organic determinism allows us to +understand why it is of no importance that +the artist doesn’t know what he is going +to create before he does it. It seems that +in some matters our organic body is wiser +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>than ourselves, or rather wiser than our +very immature consciousness. When we +have developed our consciousness by the +discovery of the organic laws of our own +natures we may be able to make human +life more beautiful.”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> +</div> + +<p class="ph3"><i>The Future of the Sciences</i></p> + + +<p>The preceding pages have very broadly +indicated the way in which current physical +researches may influence the scientific +outlook on the problems of matter, life, +and mind. The view has been put forward +that we are on the eve of a profound +scientific synthesis of which the main outlines +are already determined. These +general suggestions will now be made more +precise in order to offer to anyone who +is interested the opportunity of testing +for himself some definite prophecies regarding +the future of scientific thought. +The forecast made here does not involve +any supernatural reading of the future, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>but is based on tendencies already inherent +in the different departments of science. +For convenience it is expressed in the form +of separate assertions concerning the future +of physics, biology, and psychology.</p> + +<p>1. Before 1940 a very remarkable simplification +will be made in atomic theory, +which will indicate that in quantum processes +physics has ‘touched bottom’ and +that—for the time being—we may consider +that nature is not infinitely complex +within the heart of the atom. The proof +of this apparent if not absolute limit to +the micro-structure of nature will take the +form of the discovery of simple relationships +between the fundamental constants +of atomic structure, e, m, M, c, and h. +(The electronic charge and mass, the mass +of the hydrogen nucleus, the velocity of +light, and Planck’s constant.) Such +relations are already known but are considered +to be of no significance since they +are ruled out by the accepted theory of +electrical dimensions.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p> +<p>Yet this dimensional system is not +based on direct observation, and the +importance of these relationships will soon +be recognized in consequence of experiments +aimed at a direct determination of +an ‘electron velocity’, in a curved track. +‘Electron velocity’ as calculated from +deflection experiments will be found not +to be the same as the directly measurable +cms. per sec., and in the case of straight +electron tracks, the measured velocity +may be found to be always that of +light, though this does not mean much +since the velocity of light in one direction +has never been measured.</p> + +<p>As the result of the study of individual +radiation tracks, for instance in the reflection +of electrons by crystals, and particularly +of any <i>time</i> measurements that can +be made, a new system of physical conceptions +will be built up appropriate to +irreversible processes, which will be +substituted for the Newtonian reversible +system. The new scheme will probably +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>be based on the conception of the atom, +with its radiating electron tracks, as a +natural clock which not only can be used +to measure out equal time intervals, but +also to yield an objective criterion of past +and future. In order to make this idea, +or at least one part of it, capable of +empirical test the following hypothesis is +put forward: The time-interval between +any two point-events on any electron +track is a simple function of the length +and curvature of the part of the track +between the two points. This hypothesis +contradicts the current interpretation of +electron theory on a point which has never +yet been subjected to experimental test.</p> + +<p>The conceptions which will be built up +on electron velocity experiments will very +quickly bring within one simple theory +the facts of chemical combination and +colloidal processes. For these depend +upon irreversible effects connected with +radiation and electrons, and will therefore +be amenable to treatment by the new conceptions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>for the very reason which necessarily +puts them beyond the scope of +Newtonian laws.</p> + +<p>2. As the result of the alteration in +physical conceptions biology will soon +cease to draw a definite line between inanimate +and living systems. The normal +characters of life will be recognized as +appearing in steps as one passes up the +series atom, molecule, colloid, protoplasm, +cell, and through further stages to mammal +and man. In each class of organism a +central controlling process will be discovered +and its laws formulated with some +precision, in terms of irreversible electrochemical +processes. The process which +in each organism represents the co-ordinating +factor and is the life of the organism +considered as a unit may for instance be +described in terms of a quantity which we +shall call ‘f’. ‘f’ would be such that so +long as ‘f’ keeps on increasing the organism +is alive, while if ‘f’ stands still +the organism dies. The rate of increase +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>of ‘f’ indicates the tempo or intensity +of the organism’s life. In a simple case +‘f’ might be directly related to the intake +of oxygen or food, and just as respiration +and assimilation are irreversible, so is the +change in ‘f’. ‘f’ must go on increasing, +or else cease to represent any quantity in +nature; as soon as it ceases to increase +the process to which it corresponds cannot +be identified any longer.</p> + +<p>The most important factors which influence +the life-function ‘f’ (i.e. which +affect the central controlling process in +any organism) will be known before about +1950, with the result that local rebellions +such as cancer will not only be controllable, +but easily prevented. Harmless methods +for increasing the rate of change of ‘f’, +i.e. for increasing the <i>élan vital</i> of the +organism, will be discovered, so that, for +instance, the duration of child-birth will +be reduced to a natural minimum. If +child-birth sometimes takes very long +nowadays, this is presumably because the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>woman’s body is tired, exhausted, or +partially poisoned by her mode of living, +and by raising her vitality at the critical +moment we may expect to be able to let +the process go on at its natural speed. +There must be some minimum time necessary +for the act, since a vast number of +complex organic processes have to complete +themselves in a certain order, but +probably this time is considerably shorter +than that during which many women in +this country have to suffer.</p> + +<p>It is already known that the Mendelian +<i>genes</i> which determine heredity are related +to the rates of development of special +processes in the organism, and a control +over the life-tempo, or rate of increase +of ‘f’ in any organism or group of cells +within an organism, will provide a new +method of tackling the practical problem +of heredity. It is possible that hereditary +tendencies to specific weakness or disease +will be overcome by accelerating or retarding +the rate of development of the human +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>system at some special moment between +conception and maturity.