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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note: Italics are enclosed in _underscores_; references
+to specific area within illustrations, originally printed in smaller
+point-size numbers, are enclosed in ~tildes~.
+
+Additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+                                  THE
+                    INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
+
+                               VOL. LIII.
+
+
+
+
+                            ANTHROPOID APES
+
+
+                                   BY
+                            ROBERT HARTMANN
+
+                 PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN
+
+
+                     WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                 LONDON
+            KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+                                  1885
+
+
+
+
+(_The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved_)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+     I.  THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES      1
+
+    II.  THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES                         11
+
+   III.  THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID
+           APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN STRUCTURE                    55
+
+    IV.  ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS                     210
+
+     V.  GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF NATURE,
+           AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS                           225
+
+    VI.  LIFE IN CAPTIVITY                                           257
+
+   VII.  POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM            285
+
+  VIII.  A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
+           OF THE ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE,
+           ORANG, AND GIBBON                                         290
+
+         APPENDIX                                                    309
+
+         INDEX                                                       321
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  FIG.                                                              PAGE
+
+   1.  Aged male gorilla                                              14
+
+   2.  Ear of a male adult gorilla                                    17
+
+   3.  The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin
+         Aquarium of 1876–77                                          22
+
+   4.  The same animal at a still earlier age                         23
+
+   5.  Ear of chimpanzee                                              31
+
+   6.  Young chimpanzee                                               33
+
+   7.  Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan                  38
+
+   8.  Ear of the orang-utan                                          39
+
+   9.  Adult male orang-utan                                          40
+
+  10.  Head of the white-handed gibbon                                47
+
+  11.  Ear of the white-handed gibbon                                 48
+
+  12.  Left hand of _Hylobates albimanus_                             49
+
+  13.  Left foot of the same animal                                   50
+
+  14.  A wauwau in the left foreground (_Hylobates agilis_); in
+        the background to the right, two slender apes
+        (_Semnopithecus entellus_)                                    51
+
+  15.  Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile                       56
+
+  16.  Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla                57
+
+  17.  Skeleton of an aged male gorilla                               65
+
+  18.  Skull of an aged male chimpanzee                               69
+
+  19.  Skull of a very young female chimpanzee                        73
+
+  20.  Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African
+         bam-chimpanzee                                               74
+
+  21.  Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam-chimpanzee         76
+
+  22.  Skull of middle-aged female orang                              77
+
+  23.  Skeleton of young orang-utan                                   79
+
+  24.  The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of
+         his men                                                      85
+
+  25.  Aidanill, hairless Australian                                  88
+
+  26.  The same in profile                                            88
+
+  27.  Dewan, Aidanill’s sister                                       90
+
+  28.  Human ear                                                      93
+
+  29.  Magot (_Innuus ecaudatus_)                                     94
+
+  30.  Capucin ape (_Cebus capucinus_)                                98
+
+  31.  Hand of a very aged male gorilla                              103
+
+  32.  Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile              104
+
+  33.  Satan’s ape (_Pithecia Satanas_). Shows the formation and
+         mode of using the feet in apes of the New World             106
+
+  34.  Human skull                                                   108
+
+  35.  The Neanderthal skull                                         115
+
+  36.  Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon                                   119
+
+  37.  Naulette lower jaw                                            120
+
+  38.  Lower jaw of chimpanzee                                       120
+
+  39.  Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee        123
+
+  40.  Human skeleton                                                132
+
+  41.  Skeleton of an aged male gorilla                              133
+
+  42.  Skeleton of human hand, back view                             136
+
+  43.  Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon           138
+
+  44.  Section through the tibia of a male gorilla                   138
+
+  45.  Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee                138
+
+  46.  Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above                   140
+
+  47.  Coaita (_Ateles paniscus_)                                    142
+
+  48.  Muscles of the head and face of a European                    151
+
+  49.  Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro                             152
+
+  50.  Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3                   153
+
+  51.  Palmar muscles of man                                         168
+
+  52.  Palmar muscles of gorilla                                     169
+
+  53.  Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand                170
+
+  54.  Muscular system of the human foot                             177
+
+  55.  Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot                178
+
+  56.  The brain of an orang, seen from the side                     191
+
+  57.  Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above                      192
+
+  58.  Brain of gorilla, side view                                   193
+
+  59.  Brain of orang, seen from above                               194
+
+  60.  Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain                     196
+
+  61.  Mafuca                                                        216
+
+  62.  The home of the gorilla                                       230
+
+  63.  Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind                         244
+
+
+
+
+ANTHROPOID APES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES.[1]
+
+
+Our first acquaintance with the great anthropoid apes dates from the
+times of remote antiquity. The West Coast of Africa, which is the
+abode of these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as early as
+B.C. 500. In B.C. 470 Hanno set out with sixty fifty-oared galleys,
+laden with colonists and merchandise, on a grand expedition across
+Morocco to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly mercantile,
+partly undertaken with the purpose of establishing a colony. It seems
+that at that time pioneering expeditions had previously taught them
+how far the coast was adapted for colonization. The Carthaginians met
+with “_gorillai_” on the lower range of the mountains of the Isle of
+Sherboro, and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone(1). These
+are described as hairy sylvan creatures who replied to the attacks of
+the seafarers by throwing stones at them. Three of these monsters, of
+the female sex, were captured, but they bit and scratched so furiously
+that it was necessary to kill them on the spot. Pliny relates that at
+the time of the Roman invasion, B.C. 146, two of the skins obtained
+on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in the temple of
+Astarte(2). It was subsequently shown that chimpanzees, not true
+gorillas, were described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals are
+not now found so far north.
+
+    [1] A list of the numerous authorities for the substance
+        of this chapter is placed at the end of the volume.
+
+An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic, was found on the
+pavement of the temple of Fortuna at Præneste (now Palestrina). This
+mosaic is now in a museum at Rome, and has been described by several
+authors. It represents a scene in tropical Africa, probably on the
+Upper Nile. I find it difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the
+mosaic amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the other
+representatives of the animal world of tropical Africa(3). But it is
+well known that these large apes are found on some of the streams of
+the Upper Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes of these
+animals: “On the Indian mountains to the south, in the land of the
+Catharcludi, there are satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures,
+sometimes going on all fours, sometimes upright like men, and they are
+so active that they can only be captured when old or sick”(4). These
+satyrs have been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbon may
+also be intended, which is swifter and more agile, when in an upright
+position, than the orang-utan.
+
+Subsequent to the remote period which we have cited, there is a long
+silence respecting these remarkable animals. Only at the time when
+Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we hear something about
+them from Congo and Angola. The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of
+the chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in 1598 (5). There are
+later accounts of very large apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra
+(6), Father Merolla of Sorrento (7), Froger (8), and William Smith (9).
+
+Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee under the erroneous name
+of the mandril (_Cynocephalus Maimon_). The illustration is bad, but
+it may be recognized by his description. In 1641 the Dutch anatomist
+N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave a better illustration of this anthropoid
+(10). This naturalist observed that the animal in question, _Homo
+sylvestris_ or orang-utan (_Satyrus indicus_), is called quojas morrou
+by the Africans. An anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is
+still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699 (11). The anatomical
+illustrations included in this work are remarkably well executed for
+that time.
+
+Our biological acquaintance with the West African anthropoids is
+considerably increased by the account given in the sixteenth century by
+the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This man passed through the
+forests of Lower Guinea, as sergeant of the Portuguese troops under
+the command of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira Pereira.
+In 1613 Battel’s account was published by his neighbour Purchas in
+his _Pilgrims_ (12). Battel speaks of two kinds of large apes, the
+engeco and the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks of the
+Banna and the Mayombe. The engeco corresponds to the ndjéko or nschégo
+(chimpanzee), the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla.
+Battel’s description of the habits of these animals affords some
+characteristic touches which will concern us presently. We may date our
+earliest acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids from this
+adventurer’s career.
+
+The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published in 1668 a detailed
+description of Africa (13), in which there is much of value, and he
+mentions the large apes, called quojas morrau or morrou, which inhabit
+the kingdom of Congo (14). By these he apparently means the chimpanzee.
+
+Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the gorilla has been
+recently given by Bowdich in his very interesting work on the “Mission
+of the Anglo-African Company to Ashanti” (15). He says that there are
+several remarkable species of apes in the territory of the Gaboon,
+among which the ingenu (gorilla) is the strangest. The natives asserted
+that this animal is much larger than the orang-utan, generally five
+feet tall, and four feet broad from shoulder to shoulder.
+
+In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on the Gaboon, reported
+to the distinguished anatomist Owen that there was an ape in that
+country larger than the chimpanzee. In addition to this information,
+he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of an English missionary,
+Prince, in which the supra-orbital arch is strongly developed. Savage
+gave to the animal the name of _Troglodytes Gorilla_, to distinguish
+it from _Troglodytes niger_, the chimpanzee. Owen also described two
+skulls of gorillas, sent to him from the Gaboon (16). The skull of
+a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson, was drawn and
+described by Professor Jeffreys Wyman, and with it the notes of the
+donor were also published (17). In 1851 the skeleton of a gorilla
+reached Philadelphia through the medical missionary H. A. Ford, who
+also published the latest accounts of the new anthropoid (18). In 1849
+some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through Gautier Laboulaye,
+and this valuable contribution to natural history was received by de
+Blainville and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and 1852 more
+perfect remains were presented to the Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet
+and Admiral Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de Blainville
+(19), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (20), and Duvernoy (21), they are
+represented with great care. A splendid illustration of one of these
+specimens, excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male, adorns
+the _Photographie zoologique_, by L. Rousseau and A. Devéria, which
+has, so far as I am aware, been published without any text (22). This
+illustration is so true to nature that I made use of it in one of my
+earlier publications (23).
+
+Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America of French parents,
+and reared in his father’s mercantile house on the Gaboon, spent the
+years 1855–65 in roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon,
+the Ogōwē, and the Fernāo Vaz; he professed to have taken part in
+gorilla-hunts, and he published several books about his travels (24).
+Critical light has been thrown upon these works, especially by A. E.
+Brehm and Winwood (25); the illustrations are defective, and the text
+is full of tales of adventure. Du Chaillu’s information respecting the
+African anthropoids was published in the _Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society of London_ (26). His remarkable collection of the remains of
+apes has been described by Jeffreys Wyman (27), to whom we are also
+indebted for a notice of the materials collected by Savage (17).
+
+Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises on the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee, in addition to those already cited. This English
+professor had the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla,
+imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (28). The travellers Burton
+(29), de Compiègne (30), Savongnan de Brazza (31), Lenz (32), the
+members of the German-African Loango Expedition (33), and Von
+Koppenfels (34) have also contributed some information respecting the
+gorilla in a wild state. Other works on the zoology and anatomy of
+this animal have been published by Duvernoy, already cited, Dahlbom
+(35), Haeckel (36), Flower (37), Issel (38), Giglioli (39), Chapman
+(40), Mivart (41), Macalister (41A), Von Aeby (42), Lucae (43), Ecker
+(44), Bolau (45), Pansch (46), Lenz (47), A. B. Meyer (48), R. Meyer
+(49), Bischoff (50), Ehlers (51), Virchow (52), Von Bär (53), by the
+author of this work (54), etc. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau,
+Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect perfect specimens
+of the gorilla. Two of the specimens which came into my hands were
+unquestionably in the best condition, since I obtained them immediately
+after their deaths in Berlin. A larger specimen of a female, 1000 mm.
+tall, was in worse preservation, yet still quite available for the
+purposes of study.
+
+The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is not yet exhausted.
+Valuable information may be found in the anthropological works by C.
+Vogt (55), in the writings of Pruner-Bey (56), and Magitot (57), in
+Darwin’s works (58), in _Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères_, by Gervais
+(59), in Huxley’s _Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_ (60), in Flower’s
+_Osteology of the Mammalia_ (61), in Giebel’s _Odontographie_ (62), and
+in many other handbooks and treatises on natural history, which want of
+room forbids me to mention.
+
+In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living gorilla reached
+England. It survived its arrival seven months, and a good illustration
+of this creature, accompanied by a brief description, has been recently
+published in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London_
+(63). In 1876, towards the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought the
+second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin. It had been kept in
+confinement in that country at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874,
+and it died on November 13, 1877, at the Berlin Aquarium. Dr. Hermes
+obtained a third specimen in September, 1881, which died soon after
+its arrival in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the Berlin
+Aquarium.
+
+The chimpanzee became the more general object of zoological and
+anatomical study at an earlier period, since the species occupied
+a wider area than the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have
+already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the subject, and the animal
+described by von Tulpe. In 1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the
+chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London at the same time. In
+vol. 35, pl. 2, of his Natural History, Buffon gives an illustration of
+the chimpanzee, and pl. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very true to
+nature, but still recognizable (64). It is commonly supposed that the
+Dutch traveller Bosman, cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about five feet high,
+living near Fort Wimba “d’une couleur fauve” (65). Although Buffon was
+acquainted with the names chimpanzee and chimpezée, as well as with
+Battel’s surmises about the pongo and the enjeco, yet he regarded the
+jockos, pongos, and orangs as animals all belonging to one species. The
+young African animals observed by him and von Tulpe (chimpanses) must
+have been young pongos (66). The name pongo was afterwards applied to
+the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin and skeleton of the chimpanzee
+observed by Buffon when still alive, was preserved in the Zoological
+Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (67). There is a beautiful illustration
+of a young female which lived in the menagerie of the Jardin des
+Plantes in Paris in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution
+(68). This illustration, in which the animal is represented on all
+fours, has since been frequently copied. Copies have also been made of
+the drawings of the same individual in a walking position, and swinging
+by one arm, which originally appeared in Vélins’ famous catalogue of
+the Museum of Paris. Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahlbom have given
+good illustrations of the head and body of an old male chimpanzee (69).
+Numerous, and for the most part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee
+have been given in several modern works and illustrated papers (70).
+Undoubtedly the best representations of the chimpanzee, corrected from
+photographs taken from life, are found in my osteological treatise on
+the gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the little book which
+preceded it (71). The form and mode of life of this species of ape
+are fairly well described by Bischoff (72), as well as in the books
+already mentioned, and especially in those by Temminck (73), Gervais,
+Reichenbach, and Brehm. Recently the opportunities of describing the
+bodies of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the anatomy of
+this animal may also be found in the works of Tyson (11), Vrolik (74),
+Champneys (75), Brühl (76), and Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik (77),
+as well as in the works we have already mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy,
+Bischoff, Issel, Giglioli, Lenz, etc. Du Chaillu (26), Duvernoy (78),
+Bischoff (50), Gratiolet and Alix (79), A. B. Meyer (80), and the
+author of this work (81) have treated of the external form and internal
+structure of new species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee.
+
+Much has been written about the orang-utan since Vosmaer’s (82) day,
+among others by Rademacher (83), Wurmb (84), Griffith (85), Temminck
+(86), Schlegel and S. Müller (87), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (88),
+Brooke (89), Abel (90), and Wallace (91). Camper (92), Owen (93), J.
+Müller (94), Schlegel and S. Müller (95), Heusinger (96), Dumortier
+(97), Brühl (98), Bischoff, Langer (99), etc., have studied the anatomy
+of this animal. Good illustrations of the orang-utan are found in
+Vélins’ catalogue, copied by Chenu (100) and Gervais (101), and in
+Wallace; also in the designs by Mützel (102) and Max (103), and in my
+work on the Gorilla, already cited.
+
+It had been already shown by Tilesius (104) and Cuvier (105) that
+Wurmb’s young pongo is identical with the orang of Linnæus. We now
+know certainly that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango) should only be
+applied to the gorilla.
+
+The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid apes, the Indian
+long-armed apes or gibbons, have been recently described, with
+reference to their form and mode of life, by various travellers and
+naturalists, especially by Duvaucel (106), Bennet (107), Martin (108),
+Lewis (109), S. Müller (110), Diard (111); also by Buffon (112), Is.
+Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (113), and Blyth (114), etc. Gulliver (115),
+Bischoff (116), and the author of this work have studied the anatomy of
+these creatures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES.
+
+
+In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan the external form is
+subject to essential modifications, according to the age and sex. The
+difference between the sexes is most strongly marked in the gorilla,
+and these differences are least apparent in the gibbon.
+
+When a young male gorilla is compared with an aged animal of the same
+species, we are almost tempted to believe that we have to do with two
+entirely different creatures. While the young male still displays an
+evident approximation to the human structure, and develops in its
+bodily habits the same qualities which generally characterize the
+short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception of the baboon,
+the aged male is otherwise formed. In the latter case the points of
+resemblance to the human type are far fewer; the aged animal has become
+a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the structure of his hands and
+feet the characteristics of the primates, while the protruding head
+is something between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear, and the
+boar. Simultaneously with these remarkable alterations of the external
+structure there occurs a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an
+aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and the incisor teeth have
+almost attained the length of those of lions and tigers. On the upper
+part of the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony crests are
+developed on the crown of the head and on the occiput, and these are
+supported by the high, spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, and
+thus supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles of the neck and
+jaw. The supra-orbital arches are covered with wrinkled skin, and the
+already savage, and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla is
+thereby increased. A comparison of the two illustrations (Figs. 1 and
+3) which accompany the text, will make this clear.
+
+These distinctions are not so striking in the female as in the male
+gorilla. Although there is much which is bestial in the appearance
+of an aged female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the male,
+the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads are absent in the
+female, as well as the prognathous form of the skull and the length
+and thickness of the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not, in
+her whole structure, so far removed from the condition of the same sex
+in youth as is the aged male. The structure of the female has on the
+whole more in common with the human form. It has been said, and indeed
+on good authority, that the female type should take the foremost place
+in the study of the animal structure, since it is the more universal.
+But H. von Nathusius maintains that we must take both sexes into
+consideration in the study of domestic animals, since both are needed
+to determine the breed.[2] I accept this condition in the scientific
+study and description of wild animals also, of every kind and species.
+All that is said of the universal type of the female animal is and
+must remain in my eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation of
+males and females, and of young individuals of both sexes, can throw
+sufficient light on the history of the race. The male animal is the
+larger, and predominant with respect to the complete development of
+certain peculiarities of form in the specific organism, since these
+are doubtfully present in the adult female, and are either altogether
+absent in the immature young, or only rudimentary.
+
+Let us now consider, in the first place, the prototype of the species,
+the aged male gorilla in the full strength of his bodily development
+(Fig. 1). This animal, when standing upright, is more than six feet
+in height, or 2000 mm. The head is 300 mm. in length. The occiput
+appears to be broader below than above, since the upper part slopes
+like a gabled roof towards the high, longitudinal crest of the vertex.
+The projecting supra-orbital arches start prominently from the upper
+and central contour of the skull. In this species, as in other apes,
+and indeed among mammals generally, and especially in the case of the
+carnivora, ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows are present.
+In the gorilla these consist of a rather scanty growth of coal-black
+bristles, about 40 mm. in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital
+arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow slits, and with lids
+which display many and deep longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set
+with longer and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes glow
+between the lids with a ferocious expression.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Aged male gorilla.]
+
+The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards from between the inner
+corners of the eyes, and is keel-shaped in the centre. This part of
+the head is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower in one
+individual, shorter and wider in another. The skin in this region is
+covered with a network of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the
+nose and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at the base.
+This part of the nose, attached to the very projecting forehead, has
+the effect of an altogether snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a
+central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole tip of the nose
+into two symmetrical halves. This furrow is more strongly marked in the
+case of adult animals than in the young. The aperture of the nostrils
+is large and triangular, with the cartilaginous point turned upwards,
+and the edges applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks
+have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral margins of this
+part of the nostril take an arched form, first diverging in different
+directions, then gradually converging again towards the upper lip. The
+lip is short, and this, combined with the large nose, gives a certain
+resemblance to the mouth of an ox. This resemblance is the more
+striking, as the whole of this region is covered with glandular skin of
+a deep black colour, which is either glabrous or provided with a few
+scattered hairs, but furnished with small flattened warts.
+
+Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very round, dwindling away and
+becoming depressed in the lower part of the face. They are seamed with
+curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend downwards in the same
+direction as the wrinkles on the lower eyelids. The short upper lip is
+provided with oblique folds which converge outwards in the centre. The
+points of the strong canine teeth, which in many individuals are from
+38 to 40 mm. long, and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other,
+and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction, so that this part
+of the face takes the form of a triangular, bevelled surface, with its
+prominent base-line between the canine teeth. It may also be observed
+that in many individuals of this species the nose is not very deeply
+set on the upper lip; that in others, again, the nose is decidedly
+raised, and the lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In many
+such cases the prognathism of the face is strongly marked, so as to
+give a baboon-like effect. In other specimens, again, this debased type
+is not allied with strongly marked prognathism.
+
+If we take a front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla we see
+that the upper edges of the great supra-orbital arches are bevelled
+off below and at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the
+broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The front view of the
+head, and indeed of the whole animal, presents a strongly projecting
+contour, an impression which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks, with
+their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with its scarcely indicated
+chin, retreats in the centre and dwindles into a triangular form. This
+contour is characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the face is
+glossy, set with few hairs, and of a deep black colour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Ear of a male adult gorilla.]
+
+The ear (Fig. 2) averages 60 mm. in length, and from 36 to 40 mm. in
+width. It seems to be fastened to the head by the back and upper part,
+is generally of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly marked
+helix. The helix varies in width in different individuals, and often
+terminates on its inner edge in the projecting peaked excrescence
+described by Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently. The
+anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft which lies between
+these two latter parts (_incisura inter tragica_) are generally fully
+developed; the lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations in
+the special structure of these parts may frequently be observed.
+
+The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on the neck, and when the
+head is stretched they stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck.
+Owing to the great development of the spinous processes of the cervical
+vertebræ and of the muscles attached to them, and to the occipital
+bones of the skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of a
+bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their breadth, and the pectoral
+muscles for their large size. The nipples of the breast, which are not
+surrounded by any visible _areolæ_, stand out in youth, and afterwards
+assume a horny texture which stiffens into a kind of bone. When one of
+these animals is gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the
+tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall in when the stomach
+is empty.
+
+On the upper and forearms the plastic form of the strongly developed
+flexor and extensor muscles is very apparent, testifying to the
+enormous strength of the upper extremities. The hands are large,
+and very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb, of which the
+extremity takes a conical form, is short, extending little beyond the
+middle of the second metacarpal bone. The extremities of the otherwise
+broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed. The fore-finger is
+not materially shorter than the middle finger. The third finger is
+sometimes shorter than, sometimes of the same length as, the first,
+and the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist is covered
+with deep oblique folds. A network of wrinkles, oblique or curved,
+also covers the skin on the back of the fingers, on which there are
+callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes the fingers when
+going on all fours, and turns the back of the hand on the ground, thus
+producing this thickening of the upper skin on the joints. Callosities
+of the same nature, although not so extensive, are not rare on the
+second finger-joints. The palm of the hand is covered with a hard,
+horny skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the roots of the
+fingers. In spite of the blackness of the skin which covers them, these
+characteristics are still apparent.
+
+The fingers are united by a strong web, reminding us of the membrane
+found on the otter and other web-footed animals, and reaching nearly
+to the first finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the root of
+the fingers, although on the backs of the fingers there are only a few
+isolated hairs.
+
+The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from behind, somewhat
+resembles a trapezium in form, of which the longer of the two parallel
+sides extends between the shoulders, and the shorter between the two
+halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides, which are not parallel,
+correspond to the sides of the back. The arrangement of all the
+lower part of the trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out
+prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat resembles a four-sided
+pyramid with its apex reversed. The gluteal muscles are not strongly
+developed. The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat angular
+form.
+
+While the external sexual organs of the male are so covered by the
+wrinkled skin of the abdomen that they are not prominent in their
+passive condition, those of the female are, on the contrary, very
+apparent; the external lips of the vagina, provided with large nymphæ,
+and a large clitoris, are only apparent when the sexual instinct is
+excited.
+
+The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which appear to be smoothed
+off on the inner side, and somewhat arched on the outside. The lower
+part of the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long-oval
+form; the region of the calf is more strongly developed than in other
+anthropoids. The bones of the foot are not at all prominent, and the
+same remark applies to those of the hand. The contour of the back of
+the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is convex, covered with strong
+muscles, and padded with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole
+of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the region of the
+heel, and forward into the inner side of the foot, thus presenting the
+primitive formation of a heel.
+
+The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a thumb from the other
+toes, and can be used as such. The metatarsus serves as a base for its
+projection, in the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore part
+of the contour of the wrist. The great toe sometimes extends as far as
+the joint between the first and second phalanges of the second toe,
+sometimes nearly as far as the middle of the second phalanx. This
+characteristic varies in different individuals. At the point of union
+of the first metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the first
+phalanx of the great toe, there is a round projection on the inner side
+of the foot. The great toe is very broad at its root, then becomes
+smaller, and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With its strong
+lateral ridges of skin, which cover the sinews and cushions of fat, all
+this part of the foot appears to be wide and flattened off from the
+back to the sole.
+
+The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more slender than the
+great toe. The second toe is in most cases rather shorter than the
+third. The third and fourth toes are almost of the same length,
+and only a little longer than the second toe.[3] The fifth toe is
+considerably shorter than the fourth. The last phalanges of the toes
+taper in front, and are furnished on their lower surface with long,
+laterally compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is almost
+trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side. The upper part of the
+foot, although generally flat, rises a little in the neighbourhood of
+the first metatarsal bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge.
+
+The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as far as the extremity
+of the metatarsal bones, more sparsely on the back of the toes.
+There are strongly marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot,
+especially on the joints, often combined with horny callosities,
+since the animal sometimes doubles up the toes and runs upon the back
+of them. The nails of the hands and feet are black, like the whole
+of their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much arched, and
+generally somewhat wider at the base than in front.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The young male gorilla, from the specimen in
+the Berlin Aquarium of 1876–77.]
+
+On the sole of the foot we find the region of the heel, the ball
+of the great toe, in this case resembling the ball of a thumb, the
+roots and tips of the toes, together with pads consisting of muscles,
+tendons, and skin. The several divisions of these padded balls are
+separated from each other by furrows which are longitudinal, oblique,
+and transverse, and more or less distinct from each other. The black
+skin which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny, but provided
+with a series of papillæ. The whole skin of an aged animal is of a deep
+black colour, somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting wrinkles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--The same animal at a still earlier age.]
+
+The young male gorilla does not essentially differ from the old male
+in its general and external appearance. Its skull is, however, without
+the crest which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of a
+rounded form in the region of the crown and occiput. At this age the
+head is not so high at the back and on the top as in aged males. The
+orbits are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is not so
+decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the nose is shorter. The lines
+of the body in the young male are softer and less exaggerated, and the
+expression of the face is less ferocious than in an aged male. The
+horny callosities on the hands and feet are altogether wanting or only
+faintly indicated, and the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at
+the powerful development which we observe in the older animal. (Comp.
+Figs. 3 and 4.)
+
+Considerable differences may be observed in the whole structure of the
+adult female gorilla. The animals of this sex are smaller and weaker
+than males of the same age. The skull of the female is smaller and
+more rounded than that of the male, and the great bony crests are also
+absent. The orbits are less prominent, and a front view of the head
+gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The coronal arch rises
+above this trapezoid. In the male, on the contrary, the crown seems to
+lengthen above and behind into a pyramidal form. In the aged female
+the bridge of the nose is generally shorter than in the aged male,
+but even in this particular there is great variation in different
+individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a female is much
+depressed, and then the interval between the orbits and the end of the
+nose is shorter: I intentionally avoid the term _tip_ of the nose, on
+account of the blunted form of this organ. Even when the bridge of the
+nose is more prominent, the interval between its end and the orbits is
+sometimes very short.
+
+The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks, a smaller nose, and
+a higher upper lip. This last peculiarity is shown in the correct and
+well-stuffed specimens in the museums at Paris and Lübeck. Although,
+in the process of drying, the skin of the nose may have shrunk a
+little, yet there is still room for the upper lip, provided with folds
+which are either vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen and
+Mützel[4] have given satisfactory illustrations of these parts. In the
+aged female the shape of the neck is not, as in the aged male, strong
+and bulging, so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in conformity
+with the not inconsiderable development of the spinous processes of
+the cervical vertebræ, and with that of the powerful cervical muscles.
+Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen which was kept in
+the Berlin Aquarium, between July, 1876, and November, 1877, this
+enlargement of the neck was present in a marked degree. In still
+younger individuals, however, under a year old, in which the spinous
+processes of the vertebræ have not yet been developed, there is no such
+enlargement, but, on the contrary, this region of the neck takes a
+concave form.
+
+In conformity with the smaller size of the body, the shoulders, arms,
+and thighs of the adult female are smaller than those of the full-grown
+male, but they are still very powerful. While giving suck, the breasts
+of the female are swelled in the form of a half-cone, instead of
+assuming the convex shape which is observed in many European women,
+and still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian, and South
+Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical rather than conical in shape, and
+covered with finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard and
+horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang slackly down, like short
+empty pouches. The belly swells in the neighbourhood of the crest of
+the ilium, and increases in thickness at the groin. The external sexual
+organs, in the period of excitement, swell in a manner resembling the
+lips of a woman’s pudenda.
+
+In a young female the cranium is rounded, and the face is only slightly
+prominent. In aged specimens, especially in those of the male sex,
+there is a somewhat typical prolongation of that part of the face which
+lies between the eyes and the end of the nose, and this is to a slight
+extent apparent in the young female. Variations in form and in the
+extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent even at this early
+period. The trunk and limbs are more slenderly built than in a male of
+the same age.
+
+The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long, thick, straight or
+stiffly curved bristles, and also of shorter, thinner, and curled
+woolly hair. On the crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff,
+from 12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under the influence
+of anger. While the sides and fore-part of the chin are only clothed
+with short, stiff hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the
+chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which turn outwards from
+the sides of the face and on the neck are 30 or more mm. in length.
+On the shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long, hanging down
+on the upper arms and the back. In the middle of the upper arm the
+hair is from 50 to 70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend
+of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to grow in an upward
+direction. On the back of the forearm it again grows downwards. In
+the middle of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the hairs
+takes place, as one portion goes in front of the radius, while the
+other portion turns behind the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft
+of curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes directly back; and
+the lower tuft, also curved, turns outwards. On the back of the hand
+the hairs turn towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the hairs
+are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the breast their direction is
+as a rule upwards and outwards. On the belly they converge from the
+ribs towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs the hairs are
+about 160 mm. long, and here, as on the lower part of the leg, they
+tend outwards, while on the back of the foot they grow towards the
+toes. On the back, shoulders, and on the thigh and leg, the bristles
+are slightly curved. This quality increases the general impression of
+shagginess and fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of these
+creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very thick, and is not much
+matted.
+
+The colour of the hair not only differs on different parts of the body,
+but also in different individuals. On the crown of the head it is of
+a reddish brown, or rarely of a decided brown or black. The hairs in
+this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root, greyish white in
+the centre, and brownish red, shading into the dark brown tip. The
+hair on the lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes whitish,
+or both colours are found together. The hair growing at the sides of
+the face is grey below, dark brown or almost black above. On the neck
+and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the root, and gradually
+becomes lighter towards the tip. In the centre it is brown, shading
+into a lighter colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour
+is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark, sometimes brown or
+reddish. The hair on the back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish
+or light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown ring towards
+the tip, which is of a dark grey colour. Many of these hairs on the
+back have two brown rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and
+feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the root, brownish grey,
+dark brown, or black at the tip. Round the posteriors there is a circle
+of white, grey, or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm. in length.
+In both sexes variations from the colour of the coat here described are
+not rare. It has been already observed that the brownish red colour
+of the hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another shade. In
+many individuals the neck, shoulders, and back are of a dark grey,
+brown, or even black colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and
+feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey and brown hair
+intermingled.
+
+The second species of anthropoid apes is the chimpanzee. In this case
+also we must consider successively the aged and young male, and the
+aged and young female animals.
+
+The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the adult gorilla. In this
+species also the male is larger than the female. The chimpanzee is,
+speaking generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla.
+
+The head of the aged male chimpanzee fundamentally differs from that of
+the aged male gorilla, since the skull of the former has a depressed
+crown, and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly indicated.
+Since the orbits are also less strongly developed than in the aged male
+gorilla, and the spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ do not
+assume the same elevated form which is characteristic of the latter
+species, the countenance of the chimpanzee is not of a square shape,
+and there is not space for the strong muscular system arching over
+the neck like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla. The
+head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged and young specimens, the
+concave neck which is common among apes, that is to say, a depression
+between the head and the throat. In an aged male the crown of the head
+presents a rounded, arched contour, since, as we have already said,
+the prominent bony processes are wanting. Although the supra-orbital
+arches are not so excessively prominent as in a gorilla of the same
+age, they are strongly developed, covered with wrinkled skin, and in
+this case also there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with
+shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids are furnished with
+thick eyelashes. The inner angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of
+the gorilla.
+
+A general physiognomical distinction between the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee consists in the fact that the bridge of the nose is shorter
+in the latter than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part of the
+organ is depressed, yet the depression is of a conical and convex
+form, and is covered with a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In
+the chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle of the eye and the
+upper lateral contour of the cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter
+than in the gorilla. There is also some difference in the form of
+the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less apparent, the
+nostrils are not so widely opened nor so thickly padded. (Fig. 3.)
+In the chimpanzee, as well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical
+furrow directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these are likewise
+divided from the rest of the face by the broad pear-shape furrow which
+surrounds them. The upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as
+30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower. As in the gorilla,
+the chin forms a triangle of equal sides, with its apex reversed.
+
+The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the whole less resemblance
+to the human ear, and its contour is larger than that of the gorilla.
+But this organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult to
+lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges from 59 to 77 mm.
+in length, and from 42 to 80 mm. in width. Many individuals have a
+distinct lobule to the ear, others not. (Fig. 5.) In this example
+the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others they are wanting.
+The tragus and anti-tragus are more or less apparent in different
+individuals, as well as the other modifications of the external
+cartilage of the ear.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Ear of chimpanzee.]
+
+An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather rounded shoulders, a powerful
+chest, long muscular arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand,
+which seems to be very slender in comparison with that of the gorilla.
+The thumbs vary in length, for the most part reaching as far as the
+metacarpal phalanges, but not in all cases. The middle finger is longer
+than the other three; the first and third fingers are shorter by the
+length of the last phalanx, the third is a little longer than the
+first, and the fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to the
+middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches between the bases of
+the four fingers. There are horny callosities on the back of the hand
+of the aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla, supports
+himself on the backs of his closed fingers. The fingers are laterally
+compressed, but slightly arched on the back of the hand, and more
+decidedly so on the palm. A network of furrows covers the back of the
+hand, and these are more deeply impressed on its palm. The thumb is
+separated from the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to six
+furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the palm. The finger-nails
+are short, wide, and arched, very convex at their free edges.
+
+In the aged male the sides of the belly are compressed, the thighs
+are broad and muscular, and somewhat flattened both on the inner and
+outer sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks are somewhat
+laterally compressed, and the calf of the leg is very slightly
+developed. As in the gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like
+formation of the great toes, which are of considerable size. They
+extend, when drawing anything towards them, as far as the second
+phalanx of the second toe. The four other toes are more slender and
+only a little longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly
+developed, and slopes away below. The joint between the first phalanx
+of the great toe and the first metatarsal bone is marked by an angular
+projection on the inner edge of the foot. The back of the foot is very
+slightly convex. The last phalanx of the great toe is very much sloped
+off on its upper surface, but this is less apparent in the other parts
+of this member. The last phalanges of the other laterally compressed
+toes are strongly arched on the under surface. Considerable convexities
+may also be observed under the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the great
+toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of the toe-nails resembles
+that of the fingers. Large callosities are not unfrequently found on
+the backs of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports himself on
+these parts. A connective web is found between all the toes except the
+great toe and its neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that
+between the roots of the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Young chimpanzee.]
+
+Although the young male chimpanzee is distinguished from the aged
+male of the same species by differences in the structure of many
+of its parts, yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as
+those between the young and aged male gorillas. The skull of the
+younger animal, which is altogether devoid of the prominent bony
+crest and ridges, is shaped almost like a truncated cone in the
+region of the crown; in some individuals of only a few years old, the
+bony development of the orbits has already begun, starting from the
+principal part of the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled
+skin. The short and depressed bridge of the nose becomes longer and
+higher, the cartilaginous end of the nose becomes larger, and the
+prognathism of the face increases with each successive stage of growth.
+The strength of the trunk and limbs is early developed. The sexual
+characteristics are gradually and plainly developed; but the male
+gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal ferocity.
+
+The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller head, with an oval crown
+to the skull. The orbits are not so strongly developed as in the aged
+male, the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are not nearly
+so strong. The body of an animal of this sex is rounder in all its
+parts; and the belly, with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in
+the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the same angular formation
+of muscles.[5] The hands and feet of the female are also smaller and
+slenderer. In a young female the characteristics here described are
+presented in the mitigated form which corresponds with its youthful
+condition. But the female sometimes becomes a very strong and even
+violent creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg Zoological
+Garden, where a female specimen, in splendid condition, survived for
+several years under the faithful care of old Siegel.[6]
+
+The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light, yet muddy flesh
+colour, which sometimes verges upon brown. Spots, varying in size and
+depth of colour, sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a
+blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found on different
+parts of the body of many individuals, especially on the face, neck,
+breast, belly, arms and hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the
+back. The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour, merging
+into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker shade with the gradual
+development of the body. The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases
+slightly curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally stiff
+and elastic. The parting on the forehead is often so regular that it
+might have been arranged by the hairdresser’s art (see Fig. 6). Close
+behind that part of the head at which the projecting supra-orbital
+ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is in the chimpanzee an
+altogether bald place, or only a few scattered hairs. Round the face
+the growth of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the neck it is
+from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and it falls in the same long locks
+over the shoulders, back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so
+long, and takes a downward direction on the upper arm, and an opposite
+direction on the forearm, while there is often a longitudinal parting
+on the centre of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On the
+back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of whorl; the upper hairs
+turn upwards and backwards, the middle ones turn backwards, the lower
+ones backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands and the roots
+of the fingers are hairy. On the front of the thigh the hair takes
+a downward direction, while behind it grows backwards. On the shank
+it grows downwards in the region of the tibia, and turns back on the
+inside of the leg. The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are
+likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these scattered hairs on
+the face, chin, and ears. On the supra-orbital arches there are from
+eight to twenty, or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner
+of eyebrows; and eyelashes are likewise present.
+
+In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of a black colour.
+Short whitish hairs may be observed on the lower part of the face and
+chin, as well as round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the hair
+is shot throughout with reddish or brownish black.
+
+The orang-utan, the chief representative of the anthropoids in
+Asia, differs from the African forms of this group, almost at the
+first glance, in the height of his skull, of which the fore-part is
+compressed and shortened in a backward direction. In the aged male it
+is, however, provided with high and erect bony crests, which give a
+prognathous appearance to the countenance. We take an aged male as the
+type of our description.
+
+The forehead is high and erect, not retreating like that of the
+chimpanzee; it is open, and has moderately convex frontal eminences.
+From the centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval eminence
+sometimes projects. The supra-orbital ridges are strongly arched,
+yet not so prominent as that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting
+aside that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened, nor are
+their lids large and furrowed, but on the lower lids there are deep
+wrinkles. The small bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but
+sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it issues from the central
+longitudinal depression of the face. The end of the nose, further
+removed from the eyes than is generally the case in the chimpanzee,
+is not so broad as it is in the latter animal and in the gorilla. The
+wings of the nose are narrow and highly arched in their upper part,
+divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and the nostrils are
+small and oval, separated by a thin partition. The upper lip is high,
+broad, and projecting, and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from the
+cheeks and from the upper part of the face by a deep depression; and
+behind the cheeks two large and long-shaped or sometimes triangular
+pads of fat often project forwards and downwards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan.]
+
+The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not remarkably thick. The chin
+is very retreating, but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (Fig. 7).
+The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and 12 mm. in width, and has
+a general resemblance in structure to the human ear (Fig. 8). On the
+fore-part of the short, thick neck there are irregular, and in some
+places very deep circular folds of skin. The throat-pouch distends part
+of this slack, wrinkled skin, which hangs down in front like a great
+empty wallet (see Figs. 7 and 9).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Ear of the orang-utan.]
+
+The structure of the other parts of the body lacks even to some extent
+the powerful and symmetrical formation which we observe in the gorilla,
+and indeed in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet rather angular
+and sloping shoulders, with flattened breast, rounded back, and still
+more rounded belly, is tun-shaped, and gives the impression of a
+want of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal region resembles
+the projecting rump of a fowl, and this may also be observed in the
+young gorilla and chimpanzee. The long, muscular arms reach to the
+ankles when the animal is in an erect position, and are altogether
+out of proportion with the rest of the body. The powerful upper arm
+is shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long and narrow. The
+thumb, which reaches as far as the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a
+displeasing and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the fingers,
+sometimes extending along a third of the first phalanx, sometimes along
+half. The middle finger is somewhat longer than the first and third
+fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The fourth finger is
+comparatively long. The palm of the hand is flat, only marked by a few
+deep furrows. The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed, and
+the nails on their tapering ends are arched.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Adult male orang-utan.]
+
+The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner side, are, however, very
+muscular, but become much smaller on their back side. The calf of
+the leg is less developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the
+chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and slender. The narrow,
+flat heels project very slightly behind. The great toes are short, with
+wide extremities, rounded above, and provided on the sole with thick,
+fatty skin. In old age these animals not only often lose the nails of
+their great toes, but sometimes even the last phalanges themselves.
+This is not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is the case
+with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in this condition lose
+portions of their tails or toes, but it also occurs among orang-utans
+in their wild state. The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe
+is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on the under side of all
+but the great toe, where they rarely occur. The backs of the hands and
+feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin, and on the hands
+there are callosities.
+
+This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic disposition than the
+gorilla and chimpanzee, has a very strange appearance, with its
+projecting head and short neck; its face widening in the middle
+and tapering towards the forehead and chin; its tun-shaped trunk,
+long, thin extremities, and shaggy coat. It differs widely from the
+chimpanzee and gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the
+compression of the forehead is less marked than in aged animals, and
+the bony crests which conduce to raise the coronal arch in its upper
+and hinder part are also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less
+strongly developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers of fat
+upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more detached from the neck,
+the structure of the whole body is slenderer, the expression of the
+countenance is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end, may
+generally be observed on the great toe.
+
+In the adult female, as I have pointed out elsewhere, the physical
+characteristics of the young male are repeated in an exaggerated form.
+The skull, displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed high, but
+more rounded than in the aged male; the face is prominent, but the head
+is more detached from the neck than in the latter case. On account of
+the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still more tun-shaped than
+in the aged male. When giving suck, the breasts are distended in the
+form of a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall together
+and only present two short, wrinkled, slightly prominent folds of skin;
+the small, horny nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of
+which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether disappears. The
+throat-pouch is less strongly developed than in the aged male, but the
+limbs are as fully developed. The head of the young female is still
+more rounded, with a more flattened though still projecting face, and
+the limbs are slenderer, and thus still more out of proportion with
+the thick trunk than is the case with a young male.
+
+The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour, sometimes mixed
+with brown, but the greyish blue shade is predominant. A yellowish or
+brownish grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils, upper lips, and
+chin there is often a ring of a dirty, yellowish brown colour, forming
+a strange contrast with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The
+arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish black, more rarely
+brown or reddish brown.
+
+The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long, curved, waving
+bristles, and some scanty downy hairs. On the back of the head, on the
+shoulders, back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to 235 mm.
+in length. In other individuals they were, however, much shorter--20,
+40, or 60 mm. long. There is often a natural parting of the hair of
+the head, which falls asunder on either side. In some cases there is
+no parting, and the hair streams wildly down; and in others, again,
+it stands upright, stiffening from the sides and top of the head in a
+demoniacal manner (Figs. 7 and 9). A beard frequently encircles the
+cheeks and chin. The hair grows upwards and outwards on the neck and
+fore-part of the throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper
+arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite direction on the forearm.
+On the wrist the hair grows in the manner described in the case of the
+gorilla. There is only a scanty growth of hair on the breast and belly,
+and it is also short and weak on the face, ears, and backs of the hands
+and feet. I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have seen, but
+they may occur, and the eyelashes are fully developed.
+
+The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something like burnt sienna,
+and the hair-tips on the back parts of the body are generally brown.
+In some individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish brown;
+in others it is lighter, and in the latter case the breast and belly
+are of a yellowish white. The beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some
+individuals almost devoid of hair have been observed.
+
+The gibbons, or long-armed apes (_Hylobates_), constitute the fourth
+group of anthropoids. Many kinds of this group are known, and I feel
+bound to describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able
+to give an idea of their structure. With respect to these animals, I
+cannot only rely on the materials which are accessible to me, but must
+also make use of the descriptions given by others.[7]
+
+The gibbons have as a rule very long arms, reaching to their ankles
+when they stand upright. The face is not very prognathous, the crown
+of the head is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are small
+callosities on their posteriors, which are absent in the gorilla, the
+chimpanzee, and the orang-utan.
+
+The largest species of these animals, which inhabit part of the
+continent and of the islands of Asia, is the siamang (_Hylobates
+syndactylus_, F. Cuvier).[8] According to Diard, its arms are not
+quite so long as those of the wauwau (_H. agilis_, F. Cuvier). This
+animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating forehead, a long,
+moderately arched crown to the head, and a slightly arched occiput. The
+base of the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only slightly
+prognathous in the aged male. According to Diard, the eyes are deeply
+set, the nostrils are very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic
+arch, the mouth opens widely, the chin is of insignificant size. It is
+the only one of the gibbons which possesses the throat-pouch, already
+described as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in aged
+animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in front. The second and
+third toes are connected together by a thin web, reaching to the last
+joint in the male, and to the penultimate joint in the female. The
+hairs on the forearm turn their points upward, and form a kind of whorl
+on the wrist. The animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and
+tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs. According to Bock,
+the face is encircled by a grey or white beard. This animal is about a
+metre in height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra.
+
+The lar (_Hylobates Lar_, Illig) is another species of gibbon. The
+structure of the body is much more slender than that of the animal
+just described; the head is round, the eyes are large, the nose
+projects from its depressed surroundings with only a very slight ridge,
+and the cartilaginous end is shaped like a triangle with unequal
+sides. This triangular end is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and
+the small nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are divided
+from each other by a thin partition. The structure of the upper lip is
+peculiar. In the centre, just below the base of the nasal partition,
+it is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical lateral halves by a
+vertical furrow. Each of these halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging
+the small lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and the
+zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the lower eyelids, there are
+the flat, depressed cheeks. The small chin presents itself below the
+central cleft of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face of this
+gibbon, of which the general appearance is very singular, is surrounded
+by a circle of thick hair, which resembles the circular hood of an
+Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both generally and in
+detail, is not confined to the lar, but applies to other species of
+gibbons, including the siamang (see Figs. 11 and 15). It is a feature
+which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at the first glance,
+from the other forms of anthropoids already described. The colour of
+the lar’s face is reddish brown or tawny; the hair which surrounds it
+is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with short, light grey
+hair on the backs of the hands and feet. The black ears are almost
+hairless. The lar has up to this time seldom found a place in our
+zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and Siam.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Head of the white-handed gibbon.]
+
+The white-handed gibbon (_Hylobates albimanus_, Vigors and Horsfield)
+is often confounded with _H. Lar_. But _H. albimanus_ has a black face,
+and the general colour of the skin is black, including the inside of
+the hands and feet. Thick white hair encircles the face, and the backs
+of the hands and feet are covered with short white or light grey hairs,
+while the rest of the coat is quite black. The hair of the forearm
+grows downwards, towards the wrist. The ears of these apes are almost
+of the shape of an equilateral triangle. The helix of the ear runs like
+a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix passes through the
+centre of the slightly depressed external surface of the ear, of which
+the whole arrangement does not essentially differ from that of the ear
+of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous substance of the organ is a
+good deal inflected, broad behind and in the upper part, dividing into
+two limbs in front and below. There are indications of the tragus and
+anti-tragus. The detached lobule of the ear is absent (Fig. 11). This
+structure of the external ear is common to other species of gibbons,
+although in many cases the upper part of the helix is wrinkled, and the
+anti-helix is sometimes more fully developed, and more like that of the
+human ear.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Ear of the white-handed gibbon.]
+
+The face in this species is small. The supra-orbital arches are
+strongly developed, and almost join in the centre. The eyes are large,
+dark, and have a mild and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent
+in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed below it. The bridge
+of the nose is imbedded between the cheeks, which, especially when
+seen in profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is covered
+with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape described in the
+former species, and so are the upper lip and chin (Fig. 10). Long,
+bristly hairs stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip, and
+short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The white hairs which
+encircle the face grow like a beard on the chin. The whole face has a
+melancholy, almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the trunk
+drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there is a short thumb, laterally
+compressed, which does not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal
+joint. The ball of the last phalanx forms a thick, rounded pad, which
+is repeated in a lesser degree on the under side of the first phalanx
+of the thumb, and on its ball. The thumb-nail is bent back, as unlike a
+claw as the flattened, long, and narrow nails of the other fingers. The
+middle finger is only a little longer than the first, and the fourth
+not much shorter than the third finger (Fig. 12).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Left hand of _Hylobates albimanus_.]
+
+The foot is neatly made, short and narrow, without a projecting heel.