</p> + +<p>Rejuvenation will soon be safe and +efficient, but not as a means for attempting +immortality. It will be socially recognized +as healthy and legitimate only when +undertaken to compensate for premature +ageing due to specific repressions, illness, +or anxiety.</p> + +<p>The elimination of known diseases by +a genuine science of life does not mean +that other diseases will spring up perhaps +worse than before. A theoretical science +of life will know the meaning of all disease, +and will not prevent one in such a +way as to give rise to another. Instead of +making campaigns against influenza or +any other one disease, it will determine +the conditions in which no disease can survive, +and thus gradually eliminate all the +organic diseases which attack the body.</p> + +<p>But this does not mean the attainment +of a hygienic Utopia in which human life +necessarily fulfils itself. A balance will be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span>made to the disappearance of cancer and +syphilis, not by the arising of other +diseases but as a result of the consequent +increase in the sensitiveness of the human +brain.</p> + +<p>The supremely difficult task of the next +hundred years will be to keep the mind +of the race healthy and stable through a +period of critical sensitiveness. We are +in a transition stage of violent instability, +of intense cruelty coupled with compassion +(America), of blended love of +liberty and need of discipline, of emotional +religions and of wars—but we must hope +that it will lead to some mode of life with +greater inherent stability.</p> + +<p>3. Psychology is now occupied with the +discovery that the human response to +perceptions is not additive, i.e. that the +effect made by a group of sounds or +colours depends on the pattern in space +and time in which they are arranged. +(<i>Gestalt-theorie.</i>) For instance, the effect +made on a man by the individual notes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>of ‘God save the King’ when played in +the wrong order is negligible, and bears no +relation to his response when he hears the +tune played in a cinema, and it reminds +him of ‘patriotism’ and the War. So far +no scientific method has been found of +describing when a group of elements is to +be treated as a ‘whole’ for the purposes +of psychology, and this is where the greatest +advances may be expected.</p> + +<p>Most scientific conceptions have been +based on the method of spatial analysis, +i.e. the reduction, where possible, of a thing +to its smallest spatial elements. Physics, +biology, and psychology have all lacked +the equipment to describe what makes +the atom, organism, or the pattern +function as a unit, and how we are to +know if some group is a unit or not. The +analytical method is fully developed, +but we lack even the basis for a synthetic +treatment. This leads some hard-headed +scientists of the materialistic school who +will ‘stand no nonsense’ to assert that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>there is no such thing as ‘synthesis’, +that this is a mystical idea left over from +primitive anthropomorphism. Yet to +any mind that is guided not by prejudice +but by a simple search for truth, the fact +of synthesis is obvious, though not yet +properly formulated.</p> + +<p>Here modern physics can supply a +clue. Analysis is the method required in +a search for instantaneous spatial structure; +the synthetic method which we +need must deal with the temporal history +and behaviour of systems. The fact that +the human being reacts in the ways he +does to a tune as a whole is evidence of +something in his history, that he has heard +the tune often under certain emotional +surroundings. The unity of any synthesis, +whole, or organism is not an instantaneous +fact explicable in terms of structure, for +we can recognize this unity only from a +continued observation over a period of +time.</p> + +<p>Physics can invent one law to describe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span>the approach of the two hydrogen atoms +to form a molecule, and in doing so treats +the two together as a unit. This suggests +that the fact of organic unity is to be +defined and formulated in terms of an +irreversible law which governs the system +as a whole. Thus a group of atoms, cells, +or any other elements is to be called a +unit when, and only when, one irreversible +law can be found which expresses the +behaviour of the different elements as +contributing towards some common end, +like the formation of the molecule in the +case of the hydrogen atoms.</p> + +<p>We can now draw a practical conclusion +for the future of psychology, +which is in great need of a moral +principle to guide its treatment of +disintegrated human personality. On +the analogy of the two atoms, a human +being is to be considered as a unity when +his whole behaviour displays continuous +co-ordination towards some end. But +there is an important difference in the two +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>cases: the atoms move towards an end +which we know because it has already +happened in history, whereas man’s +development is creative, that is it +proceeds towards an end we cannot +know exactly before it comes into being. +Thus the parent or psychologist need +not trouble if he cannot understand what +his child or subject is aiming towards: +so long as some consistency and harmony +of functioning is apparent, the ‘end’ +can be left to nature to look after, because +such harmony <i>means</i> that the organism is +tending towards some ultimate condition.</p> + +<p>The psychologists of the future will +therefore have to follow some principle +such as this: their only legitimate +aim is the maintenance and restoration +of harmonious co-ordination of all the +human functions, and no concern need +be paid to ultimate intellectual or spiritual +ideals. Of course if the person considered +is apparently tending towards some +degenerate condition, that is known to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>the onlooker because it is <i>not</i> new but a +repetition of what many human beings +have done before, then this tendency +can be altered. At least, it can be altered +if the onlooker can use his intuition to +discover signs of repressed conflict which +show that the immediate tendency is +not whole-natured, but based on the +repression of some more profound aspiration +or desire. Then by bringing this +repressed aspiration back into consciousness +the degenerate tendency may be +arrested. But this control over the lives +of others can only be effectively exercised +by the intuitive discovery that their present +tendencies are not whole-natured.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>Prophecy can never be scientific, and +forecasting in the realm of science is +perhaps the most dangerous form of +intellectual acrobatics. Science must be +thorough, and all vague speculation is +its enemy. But there are moments when +a profound revision is necessary, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>amidst the responsibilities and rich appeal +of daily life no one will undertake this +task who does not believe that it offers +an adequate reward to science and to +man. To-day prophecy can call attention +to unjustified limitations inherent in +current scientific thought, and encourage +the students of matter and of life to get +together and try to discover the single +system of natural law which we must +believe covers both realms. It may +even help them to find crucial experiments +by which to guide their search.</p> + +<p>The reward is certainly great. The +indifference to the destruction of life +which has marked recent years is no +cause either for surprise or for despair +after an epoch of orthodox and insincere +religion coupled with an abstract science +of matter. One thing only can guide +humanity to a saner and richer life: +the recognition and valuation of life. +This can be assisted by science and art +both revealing life in all its significant +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>forms. But the roots of art have been +destroyed by the domination of a science +which had not recognized the significance +of life within the realm of natural law. +For great art can only arise from a +profound reverence for life, whereas to +the scientific mood of this period life +appeared as an arbitrary impulse in +continual conflict with the laws of matter.</p> + +<p>Physics is now studying light. The +radiant influence of light nourishes life +and within human body forms the fabric +of consciousness. We are alive and +conscious, but our consciousness is +immature for we do not yet know the +laws that govern our own lives and +thoughts. Yet it is certain that light, +life, and consciousness are bound together +by some undiscovered law. This +secret of nature’s alchemy is still hidden +from us within our own bodies. By +revealing it physics will create a new +hope for man.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTES">NOTES</h2> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Whitehead, <i>Science and the Modern +World</i>. Eddington comes near to the same +idea in an essay in <i>Science, Religion, and +Reality</i>, 1925. See also Weyl, <i>Was ist Materie?</i> +1924, p. 84. It has also been expressed by +others quite independently, though I do not +know of other published references.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> E.g. the irreversible motion of an electron +in the field of a bar magnet is rendered formally +reversible by the assumption that the magnetic +field is due to moving electrons. Yet this +assumption is highly artificial since it postulates +electronic movements that have never been +observed. In other cases irreversibility is +eliminated by the choice of special co-ordinate +systems. Some physicists now hold the view +that irreversibility may be inherent in atomic +as it is in organic processes.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> <i>Internal Constitution of the Stars</i>, 1926, +p. 56. Compare note on p. 44.</p> + +<p>It may be convenient here to summarize +the processes that give at any rate superficial +evidence of their irreversibility: processes +involving heat changes, or the radiation of +light, or mass; the production of energy in a +star, the motions of electrons in magnetic fields, +certain types of atom-ion collision in mixed +gases, processes dependent on retarded potentials, +radioactivity, organic growth and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>evolution, and consciousness itself. Eddington +deals only with the case of the emission and +absorption of light, but suggests that the +direction of time can only be deduced from +statistical processes. This is the orthodox view, +though it is very doubtful if it is valid now that +the quantum processes are receiving formulation. +In this connection, see note 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Einstein. Berlin Akad., <i>Sitzungsberichte</i>, +1925, p. 418. But Einstein’s view must +be revised in view of recent experimental +results (e.g. Harnwell, <i>Phys. Rev.</i>, vol. 29, 1927, +pp. 683 and 831), if these have been correctly +interpreted. See Born, <i>Zeitschr für Physik</i>, +vol. 40, pp. 177-8; and Jordan, <i>Naturw.</i> 1927, +p. 792.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> The idea that time may be an active +factor in causation has the mathematical +significance that ‘t’ (for the system in question) +must appear explicitly in the formulation +of the law, and not merely as the square of a +time-differential found convenient for the +correlation of a standard clock with a reversible +process which is being observed. +A law whose mathematical formulation +involves ‘t’ measured from some moment in +the history of the system, gives an entirely +new meaning to ‘t’, though one consistent +with the properties of the reversible Newtonian +differential ‘dt’. Such a law may claim to express +the fact of historic, irreversible, duration, +a feature in nature which is neglected by laws +involving only ‘dt’ squared.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Einstein, <i>Annalen der Physik</i>, vol. 49, +pp. 776-7, 1916.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p> +<p class="ph3"><i>SIXTY VOLUMES ARE NOW PUBLISHED</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="ph2">TO-DAY AND +TO-MORROW</p> + +<p class="ph4"><i>Each, pott 8vo, boards, ²⁄₆ net</i></p> + + +<p>This series of books, by some of the +most distinguished English thinkers, +scientists, philosophers, doctors, critics, +and artists, was at once recognized +as a noteworthy event. Written from +various points of view, one book frequently +opposing the argument of another, they +provide the reader with a stimulating +survey of the most modern thought in +many departments of life. Several +volumes are devoted to the future trend +of Civilization, conceived as a whole; +while others deal with particular provinces. +It is interesting to see in these +neat little volumes, issued at a low price, +the revival of a form of literature, the +Pamphlet, which has been in disuse for +many years.</p> + + +<p class="ph4"> +<i>Published by</i></p> +<p class="ph3">KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.<br> +Broadway House: 68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C.4<br> +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph3"><i>FROM THE REVIEWS</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Times Literary Supplement</i>: “An entertaining +series of vivacious and stimulating studies of +modern tendencies.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Spectator</i>: “Scintillating monographs ... that +very lively and courageous series.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Observer</i>: “There seems no reason why the +brilliant To-day and To-morrow Series should +come to an end for a century of to-morrows. +At first it seemed impossible for the publishers +to keep up the sport through a dozen volumes, +but the series already runs to more than two +score. A remarkable series....”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Daily Telegraph</i>: “This admirable series of +essays, provocative and brilliant.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Nation</i>: “We are able to peer into the future +by means of that brilliant series [which] will +constitute a precious document upon the +present time.”—<i>T. S. Eliot.