+The great toe is very long, reaching almost to the last phalanx of the
+second toe. The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great toe,
+especially its last joint, are provided with thick, rounded pads. The
+middle toe is not much longer than the second, the fourth is shorter
+again, and the fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is only
+a very short web between the roots of the fingers, but it extends much
+further on the toes (Fig. 13). This species of ape is found in Further
+India.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Left foot of the same animal.]
+
+The wauwau (_Hylobates agilis_, F. Cuvier, Fig. 14), an ape of a rare
+species, may, according to Duvaucel, be recognized by his prominent
+supra-orbital arches, sunken eyes, a moderately flat nose, and large
+nostrils with lateral openings. The face of the male is hairless, and
+of a bluish black; that of the female is brown. The face is encircled
+by thick, whitish hair, through which the ears are only partly visible.
+There are a few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head, belly,
+inner surface of the arms and of the thighs are dark brown. The neck
+and shoulders are of a lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun
+or whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark brown. The sides
+of the posteriors and the backs of the thighs are brown, chestnut,
+or white. In the female the white hair which encircles the face is
+shorter, and verges on dun colour. The young animals are light yellow
+or brown. This animal inhabits the island of Sumatra.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A wauwau in the left foreground (_Hylobates
+agilis_); in the background to the light, two slender apes
+(_Semnopithecas entellus_).]
+
+The grey gibbon (_Hylobates leuciscus_, Kuhl) is covered with a thick,
+long, and woolly coat, with scattered hairs which are curly, and have
+two or three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The upper part
+of the head is black; light, or sometimes white, hair encircles the
+blackish face. The general colour is dun. The front of the throat, the
+breast, and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of the neck,
+the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are darker. A brown or black
+stripe runs down the breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of
+the hands and feet are black. The colour of young specimens is more
+uniformly grey or dun. This animal is found in Java and Sumatra.
+
+The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck (_Hylobates Hoolock_,
+Harlan), has, in its adult condition, a prognathous face with prominent
+supra-orbital arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high, narrow
+nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged animals there are two
+oblique folds over the eyes, of a light grey colour. The rest of the
+hairy coat, the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger
+animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A line of grey extends
+from the breast downwards over the belly. This animal inhabits the
+mountainous district of Assam.
+
+The unko (_Hylobates Rafflesii_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is of a
+black colour, shading into reddish brown on the back and sides. Hair,
+of a grey colour in the male and white in the female, encircles the
+face. This ape is a native of Sumatra.
+
+The dun-coloured gibbon (_Hylobates entelloides_, Is. Geoff.
+Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which is thick and woolly,
+and furnished with long hairs of a greyish yellow or dun colour.
+This coat is somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms and on
+the neck, where it shades into reddish yellow. The growth of hair
+surrounding the face is lighter, verging upon white. The female is
+generally more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair on her face
+is of a reddish yellow rather than white, but not without a trace of
+white hairs. The face and the bare places on the hands and feet are
+black. Between the second and third toes there is a connective web
+reaching as far as the first joints. This animal inhabits the Malacca
+peninsula. The name of the species is derived from its assumed likeness
+to the Indian hanuman (_Semnopithecus Entellus_, F. Cuvier), of which
+an illustration is given in the background to the right of Fig. 14.
+
+The white-bearded gibbon (_Hylobates leucogenys_, Ogilby[9]) is
+remarkable for the long, erect hairs which grow on the upper and back
+part of the scalp, and for the long white beard on the cheeks and chin,
+which joins the thick growth above the eyes. The rest of the body is
+dark black. Its native place is doubtful.
+
+The general colour of the tufted gibbon (_Hylobates pileatus_, J. E.
+Gray) is black, shading into grey on the shoulders, back, and thighs.
+A white ring surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there
+is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and often a patch of
+black on the breast. The whiskers are black. In other respects the
+animal varies according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam and
+Kambodja.[10]
+
+The dark grey gibbon (_Hylobates funereus_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire)
+is of an ashen grey colour on the upper and outer side of its limbs,
+verging into brown; and on the under side it is dark brown. There is a
+narrow strip of light grey round the face, with a darker band round the
+back of the head. It is found in the island of Sulu.[11]
+
+In addition to these species of gibbons of which we have given a
+brief account, there are several others--as, for example, _Hylobates
+concolor_ (Harlan), from Borneo; _H. Muelleri_ (L. Martin), from the
+same place; _H. choromandus_ (Ogilby), from India, and many others. But
+since our space is limited, the description given above must suffice
+for a diagnosis of the species.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH
+THE HUMAN STRUCTURE.
+
+
+In order to complete as far as possible the description which we
+propose to give of the general natural history of these remarkable
+animals, it is necessary to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it
+is not so much our aim to give a detailed and exhaustive description
+of their anatomy, as to glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their
+inner structure which catch the eye. It seems to me expedient in this
+case to follow the method of systematic and descriptive anatomy, and
+to take the several natural organs in succession. This method, which
+has long prevailed for studying the structure of the human body, should
+also be our guide in our researches in comparative anatomy. Our readers
+need scarcely be told that the anatomy of anthropoids is only a small
+branch of the comparative anatomy of vertebrate animals in general.
+
+I begin by considering the bony structure of anthropoids, and, in
+particular, of the gorilla. And it will be well to note the important
+differences between the structure of the skull of a young and aged
+male, and of a young and aged female gorilla.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile.]
+
+The skull of the aged male animal is large and heavy. Its average
+weight is one and a quarter kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter,
+from the alveolar point of the upper jaw to the occipital point, may
+be as much as 294 mm. The overhanging orbits are high in front, and
+flattened off behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge in
+the middle of the face. To these the back parts of the orbits are
+attached, in shape like a truncated cone, round and prominent in front,
+and narrowing into bony capsules in the direction of the brain-pan.
+They open directly in front, and the aperture is generally in the form
+of a regular square. The edges are seldom so blunted off as to present
+a figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp. Figs. 15, 16). The
+frontal bone, which in the young of both sexes is high, broad, and
+arched, becomes depressed in the centre in the aged male. The temporal
+ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to the coronal crest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Front view of the skull of an aged male
+gorilla.]
+
+This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the region of the
+frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites itself with the transverse
+occipital crest. It is of varying height,[12] but is rarely altogether
+absent in an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal crest we
+may see the two well-developed bony ridges which almost touch each
+other, and which indicate the upper limits of the temporal muscles on
+either side. In young animals these ridges tend downwards over the
+sides of the head, below the vertex of the skull. Their position and
+direction vary with the growth of the skull, and correspond with that
+of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest is of considerable
+height in the case of aged and vigorous animals, and is frequently
+somewhat concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore surface of
+this crest is formed of the two parietal bones, the hinder surface of
+the squamose portion of the occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is
+on the top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in that of
+other mammals, including man, it unites the parietal bones with those
+of the occiput. The point of union between the coronal and occipital
+crests divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves, curving
+outwards and downwards. The high, wide squamose portion of the
+occipital bone is somewhat flattened behind, or more rarely arched,
+while it is abrupt at its base and in some degree in front. Six curved
+lines, three on either side, opposite each other, sometimes mark the
+limits of the attachments of the cervical muscles on the head. The
+mastoid process of the temporal bone is present, but Brühl could find
+no trace of a styloid process on the skulls of gorillas and chimpanzees.
+
+The squamous portion of the temporal bone is often connected with the
+frontal bone by the process termed Virchow’s frontal process of the
+temporal bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow in their upper
+part, and widening below. When they are united in the centre of the
+nasal bridge, a sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed.
+The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity are remarkable for
+their size. In the skulls of young animals the inter-maxillary bones,
+which are in all anthropoids early united with those of the same
+region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal bones and those of
+the upper jaw.
+
+The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the enormous canine teeth
+project in the centre of the face on either side like pillars, just
+below the nostrils, and extend above and below the row of teeth in the
+two upper jaws (see Fig. 16). In this way the crowns of the canine
+teeth form a retreating triangular space, of which the base-line of
+the equilateral triangle corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin
+part of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the form of an
+equilateral triangle. In the latter case the base-line is covered by
+that section of the row of teeth containing the incisor teeth. The
+sides of the triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth (see
+again Fig. 17). The incisor teeth, enclosed between the latter, in
+that part of the lower jaw already described, are retreating. The rami
+of the lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of the lower jaw
+is obtuse (Fig. 15). The front or coronoid process and the back or
+condyloid process of the ramus of this bone are separated from each
+other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process projects abruptly
+above, but is less marked behind.
+
+When we consider the internal form of the skull of an aged male
+gorilla, the first thing that strikes us is the marked development of
+the frontal sinuses, and especially their width in the region of the
+nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next observe the wings of the
+sphenoid bone, and that these large concave apophyses are provided
+with spaces only slightly separated from each other. These sinuses are
+not only plainly connected with each other, but with the sphenoidal
+sinuses. There is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with
+vestibules, and this has a deep communication with the maxillary sinus,
+or antrum of Highmore, embedded in the body of the upper maxillary
+bone. There are, finally, sinuses at the point of junction between the
+coronal and occipital crests.
+
+The maxillary region of the cranium of the young male gorilla is
+already somewhat prognathous, and the keel-shaped elevation of
+the bridge of the nose is also very apparent, but the development
+of these parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male. The
+whole contour of the cranium is oval, and without the high crests so
+characteristic of the aged male animal. It is well known that the
+Swedish anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has classified the
+skulls of different races of men as long-headed (_dolichocephali_)
+and short-headed (_brachycephali_). In the former class, the length
+is considerably greater than the height; while in the latter, the
+difference is either slight or non-existent. The skulls of the
+_dolichocephali_ are long and oval; those of the _brachycephali_ are
+short, round, or square. In addition to this division, which is of
+great value in the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of
+racial skulls, Retzius has constituted another. He has characterized
+skulls of which the profile is straight, or nearly straight, as
+_orthognathous_ (_rechtzähnige_); and those of which the maxillary
+region is very prominent, as _prognathous_ (_schiefzähnige_). These
+orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either dolichocephalic or
+brachycephalic.[13]
+
+In applying this classification by Retzius to anthropoids, the
+gorillas and chimpanzees have been characterized as dolichocephalic
+and prognathous, the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic
+and prognathous. Several scientific men have sought to establish the
+noteworthy distinction that dolichocephalic anthropoids are found
+in Africa, and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This distinctive
+characteristic is held to agree with the geographical and ethnological
+conditions of the continents in question.[14] Virchow remarks in a
+later work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with every year
+of life, but that this is not so much due to the cranium as such, as
+to its bony outworks, such as the strongly developed supra-orbital
+arches, the enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measurements
+rather tend to show that the young gorilla is brachycephalic, but that
+this characteristic diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the
+external excrescences are taken into account. But it is quite otherwise
+when the furthest point of measurement is taken from the frontal arch,
+not from the nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of the
+brachycephalic condition is established.[15]
+
+In the skulls of such young males as those here mentioned, the temporal
+ridges, which in aged animals are in close proximity in the region
+of the developed bony crests, have already in some cases begun to
+approach each other, but they are still far apart. In young specimens
+we can distinguish, on each side of the parietal bones, two temporal
+ridges, opposite each other, and taking a nearly parallel course. The
+upper ridge, which loses itself on the external surface of the mastoid
+process, which is already developed, corresponds to the junction of the
+fascia of the cranial muscles (_Galea aponeurotica musculi epicranii_)
+with the fascia enclosing the large temporal muscles. The lower ridge,
+which is gradually merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process of
+the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the fleshy origin of the
+temporal muscle. This corresponds to the spot at which the two layers
+of the temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these temporal
+ridges can be only faintly traced; they become more strongly marked
+as his growth advances, and as they approximate more closely to each
+other on the vertex of the cranium. I have examined a skull of which
+the sutures were still open, and could already trace the development
+of the coronal crest in two divisions, separated from each other by a
+longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these divisions corresponded
+to the two temporal ridges, which were in close proximity to each
+other. If the animal had not died at this stage of its development,
+it is probable that, with advancing growth, the two divisions of the
+crest would have been welded into one structure. Such a condition only
+characterizes a transitory stage of development, repeated in each
+individual.
+
+In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where the longitudinal
+crest of which we have so often spoken is subsequently developed, we
+may often observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of a young male
+a longitudinal swelling, which increases very gradually. In the region
+of the two upper semicircular curved lines (_lineæ semicirculares s.
+nuchæ supremæ_), on the squamous occipital portion, or between these
+and the two central cervical lines, a transverse swelling is early
+developed; this swelling sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture,
+or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony excrescence, of which
+the anatomical term is _Torus occipitalis transversus_, corresponds to
+the first layer of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of
+the old male gorilla (see Fig. 15).
+
+In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region of the coronal
+suture, a small, insulated, intermediate bone may be observed
+(Virchow’s _os epiptericum_) between the squamous portion of the
+temporal bone and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it
+is sometimes completely welded. In this case there is, above the _os
+epiptericum_, a direct connection between the temporal and frontal
+bones by means of the frontal process (Virchow’s _processus frontalis
+squamæ temporalis_), which is not rare in anthropoids.[16] This process
+often owes its origin to the _os epiptericum_, which is in its early
+stages attached to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again to
+this frontal process.
+
+The orbits are more rounded in young than in aged skulls; in the latter
+they are always angular, although the angles, especially the upper and
+external angles, may be more or less blunted. Virchow remarks that
+in the skull of a very young gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds
+its width, and that at that age the skull is therefore high. In the
+aged male gorilla the height of the orbit, according to the several
+measurements I have taken, varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width
+between 37 to 45 mm.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.[17]]
+
+The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla corresponds in its
+powerful and massive form with the general structure of the body,
+which is remarkable for its height and strength (see Fig. 16). In
+the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical, thirteen dorsal,
+and four lumbar vertebræ, thirteen ribs, and, even in aged animals,
+a sternum composed of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebræ
+display long spinous processes, which are most strongly developed
+between the fourth and seventh vertebræ. The extremities of this
+colossal structure, combined with the elevation of the occipital
+region, present a convex outline when seen from behind. This structure
+provides the point of insertion and support for the powerful cushion of
+cervical muscles. The dorsal vertebræ, which increase in height, width,
+and depth as they stand lower on the column, taper, and are keel-shaped
+at their junction with the cervical vertebræ. The central parts of the
+widely arched ribs, which are thirteen or sometimes fourteen in number,
+are very thick and powerful in the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs
+are attached by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two other
+costal cartilages are in proximity with them. The other cartilages
+are only rudimentary, and the terminations in the muscular system of
+the belly are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type here
+established, and from ten to eleven ribs are sometimes attached to the
+sternum by thread-like strips of ligament or cartilage.
+
+The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal is of special
+interest. The chief parts of this portion of the skeleton--that is,
+the hip, pelvic, or innominate bones--are high, tapering in their
+lower part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate in the
+crest of the ilium, which describes a quarter of a circle. There
+is, for the most part, only one small superior iliac spine, and
+the ischii are somewhat turned outwards, and furnished with broad,
+rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only a single large
+sacro-sciatic notch. The horizontal rami of the pubes are narrow, while
+the descending rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped
+like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards, and resembling the
+basal joint of a true tail. The coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a
+genuine tail.
+
+The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interesting peculiarities.
+The clavicles are long and slender, with a leaf-shaped, flattened end
+articulating with the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with
+the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular bone, resembling
+the human scapula in its general form, and the supra- and infra-spinous
+fossæ are not strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus has
+its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees towards the axis of
+the shoulder. Frequently, but not invariably, the lower, flattened
+extremity of the humerus is pierced on one or both sides above its
+rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin the intercondyloid
+foramen.
+
+The radius has a powerful head, and a shaft considerably curved
+outwards, while it is, on the other hand, curved backwards and inwards
+at the elbow. The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges
+are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The development of the femur
+corresponds to that of the whole skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft
+is curved in front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia is
+generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather laterally compressed.
+
+The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved outwards in the centre and
+inwards behind the astragalus. The head, with its cuneiform extremity,
+is of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The scaphoid bone,
+which is generally in connection with this projection, takes the same
+direction towards the inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion
+causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as if it had been
+subjected to a deviation or fracture of its longitudinal axis.
+
+In young and adult males, as well as in young females, the structure of
+the bones is generally less massive than in aged males. In the female
+skeleton the strongly developed depressions and ridges, especially in
+the bones of the extremities, are absent. The head of the ulna is, for
+example, less deeply set in the case of a female, and its projections
+are smaller than in the male animal. In the female, also, the head
+of the radius is smaller, and the triangular shape of its shaft is
+less strongly marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are wider,
+flatter, and less concave on their very projecting inner surface. They
+diverge more widely from each other, and this is also the case with the
+tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less depressed than in
+the male gorilla. Although the spinous processes of the vertebræ attain
+to some length and thickness, their development in the female is not so
+great as it is in the male sex.
+
+The bony structure of the chimpanzee offers many points of resemblance
+to that of the gorilla, while it differs in certain particulars from
+the structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size of the skeleton
+is smaller than that of the gorilla, which is in agreement with the
+smaller relative size of the body of the chimpanzee.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Skull of an aged male chimpanzee.]
+
+We must begin with a general view of the skull of the chimpanzee. In
+both sexes the frontal regions are smaller, while the coronal region is
+more rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests and prominent
+supra-orbital arches are wanting in the chimpanzee; the peculiar
+character of the bony ridges, projecting like tubes from the other
+parts of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more directly
+to the frontal region (see Fig. 18). The bony bridge of the nose is
+more concave in the chimpanzee; the jaw-bones are smaller and less
+compressed in the centre than they are in the gorilla.
+
+When we undertake to describe the skull of the chimpanzee in detail,
+it becomes necessary to consider separately the skulls of aged and
+young males, and of aged and young females; for in this case also
+the distinctions of sex and age are very evident. On the skull of an
+aged male chimpanzee the temporal ridges are not much developed on
+the coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60 to 90 mm. behind the
+orbits, and form only a small coronal crest. The transverse occipital
+crest is somewhat developed, and at its point of union with the coronal
+crest the temporal ridges divide to form its upper edges. This is
+the case not only with the Rio Quillu skull, from which Fig. 18 is
+taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte Tschègo given by
+Duvernoy.[18] In some other specimens belonging to aged male animals
+the presence of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In these
+the temporal ridges are very small, and more or less distant from
+each other. While the transverse occipital crest maintains an almost
+uniform height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge, it is
+only slightly elevated behind in those chimpanzee skulls in which the
+crest is partially developed. In the gorilla male this ridge divides
+the squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes bevelled, sometimes
+slightly convex; in the male chimpanzee this part is more decidedly
+arched, and takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes are
+also present in the chimpanzee. The external occipital crest and the
+curved lines are generally apparent. The styloid processes are more
+plainly traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as in the
+chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process of the temporal bone,
+opposite to another bony process, issuing from the occipital bone. This
+has been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him the carotid process
+(_Processus caroticus_).
+
+The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more rounded, with a
+distinctly circular rim, while the nasal bones are as long and narrow
+as in the gorilla. The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the
+external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than in the gorilla.
+The crowns of the canine teeth project in the same pillar-shaped form
+(Fig. 18). The triangular space enclosed by these and by the row of
+teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and projecting, even more so
+than in the gorilla. But whereas in the latter the canine teeth are
+shaped almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chimpanzee they are
+more rounded and conical. In the general structure of the teeth of both
+species there are certain differences of which we shall speak presently.
+
+The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is still more arched than
+it is in aged animals. The temporal ridges are still far apart.
+The transverse occipital crest displays near the mastoid process
+well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls of very young
+males the transverse occipital swelling of which we have spoken
+(_Torus occipitalis transversus_) is already developed. The orbits
+are distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of the nose is
+depressed; the crowns of the canine teeth are, in conformity with the
+still slight development of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the
+triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex than in older
+animals.
+
+The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its coronal and occipital
+parts, more uniformly arched, narrower, and more elongated than in aged
+males. The transverse occipital ridge usually develops itself in the
+region of the upper curved lines, or in the bony parts enclosed between
+these and the central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region is
+depressed. That section of the upper jaw which contains the incisor and
+canine teeth is small. In the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever
+sex or age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively small, with two
+low but wide rami, of which the coronoid and condyloid processes are
+divided from each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The rami of
+the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more abruptly retreating than is
+usually the case in the gorilla.
+
+The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped almost like a
+half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely detached from the forehead; the
+want of elevation of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of
+the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between it and the nose and
+forehead (Fig. 20).
+
+The cancellous texture of the bones of the chimpanzee’s skull admits
+of a whole system of cavities communicating with each other, which
+are of the nature of the so-called sinuses present in the frontal,
+sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones of the human skull. In the
+chimpanzee, however, the sinuses are more extensive than in man,
+or even than in the gorilla. The large cavities of the forehead
+communicate with those of the nose and jaws. The sphenoidal sinuses and
+ethmoidal cells are large and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid
+bone and its pterygoid processes are provided with considerable
+cavities. The mastoid cells of the temporal bones are in connection
+with the cells of the greater wings and pterygoid processes of the
+sphenoid bone, and also extend through the squamous portions and
+zygomatic processes of the temporal bones, losing themselves in their
+upper part in the smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found
+between the outer and inner walls of the skull. These are of more
+uniform shape and size.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Skull of a very young female chimpanzee.]
+
+The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance with the smaller size
+of the species, is relatively of a slenderer build than that of the
+gorilla. The spinous processes of the seven cervical vertebræ are more
+slightly developed, and have undivided extremities. The transverse
+processes of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebræ are almost of the
+same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen dorsal vertebræ,
+somewhat laterally compressed: this compression is greater than in
+man and in the gorilla. The four lumbar vertebræ of the chimpanzee are
+furnished with long, thin, riblike transverse processes. The so-called
+mammillary processes of the final vertebra are strongly developed in
+the male. The intervertebral foramina are small, as they are also in
+the gorilla and orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of the chimpanzee remind
+us of the human structure. The collar-bone is slightly curved, as in
+the gorilla. There is a marked difference between the sexes in the
+structure of the scapula which is broad and three-sided in the male,
+small and leaf-shaped in the female.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 20.--Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African
+    bam-chimpanzee. _a_, Ulna. _b_, Radius. _c_, Scaphoid bone.
+    _d_, Semi-lunar bone. _e_, Cuneiform bone. _f_, Pisiform bone.
+    _g_, Trapezium. _h_, Os magnum. _j_, Trapezoid. _k_, Unciform
+    bone. _l_, Phalanges of thumb. _m_, Metacarpal bones. _n_,
+    Phalanges.
+]
+
+The humeri have slender shafts, with well-developed condyles and
+ridges. The bones of the forearm are much curved, so that the interval
+between them is, as in the gorilla, somewhat wide. From the wrist to
+the final phalanges the hand is more slender than in the gorilla.
+
+The pelvis in this species of ape has high, narrow ilia, spreading
+in their upper parts, and projecting forwards, so as to form the
+cavity of the abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior
+spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than in the gorilla
+and orang-utan. The ischiatic tuberosities are of a spreading form,
+and diverge considerably from each other. The pubic arch is deeply
+hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated. As in the gorilla, the
+os sacrum resembles the basis of a tail, but it is less developed and
+less conical in form.
+
+In the chimpanzee, as well as in other anthropoids, the coccyx gives
+altogether the impression of a laterally compressed and rudimentary
+tail. This is especially the case in young animals, in which the coccyx
+always appears to be very narrow and prolonged. In older animals
+this part gradually widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a
+rudimentary tail.
+
+The head of the femur resembles a section of a sphere, of which the
+upper part is sometimes wanting. Its shaft, which is curved in front,
+is much slenderer in the female than the male. The patella is oval. In
+the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally compressed, and bent inwards.
+The bones on the inner side of the foot take a backward direction,
+while those on the outer side, attached to the fibula, turn outwards.
+
+In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is much arched, and
+turned inwards. The scaphoid bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The
+metatarsal bones and phalanges have a considerable upward convexity
+(Fig. 21).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Skeleton of foot of the Central African
+bam-chimpanzee. _a_, Astragalus. _b_, Os calcis. _c_, Scaphoid bone.
+_d_, _e_, _f_, Cuneiform bones. _g_, Cuboid bone. _h_, First metatarsal
+bone. _j_, Second to fifth metatarsal bones. _k_, Phalanges.]
+
+The skeleton of the orang has also its special characteristics. We have
+already remarked, in describing the external form of the heads of these
+animals, that the skull is high and projecting, and retreating in its
+hinder part. In the old male orang this part of the bony structure is
+of smaller size than in the old male gorilla. The arch of the cranium
+is shorter and rounder than in that animal and in the chimpanzee. The
+central longitudinal crest of the vertex is present, but in accordance
+with the more spherical shape of the coronal part of the cranium, this
+crest is more arched above than in the gorilla, in which it slopes
+gently upward to the transverse occipital crest, which rises high
+and peaked from the back of the head. This latter crest is indeed
+developed in the orang, but it is not so high, and is more retreating.
+In consequence of this formation, the upper posterior part of the
+gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more abrupt and peaked
+than that of the orang. In the latter, also, the orbital arches are
+not so high and abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of the
+skull. In the orang the squamous occipital portion declines abruptly in
+front and below, yet it is generally more arched than in the gorilla.
+The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes rounded, sometimes more
+square, are divided from each other by a narrow partition. The space
+between them and the anterior nares is not so great as in the gorilla.
+While in the last-named animal the space between the root of the nose
+and the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the chimpanzee it
+is generally vertical, and in the orang it is depressed (Fig. 22).
+The maxillary parts, furnished with strong canine teeth, are very
+prognathous, yet hardly to the same extent as in the chimpanzee. The
+body of the lower jaw is high, and its rami are high and wide. The
+bony crests of which we have spoken are absent in the female. The
+coronal part and the squamous occipital parts are arched; the upper jaw
+is smaller, and the lower jaw is also less massive, than in the male
+animal. In very young animals the predominance of the strongly arched
+cranium over the countenance is apparent, and the increase of size in
+the latter occurs gradually (Fig. 23).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Skull of middle-aged female orang.]
+
+The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and wide at their base. They
+are more decidedly pear-shaped (_Apertura pyriformis_) than those of
+the gorilla and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these apertures are
+generally wider and more uniformly rounded. Bischoff justly observes
+that the bony part below the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide
+above, tapering away in the lower part of the face, is narrower and
+more vertical in the orang. The nasal bones of the orang are high and
+of moderate width. Brühl mentions the styloid process of the orang’s
+skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive when we compare it with
+that of the human skull. It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove.
+On the other hand, Brühl, as we have already observed, can find no
+trace of the styloid process in the skulls of the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee![19]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 23.--Skeleton of young orang-utan. _a_, Sternum. _b_,
+    Radius. _c_, Ulna. _d_, Tibia. _e_, Metacarpus. _f_, Phalanges.
+    _g_, Great toe. _h_, Fibula. _j_, Hip-bones. _k_, Coccyx. _l_,
+    Vertebral column. _m_, Scapula. _n_, Femur.
+]
+
+There are many large-celled bony cavities in the orang’s skull. These
+may be observed in the greater wings and pterygoid processes of the
+sphenoid bone, in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal
+bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in the condyles of
+the occipital bone, and in the zygomatic arch. The larger fore-cells
+on the squamous part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide
+aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and pterygoid processes
+of the sphenoid bone. A sinus which may be observed on the greater wing
+generally communicates by a large round hole with the temporal cells.
+There is generally, but not always, a communication between the sinuses
+of the greater wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity. These
+cavities sometimes communicate with each other through a wide aperture
+at the base of the nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones has
+a cellular sinus, which communicates with the cells of the mastoid
+process, in its lower part with the tympanum, and in its fore-part with
+the ossicles of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary sinuses
+are in connection with the cells of the lachrymal bone. There is
+nothing in the orang’s skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the
+sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla and the chimpanzee.
+
+The vertebral column of the orang has not the same colossal spinous
+processes which distinguish that of the gorilla. It differs also
+in many other, though less striking, particulars both from the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there are generally twelve
+dorsal vertebræ, tapering in their lower parts; while their long,
+thick, transverse processes, which are full of knots, take an upward
+direction. The upper articular processes of the four lumbar vertebræ
+present short and rather insignificant mammillary processes. The
+sternum of the young orang is generally formed of one large upper
+bone, with six smaller bones below. In older animals the body of the
+sternum appears to consist of a tier of three bones connected together.
+The ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the clavicle is long
+and straight, and the scapula also resembles that of a man in form.
+The flat pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the ischiatic
+bones are short, with spatula-shaped tuberosities; the pubic arch is
+high, and the obturator foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and
+coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much as in the case of the
+anthropoids we have already described. We are reminded of the human
+structure in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved behind,
+and on its outer side. The ulna is very slender, and provided with a
+protracted, jagged styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering,
+while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and the anterior
+border and oblique line are sharp. The wrist, metacarpus, and fingers
+are long and narrow.
+
+The femur of the orang is remarkable for its large head, shaped like
+a section of a sphere, and its slender shaft. The latter is less
+bent than in the gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should
+be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in this case of an
+irregular form. The shank and foot-bones are remarkably slender. The
+scaphoid is tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn inward
+so much as in the gorilla. The hinder surfaces of the metatarsal bones
+and of the phalanges turn decidedly outwards.
+
+We have now to consider the bony structure of gibbons, in which there
+are many specific variations which our space will not allow us to
+consider in detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system must
+be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s skull is of an oval shape,
+without the crests so characteristic of other anthropoids, and even
+in the aged males of this species their development is so slight as
+to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital bone of male animals is,
+indeed, generally rounded, and the whole occipital portion is somewhat
+compressed in a downward direction, while the coronal region is at the
+same time flattened. The cranium gradually widens behind, so that,
+when seen from above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged males
+the orbits project from the low, retreating frontal bone, and are
+surrounded by a bony, circular rim.
+
+The face is not very prognathous, and the short wide nasal-bones form
+a wide, depressed partition between the orbits. The edges of the
+jaw-bones describe a parabolic curve and are considerably elongated.
+The palate is consequently long and narrow. The rami of the lower
+jaw are wide and low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly
+developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially the canine teeth,
+are long and projecting; yet, comparatively speaking, they never attain
+to the great development of those of other anthropoids.
+
+The number of vertebræ seems to be subject to considerable variation
+even in the same species, and various estimates are given by different
+naturalists. Müller, for example, has said that in several species
+(_Hylobates syndactylus_, _H. leuciscus_, _H. variagatus_, and _H.
+concolor_) there are thirteen dorsal, five lumbar, six sacral, and four
+coccygeal vertebræ. Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal,
+five lumbar, four sacral, and three coccygeal vertebræ. In _Hylobates
+agilis_ I counted thirteen dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and four
+coccygeal vertebræ. _Hylobates syndactylus_ has long coccygeal bones,
+and an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression of serving for
+the application of a short tail, or, indeed, of being in itself a
+rudimentary tail. In other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar
+vertebræ differ little in structure from those of man.
+
+The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly outwards, are strongly
+arched. The lowest of these project, owing to the width of the shaft.
+In the sternum there is a want of proportion between the smallness
+of its body and the size and width of its extremity. The ensiform
+appendix of this bone is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower
+extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are very slender, and
+much arched. The scapulæ, on the other hand, are high and narrow,
+spatula-shaped, and provided with a steeply projecting acromion
+process, a strongly developed coracoid process, and deep glenoid
+cavities. The upper limbs are, in conformity with the general structure
+of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones of the upper and
+forearm are elongated, with small extremities. The condyles are small,
+especially those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the metacarpus,
+and the fingers are also long and slender.
+
+In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow below, and expand in the
+form of a spatula above, and that their position is almost vertical.
+Their inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are directed
+somewhat forwards. The ischiatic bones are low, with wide, flattened,
+rugged tuberosities, and rounded _foramina obturatoria_. The ischiatic
+rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direction. There are
+large prominences on the pubic arch of the siamang.
+
+The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the arm. The heads of the
+femurs stand out plainly from their short necks and large trochanters,
+as segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in that of other
+anthropoids, the third trochanter (_trochanteres tertii_), often so
+apparent in the human femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are
+arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed, so that its transverse
+section forms a scalene triangle. The malleoli are compressed from
+before backwards. The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally
+compressed. The canal between the astragalus and the os calcis (_Sinus
+tarsi_) is very wide. The metatarsal bones and phalanges have large
+bases, long slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under side.
+Even the final phalanges are long and slender.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array,
+with two of his men.]
+
+We shall now find it profitable to compare the external characters of
+anthropoids with those of man. We are sometimes disposed to see the
+true likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked savages.
+These savages are often insufficiently fed, the skin is wrinkled,
+the face, even at an early age, is deeply furrowed, and their general
+appearance is neglected. The dark silhouette of such people stands
+out so distinctly against a clear background, their habit of life
+is so rude, their attitudes impress us so disagreeably, that we
+are involuntarily led to make such a comparison. This tendency
+unfortunately gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti
+naturalists, and such as are zealous to establish a preconceived
+theory. A conscientious inquirer must, however, be cautious, and avoid
+too great generalization in such comparisons. For instance, much has
+been said of the pithecoid structure of all African negroes, yet this
+only applies to some peculiarly hideous races, in a state of physical
+degradation. There are many negro tribes in different parts of Africa
+which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies, and for a not
+ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour of the natives of Ashanti,
+Dahomey, and Ibos is well known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed
+and thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform, as we see
+in the photographs of Captain Glover’s force, their military bearing
+is very apparent. The tribes of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam,
+and A-Bantu present examples of distinguished warriors, however rude
+and savage. Dabulamanzi, commander of the Zulus at the butcheries of
+Isandlhwana and Ulundi, and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my
+possession, the impression of gallant warriors, however uncivilized.
+In all these cases it is difficult to establish the resemblance to
+anthropoid apes (see also Fig. 24).
+
+The Papuans, especially on the Australian continent, are generally
+classed with the African negroes in such comparisons. We admit that a
+horde of Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue, emaciated
+and dirty, may, as they roam through the shadeless woods, the steppes
+and thick scrub of their native country, present a strange and
+brute-like appearance. And if the foreign intruder takes a coarse
+pleasure in giving drink to these savages, their immodest gestures
+may afford a revolting impression of their bestial nature. Yet the
+habits even of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different
+under more favourable conditions. Although of small stature, they are
+not badly proportioned, and their manners and bearing are capable of
+improvement, so that they can act as native police, messengers, etc.
+This was the case also with the natives of Queensland, Australia, whom
+I saw in the Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomerang. Even
+in these tamed savages, however, we must note the projecting orbits,
+the deep depression between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of
+the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bushmen, negroes, Papuans,
+Malays, Japanese, and Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are
+altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may even be found in
+Europe.
+
+Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in British India, asserted
+that he had found the missing link between man and apes in the
+mountainous district of the Western Ghauts. And indeed, the race he
+describes seems to have a strong resemblance to apes. “The forehead is
+low and retreating. The lower part of the face projects like the muzzle
+of an ape; the legs are short and bent outwards. The trunk and arms are
+comparatively long. The hands and fingers are contracted so that the
+latter cannot be freely extended; a thick skin covers the hollow of
+the hand and the fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small
+and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered both on their backs and
+soles with a thick skin. This tribe seems to worship nature. They have
+no fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and honey, and exchange
+the latter, together with wax and other productions of their forests,
+for tobacco, clothes, and rice.”[20]
+
+Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been published concerning
+this race. The description given above leaves much to be desired. The
+assertion respecting the contracted fingers is obscure, and such a
+condition is directly opposed to any resemblance with the flexible hand
+of apes.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 25. Aidanill, hairless Australian.
+
+  Fig. 26. The same in profile.
+]
+
+Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence is still dubious, to
+consider the portraits we subjoin of a man and woman, aborigines of
+Queensland, in a district watered by the Ballone. These are Aidanill,
+the brother, and Dewan, the sister, members of a hairless family. The
+indefatigable Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles from Tulba,
+in order to examine them, and took the photographs from which our
+illustrations are taken.[21]
+
+A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of its hair, may be traced
+in the keel or roof-shaped form of the skull; in the prominence of the
+supra-orbital arches; in the deep depression between the forehead and
+nose, of which only the centre of the bridge has a slight vertical
+elevation; in the broad, flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows;
+in the wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally projecting ears.
+Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in their treatise on _Troglodytes
+Aubryi_ (Figs. 25, 26, 27). When we add to this the dark brown skin,
+the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark brown eyes, as they are
+described by Miklucho-Maclay, the external resemblance between many of
+the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more marked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Dewan, Aidanill’s sister.]
+
+Projecting ears are common among men of different races, and I have
+observed them in Europeans who are otherwise well formed. Even in
+this latter case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of the
+resemblance which may often be observed between the human ear and that
+of apes. It is admitted that hardly any part of the organism varies
+so much in its characteristics as the external ear. This is the case
+with anthropoids, and almost more frequently with men. Individuals
+of all nations are found with defective development of this or that
+characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha, and fossa, with
+lobules imperfectly formed or altogether absent. I have frequently
+observed such misshapen ears, which vary from the perfect type, and
+bear a certain resemblance to the ear of apes, among the hard-featured
+peasantry of Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, and Poland, who
+cannot be said to count beauty as part of their inheritance. In Africa
+I found this defective formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks,
+and Turks who were living in the country, than among the fellaheen,
+Berbers, and negroes. The latter have been unjustly charged with the
+possession of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas, among the African
+races, these organs are, in the majority of cases, of a pleasing form.
+With respect to the Australian blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and
+Indian races, I cannot rely on my personal observation. According to my
+very limited experience, there is much individual variation among these
+races, and ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be sought
+for with success. The specific resemblance to apes can, indeed, only
+be ascertained by one who is accurately acquainted with the organism
+of these animals. These and similar ideas are often expressed by the
+unlearned, who do not really understand the characteristics in question.
+
+Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the ear in the chimpanzee and
+orang.[22] “The ears of the chimpanzee and orang are curiously like
+those of man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological Gardens
+that these animals never move or erect them, so that they are in an
+equally rudimentary condition, as far as that function is concerned, as
+man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors of man, should have
+lost the power of erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be, though
+I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing to their arboreal
+habits and great strength they were but little exposed to danger, and
+so during a lengthened period moved their ears but little, and thus
+gradually lost the power of moving them. This would be a parallel case
+with that of those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting oceanic
+islands have not been exposed to the attacks of beasts of prey, and
+have consequently lost the power of using their wings for flight.
+
+“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of one little
+peculiarity in the external ear which he has often observed both in
+men and women, and of which he perceived the full signification. His
+attention was first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure
+of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was thus led to examine
+the ears of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully those of
+man. The peculiarity consists in a little blunt point, projecting from
+the inwardly folded margin, or helix. These points not only project
+inwards, but often a little outwards, so that they are visible when
+the head is viewed from directly in front or behind. They are variable
+in size and somewhat in position, standing either a little higher or
+lower; and they sometimes occur on one ear and not on the other. Now
+the meaning of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but it may
+be thought that they offer too trifling a character to be worth notice.
+This thought, however, is as false as it is natural. Every character,
+however slight, must be the result of some definite cause; and if it
+occurs in many individuals deserves consideration. The helix obviously
+consists of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards; and this
+folding appears to be in some manner connected with the whole external
+ear being permanently pressed backwards. In many monkeys, which do not
+stand high in the order, as baboons and some species of macacus, the
+upper portion of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin is not
+at all folded inwards; but if the margin were to be thus folded, a
+slight point would necessarily project inwards and probably a little
+outwards. This could actually be observed in a specimen of the _Ateles
+beelzebuth_ in the Zoological Gardens; and we may safely conclude that
+it is a similar structure--a vestige of formerly pointed ears--which
+occasionally reappears in man.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Human ear.]
+
+I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in which the pointed tip
+mentioned by Darwin may be easily discovered. This point may also be
+perceived in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of the
+orang-utan. Meyer has attempted to show that this Darwinian pointed tip
+is only due to the abortive development of part of the helix, and in
+this case we should not regard the occurrence as an ape-like pointing
+of the helix, but rather as its partial interruption owing to the
+pathological condition of that organ.[23] In a later edition of his
+work, Darwin admits, in reply to Meyer, that this explanation may apply
+to many cases in which there are several very small points, or when the
+whole of the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by Darwin,
+the prominence was so large that, if we were to assume with Meyer that
+the ear would have been normal if the cartilage had been uniformly
+developed along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must have
+occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases were mentioned to Darwin in
+which the upper edge of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed
+that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal. The ear of the fœtus
+of an orang given in Darwin’s illustration appears to be pointed,
+although in the adult animal that organ is very like the human ear. The
+Darwinian tip may also be seen in the fœtus of an orang described and
+illustrated by Salvatore Trinchese in the _Annali del Museo civico di
+Storia Naturale di Genova_ (1870). The tip of the helix is pointed in
+very young individuals of the gibbon species, especially in _Hylobates
+Lar_. Among the lower apes the pointed ear is very common (see Fig. 29).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Magot (_Innuus ecaudatus_).]
+
+The eyelids of anthropoids greatly resemble those of man in their
+structure. In adult gorillas and chimpanzees there is always a
+semilunar fold (_plica semilunaris_) corresponding to the _membrana
+nictitans_, or third eyelid of birds. In man there exists, instead of
+this, only a rudimentary apparatus, the _caruncula lachrymalis_. In
+some individuals it attains to a considerable size, as I have observed
+in the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes. On the other
+hand, the conversion of the caruncula into a true, although only
+rudimentary, _plica semilunaris_ has not been observed by me in the
+human eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula in Melanesians (the
+Papuans of New Guinea), in the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula),
+and in the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the Palau
+archipelago), as two or three times as wide as that of the average
+European.[24]
+
+The eye of the young male gorilla which was kept alive in the Berlin
+Aquarium from 1876–77 was carefully examined by me in June, 1877.
+I found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball was whitish,
+surrounded by a dark brown ring. A second darker ring, sharply defined,
+surrounded the cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The sclerotic
+membrane, however, gradually deepens in colour so as to give the effect
+of a uniform dark brown. The iris retains a light brown colour for a
+longer period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal there is no
+brightness in the eye, except from reflected light. In the chimpanzee
+the iris is light brown, verging on yellow; and this is also the case
+in the orang.
+
+The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids has often been
+observed, and undoubtedly chimpanzees and orangs generally gaze
+placidly before them. I have, however, observed an animated expression
+in the eyes of the former species, and W. L. Martin has also observed
+a flash and brightening of their eyes. I shall never forget the
+expression of malicious anger in the eyes of the female animal Mafuca,
+at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The expression of the eyes of
+the gorilla in the Berlin Aquarium also changed frequently, especially
+when he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or when he was
+provoked to anger. The expression of this animal was very human, but
+necessarily it could only recall the darkly coloured eyes of negroes
+and other black races. In 1876 there were two very young orangs in the
+Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and the other hairless. These animals clung
+together in a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes became
+bright and restless, and they again sought to embrace each other while
+uttering plaintive cries. On tickling one of the animals under the
+chin, it made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened, as Martin
+has observed in similar cases. The eyes of the gibbons which I have
+observed had a thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely animated
+by any fire.
+
+The instance we have mentioned of hairless Australians is the more
+remarkable since these aborigines are for the most part distinguished
+for their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian blacks and the Ainos
+of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps the most hairy races in the world. It
+is known, however, that in all countries and climates exceptional cases
+are found of individuals whose bodies are wholly or partially covered
+with hair, and these conditions sometimes affect whole families.
+Interesting historical and morphological researches respecting these
+hairy men have recently been made by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow,
+Bartels, and Ornstein. In many of these cases we are presented with
+decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican woman Julia Pastrana
+displays the strongest resemblance to apes. Other hairy men remind us
+at the first glance of some of the canine species. In all races the
+women are less hairy than the men. Darwin states that in the females of
+some species of apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in
+the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids, especially with
+the chimpanzee.
+
+The beard is, as we know, common to man and apes. Among apes it is
+more strongly developed in the male than in the female, and this is
+also the case in the human species. Darwin points out that the growth
+of the beard both of men and apes occurs at the period of their sexual
+maturity, and also that there is a remarkable parallel between men and
+apes in its colour. For when the human beard varies in colour from
+the hair of the head, which is frequently the case, it is, without
+exception, of a lighter, and generally of a reddish hue. Darwin
+observed this in England, and Hooker found no exception to the rule
+in Russia. J. Scott carefully observed the numerous races which are
+to be found in Calcutta, as in other parts of India, namely, the two
+Sikh races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese. Although most of
+these races have very little hair on the face, Scott found that in all
+cases without exception, in which there was any difference in colour
+between the hair of the head and the beard, the latter was of a lighter
+shade. In apes the colour of the beard often differs widely from that
+of the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always of a lighter
+shade, often white, sometimes yellow or reddish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Capucin ape (_Cebus capucinus_).]
+
+“It is well known,” says Darwin, “that the hair on our arms tends to
+converge from above and below to a point at the elbow. This curious
+arrangement, so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is common to
+the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to
+some few American monkeys. But in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the
+forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist in the ordinary
+manner; and in _Hylobates lar_ it is nearly erect, with only a very
+slight forward inclination; so that in this latter species it is in a
+transitional state. It can hardly be doubted that with most mammals the
+thickness of the hair and its direction on the back is adapted to throw
+off the rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of a dog may
+serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks
+that the convergence of the hair towards the elbow on the arms of the
+orang (whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to throw off
+the rain, when, as is the custom of this animal, the arms are bent,
+with the hands clasped round a branch or over its own head. We should,
+however, bear in mind that the attitude of an animal may perhaps be in
+part determined by the direction of the hair; and not the direction of
+the hair by the attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the
+case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers a curious record
+of our former state; for no one supposes that it is now of any use
+in throwing off the rain, nor in our present erect condition is it
+properly directed for this purpose.”[25]
+
+Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny that apes have
+eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eyebrows are present in all
+anthropoids--not growing thickly together like those of men, but
+scattered among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which clothes
+the parts above the orbits; nor do they maintain any definite
+direction. In the white-handed gibbon, these eyebrows are remarkable
+for their length and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to
+eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper eyelids of all
+mammals, including seals and pachydermata. On the upper lip of
+gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs we may also observe a number of
+somewhat longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart from the
+otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give the impression of a cat’s
+“whiskers.” In _Hylobates albimanus_ I observed that these _vibrissæ_
+attain to a considerable length (Fig. 10).
+
+The external form of the trunk of anthropoids, taken as a whole,
+does not greatly differ from that of man. We have not, indeed, the
+well-formed human torso, with its graceful lines; and the formation
+of the posteriors, together with a want of expansion about the hips,
+displeases us in its departure from the human type (see Figs. 1 and 6).
+We shall not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo Belvedere,
+or of the Olympian Hermes with that of a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the
+torso of a powerful male gorilla, from which the hair has been removed,
+may be favourably compared with that of one of the large-bellied,
+lean-armed weaklings who are everywhere to be found as living
+caricatures of the human species.
+
+The neck of anthropoids is generally short and thick. In the gorilla
+that part of the body has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have
+said, to the great development of the spinous processes of the cervical
+vertebræ, and of the muscles attached to them. A short, thick throat,
+and considerable development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it is called,
+is also not unfrequent in man. This peculiarity is sometimes supposed
+to be one of the national characteristics of the African blacks.
+Burmeister says that “the negro’s thick neck is the more striking,
+since it is generally allied with a short throat. In measuring negroes
+from the crown of the head to the shoulder I found the interval to
+be from nine and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In
+Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom less than ten
+inches, and it is more commonly eleven inches in women, and twelve in
+men. The shortness of the neck, as well as the relatively small size
+of the brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more readily
+be taken as an approximation to the simian type, since all apes are
+short-necked, and the relative distance of these animals is somewhat
+further from the negro than that of the negro from the European. This
+shortness of the neck in the negro explains his greater carrying power,
+and his preference for carrying burdens on his head, which is much more
+fatiguing to the European on account of his longer and weaker neck.”[26]
+
+Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, however, much too general.
+It does not apply to many of the negro races--at any rate, not to those
+of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is the characteristic of
+the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas, Baris, and other large tribes of those
+regions. Among these people the interval between the top of the head
+and the shoulder is from ten to eleven, and even from eleven to twelve
+inches (240 to 260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.). Burmeister has been
+thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks. Yet I am unable to trace
+the typical short neck, either in the well-known portraits of slaves by
+Maurice Rugendas,[27] or in the collection of photographs of Brazilian
+negroes which is in my possession. This characteristic is also absent,
+even in many portraits of West African and Mozambique blacks, tribes
+from which the slave population of Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many
+Mongolians, Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick necks,
+but this characteristic is more rare among the American aborigines and
+among Europeans. If we are to recognize an approximation to the simian
+type in this formation, it is one common to several nations, and it is
+not confined only, nor even chiefly, to the negro races.
+
+The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of anthropoid apes cannot
+be compared with the length of the corresponding limbs in men. For
+although among negroes and the members of other primitive peoples we
+may occasionally observe unusually long arms, yet these are individual
+peculiarities which are also found among Europeans, and cannot be
+counted among racial characteristics.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Hand of a very aged male gorilla.]