</i></p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Manchester Dispatch</i>: “The more one reads of +these pamphlets, the more avid becomes the +appetite. We hope the list is endless.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Irish Statesman</i>: “Full of lively controversy.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Daily Herald</i>: “This series has given us many +monographs of brilliance and discernment.... +The stylistic excellencies of this provocative +series.”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>Field</i>: “We have long desired to express the +deep admiration felt by every thinking +scholar and worker at the present day for this +series. We must pay tribute to the high +standard of thought and expression they +maintain. As small gift-books, austerely yet +prettily produced, they remain unequalled +of their kind. We can give but the briefest +suggestions of their value to the student, +the politician, and the voter....”</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><i>New York World</i>: “Holds the palm in the +speculative and interpretative thought of the +age.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="ph3">VOLUMES READY</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Daedalus</b>, or Science and the Future. +By <span class="smcap">J. B. S. Haldane</span>, Reader in +Biochemistry, University of Cambridge. +<i>Seventh impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A fascinating and daring little book.”—<i>Westminster +Gazette.</i> “The essay is brilliant, +sparkling with wit and bristling with +challenges.”—<i>British Medical Journal.</i></p> + +<p>“Predicts the most startling changes.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Callinicus</b>, a Defence of Chemical Warfare. +By <span class="smcap">J. B. S. Haldane</span>. <i>Second +impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Mr Haldane’s brilliant study.”—<i>Times +Leading Article.</i> “A book to be read by every +intelligent adult.”—<i>Spectator.</i> “This brilliant +little monograph.”—<i>Daily News.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Icarus</b>, or the Future of Science. By +<span class="smcap">Bertrand Russell, f.r.s.</span> <i>Fourth +impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Utter pessimism.”—<i>Observer.</i> “Mr +Russell refuses to believe that the progress +of Science must be a boon to mankind.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i> “A stimulating book, that +leaves one not at all discouraged.”—<i>Daily +Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>What I Believe.</b> By <span class="smcap">Bertrand Russell, +f.r.s.</span> <i>Third impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“One of the most brilliant and thought-stimulating +little books I have read—a better +book even than <i>Icarus</i>.”—<i>Nation.</i> “Simply +and brilliantly written.”—<i>Nature.</i> “In +stabbing sentences he punctures the bubble of +cruelty, envy, narrowness, and ill-will which +those in authority call their morals.”—<i>New +Leader.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Tantalus</b>, or the Future of Man. By +<span class="smcap">F. C. S. Schiller, D.Sc.</span>, Fellow of +Corpus Christi College, Oxford. <i>Second +impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“They are all (<i>Daedalus</i>, <i>Icarus</i>, and +<i>Tantalus</i>) brilliantly clever, and they supplement +or correct one another.”—<i>Dean Inge</i>, +in <i>Morning Post</i>. “Immensely valuable and +infinitely readable.”—<i>Daily News.</i> “The +book of the week.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Cassandra</b>, or the Future of the British +Empire. By <span class="smcap">F. C. S. Schiller, D.Sc.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“We commend it to the complacent of all +parties.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i> “The book is +small, but very, very weighty; brilliantly +written, it ought to be read by all shades of +politicians and students of politics.”—<i>Yorkshire +Post.</i> “Yet another addition to that +bright constellation of pamphlets.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Quo Vadimus?</b> Glimpses of the Future. +By <span class="smcap">E. E. Fournier d’Albe, D.Sc.</span> +<i>Second Impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A wonderful vision of the future. A book +that will be talked about.”—<i>Daily Graphic.</i> +“A remarkable contribution to a remarkable +series.”—<i>Manchester Dispatch.</i> “Interesting +and singularly plausible.”—<i>Daily Telegraph.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Thrasymachus</b>, the Future of Morals. +By <span class="smcap">C. E. M. Joad</span>, author of “The +Babbitt Warren,” etc. <i>Second impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“His provocative book.”—<i>Graphic.</i> +“Written in a style of deliberate brilliance.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i> “As outspoken +and unequivocal a contribution as could well +be imagined. Even those readers who dissent +will be forced to recognize the admirable +clarity with which he states his case. A book +that will startle.”—<i>Daily Chronicle.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Lysistrata</b>, or Woman’s Future and +Future Woman. By <span class="smcap">Anthony M. +Ludovici</span>, author of “A Defence of +Aristocracy,” etc. <i>Second Impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A stimulating book. Volumes would be +needed to deal, in the fullness his work provokes, +with all the problems raised.”—<i>Sunday +Times.</i> “Pro-feminine but anti-feministic.”—<i>Scotsman.</i> +“Full of brilliant common-sense.”—<i>Observer.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Hypatia</b>, or Woman and Knowledge. By +<span class="smcap">Mrs Bertrand Russel</span>. With a +frontispiece. <i>Third impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>An answer to <i>Lysistrata</i>. “A passionate +vindication of the rights of woman.”—<i>Manchester +Guardian.</i> “Says a number of +things that sensible women have been wanting +publicly said for a long time.”—<i>Daily Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Hephaestus</b>, the Soul of the Machine. +By <span class="smcap">E. E. Fournier d’Albe, D.Sc.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A worthy contribution to this interesting +series. A delightful and thought-provoking +essay.”—<i>Birmingham Post.</i> “There is a +special pleasure in meeting with a book like +<i>Hephaestus</i>. The author has the merit of really +understanding what he is talking about.”—<i>Engineering.</i> +“An exceedingly clever +defence of machinery.”—<i>Architects’ Journal.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Passing of the Phantoms</b>: a Study +of Evolutionary Psychology and Morals. +By <span class="smcap">C. J. Patten</span>, Professor of Anatomy, +Sheffield University. With 4 Plates.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Readers of <i>Daedalus</i>, <i>Icarus</i> and <i>Tantalus</i>, +will be grateful for an excellent presentation +of yet another point of view.”—<i>Yorkshire +Post.</i> “This bright and bracing little book.”—<i>Literary +Guide.</i> “Interesting and original.”—<i>Medical +Times.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Mongol in our Midst</b>: a Study of +Man and his Three Faces. By <span class="smcap">F. G. +Crookshank, m.d., f.r.c.p.</span> With 28 +Plates. <i>Second Edition, revised.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A brilliant piece of speculative induction.”—<i>Saturday +Review.</i> “An extremely interesting +and suggestive book, which will reward +careful reading.”—<i>Sunday Times.</i> “The +pictures carry fearful conviction.”—<i>Daily +Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Conquest of Cancer.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. W. S. +Wright, m.s., f.r.c.s.</span> Introduction +by <span class="smcap">F. G. Crookshank, m.d.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Eminently suitable for general reading. +The problem is fairly and lucidly presented. +One merit of Mr Wright’s plan is that he tells +people what, in his judgment, they can best +do, <i>here and now</i>.”—From the <i>Introduction</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Pygmalion</b>, or the Doctor of the Future. +By <span class="smcap">R. McNair Wilson, m.b.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Dr Wilson has added a brilliant essay +to this series.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> +“This is a very little book, but there is much +wisdom in it.”—<i>Evening Standard.</i> “No +doctor worth his salt would venture to say that +Dr Wilson was wrong.”—<i>Daily Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Prometheus</b>, or Biology and the Advancement +of Man. By <span class="smcap">H. S. Jennings</span>, +Professor of Zoology, Johns Hopkins +University. <i>Second Impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“This volume is one of the most remarkable +that has yet appeared in this series. Certainly +the information it contains will be new to most +educated laymen. It is essentially a discussion +of ... heredity and environment, and it +clearly establishes the fact that the current +use of these terms has no scientific +justification.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> +“An exceedingly brilliant book.”—<i>New Leader.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Narcissus</b>: an Anatomy of Clothes. By +<span class="smcap">Gerald Heard</span>. With 19 illustrations.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A most suggestive book.”—<i>Nation.</i> +“Irresistible. Reading it is like a switchback +journey. Starting from prehistoric times we +rocket down the ages.”—<i>Daily News.</i> +“Interesting, provocative, and entertaining.”—<i>Queen.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Thamyris</b>, or Is There a Future for +Poetry? By <span class="smcap">R. C. Trevelyan</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Learned, sensible, and very well-written.”—<i>Affable +Hawk</i>, in <i>New Statesman</i>. “Very +suggestive.”—<i>J. C. Squire</i>, in <i>Observer</i>. +“A very charming piece of work, I agree +with all, or at any rate, almost all its conclusions.”—<i>J. +St Loe Strachey</i>, in <i>Spectator</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Proteus</b>, or the Future of Intelligence. +By <span class="smcap">Vernon Lee</span>, author of “Satan the +Waster,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“We should like to follow the author’s +suggestions as to the effect of intelligence on +the future of Ethics, Aesthetics, and Manners. +Her book is profoundly stimulating and should +be read by everyone.”—<i>Outlook.</i> “A concise, +suggestive piece of work.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Timotheus</b>, the Future of the Theatre. +By <span class="smcap">Bonamy Dobrée</span>, author of “Restoration +Drama,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A witty, mischievous little book, to be +read with delight.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> +“This is a delightfully witty book.”—<i>Scotsman.</i> +“In a subtly satirical vein he +visualizes various kinds of theatres in 200 years’ +time. His gay little book makes delightful +reading.”—<i>Nation.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Paris</b>, or the Future of War. By Captain +<span class="smcap">B. H. Liddell Hart</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A companion volume to <i>Callinicus</i>. +A gem of close thinking and deduction.”—<i>Observer.</i> +“A noteworthy contribution to +a problem of concern to every citizen in this +country.”—<i>Daily Chronicle.</i> “There is some +lively thinking about the future of war in +<i>Paris</i>, just added to this set of live-wire +pamphlets on big subjects.”—<i>Manchester +Guardian.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Wireless Possibilities.</b> By Professor +<span class="smcap">A. M. Low</span>. With 4 diagrams.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“As might be expected from an inventor +who is always so fresh, he has many interesting +things to say.”—<i>Evening Standard.</i> +“The mantle of Blake has fallen upon the +physicists. To them we look for visions, and +we find them in this book.”—<i>New Statesman.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Perseus</b>: of Dragons. By <span class="smcap">H. F. Scott +Stokes</span>. With 2 illustrations.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A diverting little book, chock-full of ideas. +Mr Stokes’ dragon-lore is both quaint and +various.”—<i>Morning Post.</i> “Very amusingly +written, and a mine of curious knowledge for +which the discerning reader will find many +uses.”—<i>Glasgow Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Lycurgus</b>, or the Future of Law. By +<span class="smcap">E. S. P. Haynes</span>, author of “Concerning +Solicitors,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“An interesting and concisely written book.”—<i>Yorkshire +Post.</i> “He roundly declares that +English criminal law is a blend of barbaric +violence, medieval prejudices and modern +fallacies.... A humane and conscientious +investigation.”—<i>T.P.’s Weekly.</i> “A thoughtful +book—deserves careful reading.”—<i>Law +Times.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Euterpe</b>, or the Future of Art. By +<span class="smcap">Lionel R. McColvin</span>, author of “The +Theory of Book-Selection.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Discusses briefly, but very suggestively, +the problem of the future of art in relation to +the public.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i> “Another +indictment of machinery as a soul-destroyer +... Mr McColvin has the courage to suggest +solutions.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i> “This is +altogether a much-needed book.”—<i>New +Leader.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Pegasus</b>, or Problems of Transport. +By Colonel <span class="smcap">J. F. C. Fuller</span>, author of +“The Reformation of War,” etc. With +8 Plates.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“The foremost military prophet of the day +propounds a solution for industrial and +unemployment problems. It is a bold essay +... and calls for the attention of all concerned +with imperial problems.”—<i>Daily +Telegraph.</i> “Practical, timely, very interesting +and very important.”—<i>J. St Loe +Strachey</i>, in <i>Spectator</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Atlantis</b>, or America and the Future. +By Colonel <span class="smcap">J. F. C. Fuller</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Candid and caustic.”—<i>Observer.