+
+The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long and narrow to be
+directly compared with the human hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla,
+especially the latter, have hands more like those of man. In the case
+of an adult male gorilla the first glance at this member reminds us of
+the knotty fist of a black dock labourer or lighterman, like those who,
+at Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags of coffee
+and place them on their heads or on their herculean shoulders. Much has
+been said of the enlargement of the connective skin between the bases
+of the fingers of a negro hand, and of the pointed extremities of the
+fingers. Van der Hoeven, in his well-known treatise, _De Natuurlijke
+Geschiedenis van den Negerstam_, has described and drawn the hand of
+an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner. Hence there is a disposition
+to recognize in this peculiarity an important characteristic of
+the negro race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective web
+between the bases of the fingers is also extensive, and the ungual
+phalanges taper at their extremities, there is also an inclination to
+ascribe an expressly anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this
+structure of the fingers is by no means universal among the negroes.
+An enlargement of the connective web is not indeed uncommon, but its
+extent varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers of other
+races. An attentive observer will be able to trace it in the labouring
+population of country districts in Europe. I have myself frequently
+observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in the Lombard and
+Genoese provinces, through which I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871,
+when I devoted special attention to this point. In Fig. 32 I give a
+negro hand of a type which seems to be common among the blacks in the
+inland districts of North-eastern Africa. It can hardly be denied that
+the form of this hand, which is certainly not flattered, possesses the
+characteristics of a thoroughly human organization.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue
+Nile.]
+
+With respect to other primitive peoples besides negroes, we have not
+at present sufficient information, and we ought therefore to beware of
+premature generalization. The thin shanks, with imperfectly developed
+calves, found among many primitive races, and especially among the
+African and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly adduced as an
+instance of their ape-like formation. In fact, the general uncomeliness
+of these parts in the races in question is one of their significant
+characteristics.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Satan’s ape (_Pithecia Satanas_). Shows the
+formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World.]
+
+The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those of other apes,
+including those of the New World, and as a rule it differs from the
+human foot in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, however, been
+justly observed that many individuals of different races have been able
+to use the great toe almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be
+found everywhere. Men who have been born without arms, or who have been
+deprived of them during life, have been able to use their feet like
+hands, as some compensation for this privation. The most surprising
+instance of our time has occurred in the violinist without arms, whose
+performances are heard in various continental capitals. Another,
+mentioned by Bär, was able to write with his feet. But even people who
+have the full use of their upper limbs can often grasp with the great
+toe as if it were a thumb, so as to pick up small objects from the
+ground, or draw them towards them. Constant practice in such feats
+produces a certain dexterity. Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians
+make use of their outstretched great toes in climbing with as skilful a
+gripe as our schoolboys and sailors are also able to do in gymnastics,
+or in climbing up the masts. Among such people the distinction between
+the foot of man and apes is less marked, since, even when at rest, the
+great toe is apt to be somewhat detached from the others. This may be
+seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of individuals of the Central
+African tribe, the Makraka. Haeckel justly observes that there is no
+marked physiological distinction between the hand and foot which can be
+established on a scientific basis. In order to make such a distinction
+it is necessary to consider their morphological characteristics.[28]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 34.--Human skull. _a_, Nasal bone. _b_, Upper jaw. _c_,
+    Lower jaw. _d_, Occipital bone. _e_, Temporal bone. _f_,
+    Parietal bone. _g_, Frontal bone. _h_, Malar bone.
+]
+
+_Structure of the skeleton._--In comparing the skulls of anthropoids
+with those of men, we should, in the case of the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+and orang-utan, content ourselves with young specimens rather than
+with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these species, the colossal
+development of the bony crests of the skull, as well as that of the
+jaws, the prominence of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the
+occipital bone, present distinctions of such a searching character that
+we are greatly hindered in the pursuit of the comparative method. But
+during the process of development the anthropoid skeleton admits of a
+direct comparison with that of man. In a young animal the rounded skull
+suggests a parallel between it and the human head. It must be admitted
+that we find, especially in primitive peoples, many human skulls which
+in their whole plastic form differ little from the skulls of young
+gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the way the occipital bone
+is rounded off, young anthropoids and men are often found in a similar
+stage of development. The squamous occipital portion in a young negro,
+Papuan and Malay, is indeed often flatter and more bevelled than it is
+in a young gorilla or chimpanzee.
+
+We must not, however, assume that the two individuals brought into
+comparison are of precisely the same age, since such a point cannot
+easily be ascertained, even when subjects for examination are afforded
+by one of our larger museums. Savages are seldom able to give their
+precise age, and the attempt to do so often relies on insufficient
+data. The direct examination of the skull will afford some information
+on this point; but the conditions of growth in anthropoids are not so
+well known as to admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on the
+state of the teeth, on the stage at which the development of the bony
+crests has arrived, etc., in order to form an approximate estimate of
+the age of the skull.
+
+On the squamous occipital portion the arrangement of the curved lines
+which are the boundaries to the attachments of the cervical muscles,
+is common to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only indications
+of these lines are to be found in the lower order of mammals. In the
+human skull there is sometimes a formation belonging to the squamous
+occipital portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like
+character. This is the occipital swelling we have already described
+(_Torus occipitalis transversus_), which may be either enclosed by the
+two upper curved lines, or lie between these and the central curved
+lines, or may be altogether in the region of the latter. This swelling
+extends in a gradual manner above and below its bony support. Its
+edge may be more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its
+development, wider or narrower, with or without a central eminence, but
+its appearance is always striking. In young male and female gorillas,
+orangs, and chimpanzees this formation represents the completely formed
+transverse occipital crests, which are found for the most part in aged
+male animals of these species. These swellings may also be observed
+on the skulls of adult men of all times and all nations. They are by
+no means rare in the skulls which are in ordinary use at the Berlin
+School of Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in many groups of
+skulls. They are frequent among the skulls, for the most part without
+their lower jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in a Mohammedan
+burial-ground of the thirteenth century, near Cairo. These are the
+remains of Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most part, of
+the peasantry or fellaheen. Ecker was able to trace the sagittal crest
+in the skulls of Australian males, while it is absent in the females.
+Similar indications of the bony crest have been observed by me in the
+roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of many negroes, but in these
+cases I am not aware whether there is a corresponding distinction of
+sex. It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence is a human
+characteristic.
+
+Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped connection formed by
+the sutures between the parietal bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid
+bone, the squamous portion of the temporal bone, and the frontal bone.
+One of the most common disturbances in the symmetry of the connecting
+suture, as we have already briefly mentioned, arises from the insertion
+of a frontal process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone
+between the lower angle of the parietal bone, the fore-part of the
+frontal bone, and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This process
+of the temporal bone varies in size, and may occur on one or both
+sides. A similar formation is common among gorillas, chimpanzees,
+macacas, magots (_Inuus_), and baboons.[29] It is less frequent among
+orangs,[30] gibbons, marmosets, and American species (howlers, hooded
+apes, etc.).
+
+Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in representing this frontal process
+as theromorphological--that is, as a characteristic of the lower
+animals, and more especially of apes. Virchow has found this abnormal
+formation of the skull to be more common in some races than others.
+None of those in whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan races,
+and the existence of this process and stenocrotaphy, or temporal
+stenosis, seem to be due to a defective development of the greater
+wing of the sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones in its
+vicinity, by which the whole temporal region is contracted. This is a
+characteristic of the lower, but by no means of the lowest, races of
+men.
+
+Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to controvert the fact
+that this temporal process is a characteristic of the lower races.
+Stieda asserts that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.[31]
+He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the existence of this
+anomalous pterion on more than 10,000 human skulls, and he has also
+received information from others. He considers the frequency of this
+frontal process in man to be theromorphological, or indeed pithecoid.
+According to Anutschin, this anomalous condition is not equally common
+in all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired races (Australians,
+Papuans, and negroes) the frontal process is most widely diffused;
+it is less frequent among Mongolians and Malays; and among Americans
+and white men its occurrence is from five to six times more uncommon
+than in the black races. Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the
+intercalary bone (_Ossa epipterica_), which is fused into the squamous
+portion of the temporal bone; and sometimes the process grows out of
+the squamous portion of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes
+or intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as pithecoid, since
+they are more rare in apes than in men. Schlocker has sought to show
+that the frontal process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone,
+the less common temporal process of the frontal bone, and the temporal
+intercalary bone (_Ossa epipterica_) are of equal value from the
+genetic point of view.[32] This author regards the frontal process and
+the immediate connection of the frontal and squamous portion of the
+temporal bones, as theromorphological characteristics, but he does not
+believe the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the lower
+races.[33] This is also the opinion of Ten Kate. However this may be,
+the establishment of this theromorphological formation is important.
+Its immediate value as a contribution to the theory of the origin of
+species remains, as we shall presently see, even if we cannot trace it
+through intermediate and lower types.
+
+In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges which has been
+observed in some pre-historic human skulls, a likeness to the
+corresponding feature in anthropoids has been traced. And indeed
+there is such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee, in
+the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very dolichocephalic,
+with prominent supra-orbital arches, only divided from each other
+by a shallow depression. In the same skull the development of the
+supra-orbital ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses. In
+this pre-historic specimen--which, by the kindness of Professor
+Schaafhauser, I was able to examine closely at the congress of
+anthropologists at Berlin in 1880--the forehead retreats in a
+marked manner towards the flattened region of the crown. De
+Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both flattened and long
+(dolichoplatycephalic). The temporal ridges are not only very marked,
+but they approach each other in the region of the coronal arch (Fig.
+35). This also occurs in the adult female chimpanzee, as well as in the
+young male gorilla, in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--The Neanderthal skull. A. In profile. B. A
+front view.]
+
+It may here be observed that our men of science differ widely in
+opinion respecting the origin and ethnological significance of the
+Neanderthal skull, of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner
+regards it as the skull of an idiot.[34] Virchow considers the
+specimen, and the similar one from Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum,
+as an altogether individual formation,[35] a typical form modified by
+disease,[36] in other words, a pathological skull.[37] King regards the
+skull as one belonging to one of the primitive races.[38] Schaaffhauser
+has, indeed, endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such a
+primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which are “Neanderthaloid” in
+form are to be found chiefly in Europe.[39] If Huxley says decidedly
+that the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded as the remains
+of a human being which was a link between man and apes. At most this
+discovery only proves the existence of a man whose skull reverted in
+some respects to the simian type, just as a carrier or tumbler pigeon
+may sometimes display the plumage of their original ancestor, the
+rock-pigeon (_Columbia livia_). And although the Neanderthal skull
+is more like that of the ape than any other human skull with which
+we are acquainted, yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first
+appears, but is rather the ultimate expression of a series which may
+be gradually traced back from the highest and most fully developed
+type of human skulls. On the one side it approximates to the flattened
+Australian skulls, from which other Australian forms gradually lead
+to skulls which rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis skull.
+On the other side, it is still more closely allied with the skulls of
+certain ancient races which were either contemporaries or successors of
+those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone Age, people whose kitchen
+middens have been discovered in that country.[40]
+
+Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls drawn by Busk, and taken
+from the tumuli of Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially
+in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other European skulls may,
+within certain limits, be compared with the Neanderthal skull, as,
+for instance, those found at Brüx, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth, Clichy,
+Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Furfooz, Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul.
+These all present interesting peculiarities of structure--strongly
+developed supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead, a flattened
+crown, etc., although none of them are so remarkable in these
+particulars as the Neanderthal skull. It has not, however, yet been
+proved that this skull represents a definite racial type, and it seems
+more probable that it was simply an individual form.
+
+The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as Spengel justly
+observes, distinguished from the Neanderthal skull, and from others
+of like character, by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the other
+hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital arches, the retreating
+forehead, the skull compressed in the temporal region, the prognathous
+countenance, relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all
+these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly resemble those
+of anthropoids. If, for instance, we turn to the illustration given
+by de Quatrefages and Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven,
+Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr. Schadenburg’s negro skull,
+the most determined sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the
+anthropoid skull.[41]
+
+Similar characteristics to those which we have already mentioned as
+distinguishing the structure of the Australian skull, enable us to
+determine the anthropoid character of the skulls of many individuals
+belonging to the dark-skinned African races. These consist chiefly in
+the retreating forehead, the flatness and compression of the coronal
+arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse angles of the lower
+maxillary bones, which may be noted in so many negro skulls. On the
+other hand, the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a rule,
+less marked in African races than in anthropoid species. There are
+specimens, however, as, for instance, the Congo skull given by de
+Quatrefages and Hamy,[42] which give an overwhelming impression of
+anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to a surprising
+degree in the skulls of intelligent, warlike, and light-skinned races
+of Central and Western Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale,
+Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all races of men, and
+especially among the Papuans and some African negroes.
+
+A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges in the coronal region may
+be observed in the skulls of various nations. This formation is most
+frequent in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In these cases
+it is generally allied with the shortness of the interval between the
+sides of the skull, taken in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism).
+
+In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones often rise abruptly
+towards the sagittal suture, and in its vicinity there arises a
+longitudinal bony prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into
+the external surface of the parietal bones. The sagittal suture
+sometimes remains intact, and is sometimes included by this process.
+This produces a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped
+skull (_scaphocephalus_). Such a formation may be often observed in
+negroes and Papuans, and more rarely in the skulls of other races. The
+occurrence of a divided malar bone in human skulls, especially in those
+of the Ainos and Japanese, has been considered to be theromorphic,
+since it is occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.[43] I have
+myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces of such a
+formation among anthropoids.
+
+In 1863 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville half of a human lower jaw
+deposited in a black layer of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying
+on the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations which are for
+the most part imperfect, there was nothing remarkable about it except
+its abruptly retreating ramus (Fig. 36), but the specimen aroused
+great attention at the time, and it was assigned by many intelligent
+observers to the primitive men of the diluvial period. Unfortunately it
+was afterwards proved to be a gigantic imposture.[44]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Naulette lower jaw.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+This is not the case with the lower jaws of Naulette, Aurignac,
+and Arcy, which are undoubtedly genuine and of great antiquity.
+The Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can trace the
+construction of the symphysis of the chin, which provokes comparison
+with the lower jaws of many anthropoids, especially those of the
+gorilla and chimpanzee (Fig. 37). The resemblance consists chiefly in
+the uprightness of the anterior surface, and especially of the body of
+the maxillary bone. In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats
+from the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the lower edge of the
+body of the maxillary bone (Fig. 38); and in the Naulette specimen, as
+well as in the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of New Hebrides
+and elsewhere), there is a certain approximation to the simian type.
+A fossil ape (_Dryopithecus Fontanii_) has been found in the Middle
+Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the higher anthropoids,
+and in this case the jaw is only slightly retreating. Gaudry considers
+that the _Dryopithecus_ was about the size of a man. The incisor teeth
+were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth were less rounded than in
+Europeans, and more like those of Australians. It has been surmised,
+although the fact cannot be established, that the last molar teeth were
+only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case with the human wisdom
+teeth. Gaudry gives the illustration of the lower jaw of a Tasmanian,
+from eleven to twelve years old, together with that of _Dryopithecus
+Fontanii_. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is larger than in
+the _Dryopithecus_, while the canine tooth and the pre-molars are
+much weaker. This distinction is important, since the smaller size of
+the front teeth is connected with the slight projection of the face,
+which is always a sign of human superiority. Although the canine tooth
+of the _Dryopithecus_ is broken, we can see that it must have been
+considerably higher than the other teeth, and indeed the canine teeth
+of the male animal must have been very powerful. There is also a slight
+prominence in the teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men.
+_Mesopithecus_, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica, was an ape less
+closely resembling the anthropoids. In the structure of the head it
+resembles the slender ape (_Semnopithecus_), and in the structure
+of the limbs it is like a macaca (_Macacus_). Gaudry believes that
+Sansan’s _Pliopithecus_ was related to the gibbon. An ape of the size
+of the orang-utan, which belongs to the slender apes (_Semnopithecus
+sub-himalayanus_),[45] was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of
+the Sewalik mountains.
+
+In the comparative study of the human organization, and that of
+anthropoid apes, it is important to examine sections, and especially
+longitudinal sections, of characteristic skulls.[46] Virchow has caused
+drawings to be made, from specimens in the Berlin Museum, of a gorilla,
+a chimpanzee, an orang-utan, and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s
+skull, when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow that it looks
+as if compression had been applied to it; and yet the Australian skull
+is extremely small in comparison with that of men in general, since
+its cubic space is only 1150 ccm. In the gorilla[47]--at least in the
+old male, from which the drawing is taken--the immense size of the
+frontal sinuses, and the swellings which cover them, together with
+the strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of size. But, as
+Virchow observes, “all which adds to the size of the skull is bestial,
+and not human.” It is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the
+chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be somewhat more favourably
+compared with that of the human skull. It approaches in size to that of
+a microcephalic native of the Rhein-Pfalz (of which an illustration is
+also given), which ranks a good deal below the Australian skull, and
+approximates more closely to the simian type. The internal space of the
+skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang may also be more favourably
+compared with those of men.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Sagittal section through the skull of a
+bam-chimpanzee.]
+
+We have already mentioned the presence of extensive sinuses and cells
+in the skulls of anthropoids, exceeding those of human skulls, and
+this is apparent in the accompanying illustration of a longitudinal
+section of the skull of a chimpanzee carried through its centre (Fig.
+39). The length of this skull between the nasal partition and the most
+prominent part of the occipital bone is 128 mm.; that of the internal
+space is 108 mm. 10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the
+frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thickness of the bony
+part of the skull. In an aged male gorilla, the first measurement is
+153 mm., the second 115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements
+were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. In a still more aged male orang
+they were respectively 140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness of
+the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to be noted in the aged
+gorilla male. In the adult chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous
+portion of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and indeed
+without interruption into the parietal bone adjoining it. For such
+investigations the thin and light bones of individuals which have lived
+a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and fat specimens which
+have died after prolonged confinement.
+
+Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans the orbital part of the
+nose, or that part which is between the orbits, is longer than the
+infra-orbital or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital portion
+is considerably the longest, although only in adult animals. There are
+stages in the period of development in which these animals display
+the characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of a child. The
+proportions of the skulls of Malays take a middle place between those
+of Europeans and of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the
+nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but in many cases it
+differs essentially from that of Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful
+attempt to establish this statement by statistics.
+
+The same inquirer makes some interesting remarks on the comparative
+height and width of the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult
+apes and men differ more in these respects than the young specimens of
+these organisms. The orbits both of a child and an adult, especially
+in the case of a European, are much more like those of a young ape
+than of an aged animal of the same species. In the chimpanzee and the
+orang-utan the proportions are the same as in men; that is, the width
+of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems to arise from the
+exceptionally strong development of the supra-orbital ridge. It is
+most probable that in very young anthropoids the width of the orbit
+exceeds its height.[48] Zuckerkandl goes on to say that in anthropoids
+the height of the orbits is greater than their width, and that this
+difference increases with age. But this is not absolutely correct, for
+even in aged animals the proportions vary, and the height and width of
+the orbits sometimes, although rarely, remains the same.
+
+In comparing the vertebral column in men and anthropoids, Rosenberg has
+sought to show in the embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes
+the form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage of development
+it is enclosed by the ilia, and anchylosed with the sacrum. The same
+author has proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic equivalents
+of the vertebræ, which we must now consider. According to this theory,
+as Welcker has observed,[49] the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is
+homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B, the thirtieth
+vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth of another, although in one
+case it may be a lumbar vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in
+a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar vertebræ of the lower
+apes have, in the case of men, their descendants, undergone a threefold
+metamorphosis, and, after their modification into sacral vertebræ,
+have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal vertebræ.
+
+Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the lumbo-sacral
+vertebræ, _i.e._ those constituents of the vertebral column which form
+the transition from the lumbar to the sacral vertebræ, are invested
+with fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. According to their
+position in the vertebral column, they are to be regarded as lumbar
+vertebræ, introduced too early or too late into the structure of the
+sacrum. If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the sacrum,
+so as to form an upper promontory or outwork, this variety offers a
+point of transition to a future formation (?) in which this vertebra
+normally becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will
+now display twenty-three free vertebræ. If, again, this transition
+occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of the series, which thus becomes
+the chief sacral vertebra, this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a
+characteristic survival of the racial development, an atavism.[50]
+
+According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral vertebra in one animal
+corresponds to the same sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever
+their number may be. The cervical vertebræ of one animal, which may
+be five, seven, or even eleven in number, correspond to the cervical
+vertebræ of another animal. The vertebral column of one animal
+corresponds to the vertebral column of another, taken as a whole, but
+not to two-thirds or three-fourths of that column. In accordance with
+the requirements of a given animal, that part of the bone which belongs
+to the sections of the breast and loins is more or less abundant, and
+the vertebræ are homologous in accordance with their region, and not
+with their number.
+
+Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close connection with the
+ilium, joined with it throughout its extent, and that this vertebra
+at the same time always appears to support the pelvis. This vertebra
+is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra, and the twenty-fifth
+of the series. It may be termed, as Welcker suggests, _vertebra
+fulcralis_. Such a main support is found, according to Holl, in every
+vertebral column, however anomalous its other conditions may be, and
+the only irregularity consists in its number in the series. This bone
+serves as a natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral
+column. The _vertebra fulcralis_ must always be regarded as the first
+sacral vertebra. It begins the series of sacral vertebra, and, on
+account of its subsequently important position, it must be regarded as
+primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower vertebræ, which
+are afterwards included with it in the sacrum. When in its primary
+condition the _vertebra fulcralis_ is twenty-fifth in the series,
+the twenty-fifth to the twenty-ninth vertebræ are included in the
+sacrum. When the _fulcralis_ is the twenty-sixth vertebra, the sacrum
+includes the thirtieth. Hence it follows that the sacrum is, from
+the first stages of its development, a formation which begins with
+the twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes four other
+vertebræ. Holl considers that the lumbo-sacral form of the last lumbar
+vertebra, which stands between the lumbar and sacral vertebræ, does not
+indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra, but rather an
+arrest in its development.[51]
+
+When we examine a human sacrum we see that its first vertebra, the
+twenty-fifth of the series, is formed like the lumbar vertebræ in its
+upper part, setting aside those portions of it which form part of
+the lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses, which serve
+as a support to the ilia, owe most of their substance to the first
+sacral vertebra. Thus, since it has to support the whole weight of the
+pre-sacral vertebræ, it is in fact a true _vertebra fulcralis_.
+
+Holl justly says that there are few instances in which the human _os
+sacrum_ consists of less than five vertebræ, and in no case are there
+less than four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines the
+pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral column.
+
+In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar vertebral column is
+deeply sunk between the high, wide, and flattened ilia, which converge
+closely towards the vertebral column. In man these bones are not so
+much higher than the base of the sacrum, and their crests diverge more
+widely from the vertebral column. In the large apes the lateral masses
+of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below their anchylosis with
+the pelvic bones. In an aged male gorilla, for instance, the transverse
+processes of the two lower lumbar vertebræ often extend to the hinder
+borders of the ilia, although the second of the lower lumbar vertebræ
+is somewhat higher than the top of the crest of the ilium. This is
+still more remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in which the
+lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged in between the two ilia. In a
+young male chimpanzee, and in the adult female, both the lower lumbar
+vertebræ are almost compressed between the upper segments of the ilia.
+In the orang the lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia. Out
+of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second are articulated with
+these bones.
+
+In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the
+series, is the _fulcralis_. In this animal the first to the third
+sacral vertebræ form part of the connection with the crests of the
+ilia. In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the _vertebra
+fulcralis_, and from the first to the third are likewise connected
+with the ilia, but the third only to a limited extent; and in young
+males and in old females the connection is generally confined to the
+first and second sacral vertebræ. In the orang-utan the twenty-fourth
+vertebra is generally the _fulcralis_.
+
+In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually the _fulcralis_.
+In the siamang I found that the fifth of the five lumbar vertebræ was
+between the ilia. Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second
+were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In _Hylobates agilis_ the
+fifth and sixth of the six lumbar vertebræ were between the ilia, and
+the first and second of the five sacral bones were articulated with
+these.
+
+In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the
+orang we may observe an inconsiderable forward projection between the
+penultimate cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebræ. In the
+region below the second lumbar vertebra a similar forward projection
+may sometimes be observed. The so-called promontory at the entrance of
+the pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the lumbar and
+sacral vertebræ, which is remarkable in man, is only faintly apparent
+in anthropoids. The vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a
+dorsal curvature (see Figs. 17 and 23).
+
+Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebræ are tapering in the
+gorilla, and this is, in fact, the case. In climbing, or when he goes
+on all fours, the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its
+position. This curvature is still more apparent when the animal, in
+climbing, withdraws his body from the tree, mast, or whatever it may
+be, and bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature of the
+vertebral column may be observed in men who stiffen their hands and
+feet to climb up a tree or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so
+erect as to be able to place his hands behind his head, the dorsal
+curvature of his spine is necessarily straightened, and indeed it
+becomes rather a ventral curvature.
+
+The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high, narrow, and projecting
+ilia, and the lowest lumbar vertebræ deeply embedded between them,
+together with the sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, which directly remind
+us of the vertebræ of a rudimentary tail, present the points of
+unlikeness with the human skeleton in this part of the skeleton of
+these animals in the strongest light (comp. Figs. 40 and 41).
+
+The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished from the human thorax
+in normal cases by the abrupt way in which it widens outwards. The
+thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging pelvic bones, which
+enclose the belly and give it a tun-shaped form, contrast with the
+graceful moulding of the corresponding parts of the human form.
+
+Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones of the
+shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of anthropoids, in which they
+differ from corresponding parts in the human structure, have been
+already mentioned.
+
+With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby asserts that the
+head of the bone forms a cycloid, placed transversely, while in man its
+shape is that of the segment of a sphere. But I have pointed out in my
+treatise on the gorilla that there is a not inconsiderable variation
+in the form of the head of the humerus in these animals, and it is
+sometimes cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a segment of
+a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon this part of the
+humerus is always a segment of a sphere, while in man its form is not
+equally invariable. Aeby further observes that the transverse-cycloidal
+form of the head of the humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference
+that this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accustomed to turn
+them transversely on their axis. But the direct observation of a living
+anthropoid, as well as the examination of its dead body, make it
+clear that the action of the ball and socket is remarkably free, and
+this theoretical surmise is contradicted by the perfection of the
+natural mechanism.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 40.--Human skeleton.--_a_, Parietal bone. _b_, Frontal bone.
+    _c_, Cervical vertebræ. _d_, Sternum. _e_, Lumbar vertebra.
+    _f_, Ulna. _g_, Radius. _h_, Carpus. _i_, Metacarpus.
+    _k_, Phalanges. _l_, Tibia. _m_, Fibula. _n_, Tarsus.
+    _o_, Metatarsal bones. _p_, Phalanges. _q_, Patella. _r_, Femur.
+    _s_, Os innominatum. _t_, Humerus. _u_, Clavicle.
+]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.]
+
+The excessive curvature of the forearm which we notice in the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee in their natural condition is rare in man, and when
+it does occur it must be regarded as an abnormal and pathological
+phenomenon.
+
+The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal bone, corresponding to
+de Blainville’s _os intermedium_ and Gegenbaur’s _os centrale carpi_.
+In a very young animal I found that this small bone was furnished with
+a peculiar point of ossification. The bony structure of the wrist
+is developed in the following succession:--First, the _os magnum_
+and unciform bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the trapezium;
+fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the cuneiform bone; sixth, _os
+centrale carpi_; seventh, the trapezoid bone. The pisiform bone and the
+sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the scaphoid bone, of which we
+shall speak presently in their relation to the muscular system, are at
+first simply cartilaginous.
+
+Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal bone in the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee has been fruitless, since its occurrence is only
+exceptional. In the gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid,
+semi-lunar, trapezoid, and _os magnum_. Gegenbaur considers the _os
+centrale_ to be a true constituent of the wrist, dating from an
+earlier condition, but he has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent
+survival. Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable proof of the
+presence of this bone in the human embryo. It is generally absorbed
+again, but sometimes it persists, and may be found in an adult as a
+well-formed ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence of the _os
+centrale_ in man have been chiefly collected and published by the
+diligence of the Russian anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that
+there may also be indications of _os centrale_ in the carpus of embryos
+of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up to this time materials for such
+researches have been wanting.
+
+I cannot accept the theory that _os centrale carpi_ is merely a
+detached portion of the scaphoid bone. In a very young chimpanzee this
+bone is undoubtedly superficially indented with two transverse furrows,
+but the three segments display only one uniform development of bone.
+The distinct formation of _os centrale_, and its occasional appearance
+in man, testify that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg
+holds that this bone is not merely the _os centrale_ of mammals, but
+that it is homologous with the two _ossa centralia_ of the fossil
+_Enaliosauria_. It has become abortive in proportion to the reduction
+in size which has taken place.[52] There would be no great difficulty
+in tracing back this bone to remote types of vertebrate animals,
+even as far as the _Urodela_ (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.[53] The
+persistence of this bone in man must be regarded as a reversion, not as
+an arrest, of development.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 42.--Skeleton of human hand, back view. _a_, Scaphoid bone.
+    _b_, Semi-lunar bone. _c_, Cuneiform bone. _d_, Pisiform bone.
+    _e_, Trapezium. _f_, Trapezoid bone. _g_, Os magnum. _h_,
+    Unciform bone. _l-l′_, Metacarpal bones. _m-m′_ and _nn_,
+    Phalanges.
+]
+
+On the femur of several mammals, especially in the horse, ass,
+rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly indicated in the carnivora
+and other families, there is, in addition to the two great and small
+trochanters, a third, termed by Waldeyer _trochanter tertius_.[54]
+Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed at the top of the
+outer ridge of the superior bifurcation of the _linea aspera_, may
+be observed in human skeletons of all races, but is either absent in
+anthropoids or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly regards its
+presence as theromorphic, but not as a characteristic of savage or
+lower races.[55]
+
+The human tibia displays in some instances a compression or lateral
+flattening of its shaft or centre-piece, so that its transverse
+diameter is quite out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is
+termed sword-bladed, or platycnemic. Bones of this form have been
+chiefly discovered in ancient deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar,
+at Perthi-Chwareu, in Wiltshire, in Lozère, at Clichy, at Saint-Suzanne
+(Sarthe), and especially at Cro-Magnon (Fig. 43), Janischwek, etc.
+
+A similar formation has also been observed among men belonging to
+cultured races, both of ancient and modern times. Virchow, for example,
+discovered such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third and fourth century
+of the Christian era) and at Hanai-Tepe in Troas. All the large
+schools of anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibiæ, which are to
+some extent platycnemic. These are also observed in the skeletons of
+primitive peoples of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas,
+and other African races. While some scientific men regard these bones
+as the result of an unhealthy condition, and the effect of rachitis,
+others more justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the muscles
+in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed by Busk and others, that
+the platycnemic tibiæ discovered in ancient sites of Europe have
+belonged to a degraded race diffused over the whole continent, is
+contradicted by the wide diffusion of this characteristic, even in
+modern times. And it is doubtful whether platycnemy is absolutely
+restricted to the lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an
+extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kujawish grave of the Stone
+Age, which belonged to a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and
+size, so that, taken by itself, the impression which it gave to an
+anatomist was that of a highly organized race.[56]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 43. Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon.
+
+  Fig. 44. Section through the tibia of a male gorilla.
+
+  Fig. 45. Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee.
+]
+
+It is important to remark that platycnemy has been regarded as a
+pithecoid structure, and for this reason the attempt has been made
+to establish the degraded position of those peoples which are most
+remarkable for platycnemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins has already observed,
+although the tibiæ of the gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some
+extent platycnemic, they are much less so than the platycnemic bones
+of the human skeleton. The tibia of a male gorilla in the College of
+Surgeons Museum has an index width of 68·1, that of a female of 65·0,
+while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61·1, which is about the
+average of the tibias of Perthichwareu. It is unnecessary to indicate
+the other marked distinctions between the tibiæ of men and apes; if
+platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it must be admitted that man
+has in this particular far exceeded apes.[57] Neither the gorilla,
+the chimpanzee, the orang-utan, nor even the baboon possesses a tibia
+which is flattened in its upper or middle part. In all these apes the
+middle of the bone is more or less rounded, almost as if it had been
+rounded by a turning-lathe. According to my experience, the degree of
+platycnemy in anthropoids is subject to certain variations. It appears
+to me to be least marked in the aged male gorilla (Fig. 41), and in
+the gibbon (_Hylobates agilis_, _syndactylus_), in which latter animal
+the transverse section of the tibia represents an almost equilateral
+triangle. The platycnemy was more marked in an almost adult female
+gorilla, still more decided in an aged male chimpanzee, which came
+from the river Kiulu, and again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the
+other hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another aged male
+chimpanzee which came from Loango, was rounded, and not platycnemic. In
+the tibia of an adult orang-utan which I examined, the platycnemy was
+very marked. But I agree with Boyd-Dawkins in never having met with an
+anthropoid in which the platycnemy is so considerable as it is, for
+instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another found at Troy.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 46.--Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above. _a_,
+    Astragalus. _b_, Os calcis. _c_, Scaphoid bone. _d_, _e_, _f_,
+    Cuneiform bones. _g_, Cuboid bone. _h_, Metatarsal bones. _ii_,
+    Phalanges.
+]
+
+If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of apes, we see that all
+the same characteristics are present in their tarsus that we find in
+the human tarsus. In each case there is an astragalus, an _os calcis_,
+a scaphoid bone, three cuneiform bones, and a cuboid bone. There are
+undoubtedly several peculiarities in which the tarsus differs from
+the corresponding part of the human foot. The first metatarsal bone
+is joined to the first cuneiform bone by an articular facet which
+extends from the back to the sole of the foot. This joint plays a part
+resembling that of the thumb of the human hand (see Figs. 20 and 46).
+
+In Huxley’s opinion, the hinder limbs of the gorilla terminate in
+a true foot, with a very movable great toe. It is undoubtedly a
+prehensile foot, but in no sense a hand. It is a foot which does not
+differ from the human foot in any essential characteristics, but only
+in relative circumstances, in the degree of flexibility, and in the
+subordinate arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it must not
+be supposed that he wishes to undervalue differences which, however,
+he does not regard as fundamental. They are important enough of
+their kind, since in any case the structure of the foot is in close
+correlation with the other parts of the organism. Although it cannot be
+doubted that the increased division of labour in man, which relegates
+the function of support entirely to the legs and feet, is a significant
+advance in structure; yet, regarded as a whole from the anatomical
+point of view, the points of agreement between the human foot and
+that of the gorilla are much more striking and significant than their
+differences.
+
+The differences in the foot of the orang are still greater; in the very
+long toes and short tarsus, the short great toe and the removal of
+the heel from the ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which
+connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the absence of a long
+flexor muscle to move the great toe, the orang’s foot differs still
+more from that of the gorilla than the latter differs from the human
+foot. In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still further
+removed from those of the gorilla than in the case of the orang. In the
+American apes the thumb can no longer be opposed; in the ateles it is
+reduced to a mere rudiment, covered with skin; in the sahius it is bent
+forwards and provided with a curved claw like the other fingers. In all
+these cases there is no doubt that the hand differs more from that of
+the gorilla than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.[58]
+
+Flower remarks that the chief distinction between the foot of a man
+and an ape consists in the fact that the latter is transformed into a
+prehensile organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the phalanges
+are of the same number in both orders, and in the same relative
+position, only in the foot of the ape the facet for articulation of
+the first cuneiform bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, and
+obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side of the foot. Thus,
+the great toe is separated from the others, and so placed, that when
+it is bent, it is directed downwards towards the sole, and is opposed
+to the other toes, much more opposed to them than is the case with the
+thumb of the human hand.[59] Owen also speaks of the characteristic
+transformation of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed
+to the other toes, and adapted for grasping.[60]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Coaita (_Ateles paniscus_).]
+
+K. E. von Bär does not agree with Huxley in considering that there is
+less difference between man and the gorilla than that which exists
+between different species of apes. “There are,” Von Bär remarks,
+“differences of various kinds among apes. In some the thumb is only
+a stump; in others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the hinder
+extremities are so long and curved that they cannot be extended on flat
+ground; in many of the smaller apes this member is still more like a
+hand than in the larger species, and the fingers can be easily spread
+out on the ground. In this case the foot is of a much blunter form, and
+is more flexible, so that the sole, which is properly turned inward,
+can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of the animal, the
+more sharply cut the structure of the foot must be, so that it does
+not admit of the free movements which are possible in the hand. But
+all these are only modifications of a climbing foot, or prehensile
+member--that is, of a hand, not modifications of a foot resting firmly
+on the ground and supporting the whole weight of the body.
+
+“It must not be forgotten that the structure of the skeleton is subject
+to mechanical laws, which may be traced through the whole series of
+the animal world. This is readily apparent when we turn to the human
+structure.
+
+“The human foot rests for the greater part of its length on the
+ground, that is to say, with the heel and centre of the foot, which
+form together a firm arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and
+also of the _os calcis_, which in man form a very prominent part,
+taking a backward and downward direction, and of five other bones.
+The metatarsus consists of five bones, on which the five toes are
+inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are considerably longer than
+the separate phalanges. Thus, the arch on which man is supported in
+an erect position extends from the heel to the extremities of the
+metatarsal bones. The several bones are slightly movable, but they are
+so firmly connected that they can diverge but little from each other,
+unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press the toes upon the
+ground, it is again necessary to exert the muscles. The arched instep
+has this advantage, that the foot can take a better hold of the slight
+inequalities of the ground. In a profile view of the skeleton of a
+human foot, the shortness of the toes, in comparison with the length of
+the arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural position, even when
+man is not walking or standing, the sole of the foot is not turned
+inwards, but downwards.... The toes of the gorilla take the form of
+a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a thumb, while the
+other toes are turned outwards. In the gorilla the tarsus is short,
+and the heel is bent inwards. The several bones of the human foot are
+undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla, but the organ is
+changed into a prehensile organ or hand. The conditions are the same as
+in the parts of the mouth in insects which in some cases form movable
+mandibles, while in others they are attenuated into a proboscis. When
+it is asserted that apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to
+say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated mandibles.”[61]
+
+All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally make use of their hinder
+extremities in order to snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in
+climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to secure the fruit they
+have seized from the voracity of their fellows, they take it between
+the toes of one hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away more
+quickly by means of the other, and by the use of both hands.
+
+From what we have said, it will be seen how difficult it is to
+reconcile the views of different observers with respect to the fitting
+term to be given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against those who
+uphold the designation of _hind hands_ we must oppose the anatomical
+structure, and also the fact that a true hand ought to possess the
+power of rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but not in the
+hind, extremities of apes. On this account I have already adopted, as
+more suitable and equally distinctive, the term of _prehensile foot_
+for this member.[62] I agree with Haeckel in rejecting the common
+designation of apes as four-handed or quadrumanous.
+
+The bands or ligaments which connect the different parts of the
+anthropoid skeleton together, and convert the detached elements into
+a movable machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the same
+structure in man. A detailed account of these ligaments would, for
+several reasons, be out of place in this work, and I shall only mention
+a few special and more interesting distinctions. Such, for example,
+is the uncommon strength of the _ligamentum nuchæ_ in the gorilla,
+which is quite in harmony with the great development of the spinous
+processes of the upper cervical vertebræ, and with the flattening of
+the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral vertebræ are deeply
+inserted between the high ilia, the ilio-lumbar ligaments (_ligamenta
+iliolumbalia_) and the sacro-iliac ligaments (_ligamenta iliosacralia_)
+are of considerable size. In agreement with the projection in a
+downward direction of the high, narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic
+ligaments which extend between these and the sacrum are very long
+in the chimpanzee. Although in this case the ischial spine is only
+represented by a roughness of the bone, yet there is on either side
+between this and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic ligament
+(_ligamentum spinoso-sacrum_).
+
+The well-known anatomist, J. F. Meckel, has asserted that the
+depression in the head of the femur (_fovea capitis_), which serves for
+the insertion of the round ligament (_ligamentum teres_), is absent in
+the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that it is also absent in the
+gibbon. In a skeleton of a young chimpanzee which had not shed its
+milk-teeth, and of which the ligaments were also preserved, Welcker
+found a fully developed round ligament inserted almost in the centre of
+the head of the femur. This agrees in every particular with the same
+formation in man. On the other hand, no trace of a round ligament was
+to be found in the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartilaginous
+envelope of the head of the femur was smooth throughout, without any
+indication of a place for inserting the ligament. Welcker again found
+no such depression in the femur of an aged male orang-utan, nor was
+there any trace of it in another aged male orang, designated as _Simia
+Morio_. Welcker believes that he has established the fact that the
+round ligament is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present in
+the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same naturalist remarks that,
+although we may certainly assume that the round ligament is absent
+wherever there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet the
+existence of such a depression in the acetabulum (_fovea acetabuli_)
+is not enough to prove that a round ligament was inserted in it. The
+innominate bones of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker, and
+displayed a small, but well-defined depression, as if destined for
+a receptacle for this ligament,[63] running from the cotyloid notch
+down to the bottom of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the
+semilunar-shaped articular cartilage.
+
+In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the absence of the round
+ligament in the orang-utan, and its presence in the chimpanzee, had
+been previously established by Camper and Owen.[64] In three specimens
+of orangs which he had obtained immediately after death, Owen found
+that the round ligament was imperfectly developed on both sides. The
+chimpanzee differs from the orang in possessing a depression on the
+head of the femur. In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression
+has almost the same depth and relative position as in man. At Welcker’s
+request, Professor Dippel ascertained the presence of the depression
+in the femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved in the natural
+history collection at Darmstadt. St. George Mivart saw the skeleton
+of an orang in which the femur was marked with a slight but plainly
+indicated depression, just where the round ligament is usually
+attached. Welcker thinks it probable that in some specimens of the
+gorilla the round ligament is only slightly developed, and that in
+others it is altogether wanting. On several femurs of gorillas, this
+naturalist observed only doubtful traces of the depression in question.
+Duvernoy found the round ligament fully developed in the gorilla and
+chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find it in the orang-utan, but ascertained
+its presence in the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was
+fully developed in _Troglodytes Aubryi_.
+
+In addition to these somewhat conflicting assertions, I have myself
+observed, in the gorilla innominate and femur bones examined by me,
+more or less distinct indications of the depression which receives
+the round ligament. The ligament itself has been preserved with the
+body of a gorilla. The same remark applies to the skeletons and
+bodies of chimpanzees. In the case of the skeleton of an orang,
+slight indications of a depression were observed on the head of the
+left femur, and these indications were absent in the femurs of other
+specimens. In a large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium,
+only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were apparent in the
+right acetabulum, and these were intermingled singly or in groups
+with the cartilaginous cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous
+corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these facts we may conclude
+that the round ligament is generally but not invariably present in
+the gorilla and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in the
+orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the majority of cases.
+I have myself observed it in _Hylobates agilis_, _leuciscus_, and
+_syndactylus_. Owen asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is
+partly due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth of this
+surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that the ligament is not
+unfrequently absent in other anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all
+these arboreal and climbing animals is extremely ungainly.
+
+The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very interesting. I must
+necessarily refrain from giving a detailed account of it, and will only
+mention some points in connection with this organic system, and their
+relation to corresponding points in the muscular system of man. I rely
+partly on the researches of others, and partly on my own. The amount of
+material which has been collected up to this time is, unfortunately,
+too scanty to enable us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases.
+We are often unable to decide whether the conditions presented to us
+in the case of anthropoids are normal or exceptional. Nor are the
+statistics of muscular variations in the human subject by any means
+firmly established. My own labours in this direction are not yet
+concluded. The assertions on the subject which have been published to
+the world and accepted as authoritative have already been shown to be
+to some extent untrustworthy. Even the little which I am now able to
+produce may not altogether stand the test of subsequent research. Brühl
+justly remarks that in no department of anatomy more than in that which
+treats of the muscles, is it more essential that we should not decide
+whether a form is normal or exceptional until it has been repeatedly
+examined.[65]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 48.--Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1,
+    1′, Occipito-frontalis. 2, 3, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4,
+    Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 6,
+    Compressor naris. 7, Levator labii superioris. 7′, Zygomaticus
+    minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 8′, Zygomaticus major. 9,
+    Orbicularis oris. 9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii
+    inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 12,
+    13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered. 15,
+    Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Retrahens
+    aurem. 21, Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous
+    aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the parotis is removed). F. Skin of
+    neck.
+]
+
+The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed like those of men,
+except in a few unimportant particulars (comp. Figs. 48 and 50). I have
+not observed in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man branch
+out from the orbicular muscle of the eye, and overlap the cheeks and
+temples, and which are considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo
+negro which was dissected by me (Fig. 49, ~3~, ~3′~). In apes that
+portion of the orbicular muscle which covers the supra-orbital ridge
+is very marked. There is generally a considerable layer of muscle on
+the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in detail in anthropoid and
+other apes, including those of America; _i.e._ the zygomatic muscles,
+the levator labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris alæque
+nasi. This has also been done by Duvernoy, Alix, and Gratiolet, in the
+case of anthropoids dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and
+Bischoff.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 49.--Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2,
+    Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4,
+    Pyramidalis nasi. 4′, Levator labii superioris. 6, Levator
+    labii superioris alæque nasi. 6′, Compressor naris. 7′, Levator
+    anguli oris. 8, 8′, Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis
+    oris. 9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 9‴,
+    Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13, Buccinator. 14,
+    Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens
+    aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21,
+    Sterno-mastoid. 22, Deeply set muscles of neck. A, Tendinous
+    aponeurosis. C, Zygoma. E, Parotis. *, Stensonian duct.
+]
+
+Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygomatic muscle in the
+orang with the small zygomatic in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and
+the baboon, as well as in _Innus sinicus_ and _Ateles_, I myself was
+quite able to trace a division into a large and small zygomatic. In the
+gorilla dissected by me the levator labii superioris alæque nasi was
+very wide (Fig. 50, ~6~). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dissected
+the small zygomatic muscle, together with the levator labii superioris
+alæque nasi, in the manner introduced by Henle as a single square
+muscle of the upper lip (_Musculus quadratus labii superioris_). In the
+gorilla I observed a levator alæque nasi, together with the already
+mentioned levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any separate
+levator labii superioris. The very wide cartilage of the nose is
+occupied by a considerable amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles
+are present in the orang, but they are of small size and separated
+into detached bundles. The pyramidalis nasi may be traced in every
+instance, especially in the gorilla (Fig. 50, ~4~) and in the orang. It
+is not so strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon, but is not
+absent in these apes, nor in those which are not anthropoid, such as
+the baboon, and ateles, or climbing ape.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 50.--Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3. 1,
+    2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4,
+    Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator alæ nasi. 6, Levator labii
+    superioris alæque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7′, Levator
+    anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9′, Orbicularis oris.
+    10, Risorius. 11, 16, Masseter. 1′, Buccinator. 12, Depressor
+    anguli oris. 13, Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17,
+    Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens, and retrahens
+    aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. B,
+    Cartilage of nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonian
+    duct.
+]
+
+I myself follow the original division of the muscles into those which
+belong to the nostril and upper lip, in accordance with the principles
+of Duchenne, Darwin, Gamba,[66] and others, and I do so the more
+readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the manifold and lively
+mimetic action which takes place in this particular region of an ape’s
+head. The distinct action of the levator labii superioris alæque nasi,
+the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a strongly developed
+levator anguli oris, are especially characteristic of the gorilla; but
+they are also perceptible in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s
+face is the least mobile. I observed that in the gorilla the risorius
+was very long, branching slightly in the fore-part of the corner of the
+mouth, and behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest bundle
+covered the platysma myoides, but could not be regarded as part of
+the latter. In one chimpanzee I found that the risorius was slightly
+developed, and in other animals of that species I failed to trace it
+at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix.
+Fig. 1, ~15~) with the risorius strongly developed. I have not observed
+this formation either in the orang or the gibbon, but it was apparent
+in one of the ateles (_Ateles leucophthalmos_). In this case the muscle
+covered the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, _i.e._ the duct
+leading out of the parotid gland (Fig. 50, *).
+
+For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius of this ape as only
+a radiation of the platysma myoides, but my opinion upon this point is
+again shaken.
+
+In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an equally faint
+depressor labii inferioris may be observed, the latter partly covered
+by the large and predominant orbicularis oris (Fig. 50). In the
+chimpanzee the two depressors are plainly apparent, and in the gibbon
+the one first named was at any rate developed. The platysma myoides,
+the depressors just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares
+are in this animal in close connection with each other. Froriep’s
+suggestion becomes ever more probable, that these muscles of the lower
+lip owe their origin to the intersection of the opposite portions of
+the skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The buccinator
+muscle in anthropoids resembles on the whole that of man, and in
+both cases is pierced by Stenson’s duct (Fig. 50). The form of the
+masseter muscle is common to both (see Fig. 50, ~11, 16~). In the
+external ear of anthropoids there is an attrahens, attollens, retrahens
+(Fig. 50). Compared with that of a white man, and still more with
+that of a negro (see Figs. 48, ~19~, and 49, ~17~), the attollens
+is only slightly developed. The muscles attached to the cartilages
+of the ear are extremely scanty or partially wanting, which is also
+sometimes the case with man. The muscles of the helix are most strongly
+marked in the gorilla (see, for example, Fig. 50, ~21~). Tiedemann,
+Bischoff’s brother-in-law, carefully observed two living chimpanzees
+in Philadelphia for six months without detecting any movement of the
+ears. My own observation confirms his assertion and the remarks of
+Darwin, which I have already quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are
+incapable of moving their ears. I know of no individual exceptions.
+This is the more remarkable since some men have retained the power of
+voluntarily moving their ears, and the same power is also found in some
+species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons, macacas, and magots.
+
+It will not here be out of place to say something of the
+characteristics, previously mentioned, of the physiognomical expression
+of anthropoid apes. Thus, for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he
+can move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which covers this
+region. The chimpanzee can also move the skin of the head, but with no
+very apparent bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which was in
+the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his hair and the skin of his head
+when he was much enraged. It is known that in some instances man also
+possesses this power.
+
+I have already spoken of the expression of the eyes of these animals. I
+will only add that when anthropoids of every species are in great pain
+or seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often most affecting.
+
+The forehead of these animals is frequently marked by transverse
+furrows, and especially, as Darwin justly observes, when they raise
+their eyebrows. The same great observer considers that the countenances
+of anthropoids are, in comparison with those of men, generally
+inexpressive, and indeed, chiefly in consequence of the fact that they
+do not wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. The wrinkling of
+the forehead, which is one of the most significant forms of expression
+in man, is due to the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which
+the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each other, so as to form
+vertical folds on the forehead. It has been asserted that the orang
+and chimpanzee possess these muscles, but they seem to be rarely
+exercised--at any rate, to any remarkable extent.[67] When Darwin
+brought a chimpanzee out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine, he
+only once observed a slight wrinkling of the forehead. When the same
+observer tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was
+slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared between the
+eyebrows.[68] Darwin never observed any wrinkling of the forehead in
+an orang. I myself have observed a contraction of that region of the
+brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a wrinkling of the skin
+which covers the bridge of the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee,
+and have illustrated this expression by a drawing.
+
+Darwin goes on to say that when a young chimpanzee is tickled, to
+which, as in the case of children, their armpits are peculiarly
+sensitive, he generally utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although
+sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the mouth are then drawn
+back, and this sometimes causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled.
+This wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human laugh, is still
+more apparent in some of the other apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of
+the upper jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing sound, and
+in this respect he differs from man. Darwin further observes that when
+the tickled young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes over his
+face, which, according to Wallace, may be called a smile. Darwin has
+observed something similar in the chimpanzee.[69]
+
+My own observation confirms what has been said of the chuckling
+of a tickled chimpanzee. When Dr. Hermes, the director of the
+Berlin Aquarium, played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that
+establishment, a contortion of the corner of the mouth, resembling
+a somewhat sardonic smile, at once appeared. No specimen displayed
+this smile with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who delighted
+visitors by his inexhaustible humour in 1879. The gorilla, of which
+an illustration is given in Fig. 3, also drew down the corner of his
+mouth when he was pleased, by means of the muscular system which we
+have just described.
+
+When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both rows of teeth, and opens
+his mouth to utter sounds of fury, while making ready to fight. It is
+well known that anthropoids are able to pout and project their lips;
+and Darwin says that they do this, not only when they are slightly
+teased, and are sullen or disappointed, but also when anything occurs
+to make them uneasy.
+
+I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight wrinkling of the region
+of the nasal cartilage, and even a vibration in a lateral and upward
+direction. In any case, the muscles which we have described as acting
+on the nose and upper lip are exercised.
+
+The platysma myoides, which extends in man from the lower row of teeth
+to just below the clavicle, occupies about the same area in the gibbon
+and in other apes (Fig. 50). In the chimpanzee, however, this muscle
+extends as high as the zygomatic arch, or even higher. In the gorilla
+also I observed that this part extends comparatively high on the face.
+In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper fibres of this muscle
+seem to form the risorius. In one case the platysma myoides sent forth
+a fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the beginning of the lower
+temporal ridges. In the gorilla I saw that the uppermost fibres of the
+platysma myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig. 50, ~10~).
+
+From the corresponding muscle in the orang the lower fibres tend far
+backward, and are in connection with the deltoid muscle covering a
+segment of the capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin of
+the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw. In cases in which it
+extends far in an upward direction, as in those we have cited, it
+affects the lateral extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces
+of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion of the corner of
+the mouth. It may also have to do with the grumbling sound issuing from
+the throat-pouch, which is uttered by the animal when agitated, as he
+rapidly opens and closes his mouth.
+
+The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in these animals, and
+especially in the orang and gibbon, can be divided without difficulty
+into a sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions diverge from
+each other in a downward direction. As Bischoff justly states, a
+muscle not hitherto observed in man may be traced in all four species
+of anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the external part of the
+clavicle to the transverse process of the first cervical vertebra.
+Bischoff has called it the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other
+apes, although the site of its origin varies, sometimes occurring on
+the spine of the scapula. Our Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in
+regarding this muscle as “a brilliant proof of the relation of all apes
+with each other.” I give this assertion without further comment.
+
+The muscles which extend between the head, sternum, and clavicle,
+together with the muscles of the acromion process of the scapula, make
+an external covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall describe
+presently. The pectoralis major of the gorilla, as well as that of man,
+divides into two portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other
+to the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided from the
+deltoid by a wide interval, filled with connective tissue and fat. But
+both portions of the pectoralis major are divided by a tolerably wide
+space, into which, in Bischoff’s opinion, the throat-pouch is inserted.
+This, however, I do not believe, since that organ would be compressed
+and strangulated between the two portions of muscle whenever they were
+exercised. It may, however, be supposed that room for an enlargement
+of the throat-pouch when the animal is bellowing is afforded by the
+existence of these spaces. Bischoff is right in the assertion that
+the clavicular portion of the pectoralis major is wanting in the
+orang-utan. The upper part of this muscle springs directly from the
+sternum. The lower sternal ribs give origin to the pectoralis minor.
+The chimpanzee and gibbon display clearly in this muscle the separation
+we have mentioned into a clavicular and a sternal portion.
+
+The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes is full of
+interest. In the gorilla it divides into an upper portion of firmer
+tissue, less easily separable into digitations, which arises from the
+third to the fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three
+digitations, of which the upper segment laps considerably over the
+lower segment of the upper portion. In the chimpanzee an upper portion
+of less firm texture extends from the second to the fourth, and a
+lower with three digitations from the fourth to the seventh ribs. This
+second lower portion is sometimes absent. I have seen the upper portion
+attached to the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower portion
+to the ridge of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. In the orang
+an upper portion, separable into three digitations, extends from the
+second to the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process. A
+lower portion, also separable into three digitations, extends from the
+fifth to the seventh ribs, and is also attached either to the greater
+tuberosity of the humerus or to its edge; this latter portion projects
+below over the pectoralis major. In the gibbon (_Hylobates albimanus_),
+the upper portion starts from the second, the lower from the third to
+the fifth ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoralis minor is in
+man also sometimes separable into digitations, which may be connected
+both with the coracoid process and with the capsular ligament of the
+shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of insertion of this muscle
+is remarkably slender.
+
+According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous, hood-like fascia
+covers the whole region of the occiput and neck. In adult males
+this fascia is 20 mm. in thickness. In a female dissected by me
+the rudiments of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were present.
+Duvernoy is justified in supposing that this is not yet developed in
+the young gorilla, and that a layer of connective tissue and fat is
+substituted for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius divided
+into distinct bundles of flesh by layers of fat (Fig. 50, ~15~). The
+fascia corresponds to the great development of the trapezius, and the
+same characteristic development exists in other anthropoids. The adult
+male gorilla displays a powerful _ligamentum nuchæ_ in connection
+with the long spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, as well as
+powerful inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi-spinales
+colli and dorsi. The great development of the spinous processes of
+the dorsal vertebræ of gorillas (Fig. 17), and also chimpanzees and
+orangs, involve the development of powerful semi-spinales, as well
+as of strong, fourfold spinales and inter-spinales muscles. The
+whole of the fleshy formation of the neck of an adult male gorilla
+which is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and especially
+the splenius capitis and colli, the long cervical muscle (_Musculus
+longissimus cervicis_), and the long head-muscle (_Musculus longissimus
+capitis_), which have also been regarded by me as parts of the long
+spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and vertical muscles at the
+back of the head. With Chappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as
+modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales.
+
+The levator anguli scapulæ is divided in anthropoids as in man. The
+subclavius is slender, except in the gorilla, and in the latter animal
+it sends a tendon obliquely to the coracoid process.
+
+In all anthropoids the deltoid is strongly developed. In the gorilla
+it projects forwards and outwards in order to attach itself to the
+humerus, almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the brachialis
+anticus in a manner with which we are only imperfectly acquainted. It
+extends nearly as far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee
+its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and it was previously
+suggested by Vrolik, that in the chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis
+muscle possesses at its origin a moderately large second portion, which
+tends downwards over the lesser tuberosity of the humerus, and adheres
+to its edge. But I have seen both portions of the muscle in question
+attached to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of this
+species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the position of this muscle
+corresponds to that in man.
+
+Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common to all apes which starts
+from the tendinous attachment of the _latissimus dorsi_ on the edge
+of the lesser tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on the
+inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle they give the name
+_latissimo-condyloideus_. Bischoff goes on to say that this muscle goes
+in some cases into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in others,
+as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner inter-muscular septum and
+to the internal condyle of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends
+as far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it reaches to the
+condyle, where it is pierced by the ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that
+this formation is wanting in man.
+
+This structure is indeed remarkable in anthropoids. The muscle starts
+in a lateral direction from the insertion point of the _latissimus
+dorsi_. In the gorilla alone I observed that it started from the
+coracoid process of the scapula, together with the two portions
+of the pectoralis minor; it was connected for a space with the
+coraco-brachialis, and finally it was attached, in the upper part of
+the lower third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum which
+is found between the brachialis anticus and the triceps. In the
+chimpanzee, on the other hand, it has its origin in the _latissimus
+dorsi_, and divides into an anterior and posterior portion; the former
+is attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while the latter is
+connected either with the middle or inner head of the triceps. In the
+orang the same division of this muscle may occur. In one of these
+animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and semi-membranous,
+attached by an extremely slight tendon to the coracoid process of the
+shoulder-blade, while the hind portion issued from the _latissimus
+dorsi_. They were both in connection with the triceps and brachialis
+anticus. In other instances the muscle consisted only of the posterior
+portion, issuing from the _latissimus dorsi_. In the white-handed
+gibbon, the muscle issued from the region in which the tendons of the
+_latissimus dorsi_ and of the teres major are united, and was inserted
+into the fascia which is found between the bicipital and the brachialis
+anterior. This attachment may also occur in the centre of the shaft of
+the humerus. Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous instances
+of this formation in coloured races.[70]
+
+It is well known that in man the biceps is inserted into the tuberosity
+of the radius by means of a flattened round tendon. This tendon,
+however, opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad expansion,
+which passes into the fascia of the forearm, and is termed _Aponeurosis
+bicipitis_. In the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong
+fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into the palmar fascia. In
+the gibbon the short head of the muscle does not always start from the
+lesser tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of the pectoralis
+major (Huxley), but sometimes from the edge of the lesser tuberosity,
+which is here connected with the _latissimus dorsi_, as well as with
+the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is more to the side,
+and with the triceps. In the gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the
+supinator longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius,
+instead of extending to the styloid process of that bone, as it does in
+other anthropoids, and in man.
+
+The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla, but not in other
+anthropoids. The long flexor muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales
+resemble those of man (Figs. 51, 52). The flexor longus pollicis is
+absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy considers that it is replaced by a
+tendon of the long flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable
+to verify the existence of this tendon. The same muscle is also absent
+in the chimpanzee and the orang, but it may be traced in _Hylobates
+albimanus_. Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator radii teres
+only sends forth one head,[71] but I have found it to be bicipital
+in animals of this species. The lower or hinder head issues, as in
+man, from the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the gorilla and in
+the chimpanzee it extends far in a downwards direction on the radius
+(Fig. 52). The flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with one
+head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and with the other from
+the radius. Bischoff describes the structure of the long abductor of
+the thumb in the orang, the baboon, the _pithecia_, and the _hapale_
+as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and
+the macaca the tendon divides into two parts. Nor does one tendon
+belong, as in man, to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is
+wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only implies a continued
+division of the attachment to the trapezium, as well as to the
+metacarpal bones of the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs
+in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short extensor of the thumb.
+In this point, again, apes display a greater likeness to one another
+than to man.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 51.--Palmar muscles of man. _a_, Ligaments of wrist,
+    especially the anterior ligament. _c_, _c′_, Sheathing
+    ligaments. _d_, _e_, _f_, Oblique fibres of the ligaments
+    of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor
+    sublimis, and of the flexor profundus muscles of the fingers.
+    3, The reciprocal perforation of these tendons. 4, Continuation
+    of the tendons of the flexor profundus of the fingers. 5,
+    Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 7,
+    8, 9, Flexor brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11,
+    12, Flexor brevis, abductor, and opponens minimi digiti. 13,
+    Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle.
+]
+
+According to my own researches, the long abductor of the thumb in
+anthropoids forms a muscle not more considerable than one in proximity
+with it, of which the origin and more central direction recall the
+short extensor of the human thumb. In all four species I found that
+the abductor had two tendons, and was attached to the trapezium.
+The muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of the first
+metacarpal bone. I have not been able to discover an extra extensor of
+the thumb in the gorilla. The question now arises what we should think
+of the second muscle, which is found in these animals in the vicinity
+of the abductor. In my opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a
+short extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an extension of
+the metacarpal bone of that member, and in this act of extension it
+is supported by the long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It
+must be remembered that the comparatively short thumbs of anthropoids
+have not to be employed in so many different ways as the human thumb,
+and that we cannot therefore be surprised that the development of the
+short extensor is less complete. A special extensor muscle of the index
+finger is either altogether absent in the gorilla or very slightly
+developed, while it is very apparent in _Hylobates albimanus_ (~6~,
+Fig. 53). In the chimpanzee this muscle sends a tendon to the middle
+finger. In the orang there is one extensor common to the four fingers.
+In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as the other extensor and flexor
+muscles, is remarkable for its excessive slenderness. The manifold
+connections of the extensor tendons with each other are an interesting
+peculiarity (Fig. 53).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 52.--Palmar muscles of gorilla. _a_, Anterior ligament.
+    _b_, Remains of the skin of palm, here covered with a very
+    sinewy skin. _c_, _f_, Oblique fibres of the ligaments of the
+    sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, Flexor tendons.
+    3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis,
+    whence in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues
+    (comp. Fig. 51, ~5~). 4, 3, 3′, 5, Abductor, flexor brevis,
+    abductor pollicis. 6, 7, 8, Opponens, flexor brevis, abductor,
+    minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12, Flexor
+    sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi
+    ulnaris.
+]
+
+In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor, common to the
+fingers, and enlarged in the region of the third and little fingers.
+A superficial flexor, belonging to the index finger, started from the
+inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of the inter-muscular
+septum. The deep finger-flexor was attached to the four fingers. In
+the orang the first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly for
+the index finger, as well as one for the other three fingers. The deep
+flexor only displayed two bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand,
+the superficial flexor displays four bellies.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 53.--Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand. 1, The
+    extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus
+    pollicis. 3, Extensor primi internodii pollicis. 4, Extensor
+    secundi internodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis digitorum. 6,
+    Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi
+    ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation
+    of the same to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous
+    muscles of this region. A, The posterior annular ligament.
+]
+
+In the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at least as my
+experience goes, a so-called sesamoid bone. It is in this instance in
+connection with the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the fibres
+of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the wrist pass into each
+other. In the chimpanzee the tendon of the long abductor muscle of the
+thumb sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the other fibres
+of the tendon of this muscle, which divides into several strips, are
+inserted in the trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the first
+metacarpal bone.
+
+The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which Bischoff has denied the
+existence, is certainly present in these animals. In the chimpanzee
+the lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the thumb have their
+origin in the sesamoid bone. The middle fibres, of the same muscle
+issue from the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid bone. On the
+other hand, the upper part of the muscle has its origin in the anterior
+annular ligament. In the orang, the lower fibres of the short abductor
+of the thumb likewise have their origin in the sesamoid bone, while
+the central fibres again start from the anterior annular ligament.
+The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into the base of the
+first metacarpal bone. In a dissection of the orang the flexor longus
+pollicis sent a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This sesamoid
+bone is also found in the gorilla, although Duvernoy and Rosenberg do
+not appear to be aware of its existence.[72]
+
+In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short abductor, a short
+bicipital flexor, an opponens, and an abductor of the thumb. The
+longer belly of the short flexor extending in a more radial direction,
+and in connection with the opponens, is only slightly developed. In
+the muscular system of a gorilla’s little finger we may observe an
+abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the chimpanzee
+displays a short abductor, an opponens, a short bicipital flexor,
+and an adductor of the thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and
+an opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed a short
+abductor, a short flexor with two bellies, an opponens, and an adductor
+of the thumb. In addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer and
+Bischoff describe another short, independent muscle, representing the
+long flexor, and attached to the second phalanx, but I have not myself
+ascertained the existence of this muscle. The same anatomists mention
+an adductor between the third metacarpal bone and the first joint of
+the thumb, and another between the second metacarpal bone and the
+second joint of the thumb, passing on into the extensor tendon. I am
+myself convinced of the existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the
+fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed by Langer the second
+opponens) passes on into the extensor tendon. In the little finger of
+the orang there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In
+the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly indicated opponens, a
+short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the thumb. In _Hylobates
+albimanus_ this adductor divides into four or five portions, which
+are attached to the whole of the first metacarpal bone. In the little
+finger there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the
+same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached by one portion
+to the second metacarpal bone, by the other to the base of the second
+phalanx of the index finger (Fig. 53, ~9~, ~10~).
+
+Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford terms _Contrahentes
+digitorum_ (contractors of the digits), which lie deep in the palm of
+the hands and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril, baboon,
+and other apes.[73] They rest upon the inter-osseous muscles, and are
+covered by the tendons of the long flexors of the digits, as well as
+by the lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace these _Musculi
+contrahentes_ in the gorilla. In a female chimpanzee I observed a
+_Musculus contrahens_ for the fourth, and another for the fifth finger,
+and the same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I observed a
+_Musculus contrahens_ for the fourth, and one for the fifth fingers,
+and two faintly indicated _Contrahentes_ for the fourth and fifth toes.
+Similar muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and of the
+fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in the white-handed gibbon.
+
+In correspondence with the height of the pelvic bones, the gluteus
+maximus of these animals only displays a moderate width in comparison
+with its length. The tendon which attaches it to the femur extends
+low down, almost as far as the knee-joint. The gluteus medius and
+minimus are also long, in correspondence with this structure of the
+pelvis, although they are attached to the large trochanter, and to
+the posterior inter-trochanteric line. The climbing muscle (_Musculus
+scansorius_), which extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of
+the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chimpanzee, and by Bischoff
+in the orang, and is described by them as strongly made; it appears
+to be absent in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis generally
+forms portions of the neighbouring muscles. The tensor vaginæ femoris,
+which is strong and wide in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced
+or altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is not, as in man,
+attached to the inner surface of the tibia, just below the internal
+tuberosity, but it is inserted much lower down on this surface. In
+the gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the deep fascia of
+the thigh, and two others to the internal border of the tibia. In the
+chimpanzee and the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down. In the
+orang it does not go so far, but the _gracilis_ and _semi-tendinosus_
+are in the same relative position. The biceps of the femur is very
+apparent in the orang; its long head divides in two parts, of which the
+lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united with the short head.
+
+Bischoff at first denied the existence of the plantaris in the
+chimpanzee, and Brühl had previously done the same, but it is as
+normally present in that animal as in man, in whom also it is sometimes
+absent. I, however, as well as other observers, have failed to discover
+it in the gorilla, orang, and gibbon. The popliteus is developed in
+every instance. The tibio-fibular muscle (_Musculus peroneotibialis_),
+covered by the popliteus, of which the existence was ascertained by
+Gruber, has not been observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the
+exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very apparent in a red sea-cat
+monkey (_Cercopithecus ruber_).
+
+The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into two heads, and the
+peroneal muscles have not the same relative width in anthropoids and
+man, since in the former case the calf of the lower limb is small, and
+it lacks the pleasing roundness which characterizes this part of the
+human structure. These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon,
+appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo Achillis is present,
+but it has not the prominent development in height and width which
+we observe in man. The long extensor, flexor, and tibial muscles are
+in all cases fully developed. The peroneus tertius, as it is termed,
+although it should only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus
+digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.[74] I myself am not disposed, with
+Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to regard this muscle as an abductor.
+Brühl perceived in a chimpanzee a fourth rudimentary peroneal muscle
+(_Musculus peroneus intermedius_), extending between the peroneus and
+the little toe, a muscle sometimes found in man, and which I have
+myself only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee the extensor longus digitorum passes through a remarkably
+strong transverse ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which covers
+the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes (Fig. 55). Brühl has
+described the characteristic contraction and extension of the tendons
+of the long and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee, but I
+have myself found some difficulty in producing this action. In Fig. 55
+I have endeavoured to represent this condition in the most natural way.
+The extensor proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The extensor
+brevis digitorum produces a large, oblique belly for the great toe
+(Fig. 55). In the gorilla there is for the great toe an abductor, a
+bicipital flexor, an adductor, and an opponens (comp. Fig. 54).
+
+From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for the great toe rises
+with a certain independence. On the right foot of a chimpanzee I
+observed a fifth belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (Fig.
+55). As my illustration is taken from this specimen, I have represented
+the foot with, or in spite of, this interesting anomaly, which, as we
+know, sometimes occurs in man.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 54.--Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus
+    and extensor proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum.
+    3, Tendon of peroneus tertius. 4, 5, Peroneus longus and
+    peroneus brevis. 4′, 5′, Tendons of the same. 6, 7, Tendons of
+    the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum.
+]
+
+The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated tendons, belonging
+to the second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum displays
+perforated tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor longus
+pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which goes into the toe
+itself, while the other is connected with the flexor longus digitorum,
+and displays perforated tendons for the third and fourth toes, while
+the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes have their origin
+in the other flexor.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 55.--Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1.
+    Tibialis anticus muscle. 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3,
+    Extensor communis digitorum. 4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus
+    longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor brevis digitorum. 8,
+    Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous
+    muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti.
+]
+
+In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the foot are powerful. The
+first inter-osseous muscle is likewise well developed and bicipital.
+There is a short flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have not
+yet been able to assure myself of the existence of an opponens for that
+toe. In the chimpanzee the muscular system of the great and little
+toe does not essentially differ from that which we have described in
+the gorilla. The flexor brevis digitorum forms the perforated tendons
+of the second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum provides
+the fourth and fifth toes with perforated, and the second and fifth
+toes with perforating, tendons, while those which belong to the third
+and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor longus pollicis. As
+in the gorilla, the latter muscle produces a fibrous investment for
+the tendons of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there is an
+abductor of the great toe, a very slightly developed opponens, a short
+bicipital flexor, and an adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes
+appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in man. It provides
+the second and fifth toes with perforating tendons, while those of the
+third and fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus
+digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the great toe. The
+perforated tendons in this case generally belong to the short flexor
+muscle. In addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe, there
+is the long flexor already described.
+
+In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor, a short bicipital
+flexor, and a slightly developed opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped
+adductor is attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle is, as in
+the same animal’s hand (Fig. 53), attached to the first phalanx of the
+second toe. The flexor longus digitorum provides the third and fourth
+toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off a tendon for the
+great toe. On the little toe there is a remarkably slender perforating
+tendon. While the first of the two long flexors represents the human
+flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus digitorum is in this instance
+limited to the little toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the
+gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are connected together
+by an aponeurosis. It may be here mentioned that in the human foot
+the flexor longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the
+second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon, as Bischoff justly
+observes, a muscle covers the flexor longus digitorum, which is still
+undivided, but already enlarged. From this muscle perforated tendons
+issue for the third and fourth toes. The second toe is provided with
+such a tendon from the flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have
+mentioned seems to represent the Quadratus plantæ, which is often
+developed in the other anthropoids, although only to a slight extent.
+With respect to the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon,
+I need only say that in the latter species the opponens seems to be
+absent (Fig. 55).
+
+It will be seen from the foregoing account that, in spite of several
+apparently important peculiarities, in spite of great and manifold
+variations which are established, even although our authorities do
+not always agree together, the muscular system of anthropoids is on
+the whole very like that of man. It displays, especially in the lower
+limbs, peculiarities of structure which render them capable of walking
+in an upright position, and others again which they have in common with
+the lower animals, but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of
+the muscular system of these animals are predominant.
+
+The digestive system of anthropoids likewise affords interesting points
+of comparison. The cavity of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered
+by large and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the mouth and the
+gums are flesh-coloured; they assume a darker colour in older animals,
+and are then sometimes marked with spots of a bluish or brownish grey.
+Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity in the mucous membrane of the mouths
+of the gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls buccal
+folds, which pass on both sides from the fore surface of the upper and
+lower jaw into the mucous membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height
+of the canine teeth.[75] I have myself only observed these folds in the
+gorilla, of which an illustration is given in Fig. 3, and not in any
+other specimen. I have observed scarcely any indications of these folds
+in other anthropoids, and then only of such a doubtful nature that I am
+not disposed to regard the circumstance as of any special significance.
+A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes only slightly
+developed, but always perceptible, is present in all anthropoids.
+
+The tongue is small, and not provided at its base with several
+great concave follicles as in man; these are at least only faintly
+represented, and not easy to observe. Around them there rise pock-like,
+tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged gorilla are apt to
+become hard and horny. These are also prominent between the follicles
+of the tonsils. The circumvallate papillæ of the tongue are less
+numerous than in man, and often, especially in the chimpanzee, they
+take the form of a cross, or of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V.
+
+The uvula and palate present no special variation from the human
+type. On the hard palate there are a number of folds, or rather
+swellings, which extend laterally from the central suture of the
+palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw; these are sometimes
+simple, sometimes complex, and vary in their details in individual
+cases. They are particularly marked in the adult chimpanzee, and
+are also very apparent in the gibbon, and they are arranged with a
+somewhat ornamental regularity. These inequalities are not altogether
+insignificant in the human palate, but this subject has not been much
+studied since Gegenbaur directed the attention of scientific men to
+them, and special light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and Ehlers,
+as far as anthropoids are concerned.
+
+The teeth afford us important material for comparison. In the case of
+anthropoids the formula for the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World
+apes (_Catarrhina_) will generally apply: _i_ 2/2 _c_ 1/1 _p_ 2/2 _m_
+3/3. The following is the formula for the milk-teeth: _i_ 2/2 _c_ 1/1
+_m_ 2/2. Magitot and Giglioli[76] have shown that the milk-teeth are
+cut in the same order as those of man--first, the lower; second, the
+upper incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth, the back
+pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. According to the same authors, the
+permanent teeth are cut in the following order:--first, the first molar
+teeth; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor teeth; third, the
+pre-molars; fourth, the canine teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth;
+sixth, the third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla, Giglioli
+found that the permanent canine teeth were cut almost simultaneously
+with the third molar teeth, and after the appearance of the second
+molar teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to be a longer
+process than that of the other teeth.
+
+In anthropoids the structure of the permanent teeth varies with the
+species, and even with the sex. In the gorilla the two upper central
+incisor teeth are wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair of
+lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth are of about the size
+of the upper lateral incisors, and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but
+not so wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged male are curved
+in their lower part, both outwards and inwards. Their form is that of
+a three-sided, cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded, and
+near its inner edge a deep furrow may be observed, extending from the
+neck of the tooth almost to its point. The outer and inner sides of
+the tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in front, and level
+or slightly concave behind. The inner side is concave, and furnished,
+nearly in the centre, with a deep longitudinal farrow. The lower canine
+teeth of an aged male are shorter than the upper, curved on their
+upper and outer surface, and somewhat behind. Their form is also that
+of a three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longitudinal furrow
+which traverses their inner segment is much shorter than that on the
+upper tooth. The outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time
+somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior segment with
+two longitudinal furrows, or more rarely with one, reaching from the
+neck to about the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that of
+the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower canine teeth project
+like pillars over the upper ones (Figs. 15, 16). The canine teeth of
+a young male gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although they
+already present the form of a three-sided pyramid. The canine teeth of
+the adult female gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult male,
+and are laterally more compressed. The three-sided pyramidal form is
+only slightly marked. The outer surface is convex and furnished with
+a scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On the inner surface,
+or that which is turned to the cavity of the mouth, there are from two
+to three longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the centre
+of the tooth. The lower teeth are of a three-sided, pyramidal form,
+presenting an interior, posterior, and inner superficies.
+
+The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide, and are furnished
+with a large outer, and a smaller inner, cusp. The three four-cusped
+upper molars display a more regular and symmetrical arrangement of
+their cusps than is the case with the female, in which the position of
+the cusps is rather variable. Except for the difference of size, the
+relative conditions of these teeth are the same in male and female.
+The first pointed lower pre-molars are in the male of the form of a
+four-sided pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface, flat on
+the side directed to the cavity of the mouth, and marked with furrows
+on the posterior surface. The small second and lower pre-molars have
+two anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is generally worn away
+at an early age. Each molar tooth has two outer and two inner cusps,
+opposite to each other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail to
+notice the likeness to the conditions of the human teeth, a likeness
+which is still more striking in the female.
+
+In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central incisor teeth are broadly
+chisel-shaped, while the upper and lower lateral incisors are
+smaller. In the male there is often a considerable gap between these
+and the canine teeth. The latter present the form of a three-sided
+pyramid, of which the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards,
+while the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its upper third,
+and terminating at the base of the crown in a posterior cusp. The
+pre-molars have an external and an inner cusp; the molars have two
+external and two inner cusps, connected with each other by their
+enamel. The lower canine teeth of these animals are likewise of
+the shape of a three-sided pyramid, of which the anterior angle is
+very blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are sharply cut.
+The anterior surface is not grooved like the upper canine teeth.
+The lateral angle is much rounded. The back teeth plainly display
+the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed in man. In the
+orang-utan the characteristics of the upper incisors are such as we
+have described in the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine
+teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and are furnished with a
+longitudinal furrow on the anterior side. A similar furrow is found on
+the posterior superficies of the lower canine teeth. The back teeth
+display no special characteristics when compared with those of other
+anthropoids.
+
+The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much worn down by age
+on their posterior surface. Deep transverse grooves of varying
+size characterize the teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal
+distribution of the coating of enamel. These are developed with their
+advancing growth. In addition to these incised furrows, longitudinal
+marks, with raised edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior
+surface of the incisor teeth.
+
+In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor teeth is smooth; in
+this animal the upper central incisor teeth are the largest, while the
+lower central incisors are the smallest. The long and strong upper
+canine teeth, which are laterally compressed, display a sharp posterior
+angle, and an anterior and inner longitudinal furrow.
+
+It has sometimes been said that the grooves found on the external
+contour of the back teeth of anthropoids, extending to their roots,
+constitute a not unimportant distinction between their structure and
+that of the human teeth, in which the grooves do not extend to the
+roots. But the corresponding human teeth do sometimes exhibit very
+deep and extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any peculiar
+significance to this assumed distinction. The development of the canine
+teeth, like those of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important. A
+supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be observed both in man and in
+anthropoids, including also the gibbon.[77]
+
+The stomach and intestines of these animals present only a few striking
+differences from the same organs in man. The length of the intestines
+varies in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only observed the
+_valvulæ conniventes_ to be somewhat clearly developed in the gorilla
+and the orang. The cæcum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the
+power of free movement in the peritoneum, and furnished, especially in
+the case of the orang, with a large, very long, and spirally coiled
+vermiform appendix.
+
+The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but in the orang
+this division is not very clearly marked. I have not myself observed
+a subdivision of these lobes, occurring on their edges, which is
+mentioned by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla. Bischoff
+notices in the gorilla the absence of the H-shaped arrangement of the
+fissures on the under surface of the liver, so noticeable in man; and
+the same remark applies to other species of anthropoids. Moreover, the
+fissures on this part of the liver are not incised on the substance
+with the same uniform depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the
+orang is not remarkable for its size; in the chimpanzee I found that
+this organ is large and twisted, and it is also large in the gibbon.
+
+The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon, shorter
+and wider in the orang. On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled
+off. There is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark.
+
+The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole a structure resembling
+that of man. This is especially the case at the entrance to that organ.
+The anterior and specially vocal portion of the glottis is short, about
+as long as the respiratory portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep
+cavity in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and
+orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs correspond to Morgagni’s sacs.
+These are the thin-skinned elastic sacs, closely united with their
+surroundings by connective tissue. The right laryngeal sac appears
+to be of larger diameter than the left. According to Duvernoy’s and
+Ehlers’ accurate account only the upper portion of this organ occurs
+in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang, a lower projection is
+displayed, extending behind the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder,
+and another extending to the pectoralis major muscle. In the chimpanzee
+only the posterior segment is developed. It has been asserted that
+in several cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal sac,
+communicating with the two Morgagni sacs, but I agree with Ehlers in
+thinking this improbable. In such instances it seems likely that, owing
+to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one of the sacs has been
+overlooked. In an aged orang the throat-pouches, fastened together by
+connective tissue, and covered by the external skin of the throat,
+hang down slackly and heavily over the middle of the breast (see Fig.
+9). According to Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons
+which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca asserts that it
+has two detached sacs, placed close to the larynx.[78] The halves of
+the thyroid cartilage are generally connected with each other by an
+intermediate piece.
+
+The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from sixteen to eighteen
+cartilaginous rings, but in the siamang there are twenty-one. They
+ramify into branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than on
+the left side.[79] There is a further lateral ramification on the
+right side, situated above the artery. Huxley and Ehlers hold that the
+lungs of a gorilla are cleft like those of the human organism, the
+right divided into three, and the left into two lobes. I have myself
+observed this type, and in one instance I found three lobes on the
+left. In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was divided into
+three, and the left into two lobes. Bischoff observed an instance of
+a chimpanzee which had four lobes on the right and two on the left
+side. In an orang dissected by me I found only one lobe on each side,
+with thin, slightly indented notches on the anterior edges of the
+right lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same time a
+strongly marked indentation between the lobes. The lungs of a gibbon
+are described as having four lobes on the right, and only one or two
+on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in which there were three
+lobes on the right, and two on the left. It appears that there are not
+unimportant individual variations of this structure in every species of
+anthropoids; and indeed, human lungs are by no means exempt from them.
+
+The male sexual organs correspond on the whole with the form and
+arrangement of these organs in man. I must not omit to mention that the
+penis of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog-headed apes, is
+much more like the penis in man than is the case with anthropoids, with
+the exception of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the scrotum is
+short and tightly stretched. The right testicle is a little higher than
+the left, and is divided from it by a wide raphé. The internal female
+organs are also like those of the human organism, with only slight
+variations. Bischoff is correct in the assertion that the external lips
+of the pudendum and the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau,
+Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is a menstruation which
+occurs periodically, at any rate in the case of the chimpanzee, and the
+other species cannot be exempt from the process. At such times there
+is a blush and enlargement of the external parts, and a profusion of
+the external lips of the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely
+apparent. The nymphæ and the clitoris are of considerable size and
+importance. There is often an excessive enlargement and reddening
+of these parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the
+chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca, during the period of
+sexual excitement.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 56.--The brain of an orang, seen from the side (Vogt, from
+    Gratiolet). F, Frontal lobe. P, Parietal lobe. O, Occipital
+    lobe. R, Fissure of Rolando. S, Fissure of Sylvius. C,
+    Cerebellum.
+]
+
+_Nervous system._--In this part of the organism we are especially
+interested in the structure of the brain. Bastian justly remarks,
+with reference to the brain of apes, that this family possesses many
+cerebral characteristics in common, by which their close connection
+with each other may be verified. Distinct stages of development have
+been observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a consecutive
+series. Starting from the brains of lemurs, which do not greatly
+differ from those of rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct
+transition forms to the more highly developed cerebral hemispheres
+of the large anthropoid apes, the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and
+orang-utan.[80]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 57.--Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper
+    part of the right hemisphere is removed so as to lay bare
+    the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from Marshall). L, Longitudinal
+    fissure (other indications the same as in Fig. 56). _c s_, The
+    corpus striatum in anterior cornu of the ventricle. _c a_,
+    Hippocampus major in descending cornu. _h m_, Hippocampus minor
+    in posterior cornu.
+]
+
+Very opposite views prevail among anatomists with regard to the
+question which species of anthropoids possesses the most highly
+developed brain. Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest,
+and that of the orang as the most highly developed. In all these apes
+the lateral halves of the cerebrum, always divided from each other
+by a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum as far as a
+minute posterior segment. In this respect I find the brain of the
+gorilla a little behind the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have
+only observed the projection of the cerebellum through the cerebrum
+in the case of an orang[81] (see also Fig. 56). Retzius asserts that
+the cerebellum of Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering
+is generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar races. In German
+and Latin races the cerebrum overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian,
+Indian, and Negro races the covering appears to be generally imperfect.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 58.--Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau and Pansch).
+    I., Frontal lobe. II., Fissure of Rolando. III., Parietal lobe.
+    IV., Temporal lobe. C, Cerebellum. _f s_, Fissure of Sylvius.
+    _s c_, External fissure parieto-occipital.
+]
+
+While the ground form of the gorilla brain approximates to a long
+oval, and in this respect resembles the human brain, the brain of
+chimpanzees and orangs is of a round-oval form. This is especially the
+case with the chimpanzee (Fig. 57). In my opinion, the gorilla brain
+is distinguished from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that of the
+orang, by its very complex convolutions (Fig. 56).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 59.--Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a
+    specimen in the Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F,
+    frontal lobe. O, Occipital lobe.
+]
+
+In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island of Reil in
+the fissure of Sylvius is generally--at least, according to my
+experience--overlapped by the operculum, although there are instances
+in which this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as Bastian
+justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is much less horizontal than
+in man, and occupies a position more like that which it takes in the
+black sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas. In the gorilla
+its direction is more horizontal than in the two other species of
+anthropoids. The central fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very
+marked, especially in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57 R); but it may also be
+easily traced in other species of anthropoids (Fig. 58, II., 56, R).
+The so-called simian fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes
+of the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occipital fissure),
+presented in Fig. 58 _s c_, is very marked in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57,
+_d_). The frontal lobes of the gorilla brain are high, while those of
+the chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those of the orang,
+which are high and short, terminate in a beak-shaped curvature, but
+this is not invariably the case.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 60.--Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain (Bola and
+    Pansch). _s.cm_, Colloso marginal fissure. _f, p_, Internal
+    parieto-occipital fissure. _f, c_, Calcarine fissure, the
+    posterior part of the hippocampal fissure.
+]
+
+In the anthropoids we have been considering, and also in several of
+the lower species of apes, there are three other fissures of less
+importance in addition to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure
+parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind it, the _corpus
+callosum_ fissure, placed immediately above the _corpus callosum_ on
+the inner side of the hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine
+fissure (_Fissura calcarina_) (Fig. 60). The latter ends near the point
+of junction of the inner and lower surfaces of the posterior division
+of the hemisphere. The upper temporal convolution, termed by several
+anatomists _Gyrus supramarginalis_, is said by Gratiolet to be absent
+in anthropoids; but Rolleston, Bastian, and myself have all found it
+well developed[82] (Fig. 56, orang, and Fig. 58, gorilla).
+
+Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution (Broca’s
+convolution) is very slightly developed in the chimpanzee, orang,
+and gibbon. “Its great development in men,” Gewährsmann writes,
+“constitutes one of the most marked distinctions between the brains
+of apes and of men.”[83] In most of the other species of apes this
+convolution is altogether absent, but Pansch is justified in the
+assertion that it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly
+agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must accept his statement
+on this point (see the orang, Fig. 59). Gratiolet remarks that the
+so-called annectant gyri (_plis de passage_) which serve as a covering
+or _operculum_ for the posterior lobes in apes, are only superficially
+apparent in man. In the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions
+is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise large and
+undulated in man. In the orang the second annectant gyrus is covered,
+but this covering is absent in man.[84]
+
+In considering the inner structure of the brain of these animals, we
+are first struck by the shortness of the _corpus callosum_. The soft
+and thick anterior commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the
+thin posterior commissure have also been justly noted. In the lateral
+ventricles more of the characteristics described in the human brain are
+absent. The four eminences resemble those of man; nor does the fourth
+cerebral ventricle present any remarkable differences of form. Neither
+does the base or lower surface of the brain display any important
+deviation from the human type. The transverse section of the nerves at
+their intersection appears to me, however, to be somewhat more oval
+than is the case in man.
+
+There has recently been an attempt to recognize a pithecoid character,
+or atavism, in microcephalic men, the smallness of whose heads is
+allied with a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid structure
+of the brain has also been traced in several individuals who are not
+microcephalous, but subject to pathological affections. We will first
+consider those who belong to the latter category. Krause examined
+the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven years and a half, which, as
+the author remarks, approximated in structure to the pithecoid type,
+although without displaying microcephalic characteristics. The two
+cerebral hemispheres were wanting in symmetry; they diverged from each
+other in the region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the
+left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge which curved outward
+and backward so that the cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower
+surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly marked ethmoidal
+prominence. Neither of the fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left
+less so than the right; the operculum was only slightly developed;
+and the island of Reil and its fissures were almost uncovered. This
+formation is almost the same as that of the brain of anthropoids.
+The two central fissures of Rolando were close together, or less
+deeply impressed on the edge of the hemispheres than is normally the
+case, and forming no joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central
+fissures seemed to represent the central fissures. The intra-parietal
+fissures, diverging outwardly further than in man, received the
+parieto-occipital fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical
+brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure became in this case a
+deep fissure like the simian fissure, crossing the occipital lobes,
+and almost completely dividing them from the parietal lobes. The
+so-called _Fissura calcarina_, to which we have referred above, had
+its origin on the upper surface of the occipital lobe, then joined
+the parieto-occipital fissure, and went directly into the hippocampal
+fissure (_Fissura hippocampi_) on its right side. This abnormal
+structure is also in conformity with the typical brain of apes. The
+first occipital convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes by
+the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts that this formation
+occurs in many species of apes. The upper temporal convolution was
+remarkably reduced on both sides, possessing only an average width of 5
+mm. This characteristic reminded Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee.
+In that animal the upper temporal convolution is always reduced.
+Krause therefore asks whether some human brains may not possess the
+typical structure of apes without being microcephalic. The brain we
+have described scarcely differed from the normal weight; it possessed
+all the convolutions and fissures, and indeed, the convolutions
+were perhaps more numerous than in the normal structure, yet it was
+different in every respect, and approximated in its whole structure to
+the simian rather than to the human type. Krause adds that if the brain
+had been placed before him without any intimation of its origin, he
+should have been quite justified in concluding that it belonged to an
+anthropoid ape, which stood somewhat nearer to man than the chimpanzee.
+
+It is an unquestionable fact that some human beings, whether children
+or adults, who are endowed with a defective bodily structure, and who
+are affected with more or less pronounced physical incapacity and
+mental weakness, by their appearance, ungainly tricks, and helpless
+and aimless motions, impress us in the most forcible way with their
+resemblance to apes. Different degrees of idiocy affect individuals of
+limited intellect, and remind us of an absolutely brutish condition.
+Krause describes the “ape-like” boy of seven and a half years old,
+whom he had examined, as cheerful and inclined to play and dance, but
+as passionate when he was teased. The child was very supple, fond of
+climbing, and with great strength in his arms and hands, of which
+the latter had a horny appearance, reminding him of the hands of a
+chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his legs wide apart. His
+gait was uncertain, and he was apt to tumble, falling with his knees
+bent forward and his legs doubled under him; he was fond of hopping,
+and at such times looked still more like an ape. The great toes of
+both feet were at an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression
+of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that this deviation was
+produced by the child’s endeavour to supply a broader basis of support
+for his uncertain gait; but he subsequently changed his opinion, since
+he did not find the same peculiarity in other children of diseased
+brain, as, for instance, in those suffering from water on the brain.
+The boy could say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was long
+before he could pronounce these words in two syllables; for the most
+part, he only uttered a sound resembling a grunt. He imitated the
+barking of a dog, with the sound of rolling _r_’s. He often stamped
+his feet and clapped his hands together, making a grunting noise as
+Krause had observed in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy
+was smaller than other children of his age, and had weak eyes; his head
+was sore, and his forehead narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly
+marked, and his whole nature and all his movements strikingly resembled
+those of apes. He had been much neglected by his parents.[85]
+
+When I was a student at Berlin I had the opportunity of observing
+a similar being of twelve years old, in what was at that time the
+Weinbergswege, near the Rosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with a large
+head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes, a morose expression, a
+thin neck, prominent belly, crooked legs, large hands and feet. The
+boy was of a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady: saliva
+often dribbled from his wide mouth; and as he walked he held on to the
+furniture, walls, etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and
+so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to give him peculiar
+pleasure to creep on his hands and knees, and at such times he would
+stamp with the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon the
+ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait, and the gurgling sound
+which was all that the boy could utter, constituted the points of his
+resemblance to apes. All the other conditions of life were those of a
+being whose mental and physical growth was arrested, and who, although
+not epileptic, was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant what
+afterwards became of him.
+
+In the course of a discussion on the instance adduced by Krause,
+Virchow asks whether the psychological conditions of such a brain
+are indeed simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied the
+microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of Bürgel, Hanau) will find that
+psychologically she had nothing in common with an ape. In her case
+all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape were wanting;
+the simian psychology was altogether absent, and there was only the
+psychology of an imperfectly developed and deficient young child. Every
+characteristic was human. Virchoff had the child in his room for hours
+together during a period of two months, and was constantly occupied
+about her, without observing anything in her nature which reminded
+him even remotely of the psychological conditions of apes. She was a
+degraded specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from the human
+type.[86]
+
+I also examined Margaret Becker, as well as another microcephalic
+girl, who was in the Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With
+respect to the former and more animated being, I have nothing essential
+to add to the information published by Virchow. Ida X----, the other
+individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the time of my researches
+aged thirteen years and five months. Her figure was slightly made and
+well proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a modified extent
+of that of the microcephalic Aztec, and also of the heads represented
+in ancient sculpture of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit
+to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy hair. She was
+altogether impassive; could only utter the syllables _da-da_; and
+once betrayed a slight sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the
+measuring-rod was placed against the inner side of her thigh, for the
+sake of obtaining the dimensions of the different parts of her body.
+
+Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacobwitz, of Waschahel, is
+also extremely interesting. She was a microcephalic girl of the age of
+fourteen, and a Hungarian Jew by race.[87] Virchow remarks that, in
+his opinion, all Esther’s most striking characteristics presented the
+strongest contrast to those of apes, since only negative traits have
+hitherto been established, while all which characterizes the positive
+development of the psychical life of apes was absent in this case. The
+same remark applies to Ida X----. Virchow goes on to say that there
+was undoubtedly something brute-like in the defects in question, but
+that in order to reproduce the animal in its actual form and nature, so
+as to show that the microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the
+positive side of animal life must to some extent be presented to us,
+and this was absolutely wanting.
+
+Virchow also had the opportunity of examining a pair of twin children,
+one of whom was quite normally developed, while the other (Karl
+R----) was microcephalic. This was a very significant case, since two
+individuals of the same birth were under consideration, so that the
+question could be asked with greater confidence--Is this atavism, or a
+morbid condition? From this point of view, it was of special interest
+to establish the fact that the microcephalic child had, in fact,
+displayed positive signs of a morbid condition.[88]
+
+When I go through the accounts collected by C. Vogt of the lives
+of well-known microcephalic beings,[89] I can find nothing which
+specifically reminds me of the actions and habits of apes, although
+we have an intimate acquaintance with their ways. These individuals
+give the general impression of human beings whose bodily and mental
+development has been arrested. According to Virchow’s experience,
+all the cerebral disturbances are concentrated in the cerebrum in
+these microcephalous cases. The anterior portions of the cerebrum are
+affected to the greatest, and the posterior to the least, extent. Those
+parts which are developed latest suffer the most, while those which are
+the first to be developed generally escape disturbance.[90]
+
+Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to show that the mothers
+of microcephalic children have suffered from severe pains of the uterus
+during pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms of the uterus
+distinctly affect the development of the brain of the offspring. Flesch
+thinks it possible that these spasms of the uterus may have something
+to do with the origin of microcephaly.[91] But he also asks whether
+this morbid condition of the uterus may not have been produced by a
+previously diseased condition of the offspring. This observer is,
+moreover, still more inclined to make the influence of the father
+responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly. In view of the fact
+that there is much reason to suppose there has been a compression of
+the uterus, and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels
+justified in looking for a compression which has perhaps resulted
+from some growth on the ovary. Hence ensues a disturbance, probably
+inflammatory, of the organ of nutrition.[92]
+
+Aeby also regards microcephaly, not as an expression of atavism, but
+as the result of a morbid degeneration. “Microcephalic subjects do
+not point back to the milestone which man left behind him in hoar
+antiquity, and it is not through them that the chasm between man and
+animals can be bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.”
+
+Virchow’s researches led to the following conclusions, which we must
+here subjoin:--1. There is no species of apes which presents that
+precise configuration which is found in a microcephalic brain. 2.
+Psychology offers the strongest arguments against men-apes. 3. The
+instinctive side of psychical activity, which is almost wholly absent
+in microcephalic subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids as well as
+in other animals.[93]
+
+In addition to these remarks, it may also be observed that among savage
+races the medicine-men, shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often
+assume ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances, and other
+gestures which are inseparable from their trade. Owing to their state
+of excitement, in which they are not always mentally responsible for
+their acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly unconscious.
+It is very common among the inspired Arabs termed Haschasch, who,
+sometimes as dervishes, sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam
+through the country and extend their wanderings from the interior
+of Africa to the latticed gates of Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong
+also the dancing mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape-like
+gesture in the market-places and streets of Bokhara, as well as in the
+other chief cities of Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures
+are conventional, and even adopted as the means of stimulating the
+proposed effects, but at the same time they impress us with the idea
+that a man under such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts
+the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr, an Islamite rite of
+worship, accompanied by obligatory howls and contortions of body, we
+are tempted to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild apes.