</i> “Many +hard things have been said about America, +but few quite so bitter and caustic as these.”—<i>Daily +Sketch.</i> “He can conjure up possibilities +of a new Atlantis.”—<i>Clarion.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Midas</b>, or the United States and the +Future. By <span class="smcap">C. H. Bretherton</span>, author +of “The Real Ireland,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>A companion volume to <i>Atlantis</i>. “Full of +astute observations and acute reflections ... +this wise and witty pamphlet, a provocation +to the thought that is creative.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i> “A punch in every paragraph. One +could hardly ask for more ‘meat.’”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Nuntius</b>, or Advertising and its Future. +By <span class="smcap">Gilbert Russell</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Expresses the philosophy of advertising +concisely and well.”—<i>Observer.</i> “It is doubtful +if a more straightforward exposition of +the part advertising plays in our public and +private life has been written.”—<i>Manchester +Guardian.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Birth Control and the State</b>: a Plea +and a Forecast. By <span class="smcap">C. P. Blacker</span>, +<i>M.C.</i>, <span class="allsmcap">M.A.</span>, <span class="allsmcap">M.R.C.S.</span>, <span class="allsmcap">L.R.C.P.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A very careful summary.”—<i>Times Literary +Supplement.</i> “A temperate and scholarly +survey of the arguments for and against the +encouragement of the practice of birth control.”—<i>Lancet.</i> +“He writes lucidly, moderately, +and from wide knowledge; his book undoubtedly +gives a better understanding of the +subject than any other brief account we know. +It also suggests a policy.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Ouroboros</b>, or the Mechanical Extension +of Mankind. By <span class="smcap">Garet Garrett</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“This brilliant and provoking little book.”—<i>Observer.</i> +“A significant and thoughtful +essay, calculated in parts to make our flesh +creep.”—<i>Spectator.</i> “A brilliant writer, Mr +Garrett is a remarkable man. He explains +something of the enormous change the machine +has made in life.”—<i>Daily Express.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Artifex</b>, or the Future of Craftsmanship. +By <span class="smcap">John Gloag</span>, author of “Time, +Taste, and Furniture.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“An able and interesting summary of the +history of craftsmanship in the past, a direct +criticism of the present, and at the end his +hopes for the future. Mr Gloag’s real contribution +to the future of craftsmanship is +his discussion of the uses of machinery.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Plato’s American Republic.</b> By <span class="smcap">J. +Douglas Woodruff</span>. <i>Fourth impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Uses the form of the Socratic dialogue +with devastating success. A gently malicious +wit sparkles in every page.”—<i>Sunday Times.</i> +“Having deliberately set himself an almost +impossible task, has succeeded beyond belief.”—<i>Saturday +Review.</i> “Quite the liveliest +even of this spirited series.”—<i>Observer.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Orpheus</b>, or the Music of the Future. By +<span class="smcap">W. J. Turner</span>, author of “Music and +Life.” <i>Second impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A book on music that we can read not +merely once, but twice or thrice. Mr Turner +has given us some of the finest thinking upon +Beethoven that I have ever met with.”—<i>Ernest +Newman</i> in <i>Sunday Times</i>. “A +brilliant essay in contemporary philosophy.”—<i>Outlook.</i> +“The fruit of real knowledge and +understanding.”—<i>New Statesman.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Terpander</b>, or Music and the Future. By +<span class="smcap">E. J. Dent</span>, author of “Mozart’s Operas.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“In <i>Orpheus</i> Mr Turner made a brilliant +voyage in search of first principles. Mr Dent’s +book is a skilful review of the development of +music. It is the most succinct and stimulating +essay on music I have found....”—<i>Musical +News.</i> “Remarkably able and stimulating.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i> “There is hardly +another critic alive who could sum up contemporary +tendencies so neatly.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Sibylla</b>, or the Revival of Prophecy. By +<span class="smcap">C. A. Mace</span>, University of St. Andrew’s.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“An entertaining and instructive pamphlet.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i> “Places a nightmare before +us very ably and wittily.”—<i>Spectator.</i> +“Passages in it are excellent satire, but on +the whole Mr Mace’s speculations may be +taken as a trustworthy guide ... to modern +scientific thought.”—<i>Birmingham Post.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Lucullus</b>, or the Food of the Future. By +<span class="smcap">Olga Hartley</span> and <span class="smcap">Mrs C. F. Leyel</span>, +authors of “The Gentle Art of Cookery.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“This is a clever and witty little volume +in an entertaining series, and it makes enchanting +reading.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> +“Opens with a brilliant picture of modern +man, living in a vacuum-cleaned, steam-heated, +credit-furnished suburban mansion +‘with a wolf in the basement’—the wolf of +hunger. This banquet of epigrams.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Procrustes</b>, or the Future of English +Education. By <span class="smcap">M. Alderton Pink</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Undoubtedly he makes out a very good +case.”—<i>Daily Herald.</i> “This interesting +addition to the series.”—<i>Times Educational +Supplement.</i> “Intends to be challenging and +succeeds in being so. All fit readers will find +it stimulating.”—<i>Northern Echo.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Future of Futurism.</b> By <span class="smcap">John +Rodker</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Mr Rodker is up-to-the-minute, and he +has accomplished a considerable feat in writing +on such a vague subject, 92 extremely interesting +pages.”—<i>T. S. Eliot</i>, in <i>Nation</i>. “There +are a good many things in this book which +are of interest.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Pomona</b>, or the Future of English. By +<span class="smcap">Basil de Sélincourt</span>, author of “The +English Secret”, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“The future of English is discussed fully +and with fascinating interest.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i> “Full of wise thoughts and happy +words.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> “His +later pages must stir the blood of any man +who loves his country and her poetry.”—<i>J. C. +Squire</i>, in <i>Observer</i>. “His finely-conceived +essay.”