+And the illusion is still stronger if the performers in the Zikr are
+black fakirs, dressed as warriors.
+
+The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids has not, up to this
+time, been analyzed with the completeness we could wish. As far as
+the observations of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with my
+personal experience in this department, no marked distinction can be
+established between the structure of these organs in anthropoids and
+those of the nervous system in man.
+
+H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the nervous lumbo-sacral
+plexus to the vertebral column of men and animals, and has come to
+the conclusion that there is the most complete agreement between men
+and animals with respect to the relations of the vertebral column to
+the peripheral nervous system. According to this author, man, from
+the anatomical point of view, stands so completely within the class
+of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign to him any other place in
+zoology is open to the charge of being biassed by considerations which
+have nothing to do with facts.[94]
+
+The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not present any noteworthy
+points of difference from these organs in man. I have written, but not
+yet published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals, showing their
+general agreement with the conditions of the human eye. On the skin
+of the fingers and toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be
+detected which are connected with the sense of touch.
+
+The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to this time been studied
+in any exhaustive manner. The heart strongly resembles that organ in
+man. In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great arterial
+branches have the same relative conditions as in the human organism.
+A common origin from one branch of the subclavian artery, and of the
+right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the orang and with
+a certain constancy in the gibbon, so far as we can judge from the
+researches which have been made up to this time. But we know that this
+form of deviation from the common type is not altogether rare in man.
+Bischoff and others have justly maintained that the resemblance to man
+which is found in these animals in the arrangement of the heart and
+larger blood-vessels appears to be connected with their mode of life.
+For although their habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that
+they are for the most part in an upright position.
+
+The division of the femoral arteries displays a somewhat interesting
+deviation from the normal human type. High up near the femoral arch
+an artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve, diverges from the
+femoral artery, which extends, together with its accompanying parts,
+as far as the back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces the
+sartorius.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS.
+
+
+Up to recent times it was generally supposed that there was only
+one species of gorilla, and the differences in the structure of the
+skeleton and of the external body which were observed in the several
+specimens under examination, were either regarded as the expression of
+a purely individual variation or as due to differences in age and sex.
+Not long ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the Congo the
+skeleton and skin of an aged female gorilla, which had been killed by
+Lucan and Petit in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the Kuilu
+river in 4° 35′ south latitude. This specimen was of less bulk than
+the common gorilla (_Gorilla Gina_), and its head was comparatively
+small. The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the occiput,
+was much more strongly developed in this animal and the temporal
+fossæ were deeper. That part of the skull which extends behind the
+supra-orbital arches was narrower, and so also was the space between
+the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the centre of this
+space is more marked, the nasal bones are arched and not flattened, the
+orbital aperture is larger in comparison with the general size of the
+skull, and the frontal processes of the malar bones are wider and more
+arched. One interesting characteristic consists in a small, vertical,
+styloid prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital process. On
+the vertebral column the spinous processes of the first, second, and
+third cervical vertebræ are only slightly developed in height, while
+the spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebræ are as high
+and large as those of _Gorilla Gina_. The transverse processes of the
+first lumbar vertebræ are remarkable for their length, and in their
+transverse extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib.
+
+In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac crest is more convex,
+the tuberosity of the ischium is somewhat more everted, the neck of
+the femur is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and its lower
+surface is more arched. The clavicle appears to be shorter and less
+curved: the scapula is more arched near its inner border; its outer
+border is distinctly concave, while in _Gorilla Gina_ it is prominently
+convex. The base of the acromion process is larger, and the olecranon
+fossa of the humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm and
+hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more slender, and their
+prominences and inequalities are less marked. The smaller bulk of the
+fore and hind limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of the
+head.
+
+The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk, black on the limbs, with
+red patches on the head, and reddish in the pubic region, does not
+essentially differ from that which has been described by different
+authors in the case of other skins which have indeed been artificially
+restored. But the hide essentially differs from that of other specimens
+in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the belly from the
+grey of the back, by the reddish tint of the hair which clothes the
+pubic region, and also in the abundant growth of hair which so closely
+encircles the cheeks and chin. But, according to our authorities, the
+most remarkable difference consists in the fact that the whole of the
+back is covered with long, thick hair, while in _Gorilla Gina_ this
+part is either bare or only covered with short hair, partly worn away.
+Hence these authors conclude that this species, which they assert to
+be new, and have named _Gorilla Mayema_, from the negro chief of that
+name, does not rest its back against a tree so often as the _Gorilla
+Gina_, but leads a more arboreal life, climbing from tree to tree.[95]
+
+I admit that if I were to take into account all the individual
+differences of the gorilla skulls and skeletons of the same sex and of
+about the same age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or more
+species of gorillas. I have observed such differences in the case both
+of male and female individuals of about the same age, and have given
+an exact description of them in my osteological work on the gorilla
+to which I have so often referred. I cannot, however, refrain from
+regarding these differences as of a purely individual character.
+Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier--as, for instance, their
+remarks on the comparative smallness of the head, on the slenderness
+and smoothness of the limb bones--appears to me to point to the
+youthfulness of this Landana specimen. The unlearned may be struck
+by what is said of the small spinous processes of the upper cervical
+vertebræ in this specimen, but in the common gorilla the processes of
+the three upper vertebræ are also small (see Fig. 17). Individual and
+sexual variations in the general development of the cervical spines may
+be observed, not only in this case, but in the chimpanzee, and even in
+man. I think it very doubtful whether a characteristic of species can
+be founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What is said of the
+colouring of the coat of the so-called new species appears to me still
+less worthy of consideration. I have spoken above in detail of the many
+individual varieties of the colour of the hair in different specimens
+of gorillas. I have also observed long, thick hair, not always short,
+scanty, and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of different
+sexes. The condition described by Alix and Bouvier must refer to the
+hides of aged and sickly animals, or to those younger individuals
+affected by the kind of mange which is widely diffused in Africa. Every
+gorilla delights to rub his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans
+against it in a contented mood, and so also does the chimpanzee. This
+is the habit of many other mammals, such as cats, lions, boars, deer,
+and elephants. Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude.
+Without more convincing proofs that _Gorilla Mayema Alix et Bouvier_
+constitutes a distinct species, I should prefer to leave the matter in
+suspense.
+
+I frankly admit that I am more doubtful how to decide the question
+whether we can at present assume that there are several or only one
+species of chimpanzees. _Troglodytes niger_ has always been regarded
+by me as to a certain extent a typical form of this animal, and in
+the second chapter of this work I selected it as the subject for my
+general description. It is this type of chimpanzee which has usually
+reached Europe from the West Coast of Africa. The face of this animal
+is moderately prognathous; the head, even in aged males, is round,
+the ears are large and of somewhat the form presented in Fig. 6, the
+skin is of a dirty flesh-colour, and the hair is black. Reichenbach’s
+_Pseudanthropos (Troglodytes) leucoprymnus_[96] is only so specified on
+account of the whitish hair which clothes its posterior--a character
+observed in all true chimpanzees, and therefore without specific value.
+Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has had an illustration
+made from a damaged skin of a large (probably male) chimpanzee; but we
+can only form an imperfect opinion of its general external appearance
+from this figure.[97] There is as little certainty about Gray’s
+_Troglodytes vellerosus_ from the Kamarum mountains.[98] Duvernoy’s
+remarks on _Troglodytes Tchégo_, which he asserts to be a new species,
+relate to an aged male specimen of which the form is also doubtful.
+
+From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu, Jeffries Wyman has
+sought to establish two new species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouvé
+(_Troglodytes calvus_) and the Koolo-Kamba (_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_).
+I have vainly endeavoured to obtain a satisfactory account of these
+two supposed new species from the descriptions which are intended
+to establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately rendered more
+confused by the illustrations he subjoins. That of the Nschiego Mbouvé
+is only taken from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee, that of
+the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female gorilla. But we may come to
+the general conclusion that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and
+perhaps even specific, variations from the ordinary type of chimpanzee.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Mafuca.]
+
+Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the female ape Mafuca
+(often erroneously termed Mafoca), which was brought from the Loango
+coast and placed in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was a
+wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height, reminding us in many
+respects of the gorilla. The face was prognathous; the ears were
+comparatively small, placed high on the skull, and projecting outwards;
+the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed; the end of the nose was
+broad; and there were rolls of fat on the cheeks. The creature was,
+moreover, strongly built, and the region of the hips and the belly were
+contracted, while the hands and feet were large and powerful. When I
+first saw this savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was full
+of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I saw a female gorilla,
+not quite adult, an opinion shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von
+Siebold and others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau and A. B.
+Meyer. At that time I made a drawing of its profile, which is given in
+Fig. 61, and which was taken at a moment when the animal happened to
+be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some slight errors,[99]
+the illustration faithfully reproduces its general and quite original
+character, and especially the expression of its countenance. From the
+structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show that this animal was
+simply a chimpanzee. No rational explanation can be attached to this
+suggestion.
+
+If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined the dead body of the
+female gorilla of which I have already spoken, and which was of about
+the same age, I should have been still more disposed to regard Mafuca
+as a true gorilla. The general physiognomical resemblance between these
+animals was very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my earlier
+works, the female gorilla had a high upper lip, and a somewhat small
+nose. Mafuca’s upper lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise
+the physical correspondence between the two animals is very great. The
+hands of the female gorilla are still broader than those of Mafuca;
+and indeed, Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as a new
+slender-handed species of anthropoid. The assumption which I have
+already contested in the earlier pages of this work, that the female
+type should be placed in the foreground in describing the species, is
+especially untenable in the case of the gorilla, in which the male
+character is extremely predominant.
+
+To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A cross between the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee was often suggested at the time. I was myself
+inclined to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt in his
+contemporary treatise on the subject, as well as in the magnificent
+work which has lately appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its
+illustrations and the genius of its style.[100] H. von Koppenfels
+heard much of such crossings when he was on the Ogowe, nor is their
+occurrence by any means impossible, and indeed they have been directly
+observed among other species of apes while in confinement. Koppenfels
+also affirmed that he had shot two such cross-bred animals, which were
+associating with a troop of gorillas. The traveller sought to kill
+others of the troop, but, when creeping on hands and knees through
+the thick bushwood, he was constrained to retreat by the attacks of
+some stinging ants (_Anomma arcens_). The skins and skeletons of the
+supposed cross-breds were brought to the Natural History Institution in
+Dresden. A. B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mistaken in these
+instances, and that the remains sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly
+those of chimpanzees.[101] It must be remembered that Koppenfels was
+a clever hunter, and on the whole a good observer of nature, but that
+he was no zoologist, and may have been mistaken as to the nature of the
+animals he had shot. At the same time the possibility of the existence
+of such cross-bred animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer must
+be convinced that his assertion cannot be generally accepted: “Any
+consideration of the question as to cross-breeding is like fighting
+with windmills--that is, making difficulties where none exist.”
+
+If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are merely chimpanzees,
+it is, at any rate, very interesting to learn that these animals
+were found in the company of gorillas. We must hope that scientific
+travellers will in future feel bound to devote their special attention
+to this question.
+
+In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who was attached to
+Güssfeldt’s Loango Expedition, brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a
+female chimpanzee, Paulina, which varied a good deal in countenance
+from the chimpanzees we have commonly seen. The ears projected widely
+in a lateral direction, the supra-orbital arches were prominent, the
+nose was wide, the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet.
+I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead, which reproduced these
+characteristics of Paulina with more or less distinctness. I have
+nothing to urge against those who wish to regard such individuals
+as the representatives of a special variety. I would only warn them
+against the risk of accepting as such the species entitled by Du
+Chaillu and Wyman, _Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, which appears to be
+ill-established.
+
+An attempt has been made, chiefly by the unlearned, to regard
+Paulina as the image of Mafuca. There is, however, a considerable
+physiognomical difference between the two animals. For me and many
+other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this time an enigma, which is
+slurred over by others with the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on
+the other hand, and animals of the same character, display much to
+remind us of the illustration given by Gratiolet and Alix of their
+_Troglodytes Aubryi_, although the drawing was taken from a specimen
+dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its hair through
+maceration in an impure preserving fluid. The growth or the lack of
+hair involves considerable external differences in specimens of these
+animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there is a resemblance between
+Paulina and her fellows, and Aubry’s chimpanzee.
+
+The certain special characters presented by chimpanzee forms here
+mentioned (Paulina and _Troglodytes Aubryi_) remind us of the bam
+found on the Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably first
+discovered by A. de Malzac, and was afterwards more exactly described
+by Schweinfurth.
+
+In _Cassell’s Natural History_ (i. 39) the Nschiego-Mbouvé
+(_Troglodytes Tschégo Duvernoy_; _Troglodytes calvus Du Chaillu et
+Wyman_), is described and drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from
+a stuffed specimen. In this there is much to remind us of the profile
+of Mafuca, including the very shrivelled nose. An illustration is
+given in the same work of the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as
+a distinct species, and identified in the systematic catalogue as
+_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, together with _Troglodytes Aubryi_; here we
+see a full-grown chimpanzee of the ordinary kind, to which a front view
+of the head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published by Gratiolet
+and Alix, has been affixed. Honest research should stand aloof from
+such confusion. By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the representative
+of the species already established by Duvernoy, _Troglodytes Tschégo_
+or _Anthropopithecus_, and this assertion is accepted by Martin.[102]
+The latter remarks that this ape cannot be classified either with the
+chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons for his assertions.
+
+In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide whether there are
+several or only one species of chimpanzee. As things are at present,
+my conviction is strengthened that it is only possible to make a
+provisional settlement, and I am able to admit a certain constancy in
+the varieties of chimpanzees. First, The original representative of the
+species (_Troglodytes niger_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This animal
+has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches are strongly developed
+in the male, more slightly in the female; the countenance is not very
+prognathous, and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are from 75 to 78
+mm. in height; and the whole height of the body varies between 1100 and
+1300 mm. The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh-colour,
+or rarely of a blackish brown or speckled general colour. The hair is
+either wholly black or black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another
+variety, bam or mandjaruma (_Troglodytes niger varietas Schweinfurthii
+Giglioli_). The head of this animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital
+arches are only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the upper lip
+rather low in comparison with the other variety; the ears are somewhat
+smaller, and the face is more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees.
+The limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly developed.
+The skin is of a dark reddish flesh-colour in youth, and with the
+increase of physical development it becomes a reddish brown, dark
+brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot with reddish or dark
+brown, or sometimes of a reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or
+yellowish grey, especially on the back. To this variety the mandjaruma
+belongs, of which an illustration is given by von Issel, and also the
+portrait taken from life of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my
+osteological work on the gorilla,[103] as well as _Troglodytes Aubryi_
+(?), and similar animals, of which I have given illustrations in the
+_Archiv. für Anatomie_.[104]
+
+The question might now be raised whether we may assume that there is
+any distinct species of anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard Du Chaillu’s
+_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, Duvernoy’s _Troglodytes Tschégo_, the large
+stuffed animals in the Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have
+given illustrations in the _Archiv für Anatomie_, plate vii. fig. 1
+(1875); and in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps
+Mafuca and the ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might also be
+included.[105] Duvernoy’s name for the species, _Troglodytes Tschégo_,
+seems to me not quite suitable, since the West African chimpanzees in
+general are distinguished by that Latinized specific name. However,
+this scientific term may be accepted in default of a better, until we
+are enabled by the possession of more abundant materials to establish
+the existence of such an independent species.
+
+With respect to the orang the unity of species is also not yet
+ascertained. The Malays of the country to which they belong assert that
+there are different forms of this animal, which go by the general name
+of meias. The descriptions current among that people respecting these
+varieties are surprising. We are tempted to believe in the existence of
+different species, and some zoologists, Brühl among others, hold that
+there are, at any rate, two such species. Wallace, who is intimately
+acquainted with the species, says nothing on this point in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from his general remarks
+that he is disposed to recognize only one species of this animal. There
+are, perhaps, constant varieties, limited to different places, and the
+future will throw more certain light on this question. It is better,
+therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead of indulging in peremptory
+and unnecessary negations. With respect to the gibbon, the question of
+variety of species has been long decided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF NATURE, AND NATIVE
+NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS.
+
+
+The gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa, between lat. 2° N.
+and 5° S., and long. 6° and 16° E. They are most widely diffused in
+the northern part of this territory, on the rivers Ogōwē, Gaboon, and
+Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly found in the chain
+of mountains which extends for about a hundred miles from the coast
+of Guinea, between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is known as
+the Serra do Cristal. They have also been found at the source of the
+Danger (Muni, Mooney). In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a
+day’s journey from the mouth of that river. In the years 1851 and 1852
+gorillas were seen in large numbers on the sea-coast, probably driven
+thither from the interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four
+or five specimens were obtained in the course of a few months. After
+this they again completely disappeared from the neighbourhood of the
+coast, so that an American merchant captain offered 6000 dollars for
+a live specimen without being able to obtain it. According to H. von
+Koppenfels, the gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the
+mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo.
+
+According to Pechuël-Lösche, the gorilla is rare on the Loango coast.
+In this district it inhabits the mountainous forests or the strip
+of country in their immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes
+were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down to the mouths of these
+rivers, and also in the ravines of the plateau of Buala; but they now
+only come to the coast at Banya, where the same authority believes
+that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuël-Lösche, Falkenstein,
+nor Güssfeldt have ever seen the species in its wild state.[106] The
+specimen brought to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained by
+Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on the Loango coast, where
+it was presented to him by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos
+Santos. This animal, which was then extremely young, had been brought
+from the Kuilu district by a negro, who had shot its mother.[107]
+
+In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district most frequented by
+gorillas was in the region of the Gaboon, which presents a pleasant
+variety of hill and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine,
+tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a scattered
+growth of underwood. There are a number of trees and shrubs, bearing
+fruits which the natives find inedible, but which are greedily
+devoured by gorillas. They show a special preference for the following
+fruits:--First, those of the oil palm (_Elaeis guineenis_), of which
+they also devour the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cabbage;
+second, the grey plum tree (_Parinarium excelsum_), which bears a mealy
+and insipid stone-fruit; third, the melon tree (_Carica Papaya_);
+fourth, the pisang (_Musa paradisiaca_, _Musa sapientum_); fifth, two
+sorts of scitamines (_Amomum granum paradisi s. Afzelii_, _Amomum
+malaguetta_), the last of which, according to Lindley, produces the
+malaguetta pepper; sixth, _Amomum grandiflorum_; seventh, a tree
+bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the gorilla cracks the shell
+with a stone (this is probably one of the _Sterculiaceæ_, like the
+Kola-nut); eighth, another tree with which we are not yet botanically
+acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit. Du Chaillu asserts that these
+animals are also very fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple.
+Although they live in places far from human habitations, yet they
+rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of the negroes in the
+harvest-time, and this is a fact confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage
+reports that gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in
+hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not sound improbable.
+Like most species of apes, the gorilla preys upon the smaller mammals,
+upon birds and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas which have
+been kept in confinement at Berlin have been quite omnivorous, and have
+displayed a special taste for animal food.
+
+In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu, Güssfeldt saw a
+fetish called Bunsi, constructed of the skulls of animals, and quite
+peculiar to Bakunyaland. It consisted of a pile of the skulls of
+animals which had been slain in hunting, and which were brought as an
+offering to the fetish by the hunter in order that his good luck might
+be maintained. The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls of
+antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there were also many skulls
+of gorillas. Among these Güssfeldt saw two fine specimens with high
+bony crests. When he inquired where gorillas were found and killed, the
+natives of Ntondo pointed to a neighbouring forest.[108]
+
+Güssfeldt describes the character of the forest of Mayombe, where
+gorillas are also found, somewhat as follows:--This forest does not
+correspond to our idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps
+perplex a South American traveller, since it is more like the forests
+of mountainous districts in Germany. The luxuriant growth of lianas is
+characteristic of a tropical primeval forest: they form a second roof
+of leaves above the green masses of the closely set trees. But in this
+case the parasitic vegetation is scanty, although not wholly absent,
+as the kautschukranke (_Landolphia florida_) shows, which was at one
+time very abundant, but is now nearly extinct. Its growth no longer
+obstructs the view of the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling
+beeches. The underwood of our German forests is here chiefly supplied
+by the large linear leaves of the scitamines, of which the most common
+variety is termed matombe by the natives. Ferns, or rather tree-ferns,
+are not wanting, and the ground is covered with dead leaves. The trees
+of this forest have been untouched by the axe, except in places cleared
+for the construction of a new village. Where a tree falls there it
+lies, encumbering, as it may for years, the narrow path which leads
+through the thicket. An eternal twilight always prevails here, and
+on cloudy days it might be supposed that the sun was eclipsed. The
+atmosphere is close and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight
+is most depressing to mind and body. The dense stillness is rarely
+broken by the wailing cry of a bird, and no wild creature can be seen.
+Those who wander in these forests are always going up or down hill,
+since there is no level ground, and by paths scarcely wide enough for a
+white man, which are covered with smooth and slippery roots, while the
+feet and clothes are constantly caught by boughs and lianas, which also
+sting the face, so that the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion,
+for light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space on which the
+village of Bayoma stands, surrounded by palms and bananas.[109] In
+the work I have quoted on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour
+drawing, by Pechuël-Lösche, of a forest frequented by gorillas is
+reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of this interesting illustration (Fig.
+62).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--The home of the gorilla.]
+
+The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male and female and their
+young of varying ages, and the family group inhabits the recesses of
+the forest.[110] According to von Koppenfels, they frequent the same
+sleeping-place not more than three or four times consecutively, and
+usually spend the night wherever they happen to be when night comes
+on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators in the assertion that the
+gorilla constructs a bed for his night lair upon the trees. He chooses
+for this purpose a full-grown tree, not more than 0·30 m. in thickness,
+breaks and bends the branches together at a height of from five to six
+metres from the ground, and covers them with the twigs he has torn off,
+or with the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of Africa. The
+male animal spends the night crouching at the foot of the tree, against
+which he places his back, and thus protects the female and their young,
+which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal attacks of leopards,
+which are always ready to devour all species of apes.
+
+In the daytime the gorillas roam through the tracts of forest which
+surround their temporary sleeping-places, in order to seek for food.
+In walking they place the backs of their closed fingers on the ground,
+or more rarely support themselves on the flat palm, while the flat
+soles of the feet are also in contact with the ground. The toes are
+generally extended, and a little separated from each other, but
+occasionally they are doubled under. Their gait, as Huxley justly
+observes, is tottering; the movement of the body, which is never in
+an upright position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some extent
+from one side to another. As their arms are longer than those of
+the chimpanzee, they do not reach out so much; but the gorilla also
+throws his arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then gives a
+half-swinging, half-springing motion to his body. When assuming the
+position for walking, the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so
+balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite of his apparently clumsy
+and unwieldy form, the gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily
+dexterity. He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels asserts,
+when ranging from tree to tree, he will go to their very tops. He first
+tries whether the branches will bear his weight, and if one branch is
+not strong enough, he makes use of three or four at once. He will also
+run along the branches on all fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw
+a full-grown animal, as danger approached, spring down from a tree
+which was thirty or forty feet high, and then hastily crash through the
+brushwood. All Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that there
+is only one adult male attached to each group. As soon as the young
+male reaches maturity, a conflict for the mastery takes place, and,
+after his rival is killed or driven away, the stronger animal becomes
+the head of the community.
+
+I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla. Koppenfels once
+observed a male and female with two young ones when they were feeding.
+The head of the family remained at his ease, while his wife and
+children plucked fruits for him from a small tree which stood by, and
+if they were not sufficiently nimble, or if they took too large a share
+for themselves, the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted a box
+on the ear.
+
+The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very dangerous animal by the
+negroes who inhabit the same country, and who themselves are often
+deficient in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror serve to
+increase their scanty fame as hunters. And what even the luxuriant
+fancy of negroes could not paint as sufficiently terrible has been
+exaggerated by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We will not
+here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of which Brehm justly says that
+they seem to have been devised by an indifferent romance-writer, who
+has given his pen free play.[111] In the letters to Bastian, which are
+in my hands, Koppenfels has endeavoured to modify the accounts of the
+alleged ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the fragment of poetry
+given by that esteemed traveller in one of his letters.
+
+The same author writes in another place: “As long as the gorilla is
+unmolested he does not attack men--and indeed, rather avoids the
+encounter.” These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds, sometimes
+protracted like _kh-eh, kh-eh_, sometimes roaring or growling. When the
+animal is scared by man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and
+he only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven into a corner. At
+such times his size, strength, and dexterity makes him a by no means
+despicable enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious yelp, stands
+up on his hind legs like an enraged bear, advances with clumsy gait in
+this position and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair on his
+head and the nape of the neck stands erect, his teeth are displayed,
+and his eyes flash with savage fury. He beats his massive breast with
+his fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds that if no
+further provocation is given, and his opponent gradually retreats
+before the animal’s rage has reached its highest point, he does not
+return to the attack. In other cases he parries the blows directed
+against him with the skill of a practised fighter; as is also done by
+the bear, he grasps his opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else
+throws the man down and rends him with his terrible canine teeth.
+
+The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him with his firearm.
+Savage states that the hunter awaits the approach of his prey with
+levelled gun, and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the animal to
+seize the barrel of the gun, and fires when, as is commonly the case,
+he tries to carry it to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the
+barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed between his teeth. When
+hunters of the Ogōwē are attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes
+make a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s fury with
+the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz told me that he had seen the
+skin of a male gorilla which was injured in the region of the arms,
+probably in this way. But such a duel generally ends in the death of
+the hunter.
+
+Pechuël-Lösche talked with two Loango hunters who had killed gorillas.
+They stated that they had not gone in search of the dreaded animals,
+but that they chanced to encounter them in the forest. Only if they
+met a solitary animal did they venture to creep close to it and shoot
+it, and then they escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe
+from the fury of any of its companions which might be lingering near.
+After several hours they would return in a larger company to carry off
+their prey. In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten; but,
+according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked by the negroes, in the
+Gaboon territory, and constituted one of their favourite dainties.
+
+Up to this time Europeans have been rarely successful in killing
+gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts that he has been one of the luckiest, but
+this assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless attempts were
+made by Winwood Reade, de Compiègne, Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In
+the letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he mentions that
+he had already, up to March, 1874, four gorillas. In the number of the
+_Gartenlaube_ shot which we have mentioned above, he describes some
+of his hunting adventures, and goes into details scarcely adapted for
+the readers of such a publication. On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels,
+accompanied by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake Eliva,
+observing a gorilla family, consisting of the parents and two young
+ones. The female climbed up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down
+its fruits. The male went to the water’s edge to drink, and was then
+shot by Koppenfels, while the female and her young swiftly escaped.
+Another time this traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the
+Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka, and is bounded on the
+south-east by the mountains of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval
+forests. It was here that he observed the troop of chimpanzees and
+gorillas of which we have already spoken, feeding on the kola nuts,
+of which they are very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen of
+the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo mountains he shot a male
+gorilla, 1090 mm. in height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and
+it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and then crashed down
+upon its face. It dragged down in its fall a liana of great strength
+with all its dry and green branches.
+
+Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying between 1500 to 2000
+mm., and very rarely exceed that height. The height of the females
+is about 1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by Ford, weighed
+170 lb. without the viscera. The gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the
+Aschangolo mountains was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the people
+of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Galloa, and Bakalay the gorilla is called
+Njina, Njeïna, or Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called
+Nguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu or M’Pungu.
+
+As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee occupies a much wider area
+than the gorilla. In West Africa it is found in the latitude of the
+Portuguese territory, which ranges from Cachêu in the north down to the
+Coanza in the south. The species is known to exist in certain districts
+of north and south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in East
+Africa, to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba territory, and, as
+the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts, even in the remote district of
+Sofalla in the south-east of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the
+truth of this fact.
+
+The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They subsist on wild
+fruits of various kinds, but they will also visit forsaken plantations,
+and even those which are still under cultivation, and in some cases it
+seems that they do not reject animal food. Pechuël-Lösche says that
+on the Loango coast they frequent the mountains and their vicinity.
+They are found in the district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of
+Tschissambo, and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as the coast.
+
+The chimpanzee either lives in separate families or in small groups of
+families. In many districts, as, for example, in the forest regions of
+Central Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those of the
+gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the south-west coast, it seems
+to live more upon the ground. The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam inhabits
+the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia and Schweinfurth; that
+is, the forest trees growing one above the other in stages, of which
+the growth is so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here
+the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The powerful stems, thickly
+overgrown with wild pepper, bear branches from which hang long streams
+of bearded moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remarkable fern
+to which Schweinfurth gave the name of elephant’s ear. The large
+tun-shaped structures of the tree-termites are found on the higher
+branches. Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports for the
+colossal streamers of _Mucuna urens_, and form bowers overhung with
+impenetrable festoons, which are as large as houses, in which perpetual
+darkness reigns.[112]
+
+When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he generally supports himself on
+the backs of his closed fingers rather than on the palm of the hand,
+and he goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes on the closed
+toes. His gait also is weak and vacillating, and he can stand upright
+on his feet for a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same time
+he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them above his head, which is
+a little thrown back, in order to maintain his balance.
+
+These animals send forth loud cries, which echo plaintively through
+the great tropical forests. Pechuël-Lösche says that the horrible
+wails, the furious shrieks and howls, which may be heard morning and
+evening, and often in the night, make these creatures truly hateful to
+travellers. “Since they are really accomplished in the art of bringing
+forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard at a great distance,
+and are reproduced by the echoes, it is impossible to estimate the
+number of those who take part in the dreary noise, but often we seemed
+to hear more than a hundred. They generally remain upon the ground
+among the dense underwood and thickets of scitamine, and only climb
+trees for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be plainly
+discerned on soft ground: they stop short wherever the _amomum_ grows,
+of which they are very fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen
+scattered all around.” The same narrator observes that the mischievous
+and active sea-cat monkeys, which abound on the Loango, frequently
+provoke the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious tricks until
+the tormented creatures cause the forest to echo with their discordant
+cries.
+
+These animals wander about, always in search of fresh feeding-grounds.
+They also construct nests and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes
+the night below the nest of his family, which is placed on a forked
+branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the Nschiego-Mbouvé also builds a
+pent-house. An illustration of this structure, which is only moderately
+successful, and has undoubtedly been embellished in London, is given
+by him. Koppenfels believes that the so-called pent-house is only the
+family nest, under which the male places himself; while Reichenfels
+thinks it possible that some parasitic growth, perhaps a _Loranthus_,
+gave rise to the belief that such a pent-house is erected.
+
+When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the ground with their hands,
+but they do not, as the gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist.
+They generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if driven to
+extremity, or wounded, they defend themselves with their hands and
+teeth. The direct conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in
+order to obtain the mastery over him, all the strength and presence
+of mind of a strong and courageous man. I shall always remember the
+large female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand up against a
+powerful man. Great daring was required to control the fury of Mafuca.
+The Soko also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the west of Lake
+Tanganyika, bravely defended itself, when attacked.
+
+The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with firearms or arrows, and also
+kill them with javelins. The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties
+of twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the woodland galleries
+so closely interwoven by the liana, and when they have thrown nets
+over these, they kill the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten
+in different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes serve for
+fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth
+saw the skulls of men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons,
+antelopes, wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree.
+
+In the Gaboon district, as we have already said, the chimpanzee is
+called Nschégo, Nschiego, Ndjéko, and the same names serve for the
+people of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By the people of Aschira
+and Malimba the animal is called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call
+the chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders who speak Arabic adopt
+the name Bam or M’Bam.
+
+The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic islands of Borneo and
+Sumatra, more frequently in the former island. It is particularly
+common a few days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the river
+Sampiet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote districts on the southern
+and western coasts.[113] The Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock
+that the orang was also found further to the north, and at Teweh, as
+well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.[114] Wallace states that this
+animal is widely diffused in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the
+south-west, south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that
+it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It seems at first
+sight inexplicable that this ape should be unknown in Sarawak, while it
+abounds in Sambas on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer
+acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of the orang enables us
+to discern sufficient grounds for the apparent anomaly in the physical
+conditions of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed the orang,
+he only found it in low marshy districts which were at the same time
+covered with primeval forests. Many isolated hills rise from these
+marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and have planted them with
+fruit trees. These are a great attraction to the orang, which devours
+the unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh. He cannot live
+on high and dry ground. Thus, for example, he comes in troops into the
+low parts of the Sadong valley; but on reaching the limits where the
+ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the ground, though flat,
+is dry, the orang is no longer found. The lower part of the Sadong
+valley is indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout with a growth
+of tall trees, only for the most part with the Nipa palm; and near the
+town of Sarawak, the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed with
+scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with jungle which was formerly
+cultivated by the Malays and Dyaks.
+
+The orang is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo, and in the former
+island is chiefly found in the north-eastern districts of Siak and
+Atjin. Rosenberg states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy
+forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel, living in thick
+woods which, on account of their impenetrability, are seldom trodden by
+the foot of man.
+
+The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests which are not too
+thickly overgrown, while the gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not
+wholly devoid of water.
+
+Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken and tolerably high
+primeval forest is necessary for the well-being of the orang. Such
+forests are like open ground to them, since they can move to and fro in
+every direction, with the same ease that the Indians cross the prairie
+and the Arabs the desert; they go from the top of one tree to the other
+without ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country which stand
+high and dry, being more frequented by men, and more often traversed
+by clearings, and subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle, are
+unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this animal. He is, in
+these tracts, more exposed to danger, and more frequently constrained
+to descend upon the ground. It is also probable that in the district
+frequented by orangs there is a greater variety of fruits, since the
+low hills, which stand like islands in the marshy plain, serve as
+gardens or plantations in which the trees of the hill country flourish.
+
+Wallace observes that it is strange and interesting to watch an orang
+passing at his ease through the forest. He goes with circumspection
+along one of the larger branches in a half-upright position, which is
+rendered necessary by the great length of his arms and the shortness of
+his legs. He seems always to choose such trees as have their branches
+interwoven with those which surround them, and when these are within
+reach he extends his long arms, seizes the boughs in question with
+both hands, as if to try their strength, then swings himself carefully
+on to the next branch, and goes on as before. The woodcut we subjoin,
+taken from a photograph by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to
+explain this ape’s mode of climbing[115] (Fig. 63).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind.]
+
+As Wallace further remarks, the orang never leaps or springs, seems
+to be in no haste, and yet makes his way through the forest almost as
+fast as a man can run on the ground below. His long, powerful arms
+are of the greatest use, enabling him to climb the highest trees with
+ease, to seize the fruits and young leaves from branches which would
+not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves and boughs with
+which he forms his nest. This structure, which serves for his nocturnal
+refuge, is generally placed on some low, small tree, which stands only
+from twenty to fifty feet from the ground, probably because such a
+situation is warmer and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the
+orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night, but Wallace thinks
+this improbable, since, in this case, the deserted nest would be more
+frequently found; this author saw some such nests in the neighbourhood
+of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since many orangs must have been
+there every day, in the course of a year their forsaken layers would
+be very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the orang is wet he covers
+himself with pandanus-leaves or large ferns, and this has perhaps led
+to the belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees. The orang only
+leaves his layer when the sun is tolerably high, and the dew has dried
+off the leaves. He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but seldom
+returns two days running to the same tree.
+
+These animals seem to be much afraid of man. Wallace never saw two
+full-grown specimens together, but both male and female are often
+accompanied by their half-grown young, and three or four young animals
+may be seen going about together without their parents. The orang
+generally lives on fruit, but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and
+young shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are particularly
+fond of the durian, of which the smell is so offensive and the taste
+so good (_Durio zibethinus_). They destroy much more than they
+consume, and leave many fragments below the trees on which they have
+been feeding. I do not know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and
+chimpanzees, display any taste for carnivorous food. Huxley, who has
+collected much information about anthropoids which is not accessible to
+others, states that it is not known whether the orang destroys living
+animals.
+
+The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all fours laborious and
+unsteady. If chased, he runs faster than a man, but is soon overtaken.
+The very long arms, which are only slightly bent in running, raise
+the body in a remarkable way, so that the orang almost assumes the
+position of a very old man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a
+stick. When walking, this ape places the closed fingers, or rarely the
+open palm, of the hands upon the ground. The toes of the feet are also
+curved inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned downwards.
+More rarely the toes are completely closed, or the whole of the sole of
+the foot serves as the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot
+in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to bring the heel
+more upon the ground, while the curved toes partly touch the ground
+with the upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface of the
+outermost toes of each foot rest altogether on the ground.
+
+Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down upon the ground, and
+indeed only when he is driven by hunger to seek for the juicy young
+shoots on the banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes
+down to the water, of which he generally finds a sufficient supply
+in the hollow of leaves. This traveller on only one occasion saw
+two half-grown orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of
+the Simunjon hills. They were at play together, standing upright
+and alternately seizing each other by the arms. This observer also
+considers that the orang is only able to stand upright when he has some
+support for his hands, or when he is attacked.
+
+Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when the orang drinks,
+he crouches down to the water’s edge and sucks in the liquid with his
+lips. Occasionally, also, he draws water in the palm of his hand, and
+gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this when in captivity. In
+an old number of the _Penny Magazine_ there is a woodcut of an orang
+which is very true to nature, in which he is represented as squatting
+down by the water, washing his hands, and this is really his habit.
+
+Müller and Schlegel[116] state that the adult males live alone except
+during the pairing season. Aged females and young males are often seen
+together in parties of two or three, and the mothers generally keep
+their young with them. Pregnant females generally live apart, and
+continue to do so for a good while after the birth has taken place.
+The young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live long under the
+protection of their mother, who, when she is climbing, carries her
+little ones in her bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair.
+It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang becomes capable of
+propagating his species, nor how long the females continue to bring
+forth young.
+
+This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of the agility of the
+chimpanzee, nor even of the gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his
+actions, and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses into repose.
+In sitting, the back is so bent, and the head so depressed, that the
+orang’s eyes are directed downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on
+with his hands to the higher branches, but generally his arms fall idly
+by his sides. In such positions the orang will remain for hours in his
+place, almost motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a note of
+his deep, gruff voice. By day he is accustomed to go from one tree-top
+to another, and he only comes down to the ground at night. When
+anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself in the underwood.
+When not hunted, he remains long in one place, and indeed, for several
+days together on the same tree. He seldom passes the night on a high
+tree, which he finds too cold and windy, and when night approaches he
+scrambles down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to the top of
+some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong palm, the pandanus, or the
+parasitic orchids which are characteristic of the primeval forests
+of Borneo. He constructs his nest out of small branches and leaves,
+laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with the leaves of orchids,
+_Pandanus fascicularis_, _Nipa fruticans_, etc. The nests observed by
+Müller were some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of from
+ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were from two to three feet in
+diameter. Some of them had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches
+thick. In others the branches intertwined for a foundation were united
+in a common centre, forming a uniform surface.
+
+The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves his lair about nine a.m.,
+and repairs to it again about five p.m., or a little later, when it is
+growing dusk. He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change, on
+his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and supporting his head on
+his hand. When the night is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body,
+and especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves, or with fronds
+of fern.
+
+Although the orang lives in the daytime on the branches of large trees,
+he seldom crouches on a thick bough, as other apes, and especially the
+gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to the slender,
+leafy branches, so that he really reaches the tree-top. He has not the
+sessor-callosities found on other apes, including the gibbon, and the
+hips are not so wide and prominent as in those species provided with
+callosities.
+
+The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He is particularly careful
+about his feet, and seems much more sensitive to any injury to them
+than is the case with other apes. In climbing he alternately uses one
+hand and one foot, or else, as soon as he has taken a firm hold with
+his hands, he draws up both feet together. In his passage from one
+tree to another, he always looks out for a place where two branches
+come close together, or intertwine. Even when hotly pursued, he
+displays wonderful caution, trying the strength of the branches, and
+pressing them down by the weight of his body, so as to make a bridge
+from tree to tree. On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists
+essentially agree with those of Wallace.
+
+There is an eager search for these apes in their native place. Bock
+states the Malays of Samarinda, in the south-east of Borneo, capture
+them near the small brooks and streams which flow into the Mahakkam
+close to that town. These animals come down to the river-bank in the
+early morning and return in the course of the day to the thicket. When
+the natives take an orang alive, they sell him for three dollars to the
+Chinese, who at first feed the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice,
+but are never able to keep him alive for any time in captivity.[117]
+
+Although, in the ordinary course of his existence, the orang shows
+himself to be melancholy, slothful, and indifferent, yet in moments of
+danger he becomes angry and able to defend himself. When pursued, he
+is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches, and the thick,
+thorny outer husks of the durian fruit. This is the more probable since
+the Tscheladas (_Cynocephalus Gelada_), the Hamadryas (_Cynocephalus
+Hamadryas_), and other baboons are in the habit of hurling branches,
+stones, and hardened clods of earth with great adroitness at those
+who attack them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the arm
+of his opponent, biting and scratching it whenever he can get at it.
+Wallace says that no wild animal ventures to fight with these powerful
+creatures, and that they can even obtain the mastery over crocodiles
+and gigantic snakes.
+
+The name orang-utan is derived from the words orang, man, and utan
+(belonging to woods), and is therefore merely wood-man. It is an error
+to write orang-_utang_, which, according to Von Martens, signifies an
+_indebted_ man.[118] The Malay name, meias, is often used, and they are
+distinguished as meias-pappan or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi.
+According to Rosenberg, the orang is called mawas in Sumatra, and Bock
+says that the Dyaks of Dusun call it këu.
+
+The gibbon in all its movements, and especially in those of its long
+arms, has a very singular appearance. In the second chapter of this
+work I have already described the geographical distribution and
+grouping of the species of these remarkable animals. Although they
+occasionally come down upon the ground, they are for the most part
+arboreal in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of high and
+even of mountainous districts to any others. Many find shelter in the
+bamboo thickets, especially in those formed by the gigantic stems of
+_Bambusa macroculmis_ and _Bambusa gigantea_.
+
+The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg asserts that the first
+syllable is merely the article, lives gregariously in Sumatra, and
+possibly in Malacca. Martens saw one of these animals in Sumatra,
+swinging himself from tree to tree, right across the path, about fifty
+feet in front of him. Diard states that a powerful old male acts as
+leader to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sunrise, and keep
+quiet during the day, always on the watch, and scampering off at the
+slightest noise. They find it easy to get away on trees, but, according
+to some accounts, when surprised upon the ground, they show no agility,
+and are readily captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the siamang
+and unko inhabit mountainous forests 3000 ft. above the sea, keeping
+to the trees which grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending
+to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger they hasten down the
+mountain with speed which rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few
+moments to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests which partly
+enclose Tobing, as well as on the mountains of Barissa, the siamang
+is not rare. Bock says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests,
+this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant called _Daun
+simantung_. This ape makes a horrible roaring noise.[119] When a young
+one is wounded, its mother turns in a threatening manner towards the
+aggressor, yet without being able to do him any serious injury. The
+mothers seem to act with great tenderness towards their young, taking
+them down to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms that
+before they are able to run alone the young animals are always carried
+by the parent of the same sex, the male by the father, the female by
+the mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to tigers and panthers
+(_Felis macroscelis_). The species is considered by the natives to be
+slothful and unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the Malays are
+skilled in the care of animals, they are unable to keep these stupid
+and slothful apes alive in captivity for any length of time.[120]
+
+Harlan states that the hulock is found on the Garrau mountains, near
+Gulpara, in Assam. These apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to
+the mountains themselves, which are several hundred feet higher, and
+exposed to the winds. Their favourite food is a fruit called propul,
+which is very abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen
+encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to 150 together, near
+the Naga and the Abors in the wooded hills to the east of Assam. The
+noise they made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen crossed their
+path, he was threatened by them, and pursued with angry gestures and
+piercing howls. They had also attacked a native of the district. Snakes
+of considerable size (_Python reticulatus_) were torn to pieces by them.
+
+The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa, appears to live
+more commonly in pairs than in troops. We learn from Duvaucel that
+these animals move through the trees with great swiftness, grasping the
+slenderest and most flexible branches. They swing two or three times
+to and fro, and then spring with outstretched arms so that the flat
+surface of the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this way
+they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and go on for hours without
+fatigue.
+
+Gibbons are generally more capable than other anthropoids of walking
+upright. Some species, such as the lar, the white-handed, and the
+slender gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in maintaining
+this position. They press the flat soles of their feet upon the ground,
+turn out their knees and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the
+shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms by their sides, with
+the slender hands hanging slackly down. Others walk with their raised
+arms crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking on perfectly flat
+ground, he sways his arms to and fro like balancing poles. On irregular
+ground they seize any projection in the way with their outstretched
+arms, and, holding on to it, swing the body strongly forwards. In this
+way they make better progress over wide tracks of country, since every
+such effort enables them to pass more readily over difficult ground.
+When in great haste, they go upon all fours without closing either
+fingers or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting position
+upon their posteriors, cross their long arms and stare at whatever is
+before them with an air of indifference. When seated on the branches
+of trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above them for the
+sake of security (Fig. 14). In this position some gibbons (_Hylobates
+lar_, _Hulock_, _Albimanus_) have recently been photographed in the
+Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for the most part content
+with a vegetable diet, gibbons sometimes eat animal food, such as
+lizards; and Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these animals
+whole. I do not at this moment remember Huxley’s authority for the
+statement that gibbons, when they drink, dip the hand in water and
+lick it off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive animal.
+They sleep in a sitting position without building nests: like other
+anthropoids, they digest their food quickly.
+
+In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally, the length of the
+period of gestation is still a matter of uncertainty. The young are
+of slow development, and are not fully mature before their fourteenth
+or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration of their lives accurately
+known, since observations made on captive specimens only lead to vague
+conclusions. If we observe the processes of osseous development in the
+skeletons of aged specimens of gorillas in order to make an approximate
+estimate, we may infer that the duration of the life of anthropoids,
+at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls short of the average
+length of human life. But up to this time the question remains
+undecided.
+
+These creatures do not appear to be free from morbid conditions in the
+wild life which is in conformity with their nature. In addition to
+the injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often be observed, and
+which have been caused by the weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws
+of their own kind, there are often traces, especially on the skulls of
+chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and maxillary necrosis, as well as
+of curvatures, excrescences, and united fractures of other parts of the
+bony structure.
+
+This brief description is enough to show that anthropoids in their
+free life develop an intelligence which sets them high above the other
+mammals. They do not, however, display the keenness of scent and
+quickness of sight which distinguish some animals of a lower order,
+such as canine beasts of prey and ruminants manifest in many different
+ways. The structure of their nests is rude in comparison with that of
+some other mammals--as, for example, of rodents. But we must not forget
+that several of the lower races of men, such as the degraded Bedja, the
+Obongo, the Fuegians, many aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the
+Australian blacks, scarcely rise above the inartificial structure of an
+anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their huts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.
+
+
+The accounts given by the earliest observers of gorillas would lead
+us to expect that the attempt to tame even young apes of this species
+must be fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a young male
+gorilla, a creature of from two to three years old, which was quite as
+furious and unmanageable as any adult specimen could have been. The
+negroes of the district between the Rembo and Cape Santa Catharina
+had surprised the mother and her young one in the forest, and after
+killing the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in capturing
+the latter by throwing a cloth over his head. By means of a wooden
+slave-fork, fixed upon its neck, the animal was transported to the
+village in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time. Young as he was,
+the gorilla displayed extraordinary strength, and after he had been
+successfully fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack his new
+master again, tearing his trousers, and then retreating sullenly into
+a corner. He would only eat the wild berries and fruits collected for
+him in the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple leaves. He
+escaped from his cage, and was only recaptured, after many fruitless
+endeavours, by throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that he had
+never seen so furious a creature as this gorilla. He flew at every one
+who came near him, bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed,
+on every possible occasion, that he was of a thoroughly malicious and
+unkindly nature. He broke loose a second time, and was again captured,
+and at the end of ten days he died suddenly.
+
+Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young female gorilla, which clung
+affectionately to its mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators
+were affected by its grief. The creature was too young to be fed on
+anything but milk, and since this was unattainable, it died three days
+after its capture.
+
+Reade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate in their experience with
+the gorillas captured by them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about
+one of these animals:--“On my return to the Gaboon from a journey to
+Okanda, I was attacked by a somewhat serious fever which hung about me
+for a long while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the German
+factory on the Gaboon, was some compensation to me for this involuntary
+idleness. The creature came from Kamma (Fernand Vaz), the place from
+which Du Chaillu also obtained his specimens, and was captured out of
+a troop of eight animals. A small dog, which had been somewhat injured
+by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, prevented the young one from
+escaping until a negro came up, seized it by the neck, and got another
+man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was conveyed to the
+basket-factory of the house, and there, as is unfortunately done in
+most cases, the two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his
+using them to bite his captors.
+
+“This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably two years old, and
+has reconciled himself to captivity and to intercourse with men with
+no great difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened round his
+neck, which gives him plenty of room to move about; but for the greater
+part of the day he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfortable
+in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold, wind, and rain, and a
+thick sail-cloth is wrapped round the cask at night. He generally
+adopts a squatting position, with his arms folded across his breast,
+and he is always observant of surrounding objects. He always seats
+himself so as to have nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies
+before him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full length on his
+back or side, using one hand as a kind of pillow; and he never sleeps
+like other apes, in a squatting position. He goes upon all-fours with
+the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while the forehands are
+closed, so that he goes upon the knuckles, and he has the lateral gait
+characteristic of the species. At this moment he suffers terribly from
+the so-called dissous or sand-fly; both his forehands are full of
+blisters, which contain the eggs of this annoying little insect.
+
+“In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the question of food is
+necessarily the most important. We have already offered him rice,
+bread, milk, etc., such things as may be obtained on board ship, as
+well as in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has occasionally
+eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s biscuit more readily, and once
+he ate some rice, but for the most part he does not touch it. His
+favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of which he eats the
+inner kernel; he is likewise fond of bananas and oranges, and above
+all, of sugar-cane, which he takes from my hand with evident pleasure,
+and chews. He will also take a glass of water from my hand, carry it
+steadily to his mouth, and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he
+was much excited, I have heard him utter a growling noise; generally he
+is quite dumb.” This animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body,
+preserved in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by me in some of the
+researches of which I have given an account.
+
+Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the gorilla represented
+in Figs. 3, 4, during the first months of his captivity: “When this
+animal reached the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first care
+to procure all the forest fruits within reach, as well as a she-goat,
+in order to restore the young anthropoid’s failing strength. It can
+easily be supposed that we watched his attempts to eat with great
+interest, and were very much relieved when he not only readily drank
+milk, but ate various fruits with evident increase of appetite, and
+especially those of _Anona senegalensis_, which are of about the size
+of a walnut, with a rough husk, and grow in the savannahs. In spite
+of this, however, he remained for a long while so weak that he would
+fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of the day crouching
+asleep in a corner. He gradually became accustomed to cultivated
+fruits, such as bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he became
+stronger, and was more often present at our meals, he began to demand
+for himself whatever he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually
+accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood of transporting him
+successfully to Europe was increased.”
+
+This is perhaps the only way in which other and possibly older
+specimens can be rendered fit to endure the passage to Europe. Every
+attempt to embark them immediately after their capture, without
+previously weaning them from their old modes of life, and adapting them
+slowly and systematically to their altered conditions, has invariably
+resulted, sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein also
+recommends, relying on the experience he has had of apes in a state of
+nature, that this species should be supplied with some form of animal
+food. He gives this further account of the captive gorilla:--
+
+“In the course of a few weeks he became so accustomed to his
+surroundings, and to the people whom he knew, that he was allowed to
+run about at liberty, without fear that he would make any attempt to
+escape. He was never chained, nor confined to a cage, and was watched
+only in the way that little children are watched when they are at play.
+He was so conscious of his own helplessness that he clung to human
+companionship, and displayed in this manner a wonderful dependence
+and trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous, malicious, or
+savage qualities, but was sometimes self-willed. He expressed the
+ideas which occurred to him by different sounds, one of which was the
+characteristic tone of importunate petition, while others expressed
+fright or horror, and in rare instances a sullen and defiant growl
+might be heard.
+
+“In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and simple pleasure, he might
+be seen to rub his breast with both fists, while raising himself on
+his hind legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings after quite
+a human fashion, by clapping his hands together, an action which
+no one had taught him; and he executed such wild dances, sometimes
+overbalancing himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling round, that we
+were often disposed to think that he must be drunk. Yet he was only
+drunk with pleasure, and this impelled him to display his strength in
+the wildest gambols.
+
+“His dexterity in eating was particularly remarkable. If any of the
+other apes chanced to enter his chamber nothing was safe from them;
+they snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it away with a
+certain aversion, or carelessly to let it drop. The gorilla behaved
+quite differently: he took up every cup or glass with instinctive
+care, clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down again so
+softly and carefully that I cannot remember his breaking a single
+article of our household goods. Yet we never taught the creature the
+use of our vessels and other manufactured articles, since we wished
+to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in a state of nature. His
+behaviour at meal-times was quiet and mannerly; he only took as much
+as he could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger, and looked
+on with indifference when any of the different forms of food heaped
+up before him were taken away. If, however, nothing was given him,
+he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the dishes from his
+place at table, and accompanied every plate carried off by the negro
+boys with an angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and sometimes
+he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by in order to express his
+displeasure more plainly by a bite or a blow. In another minute he
+would play with the negroes as with his fellows, and this distinguishes
+him altogether from other apes, and especially from baboons, who appear
+to feel an instinctive hatred against many of the black race, and take
+a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity against them.
+
+“He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel without even putting
+his hands into it or upsetting it, and in the case of smaller vessels,
+he carried them to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but sometimes
+his high spirits made him careless, and he once fell to the ground
+from a tree, which was fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was
+remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s web, or rubbish of
+any kind, he sought to brush it off with absurd horror, or held out his
+hands to have it done for him. There was no offensive smell about him.
+It was his favourite amusement to play and paddle about in the water,
+nor did the fact that he had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing
+himself by rolling in the sand with other apes immediately afterwards.
+His good-humour and shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special
+mention as his strongest characteristic. When he was chastised, as it
+was necessary to do at first, he never resented the punishment, but
+came up with a beseeching air, clinging to my feet, and looking up with
+an expressive air which disarmed all displeasure. When he was anxious
+to obtain anything, no child could have expressed its wishes in a more
+urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he did not obtain what
+he wanted, he had recourse to cunning, and looked anxiously about to
+see if he was watched. It was just in these cases, when he obstinately
+pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible not to recognize a
+deliberate plan and careful calculation. If, for example, he was not
+allowed to leave the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he
+would, after several attempts to get his own way had been baffled,
+apparently submit to his fate and lie down near the door in question
+with assumed indifference. But he soon raised his head in order to
+ascertain whether fortune was on his side, edging himself gradually
+nearer and nearer, and then, looking carefully round, he twisted
+himself about until he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered
+cautiously round, and with one bound galloped off so quickly that it
+was difficult to follow him.
+
+“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity when he felt a desire for
+the sugar or fruit which was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room; he
+would suddenly leave off playing and go in an opposite direction, only
+altering his course when he believed that he was no longer observed.
+He then went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it, and made a
+quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar-box or fruit-basket, sometimes
+closing the cupboard doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his
+plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape with it, and his
+whole behaviour made it clear that he was conscious of transgressing
+into forbidden paths. He took a special, and what might be called a
+childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on hollow articles, and
+he seldom omitted an opportunity of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin
+trays, whenever he passed by them--a noisy amusement to which he was
+much addicted during our homeward voyage on board the steam-vessel, in
+which he was at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked strange
+noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the skylight, and especially the
+long-drawn note of a pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as
+to cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and it became
+expedient to keep him at a distance. When he was slightly indisposed,
+we made use of this kind of music with results as successful as if we
+had administered purgative medicine.”
+
+My personal observations enable me to add but little to this excellent
+and exhaustive account. It is well known that this ape throve in the
+Berlin Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities, was at first
+covered with dry, cracked patches, which the late veterinary surgeon
+Gerlach believed to be due to mange; but these gradually disappeared,
+and as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a dark black
+colour, and there was a fresh growth of hair. The creature generally
+slept in the bed of his keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an
+orderly manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but nourishing
+food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He sometimes ate fruit, and bananas
+were occasionally provided for him. When taking his meals, drinking,
+etc., I saw that he always behaved with good manners. He often moved
+freely about in an office-room of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient
+to the Director as to his keeper. He was generally good-tempered,
+fond of play, but rather mischievous, and he would snatch roughly,
+and occasionally try the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried
+to seize from visitors things which attracted his curiosity, such as
+the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets, lace falls, and the like. But on the
+whole he behaved with propriety, playfulness, and good temper, and
+there was much which resembled man in his look and bearing.
+
+Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape suffered from malaria,
+and he subsequently suffered from other complaints, from which he
+recovered. He died in November, 1877, of a galloping consumption.[121]
+The gorilla now living in the Berlin Aquarium is also very playful and
+affectionate.
+
+The chimpanzees which have up to this time been observed in captivity,
+have been, while in good health, lively and amusing animals, and
+generally good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a specimen about
+two years of age, and this ape always walked upright, even when he
+carried heavy loads. It is known that other apes can also be trained to
+adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a serious and melancholy
+expression, moved slowly, was gentle and patient, and obedient to a
+word or sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them in an orderly
+manner, sat down to table like a man, opened his napkin and wiped his
+lips with it, made use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and
+clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in sugar, poured
+out tea, let it get cold before drinking it; but, while doing all
+this, he did not seem happy. He ate all the ordinary food of men, but
+preferred fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea, and
+sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one, coming close to them,
+and taking pleasure in their caresses. He took such a fancy to one
+lady, that when other people approached her he seized a stick and began
+to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated his displeasure at such
+behaviour.
+
+Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chimpanzee which likewise
+came from the Gaboon, and which, as soon as she came on board, reached
+out her hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good terms with
+the whole crew, including the cabin-boy. When the sailors were at meals
+the ape regularly appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry she
+made a baying noise like a dog, and on another occasion she wailed
+like a spoiled child, scratching herself vehemently. She was lively
+and cheerful in warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to
+northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was glad to wrap
+herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed uneasy in an upright position,
+and when she assumed it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her hands
+were very strong, and she could hold on to a cord and swing for a long
+while without interruption. She gradually acquired a taste for wine,
+and once stole a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was fond
+of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank from a glass, and
+took pleasure in imitating the behaviour of men. She was attracted by
+shining metals, pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on a
+hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition.
+
+According to the account of Captain Grandpré, a female chimpanzee on
+board his vessel would heat the oven, taking care that no coals fell
+out, and carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of which
+she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all the duties of a sailor,
+such as drawing up the anchor, furling and making fast the sails. She
+patiently endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching out her
+hands imploringly to ward off his blows. But after this she refused all
+food, and died in five days of grief and hunger.
+
+A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick, and twice blooded.
+When he again fell ill, he held out his arm as if to demand another
+venesection.
+
+In reading these accounts, which have gone the round of various
+old-fashioned books on natural history, the question arises what we are
+or are not to believe, for many particulars appear to be exaggerated.
+Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium, disputes the assertion
+made by others that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept for
+a long while in that establishment, poured out wine for herself at an
+evening party, and clinked glasses with a neighbour.[122]
+
+There is, however, an account given by Broderip of a male chimpanzee,
+which was brought from the Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological
+Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and faithful. The creature,
+clothed in a little jacket, nestled for the most part in the lap of an
+old female keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played with his
+toes, just as a child does under like circumstances. He took Broderip’s
+hand without fear, and touched the ring on one of his fingers with
+his teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial substances
+with his teeth. He held fast to his keeper’s gown when she proposed to
+leave him, and he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed great
+terror when an anaconda was brought into the room in a basket, and did
+not dare to take an apple from off the closed lid of the basket; but
+as soon as the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the apple
+and became cheerful again. He willingly placed himself in a swing, and
+held on to the cords with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting
+position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or sometimes resting his
+face on his hands. But he would also sleep upon his belly, with his
+feet drawn up, and his head on his arms.
+
+A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, was
+remarkable for his excessive liveliness. He had contracted a friendship
+with a fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their intimacy was
+confirmed by their games together, accompanied by many tender embraces.
+The small orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed the
+chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and the former betrayed
+remarkable intelligence. In consequence of a general repair of his
+cage, Dr. Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we owe this
+account, was obliged to keep the chimpanzee in his office, in company
+with himself and other officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed
+himself to his new surroundings, and was on particularly friendly
+terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy. When the child entered the
+room, the chimpanzee ran to meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized
+his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might play together. The
+child was often rough with his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth,
+pinching his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was never known
+to lose his temper. He behaved very differently to boys between six
+and ten years old. When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he
+ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook one of them, bit
+the leg of another, seized the jacket of a third with the right hand,
+jumped up, and with the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short,
+he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he were infected with the
+joyous excitement of youth, which induced him to riot with the troop of
+schoolboys.
+
+One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son a slight tap on the
+head, on account of some miscalculation in his arithmetic, the
+chimpanzee, who was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart box
+on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that some one was staring or
+mocking at him, and said, “Do not put up with it,” the creature cried,
+“Oh! oh!” and rushed at the person in question in order to strike or
+bite him, or express his displeasure in some other way. As he made
+distinctions in the age of human beings, so also with animals. He was
+gentle and considerate in his behaviour to young dogs and apes, while
+with older animals he was as boisterous as he was with the schoolboys.
+When he saw that Hermes was writing, he often seized a pen, dipped it
+in the inkstand, and scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special
+talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium. It was amusing to
+see him squeezing up the cloth, moistening the pane with his lips, and
+then rubbing it hard, passing quickly from one place to another.
+
+Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in her external habits, but
+in her disposition. At one moment she would sit still with a brooding
+air, only occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance at the
+spectators; at another she took pleasure in feats of strength, or
+she roamed to and fro in her spacious enclosure like an angry beast
+of prey. She would insert the index finger of her right hand in the
+opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds, climb up the pole with
+it, and let it fall with a crash and clatter from a height of six feet.
+This ape would sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence
+which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond of playing with old
+hats, which she set upon her head, and if the top was quite torn off,
+she drew it down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who entered
+the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear their clothes. She hardly
+obeyed any one except Schöpf, the director of the Dresden Zoological
+Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit on his knee and put
+her muscular arms round his neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of
+this, Schöpf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish tricks, since her
+good-humour was of short duration. She was rather fond of the keeper,
+but not always obedient to him, and the whip was often in request, even
+at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a spoon, although somewhat
+awkwardly; and she could pour from larger vessels into smaller ones
+without spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the morning and
+evening, and a mixed diet between whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats,
+red wine and water, and sugar.
+
+Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the companionship of a pretty
+sea-cat monkey, but she teased the creature so much that a special
+refuge was set apart for it, into which she could not enter. She was
+so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm that she seized her
+sleeping playfellow by the tail and dashed it to the ground. She chased
+the mice which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She was much afraid
+of snakes, which is not usually the case with chimpanzees. If she was
+left alone for any time she tried to open the lock of her cage without
+having the key, and she once succeeded in doing so. On that occasion
+she stole the key, which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her axilla,
+and crept quietly back to the cage. With the key she easily opened the
+lock, and she also knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off her
+keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out of reach with them, and
+throw them at his head when he asked for them. She could wring out wet
+cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. When her illness began,
+she became apathetic, and looked about with a vacant, unobservant
+stare. Just before her death, from consumption, she put her arms round
+Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit her, looked at him placidly, kissed
+him three times, stretched out her hand to him, and died.[123] The last
+moments of anthropoids have their tragic side!
+
+We owe to Wallace an interesting account of young orangs in a state
+of captivity. This observer shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large
+female ape of this species, which had a young one about a foot long.
+As Wallace carried this creature home, it took such a firm hold of his
+beard that he had much difficulty in getting free, for the unequal
+phalanges of the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At that time
+the creature had not a single tooth, but the two lower front teeth were
+cut a few days later. Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female
+animal to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged to give
+it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill inserted in the cork, from
+which, after some attempts, it learned to suck very well. Sugar and
+cocoa-milk were added, to make the pap more nourishing. When Wallace
+put his finger in the creature’s mouth, it sucked at it vigorously,
+then pushed it angrily away and began to scream, as a child does in
+like circumstances. When it was fondled and caressed, it was quiet and
+content, but began to scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for
+the first two nights it was very noisy and restless.
+
+Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s cradle, with a soft
+mat which was changed and washed every day. The little ape itself liked
+to be washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream, and never
+stopped until carried to the spring by its master, when it became quiet
+at once, although it struggled when first touched by the cold water,
+and made absurd grimaces when water was poured over its head. It was
+extremely fond of being dried and rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly
+happy when Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with extended
+arms and legs while the long hair on its back and arms was brushed
+out. At first it clung helplessly by all-fours to whatever it could
+get hold of, and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save his
+beard. When restless, it worked its hands above in the air, in search
+of something to hold, and if it got hold of a stick or piece of cloth
+with two or three of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default
+of anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while it often
+folded its arms, and seized with each hand the long hair which grew
+below the opposite shoulder. The strength of the creature’s gripe soon
+diminished, however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for giving
+it exercise and strengthening its limbs. With this object he made a
+short ladder of three or four rounds, to which he suspended the young
+orang for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it was pleased, but
+finding itself unable to assume a comfortable position when holding on
+by all four hands, it let go with one after another and at last fell
+to the ground. Often, when only hanging by two hands, it let go with
+one, in order to cross it over the opposite shoulder, and get hold of
+its own hair, and on finding this much more agreeable than the piece
+of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to the ground, where it
+lay on its back with folded arms, quite content and apparently none the
+worse for its numerous tumbles.
+
+When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of hair, he endeavoured
+to construct an artificial mother by stitching together a piece of
+buffalo hide which he suspended about a foot from the ground. At
+first this seemed quite successful, since the small orang could
+cling round it and always find something hairy to which it held fast
+with great persistency. Wallace now hoped that he had made the little
+orphan happy, and so it was for a while, until it remembered its lost
+mother and tried to suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to
+the hide, and hunted about for promising places; but when its mouth
+was only filled with wool and hair it was much displeased, cried
+vehemently, and gave up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On
+one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and Wallace was afraid
+it must be choked; but after a good deal of cough it threw it up, and
+he destroyed the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt to give
+the little creature some occupation.
+
+At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the ape with a spoon. He
+mixed soaked biscuit with egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet
+potatoes. It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces in order
+to express its satisfaction or displeasure with what was offered. The
+little being licked its lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its
+eyes with an expression of extreme content when it had a mouthful of
+anything it particularly liked. On the other hand, when the food was
+not sufficiently sweet and savoury, the orang turned it about in its
+mouth for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then spat it out.
+If the same food was presented again, it screamed violently and threw
+its arms about like a passionate child.
+
+Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young orang, a macaca (_Macacus
+cynomolgus_), likewise young, was brought to him. The two animals
+became at once the best of friends, neither showing the least fear of
+the other. The small macaca had not the slightest scruple about sitting
+on the other’s body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the orang,
+the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels which dropped, and when the
+meal was over it licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips,
+and even tore open its mouth to see if anything remained there; then
+it lay down on the poor creature’s body as if it were a comfortable
+cushion. The small, helpless orang endured all these insults with the
+most unexampled patience, only too glad to have something warm to cling
+to and encircle fondly with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when
+the other little ape wished to get away, the orang held on as long as
+possible to the movable skin of the back or head, or to its tail, so
+that it cost the macaca many violent struggles to escape.
+
+Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour of these two
+animals, which were of nearly the same age. All the observations
+hitherto made show that very young anthropoids display a helplessness
+resembling that of children of about the same age, although other
+families of apes, in common with most young mammals, kittens, puppies,
+etc., early attain to greater activity and independence.
+
+When Wallace had kept the orang for about a month, and placed it on
+the ground, its legs straggled outwards, or it overbalanced itself and
+fell heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would hold on to the
+edge, and once or twice it fell out in consequence. If allowed to be
+dirty or hungry, or otherwise neglected, it would cry loudly until it
+received attention, or sometimes would cough or struggle like an adult
+animal. If there was no one in the house, or if no one paid attention
+to its cries, it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them when a
+step was heard.
+
+At the end of five weeks the two upper front teeth were cut, but
+throughout that period the creature had not grown, and remained of the
+same size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the want of milk or
+other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk seemed to produce diarrhœa, of which
+it was cured by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of what
+appeared to be intermittent fever, and died within a week.[124]
+
+In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received an orang of two or
+three years old. He was for the most part sluggish and inert, but had
+occasional fits of better humour and playfulness. When angry he would
+attack strangers, but he generally sat cross-legged on a low stool,
+or on the ground before the fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the
+giraffes of the establishment inquisitively stretched their long
+necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the creature evinced no fear,
+but tried to seize the long-legged animals by the muzzle. This orang
+answered to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often searching
+in his pocket for the dainties concealed there. He was uneasy when
+separated by the cage-bars from his master; and when confined in an
+enclosure of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire asunder and
+squeezed himself through the hole, so that the cage had to be made
+stronger. The creature presented an absurd appearance dressed in a
+jacket and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he saw, he looked
+alternately at it and his keeper, and protruded his lips like a snout.
+In drinking, this animal took the vessel in his hand, brought the rim
+to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity. I may here observe
+that when anthropoids drink in this way, they generally take the vessel
+in one hand, and support it with the back of the fingers of the other.
+
+When the orang we have just described was disappointed in his desire to
+obtain anything, he threw himself on the ground, howling and screaming
+until he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits of passion, in
+one of which he tried to destroy the bars of his cage by hitting them
+with the stool. As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent
+to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on the return of his
+keeper.
+
+An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in 1827, was less phlegmatic
+than animals of this species usually are. He played with those who
+carried him when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair, and
+so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a cloth, throwing one
+end over his shoulder, as he had seen the servants of the house do.
+He was particularly fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit. He
+was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he could reach, first
+with the fingers, then with the lips, and finally with his teeth. He
+was fond of biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His absurd
+gestures, combined with his air of solemnity, excited laughter even in
+the grave natives. He was once drinking tea, when some one filled the
+empty mug with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw himself
+on his back, screamed, and struck his breast and belly with his hands.
+His gait was clumsy and unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When
+he went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself on his hands
+and swung himself forward with his feet. If he lost his balance in
+walking upright, he fell upon his head, and then went on by turning
+somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went into the house and
+tried to get a portion of his master’s breakfast. In spite of his
+usual inquisitiveness, he was not at all excited by the sight of his
+melancholy countenance in the glass.
+
+The large orang which was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876 was a
+sullen companion, and looked like an old Bedouin as he crouched down
+and peered from under the covering which was thrown over him. His
+keeper could only trust him when he brought him an orange, and if he
+approached the bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him,
+gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he was not excited by
+hunger. Then he started from his usually sitting position, and devoured
+the food which was cautiously passed through the door. If kept waiting,
+he threw himself on his back in a rage. When his hunger was satisfied,
+he played with the straw, the cord, or with his blanket. When it was
+necessary to change his straw, he was lured away by holding out an
+orange at the top of his pole, and the change was effected while the
+ape was tearing open the rind and sucking out its contents. In the
+evening he never omitted to clear out a hole in the straw, and to roll
+himself in his blanket. Gabriel Max has drawn a striking likeness of
+the resigned attitude of a sick orang.
+
+Gibbons have often been observed in a state of captivity. Of the
+slothful and inanimate siamang there is nothing of much interest to
+report. The other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic, shy,
+and timid, but hardly ever averse from human society. Within a month
+Harlan was able to make a hulock so tame that he would hold on with
+one hand to him, while putting the others on the ground, and so walk
+about with his keeper. He came to his master’s call, seating himself
+close to him on a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or
+chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil the cloth. He was
+fond of cooked rice, bread soaked in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee,
+tea, chocolate, milk, etc. Generally he only dipped his fingers in the
+drinking vessels and licked off the liquid, but he could drink in human
+fashion. He searched the house for spiders and other creeping things,
+and brushed away flying insects with his right hand. The creature was
+very affectionate, and when Harlan came to him in the morning, he
+greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which went on for about
+a minute. He came to a call even when at a distance, and was pleased
+to be combed, brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by Harlan
+behaved in the same way.
+
+The _Hylobates albimanus_ of the Berlin Aquarium, which I have already
+mentioned, was, as described by Hermes, and also according to my own
+observations, a very peaceable creature, although, if compelled to do
+what he did not like, he sometimes tried to bite a little, especially
+when just taken from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken by the
+hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased. Although much less lively
+than the chimpanzee which was his companion, and less inclined to play,
+he was pleased with children, and watchfully observed their movements.
+His dexterity was wonderful. He was almost always present at dinner
+and supper, when the table was covered with dishes, and he ran up and
+down it, in order to go from one person to another, without touching,
+still less upsetting, the smallest article. His food consisted chiefly
+of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and Kiel sprats, of which
+he was particularly fond, as well as of sweet grapes. Before taking
+any liquid, he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascertain
+that it was not too hot; then he drank it up, without taking the cup
+or vessel in his hand, as the chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or
+moist food, and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing to
+eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his favourite dainty, and if
+hungry when he saw them, he uttered a gentle noise which resembled
+the cry of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise, _Hu_, _Hu_,
+to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity, or when the same sound
+was uttered by others; and it was in this way that he greeted Hermes
+when he came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest when seated on
+a woman’s arm, with his long arms wound round her neck, and would sit
+quiet in this position as long as he was permitted to do so, and when
+taken away would scream like a child. When Frau Hermes left the room,
+he would run after her, and try to scramble up as soon as he reached
+her; if she took his hand, he went with her quietly. This gibbon may
+be compared favourably with other anthropoids, on account of his
+extraordinary cleanliness. He always returned to the place first used
+for his necessities, and never made his bed or the room unclean. There
+was not a trace of smell about him, so that he was quite an agreeable
+companion; and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ children without
+causing the least disturbance or discomfort. He was fond of swinging to
+and fro by a cord, to which he held with one hand.
+
+A specimen of _Hylobates funereus_ was kept in Paris for about a year.
+It was very intelligent, yet less so than other anthropoids. It knew
+its keepers and frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled; but
+it showed no preference for one person more than another, not even for
+its keeper.
+
+Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live bird was let into the
+cage of an _Hylobates agilis_. After watching its flight, the ape swung
+himself on to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand and the
+bird with the other. Its objects, both the bird and the bough, were
+attained with as much certainty as if only one object had arrested its
+attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked out the feathers, and
+then threw it away.
+
+Another female specimen of _Hylobates agilis_ suddenly attacked her
+keeper, sprang upon him, scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him
+on the breast, so that it was fortunate for the man that the creature
+had shortly before lost her canine teeth. It was said that the same ape
+had killed a man in Macao.
+
+Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from caries of the teeth
+and jaws, from chronic and acute bronchial and intestinal catarrhs,
+from inflammation and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of
+the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of the skin and
+intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn from many sources, these animals
+display much resemblance to men. Among others, Bock observed an aged
+male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from consumption, which lay
+nearly all day wrapped in a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a
+violent cough.[125]
+
+On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees we find traces of caries
+of the teeth and jaws, by which, therefore, these animals may be
+affected in a state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin and
+intestines.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM.
+
+
+The racial history of apes can only be traced with any certainty up
+to the Miocene period. The fact of the contemporary existence of apes
+and pachydermata has been frequently asserted, but it is still too far
+from being established to merit further consideration here. Traces of
+the slender ape (_Semnopithecus_) have, however, been found in the
+Miocene of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik, and in the
+region bordering on the Himalayas. The name given to one of these
+fossil species (_Semnopithecus subhimalayanus_) seems to establish its
+locality. The numerous remains of _Mesopithecus Pentelici_ in Attica
+have, however, given rise to controversy. Gaudry and Beyrich were
+disposed to assign these specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but
+Gaudry has since declared that, while the structure of the skull and
+teeth is that of _Semnopithecus_, the structure of the limbs is that of
+a macaca. He regards, therefore, _Mesopithecus_ as an interesting form
+of apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.[126]
+
+The separation of these two species of apes (_Semnopithecus_
+and _Macacus_) must, he considers, have occurred rather late.
+_Pliopithecus_, from the fresh-water marl, Sansan, is assigned by
+Gaudry and others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe, however,
+that it is nearer to the next neighbour on the south, the magot
+(_Inuus_), on account of the five fangs of its last tooth. Köllner
+thinks the connection with _Semnopithecus_ not improbable.
+
+_Dryopithecus Fontanii_, of which I have already spoken, seems, as
+I judge from a cast taken by Fric in Prague, to be of an expressly
+anthropoid character; but the scantiness of the materials do not allow
+us to form any precise conclusions as to the zoological position of
+this extinct animal. The structure of the back teeth, as we have
+already said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always cautious
+in his judgments, is of opinion that the ape’s teeth found in the
+ironstone of the Suabian Alps in the secondary mammal formation,
+are of a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals to which
+they belonged must therefore have been of the same type. Fossil
+remains of the African stumpy ape (_Colobus_) have also been found at
+Steinheim.[127] _Macacus priscus_ of the valley of the Arno seems to
+be allied with the African macaca.[128] Owen’s _Macacus pliocenus_
+from Essex is closely related to _Macacus sinicus_. Fossil apes have
+also been observed in America. _Protopithecus_ was a very large animal,
+related to _Mycetes_. Another fossil species, found in South America
+(_Laopithecus_), must have been closely related to man. This latter
+fact is the more remarkable, since it has generally been assumed, and
+indeed with reason, that there is a marked division between the apes of
+the Old and New Worlds.
+
+The species now found in tropical America of the silky apes (_Hapale_),
+the Sahui (_Jacchus_), the leaping apes (_Callithrix_), the bellowing
+apes (_Mycetes_), and the rolling apes (_Cebus_), were already
+represented in the diluvial period of that continent. It does not
+appear that any extensive generic diffusion of apes has taken place
+since that period. It is otherwise with the development of species,
+which seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have occurred late.
+This may be inferred from the physical characteristics of gorillas and
+chimpanzees, which, with all their differences, have much in common
+with each other. In the fourth chapter we have described forms of apes
+lying between the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible
+that these are a reversion to one or the other form. The numerous
+varieties of form among anthropoids point to a continuance of the
+process of severance in this family of apes, and little more than an
+isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual conversion of
+varieties into constant species.
+
+On account of their external bodily characteristics, of their
+anatomical structure, and their highly developed intelligence,
+anthropoids not only stand first among apes, but they take a still
+higher place, approximating to the human species. In accordance
+with what I have said in the second and third chapters, I set aside
+the order of the _Quadrumana_, and accept the Linnæan order of the
+_Primates_, both for men and apes. I would include men as _Erecti_ with
+anthropoids as _Anthropomorpha_ in a sub-family of the _Primarii_. In
+the case of apes (_Simiina_) I should retain the convenient distinction
+between those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal aperture
+(_Catarrhina_ and _Platyrrhina_). The semi-apes (_Prosimii_) should
+constitute a separate order of mammals. The following systematic scheme
+shows the classification I suggest:--
+
+                        I. MAMMALS (_Mammalia_).
+
+            A. _Monodelphia_, Blainv. (_Placentalia_, Owen).
+
+  I. Order: _Primates_, Linnæus.
+
+    1. Family: _Primarii_.
+
+      (1) Sub-family: _Erecti_ (_Homo sapiens_).
+
+      (2) Sub-family: _Anthropomorpha_, Linnæus.
+
+        (_a_) _Dasypoga_, _i.e._ Anthropomorpha, without
+              the sessor callosities.
+
+          (α) Genus: _Troglodytes_, E. Geoffroy.
+
+            Species: The gorilla (_Troglodytes Gorilla_, Savage
+              and Wyman). The chimpanzee (_Tr. niger_,
+              E. Geoffroy).
+
+            The other species are not accurately known.
+
+          (β) Genus: _Pithecus_, E. Geoffroy.
+
+            Species: Orang-utan (_Pithecus Satyrus_, E. Geoffroy).
+
+        (_b_) _Tylopoga_, _i.e._ Anthropomorpha, with
+              sessor callosities.
+
+          (λ) Genus: _Hylobates_, Illig.
+
+            Species: see p. 45.
+
+    2. Family: Apes proper (_Simiina_).
+
+      (1) Sub-family: _Catarrhina_.
+
+        Genera: _Semnopithecus_, _Colobus_, _Cercopithecus_,
+              _Inuus_, _Macacus_, _Cynocephalus_.
+
+      (2) Sub-family: _Platyrrhina_.
+
+        Genera: _Mycetes_, _Lagothrix Ateles_, _Cebus_, _Pithecia_,
+              _Nyctipithecus_, _Callithrix_, _Chrysothrix_, _Hapale_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE
+ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON.
+
+
+Huxley’s statement, that the lowest apes are further removed from
+the highest apes than the latter are from men, is, according to my
+experience, still perfectly valid. It cannot be denied that the highest
+order of the animal world is closely connected with the highest created
+being.
+
+In the third chapter I have sought to show in what way the pithecoid
+characteristics of men may be proved. From the latter chapters, also,
+much may be learned with respect to the anthropoid characteristics of
+anthropoids. The external form first provokes the comparison. There is
+much in the bodily structure which spans the apparent chasm between men
+and apes, and this is evident to the simplest understanding. The head,
+and the general form of the body, especially in young male and female
+gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and even in gibbons, if we exclude
+the length of their arms, display many points of resemblance with man.
+It is shown even in separate organs of the body--as, for instance, in
+the ear. The illustrations given in the second chapter of the ears of
+apes, including that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me
+from such specimens as had least resemblance to man, and yet even in
+these a certain likeness must be recognized.
+
+I have already observed that the old males of an anthropoid species are
+always further removed from man than the young, and this is especially
+the case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male gorilla, with its
+great cranial crests and powerful jaw, displays striking differences
+from the human type. This is an important fact, since in the case of
+man we almost without exception regard the fully developed male adult
+as the typical form.
+
+In considering the limbs, the differences between the arms and hands
+of man and those of anthropoids are apparent, but less striking than
+in the case of the lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in
+it something abnormal which distinctly differs from the human foot,
+adapted for walking. Nor can the prehensibility of the human toes
+in certain cases be directly compared with the prehensibility of an
+ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a thumb. Haeckel
+remarks that newly born children can also take a strong grip with the
+great toe, and if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot as
+firmly as with the hand.[129] This power is, however, only partial and
+subordinate, compared with the manifold and developed prehensibility
+of an anthropoid’s foot. The possibility of walking upright to a
+certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent is no exclusive
+privilege of anthropoids, since this power may be acquired by training
+in the case of other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc.
+Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and climbing apes, as
+well as some semi-apes, bears, ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals,
+can go for some distance in an upright position, quite as readily as
+anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.[130] The structure of
+anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted for going on all-fours, or for
+climbing. The projection of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary
+tail has, as is well known, been observed in some isolated cases in the
+human species. This peculiarity is supposed to be hereditary in the
+case of some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam of Central
+Africa, and some of the Southern Malays. But this surmise has not yet
+been confirmed.
+
+It has already been said that when we compare men and anthropoids,
+the profile of the coloured man presents a striking likeness to that
+of anthropoids. This is believed by the coloured people themselves,
+who, especially among negro races, regard the large apes as accursed
+individuals of their own species, as dumb and hairy men, and so
+on. It should, however, be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an
+important part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is
+comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place themselves on the
+same level as animals, while civilized races reject such ideas with
+self-conscious pride. I may add that civilized men are revolted by the
+proverbial ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhorrence any
+admission of actual relationship with them. We must, however, remember
+that men are by no means generally endowed with physical beauty,
+and especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations we find
+individuals whose ugliness is little inferior to that of anthropoids,
+and which sometimes even exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused
+physical beauty may be made by the peoples of classical antiquity; by
+the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav races; by the Circassians, Armenians,
+Tartars, Turks, Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians,
+Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but such attractions
+are rare among other peoples of the world, such as the Mongols, the
+majority of negroes, Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already
+shown that among some of the lower races it is impossible not to
+recognize a purely external and physical approximation to the simian
+type.
+
+Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds, shrink from admitting
+any relationship between men and apes, since the mental organization
+of the former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-link
+with the anthropoids of which they think so meanly. Yet it should
+not be forgotten that the modes of living in degraded races differ
+little from those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what I have
+said of the Australian aborigines, whose brutal instincts demand
+our whole attention when we undertake such comparisons. A horde of
+Botocudos, mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince Maximilian
+of Neuwied,[131] and a village on the upper Yupurá, inhabited by the
+Mirenhas, and described by Martius,[132] left upon the travellers a
+grisly impression of their brutal degradation. This impression might
+be further strengthened if we could inspect a hutted encampment of the
+Obongo or the Doko.
+
+It has been observed that the rudest savage is in a condition to show
+pity and loyalty to his own fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter
+of 1881–82, when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe, one of them
+fell sick, and was cared for by his savage companions with affection,
+and even with a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we have
+seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the members of their family
+in the same way, and display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has
+been especially noticed in the case of several orang-utans which have
+tended each other. Love for their young, and not rarely love for their
+mates expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking comparatively,
+deeply rooted in the animal world. It is well known that both rude
+and civilized peoples are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it
+is erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each other. These acts
+of cruelty, murder, and rapine are often the result of the inexorable
+logic of national characteristics, and are unhappily truly human, since
+nothing like them can be traced in the animal world. It would, for
+instance, be a grave mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty
+executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former only satisfies his
+natural appetite in preying on other mammals. The atrocities of the
+trials for witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed by the
+negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice of human victims made
+by the Khonds, the dismemberment of living men by the Battas, find no
+parallel in the habits of animals in their savage state. And such a
+comparison is, above all, impossible in the case of anthropoids, which
+display no hostility towards men or other animals unless they are first
+attacked. In this respect the anthropoid ape stands on a higher plane
+than many men.
+
+A great chasm between man and anthropoids is constituted, as I believe,
+by the fact that the human race is capable of education, and is able
+to acquire the highest mental culture, while the most intelligent
+anthropoid can only receive a certain mechanical training. And even
+to this training a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by
+anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting subjects of study
+in the menagerie, but they never become, like our ordinary domestic
+animals, useful members of the household economy. I myself hold that
+all human races are capable of culture, while differing in the degree
+to which it is possible for them to attain. I do not, for example,
+suppose that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so educated as
+to be placed on a level with the highest intellects of our own nation.
+But how many ages it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans!
+It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages may be constituted
+serviceable members of human society, as we may see from the changes
+which have taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the Tahitians,
+and the Maoris in the course of the last eighty years. In our days the
+envoys of the Queen of Madagascar have understood how to move in the
+highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour, and we must recognize
+this fact as significant, without, however, deluding ourselves by too
+wide deductions from it.
+
+The remark has often been made that the African blacks, Indians, etc.,
+display great docility when young, and are very receptive of wisdom and
+culture, but stop short at a certain point, as if unable to advance
+beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like apes in advancing age, relapse
+into their originally savage state. It may, however, be inferred that
+these attempts to educate young savages are generally wrecked by
+mistaken methods of instruction. The young sons of nature are often
+too much indulged, their childish performances are over-estimated,
+their minds are over-taxed, the due development of mind and body is
+checked; they become arrogant, and then people are surprised that,
+as self-consciousness increases in their immature brains, a greater
+or less amount of conceit is developed. There are cases in which a
+savage, who has been with much labour educated and civilized, relapses
+into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the enemy of his former
+protector, as a robber or a rebel; yet, even to the end of his life,
+he has developed qualities and conditions which recall to him better
+times. We see an example of this in some of the civilized Maoris who
+afterwards joined the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their
+countrymen the strength of a firmer organization against the English
+supremacy. The bearing of these relapsed savages always has in it
+something higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy of a morose
+old chimpanzee or orang.
+
+Nor have the attempts to educate savages been uniformly unsuccessful.
+The great Indian chief Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and
+Ramon Castilla; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova king, Radama
+I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kamehameha I., Pomare II., Georges, and
+Kokabau, show what may be made of such materials under favourable
+circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca; the steadfast leader Perus,
+who belonged to a needy Arriero family; the Haytian who was formerly
+driver on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal savages as
+the Malagasy and Polynesians educated by European missionaries.
+
+It is well known that nations, in the earliest periods of their
+existence, have to pass through certain rude conditions of their
+development, and the most highly civilized nations are not exempt
+from this law. The transition period of the Stone Age is necessary
+for all, and with the use of metals a higher and more cultivated life
+has been gradually developed. Even for those who do not recognize any
+sharp line of demarcation between the stone and metal periods, yet,
+speaking generally, they will admit that the times in which stone
+instruments, and those in which bronze and iron instruments were
+chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in historical culture.
+As we know, there are also certain phases of development in the Stone
+Age. In its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked tool could
+not procure for its owner any regular shelter: he lived in caves,
+clefts, or under a scanty covering of leaves, and made use of his tool
+in killing wild animals; in cutting wood; in preparing skins, tendons,
+and gourd-vessels; in dismembering the prey obtained in hunting; and in
+extracting marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and sharpening
+these stone tools, a progressive improvement in the conditions of human
+life went hand in hand.
+
+We can picture to ourselves the physical and psychical conditions of
+the first and earliest men of the Stone Age as those of extremely
+rude savages, but who were endowed with the gift of working out for
+themselves higher conditions of life.
+
+In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin Academy of Sciences,
+exhibited the lower jaw of a rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at
+Billy, Allier, in which there was a notch which must, in the opinion
+of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of man. The Abbé
+Delaunay found in the Miocene of Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib
+of a Halitherium, which was notched, and which likewise appeared to
+have been subjected to human manipulation. Garrigou is of opinion
+that certain bones found at Sansan were broken by the hand of man,
+and Dücker expressed a similar belief about the fossils of Pikermi.
+These ideas have been strongly opposed. Many of the marks on these
+bones have been represented to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora,
+rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in the Miocene of Thenay,
+near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-Cher, of which he ascribes the working to
+beings of a higher intelligence than the animals of that period.
+This opinion is shared by eminent anthropologists, such as Vibraye,
+Worsaae, Mortillet, de Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt
+the accuracy of the account given of their position at Thenay, by so
+experienced a geologist as Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the
+quaternary epoch is only concerned with the question whether these
+flints at Thenay were artificially worked or not. The stones were found
+in a layer of the same kind of rubble. When a number of such flints
+are placed together, only a few people can discover an incontestable
+distinction between the artificially shaped and the unshaped stones.
+The alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age still demands
+careful examination. The epoch of the Middle Miocene is very ancient,
+and Léberon distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone of
+Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper Miocene, of Eppelsheim and
+Pikermi. According to this author, the next in succession was the Lower
+Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of Perrier, Solilhac, and
+Coupet. Next came the fauna of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those
+of the boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata, these latter
+were of very long duration. Above the fauna of the boulder clay are
+those of the diluvium, followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and
+of our own time.
+
+Whatever may be thought of the many changes which have taken place,
+whether they are regarded as the result of distinct and independent
+creations or as the result of transformations, no geologist can doubt
+that an immense tract of time was required for the production of these
+forms. In the Middle Miocene there is not a single species of mammal
+which corresponds to any of our extant species. If we start from the
+standpoint of simple palæontology, it would be difficult to assume that
+the being which shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained unaltered
+in the midst of all these changes. If, as Gaudry remarks, it can be
+shown that the flints collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone
+were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist would not hesitate
+to recognize in the _Dryopithecus_ the author of this handiwork.[133]
+
+But, speaking provisionally, the _Dryopithecus_ which is assumed to
+have used these flints, and of which we, unfortunately, know only
+the little which can be gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must
+remain the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his advanced
+anthropomorphism is concerned. No anthropoid now in existence has
+shown itself capable of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use.
+Moreover, the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of descent are
+becoming ever more convinced that man cannot be the issue of any extant
+form of anthropoids. It is true that a close, and in many respects
+a very close, physical connection may be traced between men and
+anthropoids, but not the possibility of a direct descent from the one
+to the other. This is especially shown from the physical development
+of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble men in their youthful
+stages, and lose this character more and more as they grow older. The
+absolute deficiency of any capacity for the further development of the
+intellectual qualities of our modern species of anthropoids is another
+proof of this fact; their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of
+other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are still far behind
+the intelligence of man, which is capable of still further development.
+
+In the process of physical growth, as I feel myself compelled often
+to repeat, anthropoids constantly diverge further from the human
+organization. C. Vogt justly observes: “When we consider the principles
+of the modern theory of evolution, as it is applied to the history of
+development, we are met by the important fact that in every respect
+the young ape stands nearer to the human child than the adult ape does
+to the adult man. The original differences between the young creatures
+of both types are much slighter than in their adult condition: this
+assertion, made long since in my lectures on the human race, has
+received a striking confirmation from recent autopsies of young
+anthropoids which have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In
+proportion to the age of the specimen, the characteristic differences
+in the form of the jaw, the cranial ridges, etc., become more evident.
+Both man and apes are developed from an embryonic condition, and from
+the period of childhood in a diverging or almost opposite direction
+into the final type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain
+in their whole organization features which correspond to those of the
+human child.”[134] Quenstedt also says: “However much _Homo sapiens_ is
+raised by his intelligence above all other animals, however important
+the physical differences are which divide him from apes, yet the
+scene of their existence in the world is by no means so wide that, as
+time goes on, the narrow limits between them may not approximate more
+closely.”[135]
+
+In these words the opinion I have already expressed is set forth, an
+opinion which continues to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have
+descended from any of the fossil species which have hitherto come to
+our notice, nor yet from any of the species of apes now extant. It
+is more probable “that both types have been produced from a common
+ground-form, which is still more strongly expressed in the structure of
+young specimens, because the age of childhood is less advanced” (Vogt).
+
+This supposed progenitor of our race is necessarily completely
+hypothetical, and all the attempts hitherto made to construct even a
+doubtful representation of its characteristics are based upon the
+trifling play of fancy.
+
+Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at any rate, descended from
+a highly organized form. He goes on to say:
+
+“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for
+the close similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic
+development, as well as in innumerable points of structure and
+constitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance, the
+rudiments which he retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is
+occasionally liable--are facts which cannot be disputed. They have long
+been known, but until recently they told us nothing with respect to the
+origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of our knowledge of the
+whole organic world, their meaning is unmistakable. The great principle
+of evolution stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are
+considered in connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of
+the members of the same group, their geographical distribution in past
+and present times, and their geological succession. It is incredible
+that all these facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to
+look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as disconnected, cannot
+any longer believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation.
+He will be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of
+man to that, for instance, of a dog; the construction of his skull,
+limbs, and whole frame, independently of the uses to which the parts
+may be put, on the same plan with that of other mammals; the occasional
+reappearance of various structures--for instance, of several distinct
+muscles, which man does not normally possess, but which are common
+to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analogous facts;--all point in the
+plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with
+the other mammals of a common progenitor.”[136]
+
+“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the vertebrata,”
+observes the same great English naturalist in another place, “at which
+we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a
+group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians.
+These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes as lowly
+organized as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes
+like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very
+small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
+birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the
+Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But
+no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and
+related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived
+from either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely, amphibians
+and fishes. In the class of mammals, the steps are not difficult
+to conceive which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient
+Marsupials; and from these to the early progenitors of the placental
+mammals. We may thus ascend to the Lemuridæ, and the interval is not
+wide from these to the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into
+two great stems, the New World and Old World monkeys; and from the
+latter, at a remote period, Man, the wonder and glory of the universe,
+proceeded.”[137]
+
+Setting aside for the present this long pedigree of man, let us
+consider some of the isolated phases which have been established in
+the still incomplete condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes
+are concerned, whose near relation to men and apes has of late been
+strongly urged, I agree with those who, like Vogt, consider that their
+order, with its variety of forms, points to a complex origin, probably
+from marsupial animals, with which their organization presents many
+common features; hence it appears that some of their forms belong to
+the earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well acquainted. “In
+conclusion,” he writes, “it appears, from these facts, that any very
+close connection between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with man,
+cannot be proved. With the exception of the opposing thumb, which is
+and was a widely diffused characteristic common to many species, the
+semi-apes have not a single anatomical feature in common with apes.
+Their jaw, the most permanent characteristic, places them in the
+insectivorous class; to enroll them among the ancestors of man is to
+set at nought all the principles of scientific research.”[138]
+
+That purely hypothetical being, the common ancestor of man and apes,
+is still to be found, and this is the task assigned to palæontology.
+Whether this science, to which a great future belongs, will ever
+accomplish the task, is a question which concerns itself. Meanwhile,
+considering the great palæontological achievements of our day, the
+discovery of the _Odontornithes_, _Ætosauri_, _Rhamphorynchi_,
+_Holoptychia_, etc., we need not despair of the possibility of
+discovering the true link between the world of man and mammals.
+This purely speculative side of research, this purely scientific
+mode of treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied with
+unproved assertions, but will rather trust to the strenuous labour of
+future times, and this need not disturb any religious or political
+convictions. Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be
+discovered in some geological stratum, yet research will have to
+overcome immense difficulties, if it is to explain the development of
+the understanding and of speech, and the growth of independent human
+intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account, refuse to recognize
+the possibility of achieving some new discoveries in this direction.
+To do so would be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and
+this would be unworthy of our former intellectual achievements. Let us
+therefore labour on with courage.
+
+In matters which concern ethnology we are constantly shown that even
+those races of men which are very remote from each other, and of whom
+it cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times united in one
+nation, have made the same technical discoveries, and have adopted
+similar manners and customs and similar religious observances. This
+allows us to infer that there is a physical and psychical unity of
+human nature which indeed separates into races and varieties, but not
+into distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypothetically the
+primeval type will predominate even in the progeny which has been
+modified by a distinct and separate development, and we need not be
+surprised by reversions to the animal structure, even in man, the
+ultimate scope of organic development. Nor will the developed culture
+of man offer any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic
+conditions which we have pointed out in the third chapter of this work,
+such as the frontal process of the squamous temporal portion, the
+transverse enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed ear, etc.,
+occur both in the higher and lower races of man; just as, for example,
+both in primitive and high-bred races of horses there are reversions to
+fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc.
+
+Not only the physical, but the mental development of man advances
+uniformly, and not _per saltum_. Physical qualities and defects may
+occur in a given number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent in
+an equal number of Europeans, and conversely may occur in the one and
+be absent in the other; yet, in their mental condition, negroes and
+Papuans must always be regarded as in a lower order than Europeans. And
+if physical superiority is more widely diffused in European peoples
+than elsewhere, owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better
+nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often also to the sexual
+selection prompted by æsthetic considerations, yet the reversion to
+such animal characteristics as do not exercise any modifying influence
+on the bodily development of the individual, occurs both in these and
+other races. I conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the fine
+passage with which Darwin ends his work on the descent of man.
+
+“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not
+through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and
+the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally
+placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the
+distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears,
+only with the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it.