—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Balbus</b>, or the Future of Architecture. +By <span class="smcap">Christian Barman</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A really brilliant addition to this already +distinguished series. The reading of <i>Balbus</i> +will give much data for intelligent prophecy, +and incidentally, an hour or so of excellent +entertainment.”—<i>Spectator.</i> “Most readable +and reasonable. We can recommend it +warmly.”—<i>New Statesman.</i> “This intriguing +little book.”—<i>Connoisseur.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Apella</b>, or the Future of the Jews. By +<span class="smcap">A Quarterly Reviewer</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Cogent, because of brevity and a magnificent +prose style, this book wins our quiet +praise. It is a fine pamphlet, adding to the +value of the series, and should not be missed.”—<i>Spectator.</i> +“A notable addition to this +excellent series. His arguments are a provocation +to fruitful thinking.”—<i>Morning Post.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Dance of Çiva</b>, or Life’s Unity and +Rhythm. By <span class="smcap">Collum</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“It has substance and thought in it. The +author is very much alive and responsive to +the movements of to-day.”—<i>Spectator.</i> “A +very interesting account of the work of Sir +Jagadis Bose.”—<i>Oxford Magazine.</i> “Has +caught the spirit of the Eastern conception of +world movements.”—<i>Calcutta Statesman.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Lars Porsena</b>, or the Future of Swearing +and Improper Language. By <span class="smcap">Robert +Graves</span>. <i>Third impression.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Goes uncommonly well, and deserves +to.”—<i>Observer.</i> “Not for squeamish readers.”—<i>Spectator.</i> +“No more amusingly unexpected +contribution has been made to this series. +A deliciously ironical affair.”—<i>Bystander.</i> +“His highly entertaining essay is as full as +the current standard of printers and police +will allow.”—<i>New Statesman.</i> “Humour and +style are beyond criticism.”—<i>Irish Statesman.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Socrates</b>, or the Emancipation of Mankind. +By <span class="smcap">H. F. Carlill</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Devotes a specially lively section to the +herd instinct.”—<i>Times.</i> “Clearly, and with +a balance that is almost Aristotelian, he +reveals what modern psychology is going to +accomplish.”—<i>New Statesman.</i> “One of the +most brilliant and important of a remarkable +series.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Delphos</b>, or the Future of International +Language. By <span class="smcap">E. Sylvia Pankhurst</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Equal to anything yet produced in this +brilliant series. Miss Pankhurst states very +clearly what all thinking people must soon +come to believe, that an international language +would be one of the greatest assets of civilization.”—<i>Spectator.</i> +“A most readable book, +full of enthusiasm, an important contribution +to this subject.”—<i>International Language.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Gallio</b>, or the Tyranny of Science. By +<span class="smcap">J. W. N. Sullivan</span>, author of “A +History of Mathematics.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“So packed with ideas that it is not possible +to give any adequate <i>résumé</i> of its contents.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i> “His remarkable +monograph, his devastating summary of +materialism, this pocket <i>Novum Organum</i>.”—<i>Spectator.</i> +“Possesses a real distinction of +thought and manner. It must be read.”—<i>New +Statesman.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Apollonius</b>, or the Future of Psychical +Research. By <span class="smcap">E. N. Bennett</span>, author +of “Problems of Village Life,” etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A sane, temperate and suggestive survey +of a field of inquiry which is slowly but surely +pushing to the front.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i> +“His exposition of the case for psychic +research is lucid and interesting.”—<i>Scotsman.</i> +“Displays the right temper, admirably conceived, +skilfully executed.”—<i>Liverpool Post.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Aeolus</b>, or the Future of the Flying +Machine. By <span class="smcap">Oliver Stewart</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Both his wit and his expertness save him +from the nonsensical-fantastic. There is +nothing vague or sloppy in these imaginative +forecasts.”—<i>Daily News.</i> “He is to be congratulated. +His book is small, but it is so +delightfully funny that it is well worth the +price, and there really are sensible ideas +behind the jesting.”—<i>Aeroplane.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Stentor</b>, or the Press of To-Day and +To-Morrow. By <span class="smcap">David Ockham</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“A valuable and exceedingly interesting commentary +on a vital phase of modern development.”—<i>Daily +Herald.</i> “Vigorous and well-written, +eminently readable.”—<i>Yorkshire +Post.</i> “He has said what one expects any +sensible person to say about the ‘trustification’ +of the Press.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Rusticus</b>, or the Future of the Countryside. +By <span class="smcap">Martin S. Briggs</span>, <span class="smcap">f.r.i.b.a.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Few of the 50 volumes, provocative and +brilliant as most of them have been, capture +our imagination as does this one.”—<i>Daily +Telegraph.</i> “The historical part is as brilliant +a piece of packed writing as could be desired.”—<i>Daily +Herald.</i> “Serves a national end. The +book is in essence a pamphlet, though it has +the form and charm of a book.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Janus</b>, or the Conquest of War. By +<span class="smcap">William McDougall</span>, <span class="smcap">m.b., f.r.s.</span></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Among all the booklets of this brilliant series, +none, I think is so weighty and impressive as +this. It contains thrice as much matter as +the other volumes and is profoundly serious.”—Dean +Inge, in <i>Evening Standard</i>. “A +deeply interesting and fair-minded study of +the causes of war and the possibilities of their +prevention. Every word is sound.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Vulcan</b>, or the Future of Labour. By +<span class="smcap">Cecil Chisholm</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>“Of absorbing interest.”—<i>Daily Herald.</i> “No +one, perhaps, has ever condensed so many hard +facts into the appearance of agreeable fiction, +nor held the balance so nicely between technicalities +and flights of fancy, as the author of +this excellent book in a brilliant series. <i>Vulcan</i> +is a little book, but between its covers knowledge +and vision are pressed down and +brimming over.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Hymen</b>, or the Future of Marriage. By +<span class="smcap">Norman Haire</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>This candid and unprejudiced survey inquires +why the majority of marriages to-day seem to +be so unsatisfactory, and finds the answer in +the sexual ethic of our civilization which is ill +adapted to our social and economic needs. The +problems of sex-morality, sex-education, prostitution, +in-breeding, birth-control, trial-marriage, +and polygamy are all touched upon.