+I have given the evidence to the best of my ability: and we must
+acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, with all his noble qualities;
+with sympathy which feels for the most debased; with benevolence which
+extends not only to other men, but to the humblest living creature;
+with his god-like intellect, which has penetrated into the movements
+and constitution of the solar system;--with all these exalted powers,
+man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly
+origin.”
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+It was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s _Blicke auf
+das Pflanzen- und Thierleben in den indischen Malaienländern_ (Münster,
+1883) came into my hands. The author, who was for several years
+physician and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has given
+an interesting account of the orang-utan. It appears that this animal
+is only found in the northern part of Sumatra, and is more common on
+the western than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is only
+occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are fond of the flesh of
+this ape, which they shoot, especially in the interior of the island,
+with poisoned darts, projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is
+then carefully cut out.
+
+Mohnike states that in Borneo _Hylobates concolor_ is called Ouo-ouo
+by the Malays, and Kalawet by the Dyaks. Dark specimens of _Hylobates
+variegatus_ are in the Malay dialect called _itam_, or black Unko, and
+light specimens are called _puti_, or white Unko. A good illustration
+of _Hylobates leucogenys_ is given in the _Proceedings of the
+Zoological Society_, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877.
+
+It should be added to what I have said in the text, that the uvula
+of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff, _Beiträge zur Anatomie
+des Gorilla_, p. 37; and Rückart, _Der Pharynx als Sprach- und
+Schluck-apparat_, p. 24, plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882). I have,
+however, examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite perceptible,
+as well as the palate and arched root of the tongue.
+
+In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which I have spoken
+above, the fragment of a lower jaw has lately been found in the Schipka
+cave, Moravia, declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like
+child. Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and considers that
+it belongs to an adult of the mammoth age, who suffered from retention
+of the teeth, and that there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same
+author subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly examined in
+Brussels, to a close analysis, and is somewhat disposed to admit the
+pithecoid character of this specimen (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p.
+277: 1882).
+
+R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the Naulette jaw and
+that from the Schipka cave are pithecoid forms. He finds in these two
+specimens the actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial
+period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower jaw, from
+any living specimens. This author is of opinion that in the diluvial
+period there must have been races of men far inferior to the lowest
+races now in existence (_Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und aus
+der Schipkahöhle_, Leipzig, 1883).
+
+See Hartmann, _Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
+Freunde zu Berlin_, November 19, 1878, for remarks on the tendon, the
+blood-vessels of the shoulder and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to
+those given in the text.
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.
+
+
+(1) “Hinc (_i.e._ Θεῶν ὄχημα) tridui navigatione torrentes igneos
+prætervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti Ceras dicitur (Νότου Κέρας). In
+sinus recessu insula erat priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in
+quo insula erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant autem
+multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas interpretes Gorillas
+(Γορίλλας) vocabant. Nos persequentes viros quidem capere non potuimus,
+omnes enim effugiebant quum per præcipitia scanderent et saxis se
+defenderent; sed feminas cepimus tres, quæ mordentes et lacerantes
+ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus eas et pelles detractas
+asportavimus Carthaginem. Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona
+deficeret” (Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geographi Græci Minores,
+ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.).
+
+(2) Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la cote de Guinée
+(Leiden, 1853), p. 3.
+
+(3) Marc. de Serres first directed the attention of naturalists to this
+mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur Natur- und Heilkunde, book 42. It
+has been frequently said that the original of this mosaic is in the
+Museum of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in question
+also consists of a landscape with hippopotami, crocodile, etc., but it
+cannot be compared with that of Palestrina, which is to my knowledge
+in the Barberini palace at Rome.
+
+(4) See the Natural History of the younger Pliny, ii. 172; vii. 2.
+
+(5) Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni Africani quod tam ab
+incolis quam Lusitanis Congus appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam,
+olim ex Edoardo Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio
+sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus et imaginibus rerum
+memorabilium quasi vivis, opera et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan.
+Israelis de Bry, fratrum exornata (Francofurti, MDXCVIII.).
+
+(6) Abhandlungen der Königl. Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
+(iii. cl. ix. div. 1).
+
+(7) A voyage to Congo and several other countries in Southern Africa,
+Church collection of voyages and travels (London, 1744), i. 651.
+
+(8) Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695–97 aux côtes d’Afrique, etc.
+(Paris, 1699).
+
+(9) Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74.
+
+(10) Observationes Medicæ (Amsterdam), § 56. I have recently had
+occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s representation of an ape is not
+founded on that of an orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head
+of the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more of an orang than
+of a chimpanzee.
+
+(11) The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape,
+and a Man. With an Essay concerning the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients
+(edit. i., London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751).
+
+(12) Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of the edition published in
+London in 1625 (vol. ii. 982).
+
+(13) Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van Egypten, Barbaryen,
+Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland, Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc.
+(Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii. 1679). I have made use of the German
+version of 1760.
+
+(14) The name Quojas Morrou is also used by Tulpe. A living specimen of
+these animals was given by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange,
+and is perhaps the one described by Tulpe.
+
+(15) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti (London, 1819: trans.
+Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826). I have made use of the latter translation.
+
+(16) Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: On a new species of
+Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen.
+
+(17) A description of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes
+Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and of the osteology of the same, by
+Jeffreys Wyman (Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.).
+
+(18) Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a new species of Orang
+on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847). Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston
+Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1850, 1852.
+
+(19) Ostéographie (Paris, 1839–64). Atlas, vol. iv., Mammifères, plate
+i.
+
+(20) Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, vol. x.
+
+(21) Ibid., vol. viii.
+
+(22) An impression on steel: A mode of photographic illustration used
+by Nièpce de St. Victor, which has since been materially improved.
+
+(23) Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by G. Mützel, plate i.
+
+(24) Adventures and explorations in Equatorial Africa (London, 1861).
+A journey to Ashango Land (London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs
+(London, 1872).
+
+(25) Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a tour in Equatorial,
+South-Western, and North-Western Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm,
+Thierleben, edit. i., i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4.
+
+(26) Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the new species of mammals
+discovered by him in Equatorial Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc.,
+London. 1861.
+
+(27) Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860. See also Du
+Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations, chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s
+Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196.
+
+(28) Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla from the River
+Danger, indicative of a variety of the great chimpanzee (Troglod.
+Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog. Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on
+the Gorilla (London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography (London,
+1840–45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of
+Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative
+anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866–68, vol. iii.).
+
+(29) Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and the cataracts of the
+Nile (London, 1876).
+
+(30) Compiègne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris, 1875; Gabonais, p. 260).
+
+(31) De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878, No. 936.
+
+(32) Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878), p. 171.
+
+(33) Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein, p. 149.
+
+(34) Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25.
+
+(35) Zoologiska Studier, Andra Häftet. (Lund, 1857).
+
+(36) Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, etc.
+
+(37) The Medical Times, 1872.
+
+(38) Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa proveniente dall’ Africa
+centrale, in den Annali del Museo Civico di Genova, i. 53.
+
+(39) Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3.
+
+(40) Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences (Philadelphia, 1879),
+pt. iii. p. 385.
+
+(41) On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates: Philosophical
+Transactions (1867), 299.
+
+(41A) Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla: Proceedings of the
+Royal Irish Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. i.
+
+(42) Ueber die Schädelform des Menschen und der Affen, Leipzig, 1867.
+
+(43) Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen
+Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol. v.
+
+(44) Archiv. für Anthropologie, viii. 67.
+
+(45) Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften, herausgeg. vom
+Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-Altona (Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74–83.
+
+(46) Ibid., p. 84, etc.
+
+(47) Die anthropomorphen Affen des lübecker Museums (Lübeck, 1876).
+
+(48) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoolog. Museum zu Dresden (1877),
+No. 2, p. 225.
+
+(49) Der Gorilla, mit Berücksichtigung des Unterschiedes zwischen
+Menschen und Affen, etc. Denkschrift des Offenbacher Vereins für
+Naturkunde (Offenbach, 1863).
+
+(50) Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schädelbildung des Gorilla,
+Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (München, 1867). Vergleichende
+anatomische Untersuchungen über die äussern weiblichen Geschlechts-
+und Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Abhandl. der königl.
+bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beiträge
+zur Anatomie des Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii.
+
+(51) Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse. Abhandl. der K.
+Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Göttingen, vol. 28.
+
+(52) Ueber den Schädel des jungen Gorilla. Monatsberichte der königl.
+Akademie der Wissensch. zu Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516.
+
+(53) Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch., plate ii.
+(Petersburg, 1876), v. 235.
+
+(54) Various works on the gorilla under the following titles:--Beiträge
+zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthropomorphen Affen, Zeitschrift für
+Ethnologie, series iv. 198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hüftgelenk
+der anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber. der Gesellsch. Naturforsch.
+Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den Torus occipitalis
+transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26, 1880. Die
+menschenähnlichen Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
+wissensch. Vorträge, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11.
+
+(55) Vogt’s Vorlesungen über den Menschen (Giessen, 1863).
+
+(56) L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie,
+vol. iv. series ii., 1870.
+
+(57) Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de Paris, 1872.
+
+(58) Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl. von J. V. Carus, v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart,
+1875).
+
+(59) Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), vol. i. p. 27.
+
+(60) Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals (London,
+1871).
+
+(61) Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia (London,
+1870).
+
+(62) Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung des Zahnsystems
+der lebenden und fossilen Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855).
+
+(63) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. (London, 1876).
+
+(64) Hist. Nat. générale et particulière, vol. 35 (Paris).
+
+(65) I quote here the passage which Bosman has taken from the foregoing
+work by Buffon: “Les singes que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en
+flamand, sont de couleur fauve, et deviennent extrêmement grands: j’en
+ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cinq pieds de haut et de bien
+moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont méchants et très forts; un marchand
+m’a conté, que dans le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé
+par un très-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force à attaquer
+l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.” Bosman goes on to speak of
+another species of ape in the same district, which is as hideous as
+those of the larger kind (Beschrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34; Voyage
+de Guinée, p. 258).
+
+(66) Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid remarks in his work on the
+position of man in nature.
+
+(67) Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac, Gervais and Lemaout
+(Paris, 1842), i. 82.
+
+(68) Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration.
+
+(69) Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quadrumanes (Paris, 1851),
+plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais, Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854),
+i. 16, 22. By A. B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des Menschen
+und der Säugethiere (New edit., Leipzig), plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L.
+Reichenbach, Die Vollständigste Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and
+Leipzig), plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc.
+
+(70) J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i. 46, 68.
+
+(71) Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos. vi., vii., viii., xiii.
+
+(72) Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by H. Tiedemann,
+Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mittheilungen bearbeitet by L. Bischoff
+(Bonn, 1879).
+
+(73) Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc.
+
+(74) Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le Chimpanse
+(Amsterdam, 1841).
+
+(75) On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee, etc. (Journal of
+Anatomy and Physiology, series ii. 1871, p. 176).
+
+(76) Brühl, Myologisches über die Extremitäten des Chimpanse (Wiener
+Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. 1817).
+
+(77) Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen van den Chimpanse
+(Amsterdam, 1849).
+
+(78) Des caractères anatomiques des grands singes
+pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii. Vergleichung
+der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen des Chimpanse: very well
+illustrated.
+
+(79) Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes Aubryi (Nouvelles
+Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.).
+
+(80) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoologischen Museum zu Dresden, No.
+2 (Dresden, 1877).
+
+(81) Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hartmann, Beiträge zur
+Zoologischen und Zootomischen Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen
+Affen. Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert and Du
+Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872–76, with many plates, some of
+them chromo-lithographs.
+
+(82) Description de l’espèce de singe aussi singulier que très rare,
+nommé Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo. Apporté vivant dans la
+ménagerie de M. le Prince d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis
+d’animaux rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, representing the
+orang, which accompany this work are not badly done.
+
+(83) Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap. Tweede Deel.
+(Derde Druk, 1826).
+
+(84) Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-outang of de
+Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn
+Baron v. Wollzogen (Gotha, 1794).
+
+(85) General and particular descriptions of the vertebrated animals;
+order quadrumana (London, 1831): with coloured plates.
+
+(86) Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii.
+
+(87) Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche
+overzeesche besittingen (1839–45). Zoologie, p. 1.
+
+(88) Description des mammifères nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus de la
+collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum,
+etc., ii. 485.
+
+(89) Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842), ix. 54.
+
+(90) Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853. Asiatic Researches,
+xv. 489, 491.
+
+(91) Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.
+
+(92) Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger anderer Affenarten.
+Herbell (Düsseldorf, 1791).
+
+(93) On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-utan and Chimpanzee:
+London and Edinburgh Philosoph. Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of
+the Zoolog. Soc. of London, i. pt. iv.
+
+(94) Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836, p. 46; 1839, p. 209.
+
+(95) L. s. cit.
+
+(96) Vier Abbildungen des Schädels der Simia Satyrus von verschiedenem
+Alter zur Aufklärung der Fabel vom Orañ-Utañ (Marburg, 1838).
+
+(97) Note sur les métamorphoses du crâne de l’Orang-Outang, Bulletins
+de l’Académie de Bruxelles (1838). Annales des Sciences Naturelles
+(1839), p. 56.
+
+(98) Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Orangarten (Wien, 1856).
+
+(99) Die Muskulatur der Extremitäten als Grundlage einer
+vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung.
+
+(100) L. s. c., Fig. 42, plate vii.
+
+(101) L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure).
+
+(102) Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1876), vol. 15. Brehm’s Thierleben,
+i. 83.
+
+(103) Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52), with the
+erroneous title, “Sick Chimpanzee.”
+
+(104) Naturhistorische Früchte der ersten kais. russischen
+Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130.
+
+(105) Le règne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88.
+
+(106) Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. des mammifères
+(Paris, 1819–35), plate iii. fig. 4.
+
+(107) Wanderings in New South Wales (London, 1834), vol. ii. chap. viii.
+
+(108) Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423.
+
+(109) Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i.
+
+(110) See work cited in note 83.
+
+(111) See work cited in note 63, p. 140.
+
+(112) Hist. Nat. des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154.
+
+(113) Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529.
+
+(114) Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv. 172; Ibid., 1847,
+xvi. 730.
+
+(115) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11.
+
+(116) Beiträge zur Anatomie des _Hylobates leuciscus_. From the
+Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. x.
+plate iii.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+
+[2] _Vorträge über Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss_, i. 61: Berlin, 1872.
+
+[3] Comp. Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, _Der
+Gorilla_, p. 14, Anm. 4.
+
+[4] Owen, _Memoir_, etc., plate ii.; Brehm, _Thierleben_, i. 56.
+
+[5] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly one
+of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its habits,
+expression, and disposition.
+
+[6] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 27, representing the Hamburg
+animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of the German
+Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of the press, states
+that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee.
+
+[7] While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, _Hylobates
+lenciscus_ (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large
+_Hylobates_ of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another
+_Hylobates albimanus_ (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the
+same way; and the skeletons of _Hylobates syndactylus_ (F. Cuvier), and
+of _Hylobates agilis_.
+
+[8] A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed.
+Poeppig’s _Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs_, vol. i. fig.
+24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with which
+I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in Bock’s _Unter
+den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 342: Jena, 1882.
+
+[9] A specimen of _Hylobates leucogenys_ (Ogilby) may be seen in the
+British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys, lemurs, etc.:
+London, 1870.
+
+[10] A good woodcut of _Hylobates pileatus_ (J. E. Gray) appears in
+Huxley’s work, _Man’s Place in Nature_.
+
+[11] A very good coloured illustration of _Hylobates funereus_,
+probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff.
+Saint-Hilaire’s _Description des mammifères nouveaux, ou imparfaitement
+connus de la collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle_. _Archives du
+Muséum_, v. 26.
+
+[12] The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in the
+fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in the
+Natural History Museum in Paris.
+
+[13] _Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt
+von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius_, p. 33: Stockholm, 1864.
+
+[14] _Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes_, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes
+(_Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, March
+18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan, is
+brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.”
+
+[15] Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, June 7,
+1880.
+
+[16] Virchow, _Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am
+Schädel_, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xii. 23:
+1880. _Monatsbericht der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
+Berlin_, p. 523: 1880. The _os epiptericum_ may be observed in cranium
+No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly seen in Fig. 4, p. 127,
+in _Darwinismus und Thierproduction_ (Munich, 1876), in which I refer
+to this skull. See also Bischoff, _Schädelwerk_.
+
+[17] This illustration is from Duvernoy’s _Des caractères anatomiques
+des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes_, plate ii. It is an
+excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the
+vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs.
+
+[18] Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B.
+
+[19] Brühl, _Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes_, pp. 2, 3.
+
+[20] “The Missing Link,” _Engineering and Mining Journal_, xx. 3: New
+York.
+
+[21] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, April 16, 1881.
+
+[22] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, p. 21.
+
+[23] Virchow’s _Archiv. für Pathologische Anatomie_, liii. 485: 1871.
+
+[24] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, March 9, 1878.
+
+[25] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, vol. i. p. 192.
+
+[26] _Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner_,
+ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851–53.
+
+[27] _Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil_: Paris, 1839.
+
+[28] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.
+
+[29] It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (_Inuus
+speciosus_).
+
+[30] Brühl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection
+between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal bone.
+
+[31] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 121: 1878.
+
+[32] Schlocker, _Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion_. Inaugural
+dissertation. Dorpat, 1879.
+
+[33] _Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobachtungen und Messungen_, p.
+56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882.
+
+[34] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie_, iv. fig. 305.
+
+[35] _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p.
+164: 1872.
+
+[36] _Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft für
+Anthropologie_, p. 49.
+
+[37] _Die Urbevölkerung Europas_, p. 46.
+
+[38] _Quarterly Journal of Science_, January, 1864. Comp, also
+Fuhlrott, _Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal_: Duisburg, 1865.
+
+[39] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, viii. fig. 63.
+
+[40] _Zeugnisse_, etc., 157.
+
+[41] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxvi.; _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_,
+series 12, plate viii. fig. 2.
+
+[42] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxxvi.
+
+[43] Ten Kate, _loc. cit._ pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that the
+facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far this
+formation affects men (_Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaft
+zu Berlin_, p. 258: 1881). The detachment of the malar bone from the
+spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up to this time been too
+rarely observed in anthropoids to merit serious consideration in this
+work.
+
+[44] Joly, _Man before Metals_: London.
+
+[45] Gaudry, _Les enchainements du monde animal_, p. 232: Paris, 1878.
+
+[46] Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, pp. 68, 109.
+
+[47] _Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
+p. 148, with illustration: 1878.
+
+[48] _Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschädel_, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart,
+1877.
+
+[49] Welcker on His und Braune, _Archiv. für Anatomie_, 1881.
+Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, i. 172.
+
+[50] _Beiträge zur Geburtshülfe_, p. 161.
+
+[51] _Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien_, lxxxv.
+fig. 1: 1882.
+
+[52] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., by Reichert and Du
+Bois-Reymond, pp. 639–643: 1876.
+
+[53] Wiedersheim, _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, ii. 421.
+
+[54] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 463: 1880.
+
+[55] _Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel. Aus der Abhandlungen der
+Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, p. 47: 1882.
+
+[56] _Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_:
+April 17, 1880.
+
+[57] See Spengel’s _Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe_.
+
+[58] _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, p. 481: London,
+1871.
+
+[59] _An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia_, p. 310:
+London, 1870.
+
+[60] _On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, ii. 551. Also see my own
+works in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, p. 648: 1876.
+
+[61] _Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften_, ii. 316: St.
+Petersburg, 1876.
+
+[62] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., p. 653: 1876.
+
+[63] Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, i. p. 71.
+
+[64] Camper, _Œuvres_, i. 152; _Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan_, etc.;
+Owen, _Transactions of the Zoological Society of London_, i. 365–368;
+Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, ii. p. 106.
+
+[65] _Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift_, p. 4: 1871.
+
+[66] Duchenne’s _Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine_. Darwin’s
+_Expression of the Emotions_. Gamba’s _Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia
+applicata alle arti belle_.
+
+[67] Macalister, in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_, vii.
+342 (1871), asserts that he was unable to distinguish the corrugator
+from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally unsuccessful.
+
+[68] Darwin’s _Expression of the Emotions_.
+
+[69] Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions_.
+
+[70] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_,
+1879. _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 1873, 1874.
+
+[71] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_,
+1879.
+
+[72] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, by Reichart and Du
+Bois-Reymond, p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876).
+
+[73] Halford, _Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quadrumanous,
+but cheiropodus_: Melbourne, 1863. _Lines of demarcation between Man,
+the Gorilla, and the Macaca_: Melbourne, 1863. I only know these two
+treatises from Bischoff’s quotation. _Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates
+leuciscus_, pp. 23, 24.
+
+[74] Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor longus
+digitorum.
+
+[75] _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse_, p. 32, plate
+ii. fig. 3.
+
+[76] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_ (1869), pp. 83,
+113.
+
+[77] As, for example, in _Hylobates syndactylus_. Comp. Giobel,
+_Odontographia_, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855.
+
+[78] _Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan.
+Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche
+Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840. _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de
+Paris_, iv. pp. 368–371: 1869.
+
+[79] Comp. Aeby, _Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des Menschen_,
+p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880.
+
+[80] _The Brain as an Organ of Mind._ International Scientific Series.
+
+[81] Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought, in a
+horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cerebrum.” I do
+not understand what he means by the expression _ought_.
+
+[82] _Natural History Review_, p. 201: 1861.
+
+[83] _Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der königl.
+bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871.
+
+[84] Gratiolet, _Mém. sur les plis cérébraux de l’homme et des
+primates_.
+
+[85] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
+p. 133: 1878.
+
+[86] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, 1877.
+
+[87] Ibid., p. 25: 1878.
+
+[88] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
+28: 1878.
+
+[89] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 129: 1867.
+
+[90] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
+283: 1877.
+
+[91] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
+p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, _Ueber die Ursachen der Microcephalie_.
+Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874.
+
+[92] _Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben._ Reprint of
+a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth year of the
+University of Wurzburg, p. 27.
+
+[93] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p.
+248: 1877.
+
+[94] _Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere_, p. 219:
+Leipzig, 1878.
+
+[95] _Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France_, p. 1: 1877.
+
+[96] _Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen_, p. 191: Leipzig
+and Dresden.
+
+[97] See Chenu, _Encyclopédie d’Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes_, p. 34.
+
+[98] Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the British
+Museum. Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870.
+
+[99] For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too small.
+Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head makes them look
+larger, the want of proportion must be admitted. It might easily have
+been altered, but I preferred to reproduce the original sketch as it
+stood.
+
+[100] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild._, by C. Vogt and Specht, p.
+11: Munich, 1882.
+
+[101] _Mafoca Betreffendes._ Reprinted from the reports of the
+_Gesellschaft für Natur und Heilkunde zu Dresden_, Sitzung, xxvii. p.
+9: 1876.
+
+[102] _Thierleben_, ii. 80, 81. _Illustrirte Naturgeschichte des
+Thierreichs_, i. 11: Leipzig, 1880.
+
+[103] _Der Gorilla_, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut
+erroneously gives this as a male instead of a female specimen.
+
+[104] Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4.
+
+[105] _Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his
+death_, ii. 52–55: London, 1874.
+
+[106] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882.
+
+[107] Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150.
+
+[108] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. i. p. 123.
+
+[109] _Die Loango Expedition_, p. 103.
+
+[110] The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death we must
+all deplore, is taken from his article in the _Gartenlaube_ (1877, No.
+25); from his correspondence with his family, which I have been allowed
+to see; and from a long paper addressed to Professor Bastian from
+Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874.
+
+[111] _Illustrirtes Thierleben_, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864.
+
+[112] Schweinfurth, _Im Herzen von Afrika_, p. 335: New edition,
+Leipzig, 1878.
+
+[113] Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and birds kept
+in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published in the Dutch language
+about 1862.
+
+[114] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, etc., p. 31.
+
+[115] This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the
+posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in
+structure.
+
+[116] _Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der
+Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840–45.
+
+[117] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31.
+
+[118] _Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische
+Abtheilung_, vol. i. p. 249: Berlin, 1876.
+
+[119] _Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 327.
+
+[120] Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this
+species (_Transactions of the Linnæan Society_, xiii. 241).
+
+[121] G. Broesike, _Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
+Freunde zu Berlin_: December 18, 1877.
+
+[122] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_,
+March 18, 1876, p. 93.
+
+[123] See also Nissle, _Die Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, pp. 56, 57:
+1876.
+
+[124] Wallace’s _Malay Archipelago_, vol. i.
+
+[125] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31.
+
+[126] _Enchainements_, p. 235.
+
+[127] Fraas, _Wurtembergische Jahresheft_, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870.
+
+[128] Forsyth, _Atti della Societá Italiana di Scienze Naturali_, xiv.:
+1872.
+
+[129] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.
+
+[130] We do not here include the leaping and running mice.
+
+[131] _Reise nach Brasilien_, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821.
+
+[132] _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, etc., i.
+534: Leipzig, 1867.
+
+[133] _Les Enchainements du monde animal_, p. 240.
+
+[134] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 49.
+
+[135] _Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde_, 3rd edit., i. 38: Tübingen, 1882.
+
+[136] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385.
+
+[137] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, i. p. 212.
+
+[138] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 67.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  A
+
+  A-Bantu, 86
+
+  Abel, 10
+
+  Abors, 253
+
+  Aeby, 6, 130, 131, 206
+
+  Africa, 90
+
+  African negroes, pithecoid structure of, 86
+
+  Aidanill, 88
+
+  Ainos, 96
+
+  Alix, 9, 149, 207, 213
+
+  Angola, 225
+
+  Anthropoid apes, development of acquaintance with, 1;
+    external form of, 11;
+    external and anatomical structure of, compared with the human, 55;
+    ears of, and men, 89;
+    neck of, 100;
+    trunk of, 100;
+    carpus of, 102;
+    hand of, 102;
+    upper limbs of, 102;
+    skull of, 107;
+    vertebral column of, and men, 125;
+    humerus of, 131;
+    tibia of, 137;
+    hinder extremities of, 145;
+    muscular system of, 150;
+    skin of head of, 156;
+    clavicle of, 160;
+    digestive system of, 181;
+    teeth of, 182;
+    tongue of, 182;
+    vertebral column of, 182;
+    liver of, 187;
+    stomach and intestines of, 187;
+    spleen of, 188;
+    sexual organs of, 190;
+    brain of, 192;
+    nervous system of, 192;
+    peripheral, 207;
+    vascular system of, 208;
+    structure of, 210;
+    varieties in the form of, 210;
+    geographical distribution, habits in a state of nature, and native
+        names of, 225;
+    life in captivity of, 257;
+    position of, in the zoological system, 285.
+
+  Anthropomorphism of gorilla, orang, chimpanzee, and gibbon, 290
+
+  Aschangolo, 236
+
+  Aschira, 240
+
+  Ashanti, 86
+
+  Astarte, temple of, 2
+
+  Authorities for Chapter I., 311
+
+  Australian blacks, 86, 96
+
+
+  B
+
+  Baboon, 11, 92
+
+  Baker, 122
+
+  Ballone, river, 88
+
+  Bam (_Troglodytes niger_), 222, 237
+
+  Banya, 237
+
+  Bär, K. E. von, 6, 143
+
+  Bari, 86
+
+  Bartels, 96
+
+  Bastian, Ch., 192, 197
+
+  Battel, 3, 8
+
+  Bennet, 10
+
+  Beyrich, 285
+
+  Biceps of anthropoids, 165
+
+  Bischoff, 6, 78, 152, 167, 188
+
+  Blainville, D. de, 4, 134
+
+  Blyth, 10
+
+  Bock, 45, 241, 284
+
+  Bolau, 7, 188, 260
+
+  Bond, 87
+
+  Borneo, 241
+
+  Bosman, 8
+
+  Boucher de Perthes, 119
+
+  Bourgeois, 299
+
+  Bouvier, 210
+
+  Bowdich, E., 4
+
+  Brain of apes, 192
+
+  Brazza, De, 6, 235
+
+  Brehm, A. E., 6, 9, 217
+
+  Brooke, 10
+
+  Brosse, 269
+
+  Brühl, 10, 58, 78, 150, 176
+
+  Broca, 110
+
+  Broderip, 269
+
+  Buala, plateau of, 226
+
+  Buchholz, 235, 258
+
+  Buchta, 107
+
+  Buffon, 8, 267
+
+  Burmeister, 101
+
+  Burton, R., 6
+
+  Bushmen, 87
+
+  Busu, Bakalaya, 236
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cachêu, 237
+
+  Camaroon river, 225
+
+  Carpus of anthropoid apes, 102
+
+  Catharcludi, land of, 2
+
+  Champneys, 9
+
+  Chapman, 6, 164
+
+  Chenu, 10
+
+  Chimpanzee, 2, 8, 29, 33, 58, 91, 219, 237, 267;
+    anthropomorphism of, 290
+
+  Chimpezée, 8
+
+  Chinchoxo, 7
+
+  Chudzinsky, 165
+
+  Clavicle of anthropoids, 160
+
+  Colobus, 286
+
+  Compiègne, A. de, 6, 235
+
+  Congo, 226
+
+  Cuvier, G., 10, 45, 50
+
+
+  D
+
+  Dabulamanzi, 86
+
+  Dahlbom, 6, 9
+
+  Dahomey, 86
+
+  Danger, river, 225
+
+  Dapper, O., 4
+
+  Darwin, 7, 91, 97, 157, 303, 308
+
+  Delaunay, 298
+
+  Devéria, A., 5
+
+  Diard, 10, 45, 252
+
+  Digestive system of anthropoids, 181
+
+  Dippel, 148
+
+  _Dryopithecus_, 286
+
+  Du Chaillu, 6, 215, 227, 257
+
+  Duchenne, 154
+
+  Dücker, Von, 299
+
+  Dumortier, 10
+
+  Duncan, P. M., 220
+
+  Durand, 122
+
+  Duvaucel, 10, 50, 254
+
+  Duvernoy, 6, 149, 172, 215
+
+  Dyaks, 245;
+    of Dusun, 251
+
+
+  E
+
+  Ears of anthropoids and men, 89
+
+  Ecker, 6, 96
+
+  Ehlers, 6, 7, 153, 188
+
+  Eliva, lake, 236
+
+  Engeco, 4
+
+  Eyelids of anthropoids and of man, 94
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fan, 236
+
+  Falkenstein, 7, 219, 260
+
+  Femur of mammals, 136
+
+  Flower, 6, 142
+
+  Foot of anthropoids, 22
+
+  Ford, 5, 225
+
+  Fortuna, temple of, 2
+
+  Four-handed, rejection of the term, 146
+
+  Franquet, 5
+
+  Froger, 3
+
+  Froriep, 126
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gaboon district, 5, 226, 240
+
+  Galloa, 240
+
+  Gamba, 154
+
+  Garrau mountains, 253
+
+  Garrigou, 298
+
+  Gaudry, 285, 299
+
+  Gautier Laboulaye, 5
+
+  Gegenbaur, 134
+
+  Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 5, 9
+
+  Geographical distribution of anthropoids, 225
+
+  Gervais, 7, 9
+
+  Ghauts, 87
+
+  Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, 290
+
+  Gibbon, skeleton of, 81
+
+  Gibbon (_Hylobates_), 11, 45, 251, 281
+
+  ---- _H. albimanus_, 49, 282
+
+  ---- _H. entelloides_, 52
+
+  ---- _H. funereus_, 54, 283
+
+  ---- _H. Hoolock_, 52, 282
+
+  ---- _H. Lar agilis_, 45, 50, 283
+
+  ---- _H. leuciscus_, 51
+
+  ---- _H. leucogenys_, 53
+
+  ---- _H. pileatus_, 53
+
+  ---- _H. Rafflesii_, 52
+
+  Giebel, 7
+
+  Giglioli, 6, 9
+
+  Glover, 86
+
+  Gorilla, 12, 26, 55, 60, 210, 225, 257;
+    skull of an aged male, 56;
+    skull of young male, 60;
+    skeleton of aged male, 65;
+    skeleton of female, 68
+
+  Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, 290
+
+  Grandpré, 268
+
+  Gratiolet, 9, 152, 199, 209
+
+  Gray, 214
+
+  Griffith, E., 10
+
+  Gruber, 111, 135, 175
+
+  Gulliver, 10
+
+  Gulnarber, 89
+
+  Güssfeldt, 228
+
+
+  H
+
+  Habit of anthropoids in a state of nature, 225
+
+  Haeckel, 6, 107, 146, 291
+
+  Hair, growth of, in man and anthropoids, 96
+
+  Hamadryas (_Cynocephalus_), 251
+
+  Hand of anthropoids, 102;
+    muscles of, 166
+
+  Hanno, 1
+
+  Harlan, 253, 281
+
+  Hausanese, 86
+
+  Head, skin of, 156;
+    muscles of, 151
+
+  Henle, 153
+
+  Hermes, 7, 243, 269, 283
+
+  Heusinger, 10
+
+  Hoeven, Van der, 103
+
+  Holl, 128
+
+  Hooker, 97
+
+  Human foot, skeleton of, 140
+
+  Human structure compared with that of anthropoid apes, 55
+
+  Humerus of gorilla, 131
+
+  Huxley, 114, 143, 176, 190
+
+  Hyrtl, 111
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibos, natives of, 86
+
+  Ihering, H. von, 207
+
+  Issel, 222
+
+
+  J
+
+  Japanese, the, 87
+
+  Jeffreys Wyman, 5, 215
+
+  Jockos, 8
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kamma, 240
+
+  Klebs, 205
+
+  Kolk, Van der, 9
+
+  Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, 221
+
+  Koppenfels, H. von, 6, 219, 231
+
+  Kotaringin, 241
+
+  Krause, R., 192, 202
+
+  Kuilu, 226, 237
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lainier, 214
+
+  Lambdoidal suture, 58
+
+  Langer, 10, 173
+
+  _Laopithecus_, 287
+
+  Lartet, 286
+
+  Larynx, 188
+
+  Laussedat, 298
+
+  Lewis, 10
+
+  Lenz, H., 6, 9, 235, 258
+
+  Life in captivity of anthropoid apes, 257
+
+  Ligaments of anthropoids, 146
+
+  Ligaments, 187
+
+  Limbs of anthropoids, 102
+
+  Liver of anthropoid apes, 187
+
+  Livingstone, 223, 240
+
+  Loango, 7, 226, 237
+
+  Lopez, Ed., 3
+
+  Lucae, 6
+
+  Lucan, 210
+
+  Luemme, 226, 237
+
+
+  M
+
+  Macacu, 92
+
+  Macalister, 152
+
+  Mafuca, 95, 215, 240
+
+  Magitot, 7
+
+  Mahakkam, 250
+
+  Malays, 87, 250
+
+  Malacca peninsula, 53
+
+  Malimba, people of, 240
+
+  Malzac, A. de, 220
+
+  Mammals, femur of, 136
+
+  Mammals, systematic scheme of, 288
+
+  Mandril, 3
+
+  Mandjaruma, 222
+
+  Martens, Von, 251
+
+  Martin, W. L., 221
+
+  Martius, Von, 294
+
+  Max, G., 10, 281
+
+  Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, 294
+
+  Mayombe, 228
+
+  Meckel, J. F., 147
+
+  Meias, 251
+
+  Merolla, 3
+
+  Meyer, A. B., 6, 216
+
+  Meyer, B., 93
+
+  Meyer, R, 6
+
+  Miklucho-Maclay, 89, 94
+
+  Mivart, F., 6
+
+  Mpongwe, 236, 240
+
+  Müller, 10, 247
+
+  Muni (Mooney), 225
+
+  Mirenhas, 294
+
+  Muscular system of anthropoid apes, 150
+
+  Mützel, 10, 25
+
+
+  N
+
+  Naga, 253
+
+  Nathusius, H. von, 13
+
+  Native names of anthropoids, 225
+
+  Ndjéko (nschégo), 4, 215, 220, 239
+
+  Niam-Niam, 86, 240
+
+  Nervous system of anthropoids, 192
+
+  Neck of anthropoids, 100
+
+  Ntondo, village of, 227
+
+  Nuehr, 86
+
+
+  O
+
+  Obongo, 294
+
+  Ogōwē, 6, 225
+
+  Orang-utan, anthropomorphism of, 290
+
+  Orang-utan, 8, 11, 41, 43, 91, 223, 242, 273;
+    skull of, 76;
+    skeleton of, 76, 79
+
+  Ornstein, 96
+
+  Orungu, 240
+
+  Owen, R., 7, 25, 143, 226, 286
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pansch, 6, 197, 260
+
+  Pechuël-Lösche, 226, 229
+
+  Papuans, 87
+
+  Pedro da Cintra, 3
+
+  Pelvis of anthropoids, 130
+
+  Penaud, 5
+
+  Petit, 210
+
+  Pigafetta, P., 3
+
+  Platysma myoides, 159
+
+  Plinius, 2
+
+  _Pliopithecus_, 286
+
+  Pongo, 4
+
+  Ponta-Negra, 226
+
+  _Primarii_, 288
+
+  Prince, Mrs., 5
+
+  _Protopithecus_, 287
+
+  Pruner-Bey, 7, 114
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quatrefages, 117
+
+  Quenstedt, 286, 302
+
+  Quojas morrau, 4
+
+
+  R
+
+  Rademacher, 10
+
+  Reade, W., 235, 258
+
+  Reichenbach, 9
+
+  Retzius, 60, 194
+
+  Rolleston, 197
+
+  Rosenberg, 126, 135, 172, 242
+
+  Rousseau, 5
+
+
+  S
+
+  Sachs, Dr., 110
+
+  Sadong, 241
+
+  Sambas, 241
+
+  Sarawak, 241
+
+  Satyrs, 2
+
+  Savage, Dr., 4, 227
+
+  Schaaffhausen, 205
+
+  Schilluk, 86
+
+  Schlegel, 10, 247
+
+  Schweinfurth, 220, 238
+
+  Scott, J., 97
+
+  _Semnopithecus_, 285
+
+  Sexual organs of anthropoids, 190
+
+  Siam, 53
+
+  Siamang, 252
+
+  Siebold, 96
+
+  Simiina, 28
+
+  Skeleton of human foot, 140
+
+  Skeleton of aged male gorilla, 65;
+    of female gorilla, 68;
+    structure of, 107
+
+  Skeleton of chimpanzee, 73
+
+  Skin of head of anthropoids, 156
+
+  Skull of adult chimpanzee, 72
+
+  Skull of aged male gorilla, 56;
+    of young male gorilla, 60
+
+  Skull of orang-utan, 77;
+    of anthropoids, 107
+
+  Smith, W., 3
+
+  Soko, 240
+
+  Spengel, 114
+
+  Spleen of anthropoids, 188
+
+  Stieda, 111
+
+  Structure of anthropoid apes, 210
+
+  Stomach of anthropoid apes, 187
+
+  Sumatra, 241, 252
+
+  Sungi-Kapajan, 241
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tapanoli, 242
+
+  Teeth of anthropoids, 182
+
+  Temminck, 10
+
+  Teweh, 241
+
+  Throat pouch, 161
+
+  Thorax of anthropoids, 131
+
+  Tibia of anthropoids, 137
+
+  Tiedemann, 156
+
+  Tilesius, 10
+
+  Tongue of anthropoids, 182
+
+  Traill, Dr., 267
+
+  Trinchese, Salvatore, 92
+
+  _Troglodytes Gorilla_, 5
+
+  Trunk of anthropoids, 100
+
+  Tscheladas (_Cynocephalus Geleda_), 250
+
+  Tschissambo, 237
+
+  Tulpe, N. von, 3, 8
+
+  Tyson, E., 3, 9
+
+
+  U
+
+  Unko, (_Hylobates Rafflesii_), 52, 252
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vascular system of anthropoids, 208
+
+  Vélins, 10
+
+  Vertebræ, cervical, of chimpanzee, 73
+
+  Vertebral column of anthropoids and men, 182
+
+  Virchow, R., 6, 58, 96, 111, 114, 138, 202
+
+  Vogt, C., 7, 204, 218, 301
+
+  Vosmaer, 10
+
+  Vrolik, 9, 207
+
+
+  W
+
+  Waldeyer, 136
+
+  Wallace, 10, 99, 158, 223, 244, 273
+
+  Wau-wau (_Hylobates agilis_), 45, 50, 253
+
+  Welcker, 126, 147
+
+  Wilson, 5
+
+  Wimba, Fort, 8
+
+  Woolner, 91
+
+  Wurmb, 10
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zuckerkandl, 124
+
+
+PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
+predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
+were not changed.
+
+Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
+marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
+unbalanced.
+
+Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations.
+
+Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of
+the book, just before the Index.
+
+The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+references.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote section">
+<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them
+and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or
+stretching them.</p>
+
+<p class="covernote">New original cover art included with this eBook is granted
+to the public domain. It uses the original cover with the title and author
+added by the Transcriber.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section p4 center vspace wspace">
+<p class="larger">
+<span class="smcap">The<br>
+International Scientific Series.</span></p>
+
+<p>VOL. LIII.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="section center vspace wspace">
+
+<h1>ANTHROPOID APES</h1>
+
+<p class="p4"><span class="small">BY</span><br>
+<span class="large">ROBERT HARTMANN</span><br>
+
+<span class="xsmall">PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 smaller">WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="p4"><span class="larger gesperrt">LONDON</span><br>
+KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH &amp; CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE<br>
+<span class="smaller">1885</span>
+</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="section p4 center">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>
+<p class="smaller">(<i>The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved</i>)</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="toc">
+<tr class="xsmall">
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Development of our Acquaintance with Anthropoid Apes</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The External Form of Anthropoid Apes</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The External and Anatomical Structure of Anthropoid Apes, compared with the Human Structure</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">On Varieties in the Form of Anthropoids</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution, Habits in a State of Nature, and Native Names of Anthropoids</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life in Captivity</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Position of Anthropoids in the Zoological System</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Summary, together with some Further Considerations of the Anthropomorphism of the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orang, and Gibbon</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_290">290</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_309">309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_321">321</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="loi">
+<tr class="xsmall">
+  <td class="tdr">FIG.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">1.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Aged male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_1">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">2.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ear of a male adult gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_2">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">3.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of 1876–77</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">4.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The same animal at a still earlier age</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_4">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">5.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ear of chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_5">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">6.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Young chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_6">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">7.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_7">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">8.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ear of the orang-utan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_8">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">9.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Adult male orang-utan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_9">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">10.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Head of the white-handed gibbon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_10">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">11.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ear of the white-handed gibbon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_11">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">12.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Left hand of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_12">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">13.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Left foot of the same animal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_13">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">14.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A wauwau in the left foreground (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>); in the background to the right, two slender apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus entellus</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_14">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">15.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_15">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">16.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_16">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">17.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of an aged male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_17">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">18.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skull of an aged male chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_18">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">19.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skull of a very young female chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_19">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">20.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African bam-chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_20">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">21.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam-chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_21">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">22.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skull of middle-aged female orang</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_22">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">23.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of young orang-utan</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_23">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">24.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of his men</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_24">85</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">25.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Aidanill, hairless Australian</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">26.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The same in profile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">27.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dewan, Aidanill’s sister</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_27">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">28.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Human ear</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_28">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">29.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Magot (<i class="taxonomy">Innuus ecaudatus</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_29">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">30.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Capucin ape (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus capucinus</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_30">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">31.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Hand of a very aged male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_31">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">32.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_32">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">33.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Satan’s ape (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecia Satanas</i>). Shows the formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_33">106</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">34.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Human skull</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_34">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">35.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Neanderthal skull</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_35">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">36.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_36">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">37.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Naulette lower jaw</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_37">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">38.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Lower jaw of chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_38">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">39.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_39">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">40.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Human skeleton</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_40">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">41.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of an aged male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_41">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">42.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of human hand, back view</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_42">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">43.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">44.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Section through the tibia of a male gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">45.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">46.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_46">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">47.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Coaita (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles paniscus</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_47">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">48.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muscles of the head and face of a European</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_48">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">49.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_49">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">50.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Head-muscles of gorilla presented in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_50">153</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">51.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Palmar muscles of man</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_51">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">52.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Palmar muscles of gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_52">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">53.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_53">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">54.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muscular system of the human foot</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_54">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">55.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_55">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">56.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The brain of an orang, seen from the side</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_56">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">57.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_57">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">58.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Brain of gorilla, side view</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_58">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">59.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Brain of orang, seen from above</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_59">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">60.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_60">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">61.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Mafuca</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_61">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">62.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The home of the gorilla</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_62">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">63.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_63">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ANTHROPOID_APES"><span id="toclink_1"></span><span class="larger">ANTHROPOID APES.</span></h2>
+
+<hr class="narrow">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH
+ANTHROPOID APES.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Our</span> first acquaintance with the great anthropoid
+apes dates from the times of remote antiquity. The
+West Coast of Africa, which is the abode of
+these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as
+early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 470 Hanno set out with
+sixty fifty-oared galleys, laden with colonists and
+merchandise, on a grand expedition across Morocco
+to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly
+mercantile, partly undertaken with the purpose of
+establishing a colony. It seems that at that time
+pioneering expeditions had previously taught them
+how far the coast was adapted for colonization.
+The Carthaginians met with “<i>gorillai</i>” on the
+lower range of the mountains of the Isle of Sherboro,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
+and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone(<a id="AUTH1" href="#auth1">1</a>).
+These are described as hairy sylvan creatures who
+replied to the attacks of the seafarers by throwing
+stones at them. Three of these monsters, of the
+female sex, were captured, but they bit and scratched
+so furiously that it was necessary to kill them on
+the spot. Pliny relates that at the time of the
+Roman invasion, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, two of the skins obtained
+on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in
+the temple of Astarte(<a id="AUTH2" href="#auth2">2</a>). It was subsequently
+shown that chimpanzees, not true gorillas, were
+described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals
+are not now found so far north.</p>
+
+<div class="footnoteinline">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> A list of the numerous authorities for the substance of this
+chapter is placed at the end of the volume.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic,
+was found on the pavement of the temple of Fortuna
+at Præneste (now Palestrina). This mosaic is now
+in a museum at Rome, and has been described by
+several authors. It represents a scene in tropical
+Africa, probably on the Upper Nile. I find it
+difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the mosaic
+amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the
+other representatives of the animal world of tropical
+Africa(<a id="AUTH3" href="#auth3">3</a>). But it is well known that these large
+apes are found on some of the streams of the Upper
+Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes
+of these animals: “On the Indian mountains to the
+south, in the land of the Catharcludi, there are
+satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures, sometimes
+going on all fours, sometimes upright like
+men, and they are so active that they can only be
+captured when old or sick”(<a id="AUTH4" href="#auth4">4</a>). These satyrs have
+been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
+may also be intended, which is swifter and more
+agile, when in an upright position, than the orang-utan.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequent to the remote period which we have
+cited, there is a long silence respecting these remarkable
+animals. Only at the time when
+Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we
+hear something about them from Congo and Angola.
+The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of the
+chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in
+1598 (<a id="AUTH5" href="#auth5">5</a>). There are later accounts of very large
+apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra (<a id="AUTH6" href="#auth6">6</a>), Father
+Merolla of Sorrento (<a id="AUTH7" href="#auth7">7</a>), Froger (<a id="AUTH8" href="#auth8">8</a>), and William
+Smith (<a id="AUTH9" href="#auth9">9</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee
+under the erroneous name of the mandril (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus
+Maimon</i>). The illustration is bad, but
+it may be recognized by his description. In 1641
+the Dutch anatomist N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave
+a better illustration of this anthropoid (<a id="AUTH10" href="#auth10">10</a>). This
+naturalist observed that the animal in question,
+<i class="taxonomy">Homo sylvestris</i> or orang-utan (<i class="taxonomy">Satyrus indicus</i>), is
+called quojas morrou by the Africans. An
+anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is
+still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699 (<a id="AUTH11" href="#auth11">11</a>).
+The anatomical illustrations included in this
+work are remarkably well executed for that time.</p>
+
+<p>Our biological acquaintance with the West
+African anthropoids is considerably increased by
+the account given in the sixteenth century by
+the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This
+man passed through the forests of Lower Guinea, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>
+sergeant of the Portuguese troops under the command
+of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira
+Pereira. In 1613 Battel’s account was published by
+his neighbour Purchas in his <cite lang="de">Pilgrims</cite> (<a id="AUTH12" href="#auth12">12</a>). Battel
+speaks of two kinds of large apes, the engeco and
+the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks
+of the Banna and the Mayombe. The engeco
+corresponds to the ndjéko or nschégo (chimpanzee),
+the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla.
+Battel’s description of the habits of these animals
+affords some characteristic touches which will
+concern us presently. We may date our earliest
+acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids
+from this adventurer’s career.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published
+in 1668 a detailed description of Africa (<a id="AUTH13" href="#auth13">13</a>), in
+which there is much of value, and he mentions the
+large apes, called quojas morrau or morrou, which
+inhabit the kingdom of Congo (<a id="AUTH14" href="#auth14">14</a>). By these he
+apparently means the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the
+gorilla has been recently given by Bowdich in his
+very interesting work on the “Mission of the Anglo-African
+Company to Ashanti” (<a id="AUTH15" href="#auth15">15</a>). He says that
+there are several remarkable species of apes in the
+territory of the Gaboon, among which the ingenu
+(gorilla) is the strangest. The natives asserted that
+this animal is much larger than the orang-utan,
+generally five feet tall, and four feet broad from
+shoulder to shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on
+the Gaboon, reported to the distinguished anatomist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
+Owen that there was an ape in that country larger
+than the chimpanzee. In addition to this information,
+he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of
+an English missionary, Prince, in which the supra-orbital
+arch is strongly developed. Savage gave
+to the animal the name of <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, to
+distinguish it from <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>, the chimpanzee.