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Next Chapter</b>: the War against +the Moon. By <span class="smcap">André Maurois</span>, author +of ‘Ariel’, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>This imaginary chapter of world-history +(1951-64) from the pen of one of the most +brilliant living French authors mixes satire +and fancy in just proportions. It tells how +the press of the world is controlled by five +men, how world interest is focussed on an +attack on the moon, how thus the threat of +world-war is averted. But when the moon +retaliates....</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Galatea</b>, or the Future of Darwinism. +By <span class="smcap">W. Russell Brain</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>This non-technical but closely-reasoned book +is a challenge to the orthodox teaching on +evolution known as Neo-Darwinism. The +author claims that, although Neo-Darwinian +theories can possibly account for the evolution +of forms, they are quite inadequate to explain +the evolution of functions.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Scheherazade</b>, or the Future of the +English Novel. By <span class="smcap">John Carruthers</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>A survey of contemporary fiction in England +and America lends to the conclusion that the +literary and scientific influences of the last +fifty years have combined to make the novel +of to-day predominantly analytic. It has +thus gained in psychological subtlety, but lost +its form. How this may be regained is put +forward in the conclusion.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Caledonia</b>, or the Future of the Scots. +By <span class="smcap">G. M. Thomson</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>Exit the Scot! Under this heading the +Scottish people are revealed as a leaderless +mob in whom national pride has been +strangled. They regard, unmoved, the spectacle +of their monstrous slum-evil, the decay of +their industries, the devastation of their +countryside. This is the most compact +and mordant indictment of Scottish policy +that has yet been written.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Albyn</b>, or Scotland and the Future. By +<span class="smcap">C. M. Grieve</span>, author of ‘Contemporary +Scottish Studies’, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>A vigorous answer, explicit and implicit, to +<i>Caledonia</i>, tracing the movements of a real +Scottish revival, in music, art, literature, and +politics, and coming to the conclusion that +there is a chance even now for the regeneration +of the Scottish people.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Lares et Penates</b>, or the Future of the +Home. By <span class="smcap">H. J. Birnstingl</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>All the many forces at work to-day are +influencing the planning, appearance, and +equipment of the home. This is the main +thesis of this stimulating volume, which considers +also the labour-saving movement, the +‘ideal’ house, the influence of women, the +servant problem, and the relegation of aesthetic +considerations to the background. +Disconcerting prognostications follow.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="ph3"><i>NEARLY READY</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Archon</b>, or the Future of Government. +By <span class="smcap">Hamilton Fyfe</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>A survey of the methods of government in the +past leads the author to a consideration of +conditions in the world of to-day. He then +indicates the lines along which progress may +develop.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Hermes</b>, or the Future of Chemistry. +By <span class="smcap">T. W. Jones</span>, B.Sc., F.C.S.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>Chemistry as the means of human emancipation +is the subject of this book. To-day +chemistry is one of the master factors of our +existence; to-morrow it will dominate every +phase of life, winning for man the goal of all +his endeavour, economic freedom. It may +also effect a startling change in man himself.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Future of Physics.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. L. Whyte</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>The last few years have been a critical period +in the development of physics. We stand on +the eve of a new epoch. Physics, biology, and +psychology are converging towards a scientific +synthesis of unprecedented importance whose +influence on thought and social custom will be +so profound as to mark a stage in human +evolution. This book interprets these events +and should be read in connexion with <i>Gallio</i>, +by J. W. N. Sullivan, in this series.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Ikonoclastes</b>, or the Future of Shakespeare. +By <span class="smcap">Hubert Griffiths</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> + +<p>Taking as text the recent productions of +classical plays in modern dress, the author, a +distinguished dramatic critic, suggests that +this is the proper way of reviving Shakespeare +and other great dramatists of the past, and +that their successful revival in modern dress +may perhaps be taken as an indication of their +value.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="ph3"><i>IN PREPARATION</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Bacchus</b>, or the Future of Wine. By +<span class="smcap">P. Morton Shand</span>.</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>Mercurius</b>, or the World on Wings. +By <span class="smcap">C. Thompson Walker</span>.</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Future of Sport.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. S. +Sandilands</span>.</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Future of India.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Earle +Welby</span>.</p> + +<p class="hanging-indent1"><b>The Future of Films.</b> By <span class="smcap">Ernest +Betts</span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="tnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_note">Transcriber’s note</h2> + + + +<p>Minor punctuation errors have been changed without notice.</p> + +<p>Other spelling has been retained as originally published except +for the changes below.</p> + + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Page <a href="#Page_92">92</a>: “be effectively exercized”</td> +<td class="tdl">“be effectively exercised”</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Page <a href="#Page_105">105</a>: “Mr Colvin has the”</td> +<td class="tdl">“Mr McColvin has the”</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Page <a href="#Page_113">113</a>: “their montrous slum-evil”</td> +<td class="tdl">“their monstrous slum-evil”</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +</div> +</div> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75452 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75452-h/images/cover.jpg b/75452-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..719fc84 --- /dev/null +++ b/75452-h/images/cover.jpg |