+Owen also described two skulls of gorillas,
+sent to him from the Gaboon (<a id="AUTH16" href="#auth16">16</a>). The skull of
+a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson,
+was drawn and described by Professor Jeffreys
+Wyman, and with it the notes of the donor were
+also published (<a id="AUTH17" href="#auth17">17</a>). In 1851 the skeleton of a
+gorilla reached Philadelphia through the medical
+missionary H.&nbsp;A. Ford, who also published the latest
+accounts of the new anthropoid (<a id="AUTH18" href="#auth18">18</a>). In 1849
+some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through
+Gautier Laboulaye, and this valuable contribution
+to natural history was received by de Blainville
+and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and
+1852 more perfect remains were presented to the
+Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet and Admiral
+Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de
+Blainville (<a id="AUTH19" href="#auth19">19</a>), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (<a id="AUTH20" href="#auth20">20</a>), and
+Duvernoy (<a id="AUTH21" href="#auth21">21</a>), they are represented with great care.
+A splendid illustration of one of these specimens,
+excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male,
+adorns the <cite lang="fr">Photographie zoologique</cite>, by L. Rousseau
+and A. Devéria, which has, so far as I am aware,
+been published without any text (<a id="AUTH22" href="#auth22">22</a>). This illustration
+is so true to nature that I made use of it in
+one of my earlier publications (<a id="AUTH23" href="#auth23">23</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p>
+
+<p>Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America
+of French parents, and reared in his father’s mercantile
+house on the Gaboon, spent the years 1855–65 in
+roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon,
+the Ogōwē, and the Fernāo Vaz; he professed to
+have taken part in gorilla-hunts, and he published
+several books about his travels (<a id="AUTH24" href="#auth24">24</a>). Critical light
+has been thrown upon these works, especially by
+A.&nbsp;E. Brehm and Winwood (<a id="AUTH25" href="#auth25">25</a>); the illustrations
+are defective, and the text is full of tales of adventure.
+Du Chaillu’s information respecting the
+African anthropoids was published in the <cite>Proceedings
+of the Zoological Society of London</cite> (<a id="AUTH26" href="#auth26">26</a>). His
+remarkable collection of the remains of apes has
+been described by Jeffreys Wyman (<a id="AUTH27" href="#auth27">27</a>), to whom
+we are also indebted for a notice of the materials
+collected by Savage (<a id="AUTH17a" href="#auth17">17</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises
+on the gorilla and the chimpanzee, in addition to
+those already cited. This English professor had
+the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla,
+imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (<a id="AUTH28" href="#auth28">28</a>). The
+travellers Burton (<a id="AUTH29" href="#auth29">29</a>), de Compiègne (<a id="AUTH30" href="#auth30">30</a>), Savongnan
+de Brazza (<a id="AUTH31" href="#auth31">31</a>), Lenz (<a id="AUTH32" href="#auth32">32</a>), the members of the
+German-African Loango Expedition (<a id="AUTH33" href="#auth33">33</a>), and Von
+Koppenfels (<a id="AUTH34" href="#auth34">34</a>) have also contributed some information
+respecting the gorilla in a wild state. Other
+works on the zoology and anatomy of this animal
+have been published by Duvernoy, already cited,
+Dahlbom (<a id="AUTH35" href="#auth35">35</a>), Haeckel (<a id="AUTH36" href="#auth36">36</a>), Flower (<a id="AUTH37" href="#auth37">37</a>), Issel (<a id="AUTH38" href="#auth38">38</a>),
+Giglioli (<a id="AUTH39" href="#auth39">39</a>), Chapman (<a id="AUTH40" href="#auth40">40</a>), Mivart (<a id="AUTH41" href="#auth41">41</a>), Macalister
+(<a id="AUTH41A" href="#auth41A">41<span class="allsmcap">A</span>)</a>, Von Aeby (<a id="AUTH42" href="#auth42">42</a>), Lucae (<a id="AUTH43" href="#auth43">43</a>), Ecker (<a id="AUTH44" href="#auth44">44</a>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
+Bolau (<a id="AUTH45" href="#auth45">45</a>), Pansch (<a id="AUTH46" href="#auth46">46</a>), Lenz (<a id="AUTH47" href="#auth47">47</a>), A.&nbsp;B. Meyer
+(<a id="AUTH48" href="#auth48">48</a>), R. Meyer (<a id="AUTH49" href="#auth49">49</a>), Bischoff (<a id="AUTH50" href="#auth50">50</a>), Ehlers (<a id="AUTH51" href="#auth51">51</a>),
+Virchow (<a id="AUTH52" href="#auth52">52</a>), Von Bär (<a id="AUTH53" href="#auth53">53</a>), by the author of this
+work (<a id="AUTH54" href="#auth54">54</a>), etc. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau,
+Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect
+perfect specimens of the gorilla. Two of the specimens
+which came into my hands were unquestionably
+in the best condition, since I obtained them immediately
+after their deaths in Berlin. A larger
+specimen of a female, 1000 mm. tall, was in worse
+preservation, yet still quite available for the purposes
+of study.</p>
+
+<p>The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is
+not yet exhausted. Valuable information may be
+found in the anthropological works by C. Vogt (<a id="AUTH55" href="#auth55">55</a>),
+in the writings of Pruner-Bey (<a id="AUTH56" href="#auth56">56</a>), and Magitot (<a id="AUTH57" href="#auth57">57</a>),
+in Darwin’s works (<a id="AUTH58" href="#auth58">58</a>), in <cite lang="fr">Histoire Naturelle des
+Mammifères</cite>, by Gervais (<a id="AUTH59" href="#auth59">59</a>), in Huxley’s <cite>Anatomy
+of Vertebrated Animals</cite> (<a id="AUTH60" href="#auth60">60</a>), in Flower’s <cite>Osteology of
+the Mammalia</cite> (<a id="AUTH61" href="#auth61">61</a>), in Giebel’s <cite lang="fr">Odontographie</cite> (<a id="AUTH62" href="#auth62">62</a>),
+and in many other handbooks and treatises on natural
+history, which want of room forbids me to mention.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living
+gorilla reached England. It survived its arrival
+seven months, and a good illustration of this
+creature, accompanied by a brief description, has
+been recently published in the <cite>Proceedings of the
+Zoological Society of London</cite> (<a id="AUTH63" href="#auth63">63</a>). In 1876, towards
+the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought
+the second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin.
+It had been kept in confinement in that country
+at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
+it died on November 13, 1877, at the Berlin
+Aquarium. Dr. Hermes obtained a third specimen
+in September, 1881, which died soon after its arrival
+in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the
+Berlin Aquarium.</p>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee became the more general object
+of zoological and anatomical study at an earlier
+period, since the species occupied a wider area than
+the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have
+already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the
+subject, and the animal described by von Tulpe. In
+1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the
+chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London
+at the same time. In vol. 35, pl. 2, of his Natural
+History, Buffon gives an illustration of the chimpanzee,
+and pl. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very
+true to nature, but still recognizable (<a id="AUTH64" href="#auth64">64</a>). It is
+commonly supposed that the Dutch traveller Bosman,
+cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about
+five feet high, living near Fort Wimba “d’une
+couleur fauve” (<a id="AUTH65" href="#auth65">65</a>). Although Buffon was acquainted
+with the names chimpanzee and chimpezée,
+as well as with Battel’s surmises about the pongo
+and the enjeco, yet he regarded the jockos, pongos,
+and orangs as animals all belonging to one species.
+The young African animals observed by him and
+von Tulpe (chimpanses) must have been young
+pongos (<a id="AUTH66" href="#auth66">66</a>). The name pongo was afterwards applied
+to the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin
+and skeleton of the chimpanzee observed by Buffon
+when still alive, was preserved in the Zoological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
+Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (<a id="AUTH67" href="#auth67">67</a>). There is a
+beautiful illustration of a young female which lived
+in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris
+in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution
+(<a id="AUTH68" href="#auth68">68</a>). This illustration, in which the animal is represented
+on all fours, has since been frequently
+copied. Copies have also been made of the drawings
+of the same individual in a walking position, and
+swinging by one arm, which originally appeared in
+Vélins’ famous catalogue of the Museum of Paris.
+Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahlbom have given
+good illustrations of the head and body of an old
+male chimpanzee (<a id="AUTH69" href="#auth69">69</a>). Numerous, and for the most
+part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee have been
+given in several modern works and illustrated papers
+(<a id="AUTH70" href="#auth70">70</a>). Undoubtedly the best representations of the
+chimpanzee, corrected from photographs taken from
+life, are found in my osteological treatise on the
+gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the
+little book which preceded it (<a id="AUTH71" href="#auth71">71</a>). The form and
+mode of life of this species of ape are fairly well
+described by Bischoff (<a id="AUTH72" href="#auth72">72</a>), as well as in the books
+already mentioned, and especially in those by Temminck
+(<a id="AUTH73" href="#auth73">73</a>), Gervais, Reichenbach, and Brehm.
+Recently the opportunities of describing the bodies
+of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the
+anatomy of this animal may also be found in the
+works of Tyson (<a id="AUTH11a" href="#auth11">11</a>), Vrolik (<a id="AUTH74" href="#auth74">74</a>), Champneys (<a id="AUTH75" href="#auth75">75</a>),
+Brühl (<a id="AUTH76" href="#auth76">76</a>), and Schroeder van der Kolk and
+Vrolik (<a id="AUTH77" href="#auth77">77</a>), as well as in the works we have already
+mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy, Bischoff, Issel, Giglioli,
+Lenz, etc. Du Chaillu (<a id="AUTH26a" href="#auth26">26</a>), Duvernoy (<a id="AUTH78" href="#auth78">78</a>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
+Bischoff (<a id="AUTH50a" href="#auth50">50</a>), Gratiolet and Alix (<a id="AUTH79" href="#auth79">79</a>), A.&nbsp;B. Meyer
+(<a id="AUTH80" href="#auth80">80</a>), and the author of this work (<a id="AUTH81" href="#auth81">81</a>) have treated
+of the external form and internal structure of new
+species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written about the orang-utan since
+Vosmaer’s (<a id="AUTH82" href="#auth82">82</a>) day, among others by Rademacher
+(<a id="AUTH83" href="#auth83">83</a>), Wurmb (<a id="AUTH84" href="#auth84">84</a>), Griffith (<a id="AUTH85" href="#auth85">85</a>), Temminck (<a id="AUTH86" href="#auth86">86</a>),
+Schlegel and S. Müller (<a id="AUTH87" href="#auth87">87</a>), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
+(<a id="AUTH88" href="#auth88">88</a>), Brooke (<a id="AUTH89" href="#auth89">89</a>), Abel (<a id="AUTH90" href="#auth90">90</a>), and Wallace
+(<a id="AUTH91" href="#auth91">91</a>). Camper (<a id="AUTH92" href="#auth92">92</a>), Owen (<a id="AUTH93" href="#auth93">93</a>), J. Müller (<a id="AUTH94" href="#auth94">94</a>),
+Schlegel and S. Müller (<a id="AUTH95" href="#auth95">95</a>), Heusinger (<a id="AUTH96" href="#auth96">96</a>), Dumortier
+(<a id="AUTH97" href="#auth97">97</a>), Brühl (<a id="AUTH98" href="#auth98">98</a>), Bischoff, Langer (<a id="AUTH99" href="#auth99">99</a>), etc.,
+have studied the anatomy of this animal. Good
+illustrations of the orang-utan are found in Vélins’
+catalogue, copied by Chenu (<a id="AUTH100" href="#auth100">100</a>) and Gervais (<a id="AUTH101" href="#auth101">101</a>),
+and in Wallace; also in the designs by Mützel (<a id="AUTH102" href="#auth102">102</a>)
+and Max (<a id="AUTH103" href="#auth103">103</a>), and in my work on the Gorilla,
+already cited.</p>
+
+<p>It had been already shown by Tilesius (<a id="AUTH104" href="#auth104">104</a>) and
+Cuvier (<a id="AUTH105" href="#auth105">105</a>) that Wurmb’s young pongo is identical
+with the orang of Linnæus. We now know certainly
+that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango)
+should only be applied to the gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid
+apes, the Indian long-armed apes or gibbons, have
+been recently described, with reference to their form
+and mode of life, by various travellers and naturalists,
+especially by Duvaucel (<a id="AUTH106" href="#auth106">106</a>), Bennet (<a id="AUTH107" href="#auth107">107</a>), Martin
+(<a id="AUTH108" href="#auth108">108</a>), Lewis (<a id="AUTH109" href="#auth109">109</a>), S. Müller (<a id="AUTH110" href="#auth110">110</a>), Diard (<a id="AUTH111" href="#auth111">111</a>);
+also by Buffon (<a id="AUTH112" href="#auth112">112</a>), Is. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (<a id="AUTH113" href="#auth113">113</a>),
+and Blyth (<a id="AUTH114" href="#auth114">114</a>), etc. Gulliver (<a id="AUTH115" href="#auth115">115</a>), Bischoff (<a id="AUTH116" href="#auth116">116</a>),
+and the author of this work have studied the
+anatomy of these creatures.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><span id="toclink_11"></span>CHAPTER II.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan
+the external form is subject to essential modifications,
+according to the age and sex. The difference
+between the sexes is most strongly marked in the
+gorilla, and these differences are least apparent in
+the gibbon.</p>
+
+<p>When a young male gorilla is compared with an
+aged animal of the same species, we are almost
+tempted to believe that we have to do with two
+entirely different creatures. While the young male
+still displays an evident approximation to the
+human structure, and develops in its bodily habits
+the same qualities which generally characterize the
+short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception
+of the baboon, the aged male is otherwise formed.
+In the latter case the points of resemblance to the
+human type are far fewer; the aged animal has
+become a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the
+structure of his hands and feet the characteristics
+of the primates, while the protruding head is something
+between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
+and the boar. Simultaneously with these remarkable
+alterations of the external structure there occurs
+a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an
+aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and
+the incisor teeth have almost attained the length of
+those of lions and tigers. On the upper part of
+the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony
+crests are developed on the crown of the head and on
+the occiput, and these are supported by the high,
+spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, and thus
+supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles
+of the neck and jaw. The supra-orbital arches are
+covered with wrinkled skin, and the already savage,
+and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla
+is thereby increased. A comparison of the two
+illustrations (Figs. <a href="#i_1">1</a> and <a href="#i_3">3</a>) which accompany the
+text, will make this clear.</p>
+
+<p>These distinctions are not so striking in the
+female as in the male gorilla. Although there is
+much which is bestial in the appearance of an aged
+female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the
+male, the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads
+are absent in the female, as well as the prognathous
+form of the skull and the length and thickness of
+the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not,
+in her whole structure, so far removed from the condition
+of the same sex in youth as is the aged male.
+The structure of the female has on the whole more
+in common with the human form. It has been said,
+and indeed on good authority, that the female type
+should take the foremost place in the study of the
+animal structure, since it is the more universal.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
+But H. von Nathusius maintains that we must take
+both sexes into consideration in the study of
+domestic animals, since both are needed to determine
+the breed.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> I accept this condition in the scientific
+study and description of wild animals also, of every
+kind and species. All that is said of the universal
+type of the female animal is and must remain in my
+eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation
+of males and females, and of young individuals of
+both sexes, can throw sufficient light on the history
+of the race. The male animal is the larger, and
+predominant with respect to the complete development
+of certain peculiarities of form in the specific
+organism, since these are doubtfully present in the
+adult female, and are either altogether absent in the
+immature young, or only rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider, in the first place, the prototype
+of the species, the aged male gorilla in the
+full strength of his bodily development (<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a>).
+This animal, when standing upright, is more than
+six feet in height, or 2000 mm. The head is
+300 mm. in length. The occiput appears to be
+broader below than above, since the upper part
+slopes like a gabled roof towards the high, longitudinal
+crest of the vertex. The projecting supra-orbital
+arches start prominently from the upper
+and central contour of the skull. In this species,
+as in other apes, and indeed among mammals
+generally, and especially in the case of the carnivora,
+ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
+are present. In the gorilla these consist of a rather
+scanty growth of coal-black bristles, about 40 mm.
+in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital
+arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow
+slits, and with lids which display many and deep
+longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set with longer
+and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes
+glow between the lids with a ferocious expression.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_1" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p014.jpg" width="1188" height="2012" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 1.—Aged male gorilla.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards
+from between the inner corners of the eyes, and is
+keel-shaped in the centre. This part of the head
+is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower
+in one individual, shorter and wider in another.
+The skin in this region is covered with a network
+of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the nose
+and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at
+the base. This part of the nose, attached to the
+very projecting forehead, has the effect of an altogether
+snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a
+central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole
+tip of the nose into two symmetrical halves. This
+furrow is more strongly marked in the case of
+adult animals than in the young. The aperture
+of the nostrils is large and triangular, with the
+cartilaginous point turned upwards, and the edges
+applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks
+have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral
+margins of this part of the nostril take an arched
+form, first diverging in different directions, then
+gradually converging again towards the upper lip.
+The lip is short, and this, combined with the large
+nose, gives a certain resemblance to the mouth of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
+an ox. This resemblance is the more striking, as
+the whole of this region is covered with glandular
+skin of a deep black colour, which is either glabrous
+or provided with a few scattered hairs, but furnished
+with small flattened warts.</p>
+
+<p>Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very
+round, dwindling away and becoming depressed in
+the lower part of the face. They are seamed with
+curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend downwards
+in the same direction as the wrinkles on the
+lower eyelids. The short upper lip is provided with
+oblique folds which converge outwards in the
+centre. The points of the strong canine teeth, which
+in many individuals are from 38 to 40 mm. long,
+and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other,
+and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction,
+so that this part of the face takes the form of a
+triangular, bevelled surface, with its prominent base-line
+between the canine teeth. It may also be observed
+that in many individuals of this species the
+nose is not very deeply set on the upper lip; that in
+others, again, the nose is decidedly raised, and the
+lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In
+many such cases the prognathism of the face is
+strongly marked, so as to give a baboon-like effect.
+In other specimens, again, this debased type is not
+allied with strongly marked prognathism.</p>
+
+<p>If we take a front view of the skull of an aged
+male gorilla we see that the upper edges of the
+great supra-orbital arches are bevelled off below and
+at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the
+broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The front<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+view of the head, and indeed of the whole animal,
+presents a strongly projecting contour, an impression
+which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks,
+with their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with
+its scarcely indicated chin, retreats in the centre and
+dwindles into a triangular form. This contour is
+characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the
+face is glossy, set with few hairs, and of a deep
+black colour.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_2" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 11em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p017.jpg" width="645" height="795" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 2.—Ear of a male adult gorilla.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The ear (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>) averages 60 mm. in length, and
+from 36 to 40 mm. in width. It seems to be fastened
+to the head by the back and upper part, is generally
+of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly
+marked helix. The helix varies in width in different
+individuals, and often terminates on its inner edge
+in the projecting peaked excrescence described by
+Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently.
+The anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
+which lies between these two latter parts (<i lang="la">incisura
+inter tragica</i>) are generally fully developed; the
+lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations
+in the special structure of these parts may frequently
+be observed.</p>
+
+<p>The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on
+the neck, and when the head is stretched they
+stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck.
+Owing to the great development of the spinous processes
+of the cervical vertebræ and of the muscles
+attached to them, and to the occipital bones of the
+skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of
+a bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their
+breadth, and the pectoral muscles for their large
+size. The nipples of the breast, which are not surrounded
+by any visible <i lang="la" class="anatomy">areolæ</i>, stand out in youth,
+and afterwards assume a horny texture which stiffens
+into a kind of bone. When one of these animals is
+gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the
+tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall
+in when the stomach is empty.</p>
+
+<p>On the upper and forearms the plastic form of
+the strongly developed flexor and extensor muscles
+is very apparent, testifying to the enormous strength
+of the upper extremities. The hands are large, and
+very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb,
+of which the extremity takes a conical form, is short,
+extending little beyond the middle of the second
+metacarpal bone. The extremities of the otherwise
+broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed.
+The fore-finger is not materially shorter than the
+middle finger. The third finger is sometimes shorter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
+than, sometimes of the same length as, the first, and
+the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist
+is covered with deep oblique folds. A network of
+wrinkles, oblique or curved, also covers the skin on
+the back of the fingers, on which there are
+callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes
+the fingers when going on all fours, and turns the
+back of the hand on the ground, thus producing
+this thickening of the upper skin on the joints.
+Callosities of the same nature, although not so extensive,
+are not rare on the second finger-joints.
+The palm of the hand is covered with a hard, horny
+skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the
+roots of the fingers. In spite of the blackness of
+the skin which covers them, these characteristics are
+still apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The fingers are united by a strong web, reminding
+us of the membrane found on the otter and other
+web-footed animals, and reaching nearly to the first
+finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the
+root of the fingers, although on the backs of the
+fingers there are only a few isolated hairs.</p>
+
+<p>The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from
+behind, somewhat resembles a trapezium in form, of
+which the longer of the two parallel sides extends
+between the shoulders, and the shorter between the
+two halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides,
+which are not parallel, correspond to the sides of the
+back. The arrangement of all the lower part of the
+trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out
+prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat resembles
+a four-sided pyramid with its apex reversed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
+The gluteal muscles are not strongly developed.
+The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat
+angular form.</p>
+
+<p>While the external sexual organs of the male are
+so covered by the wrinkled skin of the abdomen
+that they are not prominent in their passive condition,
+those of the female are, on the contrary, very
+apparent; the external lips of the vagina, provided
+with large nymphæ, and a large clitoris, are only
+apparent when the sexual instinct is excited.</p>
+
+<p>The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which
+appear to be smoothed off on the inner side, and
+somewhat arched on the outside. The lower part of
+the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long-oval
+form; the region of the calf is more strongly
+developed than in other anthropoids. The bones of
+the foot are not at all prominent, and the same
+remark applies to those of the hand. The contour
+of the back of the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is
+convex, covered with strong muscles, and padded
+with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole
+of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the
+region of the heel, and forward into the inner side
+of the foot, thus presenting the primitive formation
+of a heel.</p>
+
+<p>The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a
+thumb from the other toes, and can be used as such.
+The metatarsus serves as a base for its projection, in
+the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore
+part of the contour of the wrist. The great toe
+sometimes extends as far as the joint between the
+first and second phalanges of the second toe, sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
+nearly as far as the middle of the second
+phalanx. This characteristic varies in different
+individuals. At the point of union of the first
+metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the
+first phalanx of the great toe, there is a round projection
+on the inner side of the foot. The great
+toe is very broad at its root, then becomes smaller,
+and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With
+its strong lateral ridges of skin, which cover the
+sinews and cushions of fat, all this part of the foot
+appears to be wide and flattened off from the back
+to the sole.</p>
+
+<p>The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more
+slender than the great toe. The second toe is in
+most cases rather shorter than the third. The third
+and fourth toes are almost of the same length, and
+only a little longer than the second toe.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> The fifth
+toe is considerably shorter than the fourth. The
+last phalanges of the toes taper in front, and are furnished
+on their lower surface with long, laterally
+compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is
+almost trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side.
+The upper part of the foot, although generally flat,
+rises a little in the neighbourhood of the first metatarsal
+bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge.</p>
+
+<p>The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as
+far as the extremity of the metatarsal bones, more
+sparsely on the back of the toes. There are strongly
+marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot,
+especially on the joints, often combined with horny<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
+callosities, since the animal sometimes doubles up
+the toes and runs upon the back of them. The nails
+of the hands and feet are black, like the whole of
+their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much
+arched, and generally somewhat wider at the base
+than in front.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_3" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 17em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p022.jpg" width="1044" height="1245" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 3.—The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of
+    1876–77.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the sole of the foot we find the region of the
+heel, the ball of the great toe, in this case resembling
+the ball of a thumb, the roots and tips of the
+toes, together with pads consisting of muscles, tendons,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
+and skin. The several divisions of these padded
+balls are separated from each other by furrows which
+are longitudinal, oblique, and transverse, and more
+or less distinct from each other. The black skin
+which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny,
+but provided with a series of papillæ. The whole
+skin of an aged animal is of a deep black colour,
+somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting
+wrinkles.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_4" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 15em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p023.jpg" width="933" height="841" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 4.—The same animal at a still earlier age.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The young male gorilla does not essentially differ
+from the old male in its general and external appearance.
+Its skull is, however, without the crest
+which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of
+a rounded form in the region of the crown and occiput.
+At this age the head is not so high at the
+back and on the top as in aged males. The orbits
+are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
+not so decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the
+nose is shorter. The lines of the body in the young
+male are softer and less exaggerated, and the expression
+of the face is less ferocious than in an aged
+male. The horny callosities on the hands and feet
+are altogether wanting or only faintly indicated, and
+the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at the
+powerful development which we observe in the older
+animal. (Comp. Figs. <a href="#i_3">3</a> and <a href="#i_4">4</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Considerable differences may be observed in the
+whole structure of the adult female gorilla. The
+animals of this sex are smaller and weaker than
+males of the same age. The skull of the female is
+smaller and more rounded than that of the male,
+and the great bony crests are also absent. The orbits
+are less prominent, and a front view of the head
+gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The
+coronal arch rises above this trapezoid. In the
+male, on the contrary, the crown seems to lengthen
+above and behind into a pyramidal form. In
+the aged female the bridge of the nose is generally
+shorter than in the aged male, but even in
+this particular there is great variation in different
+individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a
+female is much depressed, and then the interval
+between the orbits and the end of the nose is
+shorter: I intentionally avoid the term <em>tip</em> of the
+nose, on account of the blunted form of this organ.
+Even when the bridge of the nose is more prominent,
+the interval between its end and the orbits is
+sometimes very short.</p>
+
+<p>The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
+a smaller nose, and a higher upper lip. This last
+peculiarity is shown in the correct and well-stuffed
+specimens in the museums at Paris and Lübeck.
+Although, in the process of drying, the skin of the
+nose may have shrunk a little, yet there is still room
+for the upper lip, provided with folds which are either
+vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen
+and Mützel<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> have given satisfactory illustrations of
+these parts. In the aged female the shape of the
+neck is not, as in the aged male, strong and bulging,
+so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in
+conformity with the not inconsiderable development
+of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ,
+and with that of the powerful cervical muscles.
+Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen
+which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium, between
+July, 1876, and November, 1877, this enlargement
+of the neck was present in a marked degree. In
+still younger individuals, however, under a year old,
+in which the spinous processes of the vertebræ have
+not yet been developed, there is no such enlargement,
+but, on the contrary, this region of the neck
+takes a concave form.</p>
+
+<p>In conformity with the smaller size of the body,
+the shoulders, arms, and thighs of the adult female
+are smaller than those of the full-grown male, but
+they are still very powerful. While giving suck,
+the breasts of the female are swelled in the form of
+a half-cone, instead of assuming the convex shape
+which is observed in many European women, and
+still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
+and South Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical
+rather than conical in shape, and covered with
+finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard
+and horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang
+slackly down, like short empty pouches. The belly
+swells in the neighbourhood of the crest of the ilium,
+and increases in thickness at the groin. The external
+sexual organs, in the period of excitement,
+swell in a manner resembling the lips of a woman’s
+pudenda.</p>
+
+<p>In a young female the cranium is rounded, and
+the face is only slightly prominent. In aged
+specimens, especially in those of the male sex, there
+is a somewhat typical prolongation of that part of
+the face which lies between the eyes and the end
+of the nose, and this is to a slight extent apparent
+in the young female. Variations in form and in the
+extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent
+even at this early period. The trunk and limbs
+are more slenderly built than in a male of the
+same age.</p>
+
+<p>The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long,
+thick, straight or stiffly curved bristles, and also of
+shorter, thinner, and curled woolly hair. On the
+crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff, from
+12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under
+the influence of anger. While the sides and fore-part
+of the chin are only clothed with short, stiff
+hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the
+chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which
+turn outwards from the sides of the face and on the
+neck are 30 or more mm. in length. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
+shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long,
+hanging down on the upper arms and the back. In
+the middle of the upper arm the hair is from 50 to
+70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend
+of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to
+grow in an upward direction. On the back of the
+forearm it again grows downwards. In the middle
+of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the
+hairs takes place, as one portion goes in front of
+the radius, while the other portion turns behind
+the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft of
+curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes
+directly back; and the lower tuft, also curved, turns
+outwards. On the back of the hand the hairs turn
+towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the
+hairs are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the
+breast their direction is as a rule upwards and outwards.
+On the belly they converge from the ribs
+towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs
+the hairs are about 160 mm. long, and here, as on
+the lower part of the leg, they tend outwards, while
+on the back of the foot they grow towards the toes.
+On the back, shoulders, and on the thigh and
+leg, the bristles are slightly curved. This quality
+increases the general impression of shagginess and
+fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of
+these creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very
+thick, and is not much matted.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the hair not only differs on different
+parts of the body, but also in different individuals.
+On the crown of the head it is of a reddish brown,
+or rarely of a decided brown or black. The hairs in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
+this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root,
+greyish white in the centre, and brownish red,
+shading into the dark brown tip. The hair on the
+lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes
+whitish, or both colours are found together. The
+hair growing at the sides of the face is grey below,
+dark brown or almost black above. On the neck
+and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the
+root, and gradually becomes lighter towards the tip.
+In the centre it is brown, shading into a lighter
+colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour
+is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark,
+sometimes brown or reddish. The hair on the
+back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish or
+light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown
+ring towards the tip, which is of a dark grey colour.
+Many of these hairs on the back have two brown
+rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and
+feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the
+root, brownish grey, dark brown, or black at the tip.
+Round the posteriors there is a circle of white, grey,
+or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm. in
+length. In both sexes variations from the colour of
+the coat here described are not rare. It has been
+already observed that the brownish red colour of the
+hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another
+shade. In many individuals the neck, shoulders,
+and back are of a dark grey, brown, or even black
+colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and
+feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey
+and brown hair intermingled.</p>
+
+<p>The second species of anthropoid apes is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
+chimpanzee. In this case also we must consider
+successively the aged and young male, and the aged
+and young female animals.</p>
+
+<p>The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the
+adult gorilla. In this species also the male is larger
+than the female. The chimpanzee is, speaking
+generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the aged male chimpanzee fundamentally
+differs from that of the aged male gorilla,
+since the skull of the former has a depressed crown,
+and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly
+indicated. Since the orbits are also less strongly
+developed than in the aged male gorilla, and the
+spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ do not
+assume the same elevated form which is characteristic
+of the latter species, the countenance of the chimpanzee
+is not of a square shape, and there is not space
+for the strong muscular system arching over the neck
+like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla.
+The head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged
+and young specimens, the concave neck which is
+common among apes, that is to say, a depression
+between the head and the throat. In an aged male
+the crown of the head presents a rounded, arched
+contour, since, as we have already said, the prominent
+bony processes are wanting. Although the supra-orbital
+arches are not so excessively prominent as in
+a gorilla of the same age, they are strongly developed,
+covered with wrinkled skin, and in this case also
+there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with
+shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids
+are furnished with thick eyelashes. The inner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
+angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of the
+gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>A general physiognomical distinction between
+the gorilla and the chimpanzee consists in the fact
+that the bridge of the nose is shorter in the latter
+than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part
+of the organ is depressed, yet the depression is
+of a conical and convex form, and is covered with
+a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In the
+chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle
+of the eye and the upper lateral contour of the
+cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter than in the
+gorilla. There is also some difference in the form
+of the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less
+apparent, the nostrils are not so widely opened nor so
+thickly padded. (<a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>.) In the chimpanzee, as
+well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical furrow
+directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these
+are likewise divided from the rest of the face by the
+broad pear-shape furrow which surrounds them. The
+upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as
+30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower.
+As in the gorilla, the chin forms a triangle of equal
+sides, with its apex reversed.</p>
+
+<p>The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the
+whole less resemblance to the human ear, and its
+contour is larger than that of the gorilla. But this
+organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult
+to lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges
+from 59 to 77 mm. in length, and from 42 to 80 mm.
+in width. Many individuals have a distinct lobule
+to the ear, others not. (<a href="#i_5">Fig. 5</a>.) In this example<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
+the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others
+they are wanting. The tragus and anti-tragus are
+more or less apparent in different individuals, as
+well as the other modifications of the external cartilage
+of the ear.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_5" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 11em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p031.jpg" width="681" height="1046" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 5.—Ear of chimpanzee.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather
+rounded shoulders, a powerful chest, long muscular
+arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand, which
+seems to be very slender in comparison with that
+of the gorilla. The thumbs vary in length, for the
+most part reaching as far as the metacarpal phalanges,
+but not in all cases. The middle finger
+is longer than the other three; the first and third
+fingers are shorter by the length of the last phalanx,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
+the third is a little longer than the first, and the
+fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to
+the middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches
+between the bases of the four fingers. There are
+horny callosities on the back of the hand of the
+aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla,
+supports himself on the backs of his closed fingers.
+The fingers are laterally compressed, but slightly
+arched on the back of the hand, and more decidedly
+so on the palm. A network of furrows covers the
+back of the hand, and these are more deeply impressed
+on its palm. The thumb is separated from
+the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to
+six furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the
+palm. The finger-nails are short, wide, and arched,
+very convex at their free edges.</p>
+
+<p>In the aged male the sides of the belly are compressed,
+the thighs are broad and muscular, and
+somewhat flattened both on the inner and outer
+sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks
+are somewhat laterally compressed, and the calf of
+the leg is very slightly developed. As in the
+gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like formation
+of the great toes, which are of considerable
+size. They extend, when drawing anything towards
+them, as far as the second phalanx of the second toe.
+The four other toes are more slender and only a little
+longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly
+developed, and slopes away below. The joint between
+the first phalanx of the great toe and the first
+metatarsal bone is marked by an angular projection
+on the inner edge of the foot. The back of the foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
+is very slightly convex. The last phalanx of the
+great toe is very much sloped off on its upper surface,
+but this is less apparent in the other parts of this
+member. The last phalanges of the other laterally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
+compressed toes are strongly arched on the under
+surface. Considerable convexities may also be observed
+under the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the
+great toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of
+the toe-nails resembles that of the fingers. Large
+callosities are not unfrequently found on the backs
+of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports
+himself on these parts. A connective web is found
+between all the toes except the great toe and its
+neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that
+between the roots of the fingers.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_6" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p033.jpg" width="1166" height="1664" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 6.—Young chimpanzee.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the young male chimpanzee is distinguished
+from the aged male of the same species
+by differences in the structure of many of its parts,
+yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as
+those between the young and aged male gorillas.
+The skull of the younger animal, which is altogether
+devoid of the prominent bony crest and ridges, is
+shaped almost like a truncated cone in the region
+of the crown; in some individuals of only a few
+years old, the bony development of the orbits has
+already begun, starting from the principal part of
+the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled
+skin. The short and depressed bridge of the nose
+becomes longer and higher, the cartilaginous end
+of the nose becomes larger, and the prognathism
+of the face increases with each successive stage of
+growth. The strength of the trunk and limbs is
+early developed. The sexual characteristics are
+gradually and plainly developed; but the male
+gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal
+ferocity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p>
+
+<p>The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller
+head, with an oval crown to the skull. The orbits
+are not so strongly developed as in the aged male,
+the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are
+not nearly so strong. The body of an animal of
+this sex is rounder in all its parts; and the belly,
+with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in
+the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the
+same angular formation of muscles.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The hands
+and feet of the female are also smaller and slenderer.
+In a young female the characteristics here described
+are presented in the mitigated form which corresponds
+with its youthful condition. But the female
+sometimes becomes a very strong and even violent
+creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg
+Zoological Garden, where a female specimen, in
+splendid condition, survived for several years under
+the faithful care of old Siegel.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p>
+
+<p>The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light,
+yet muddy flesh colour, which sometimes verges upon
+brown. Spots, varying in size and depth of colour,
+sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a
+blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found
+on different parts of the body of many individuals,
+especially on the face, neck, breast, belly, arms and
+hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the back.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour,
+merging into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker
+shade with the gradual development of the body.
+The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases slightly
+curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally
+stiff and elastic. The parting on the forehead is
+often so regular that it might have been arranged
+by the hairdresser’s art (see <a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>). Close behind
+that part of the head at which the projecting supra-orbital
+ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is
+in the chimpanzee an altogether bald place, or only
+a few scattered hairs. Round the face the growth
+of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the
+neck it is from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and
+it falls in the same long locks over the shoulders,
+back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so
+long, and takes a downward direction on the upper
+arm, and an opposite direction on the forearm, while
+there is often a longitudinal parting on the centre
+of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On
+the back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of
+whorl; the upper hairs turn upwards and backwards,
+the middle ones turn backwards, the lower ones
+backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands
+and the roots of the fingers are hairy. On the
+front of the thigh the hair takes a downward direction,
+while behind it grows backwards. On the
+shank it grows downwards in the region of the
+tibia, and turns back on the inside of the leg.
+The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are
+likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these
+scattered hairs on the face, chin, and ears. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
+supra-orbital arches there are from eight to twenty,
+or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner
+of eyebrows; and eyelashes are likewise present.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of
+a black colour. Short whitish hairs may be observed
+on the lower part of the face and chin, as well as
+round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the
+hair is shot throughout with reddish or brownish
+black.</p>
+
+<p>The orang-utan, the chief representative of the
+anthropoids in Asia, differs from the African forms
+of this group, almost at the first glance, in the
+height of his skull, of which the fore-part is compressed
+and shortened in a backward direction. In
+the aged male it is, however, provided with high
+and erect bony crests, which give a prognathous appearance
+to the countenance. We take an aged
+male as the type of our description.</p>
+
+<p>The forehead is high and erect, not retreating
+like that of the chimpanzee; it is open, and has
+moderately convex frontal eminences. From the
+centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval
+eminence sometimes projects. The supra-orbital
+ridges are strongly arched, yet not so prominent as
+that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting aside
+that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened,
+nor are their lids large and furrowed, but on the
+lower lids there are deep wrinkles. The small
+bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but
+sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it
+issues from the central longitudinal depression of
+the face. The end of the nose, further removed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+from the eyes than is generally the case in the
+chimpanzee, is not so broad as it is in the latter
+animal and in the gorilla. The wings of the nose
+are narrow and highly arched in their upper part,
+divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and
+the nostrils are small and oval, separated by a thin
+partition. The upper lip is high, broad, and projecting,
+and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from
+the cheeks and from the upper part of the face by
+a deep depression; and behind the cheeks two large
+and long-shaped or sometimes triangular pads of fat
+often project forwards and downwards.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_7" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p038.jpg" width="1187" height="990" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 7.—Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not
+remarkably thick. The chin is very retreating,
+but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (<a href="#i_7">Fig. 7</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
+The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and
+12 mm. in width, and has a general resemblance in
+structure to the human ear (<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>). On the fore-part
+of the short, thick neck there are irregular,
+and in some places very deep
+circular folds of skin. The
+throat-pouch distends part of
+this slack, wrinkled skin, which
+hangs down in front like a great
+empty wallet (see Figs. <a href="#i_7">7</a> and <a href="#i_9">9</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_8" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 7em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p039.jpg" width="444" height="535" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 8.—Ear of the orang-utan.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The structure of the other
+parts of the body lacks even to
+some extent the powerful and
+symmetrical formation which we
+observe in the gorilla, and indeed
+in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet
+rather angular and sloping shoulders, with flattened
+breast, rounded back, and still more rounded belly,
+is tun-shaped, and gives the impression of a want
+of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal
+region resembles the projecting rump of a fowl,
+and this may also be observed in the young gorilla
+and chimpanzee. The long, muscular arms reach
+to the ankles when the animal is in an erect position,
+and are altogether out of proportion with the
+rest of the body. The powerful upper arm is
+shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long
+and narrow. The thumb, which reaches as far as
+the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a displeasing
+and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the
+fingers, sometimes extending along a third of the
+first phalanx, sometimes along half. The middle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
+finger is somewhat longer than the first and third<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
+fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The
+fourth finger is comparatively long. The palm of
+the hand is flat, only marked by a few deep furrows.
+The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed,
+and the nails on their tapering ends are arched.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_9" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p040.jpg" width="1389" height="1869" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 9.—Adult male orang-utan.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner
+side, are, however, very muscular, but become much
+smaller on their back side. The calf of the leg is less
+developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the
+chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and
+slender. The narrow, flat heels project very slightly
+behind. The great toes are short, with wide extremities,
+rounded above, and provided on the sole
+with thick, fatty skin. In old age these animals not
+only often lose the nails of their great toes, but sometimes
+even the last phalanges themselves. This is
+not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is
+the case with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in
+this condition lose portions of their tails or toes, but
+it also occurs among orang-utans in their wild state.
+The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe
+is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on
+the under side of all but the great toe, where
+they rarely occur. The backs of the hands and
+feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin,
+and on the hands there are callosities.</p>
+
+<p>This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic
+disposition than the gorilla and chimpanzee, has
+a very strange appearance, with its projecting head
+and short neck; its face widening in the middle and
+tapering towards the forehead and chin; its tun-shaped
+trunk, long, thin extremities, and shaggy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
+coat. It differs widely from the chimpanzee and
+gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the
+compression of the forehead is less marked than in
+aged animals, and the bony crests which conduce to
+raise the coronal arch in its upper and hinder part are
+also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less strongly
+developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers
+of fat upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more
+detached from the neck, the structure of the whole
+body is slenderer, the expression of the countenance
+is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end,
+may generally be observed on the great toe.</p>
+
+<p>In the adult female, as I have pointed out elsewhere,
+the physical characteristics of the young
+male are repeated in an exaggerated form. The skull,
+displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed
+high, but more rounded than in the aged male; the
+face is prominent, but the head is more detached
+from the neck than in the latter case. On account
+of the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still
+more tun-shaped than in the aged male. When
+giving suck, the breasts are distended in the form of
+a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall
+together and only present two short, wrinkled,
+slightly prominent folds of skin; the small, horny
+nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of
+which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether
+disappears. The throat-pouch is less strongly developed
+than in the aged male, but the limbs are as
+fully developed. The head of the young female is
+still more rounded, with a more flattened though
+still projecting face, and the limbs are slenderer, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
+thus still more out of proportion with the thick
+trunk than is the case with a young male.</p>
+
+<p>The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour,
+sometimes mixed with brown, but the greyish blue
+shade is predominant. A yellowish or brownish
+grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils,
+upper lips, and chin there is often a ring of a dirty,
+yellowish brown colour, forming a strange contrast
+with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The
+arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish
+black, more rarely brown or reddish brown.</p>
+
+<p>The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long,
+curved, waving bristles, and some scanty downy
+hairs. On the back of the head, on the shoulders,
+back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to
+235 mm. in length. In other individuals they were,
+however, much shorter—20, 40, or 60 mm. long.
+There is often a natural parting of the hair of the
+head, which falls asunder on either side. In some
+cases there is no parting, and the hair streams wildly
+down; and in others, again, it stands upright, stiffening
+from the sides and top of the head in a demoniacal
+manner (Figs. <a href="#i_7">7</a> and <a href="#i_9">9</a>). A beard frequently encircles
+the cheeks and chin. The hair grows upwards
+and outwards on the neck and fore-part of the
+throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper
+arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite
+direction on the forearm. On the wrist the hair
+grows in the manner described in the case of the
+gorilla. There is only a scanty growth of hair on
+the breast and belly, and it is also short and weak
+on the face, ears, and backs of the hands and feet.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
+I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have
+seen, but they may occur, and the eyelashes are
+fully developed.</p>
+
+<p>The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something
+like burnt sienna, and the hair-tips on the back
+parts of the body are generally brown. In some
+individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish
+brown; in others it is lighter, and in the latter case
+the breast and belly are of a yellowish white. The
+beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some individuals
+almost devoid of hair have been observed.</p>
+
+<p>The gibbons, or long-armed apes (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>), constitute
+the fourth group of anthropoids. Many
+kinds of this group are known, and I feel bound to
+describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able
+to give an idea of their structure. With respect to
+these animals, I cannot only rely on the materials
+which are accessible to me, but must also make use
+of the descriptions given by others.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p>
+
+<p>The gibbons have as a rule very long arms, reaching
+to their ankles when they stand upright. The
+face is not very prognathous, the crown of the head
+is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are
+small callosities on their posteriors, which are absent
+in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan.</p>
+
+<p>The largest species of these animals, which inhabit
+part of the continent and of the islands of Asia, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
+the siamang (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>, F. Cuvier).<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a>
+According to Diard, its arms are not quite so long
+as those of the wauwau (<i class="taxonomy">H. agilis</i>, F. Cuvier). This
+animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating
+forehead, a long, moderately arched crown to the
+head, and a slightly arched occiput. The base of
+the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only
+slightly prognathous in the aged male. According
+to Diard, the eyes are deeply set, the nostrils are
+very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic
+arch, the mouth opens widely, the chin is of insignificant
+size. It is the only one of the gibbons
+which possesses the throat-pouch, already described
+as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in
+aged animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in
+front. The second and third toes are connected together
+by a thin web, reaching to the last joint in
+the male, and to the penultimate joint in the
+female. The hairs on the forearm turn their points
+upward, and form a kind of whorl on the wrist. The
+animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and
+tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs.
+According to Bock, the face is encircled by a grey
+or white beard. This animal is about a metre in
+height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra.</p>
+
+<p>The lar (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Lar</i>, Illig) is another species of
+gibbon. The structure of the body is much more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
+slender than that of the animal just described; the
+head is round, the eyes are large, the nose projects
+from its depressed surroundings with only a very
+slight ridge, and the cartilaginous end is shaped like
+a triangle with unequal sides. This triangular end
+is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and the small
+nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are
+divided from each other by a thin partition. The
+structure of the upper lip is peculiar. In the
+centre, just below the base of the nasal partition, it
+is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical
+lateral halves by a vertical furrow. Each of these
+halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging the small
+lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and
+the zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the
+lower eyelids, there are the flat, depressed cheeks.
+The small chin presents itself below the central cleft
+of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face
+of this gibbon, of which the general appearance is
+very singular, is surrounded by a circle of thick
+hair, which resembles the circular hood of an
+Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both
+generally and in detail, is not confined to the lar,
+but applies to other species of gibbons, including
+the siamang (see Figs. <a href="#i_11">11</a> and <a href="#i_15">15</a>). It is a feature
+which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at
+the first glance, from the other forms of anthropoids
+already described. The colour of the lar’s face is
+reddish brown or tawny; the hair which surrounds it
+is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with
+short, light grey hair on the backs of the hands and
+feet. The black ears are almost hairless. The lar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
+has up to this time seldom found a place in our
+zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and
+Siam.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_10" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p047.jpg" width="887" height="743" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 10.—Head of the white-handed gibbon.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The white-handed gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>,
+Vigors and Horsfield) is often confounded with <i class="taxonomy">H.
+Lar</i>. But <i class="taxonomy">H. albimanus</i> has a black face, and the
+general colour of the skin is black, including the
+inside of the hands and feet. Thick white hair
+encircles the face, and the backs of the hands and
+feet are covered with short white or light grey
+hairs, while the rest of the coat is quite black. The
+hair of the forearm grows downwards, towards the
+wrist. The ears of these apes are almost of the shape
+of an equilateral triangle. The helix of the ear runs
+like a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix
+passes through the centre of the slightly depressed
+external surface of the ear, of which the whole
+arrangement does not essentially differ from that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
+the ear of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous substance
+of the organ is a good deal inflected, broad
+behind and in the upper part, dividing into two
+limbs in front and below. There are indications
+of the tragus and anti-tragus.
+The detached
+lobule of the ear is
+absent (<a href="#i_11">Fig. 11</a>). This
+structure of the external
+ear is common to other
+species of gibbons, although
+in many cases
+the upper part of the
+helix is wrinkled, and
+the anti-helix is sometimes
+more fully developed, and more like that of
+the human ear.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_11" class="figleft land" style="max-width: 10em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p048.jpg" width="608" height="540" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 11.—Ear of the white-handed gibbon.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The face in this species is small. The supra-orbital
+arches are strongly developed, and almost join in the
+centre. The eyes are large, dark, and have a mild
+and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent
+in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed
+below it. The bridge of the nose is imbedded
+between the cheeks, which, especially when seen in
+profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is
+covered with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape
+described in the former species, and so are the
+upper lip and chin (<a href="#i_10">Fig. 10</a>). Long, bristly hairs
+stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip,
+and short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The
+white hairs which encircle the face grow like a
+beard on the chin. The whole face has a melancholy,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
+almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the
+trunk drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there
+is a short thumb, laterally compressed, which does
+not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
+The ball of the last phalanx
+forms a thick, rounded
+pad, which is repeated in
+a lesser degree on the
+under side of the first
+phalanx of the thumb,
+and on its ball. The
+thumb-nail is bent back,
+as unlike a claw as the
+flattened, long, and narrow
+nails of the other fingers.
+The middle finger is only
+a little longer than the
+first, and the fourth not
+much shorter than the
+third finger (<a href="#i_12">Fig. 12</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_12" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 12em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p049.jpg" width="557" height="1290" style="max-width: 9em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 12.—Left hand of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The foot is neatly made,
+short and narrow, without
+a projecting heel.
+The great toe is very long,
+reaching almost to the last
+phalanx of the second toe.
+The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great
+toe, especially its last joint, are provided with thick,
+rounded pads. The middle toe is not much longer
+than the second, the fourth is shorter again, and the
+fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is
+only a very short web between the roots of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
+fingers, but it extends much further on the toes
+(<a href="#i_13">Fig. 13</a>). This species of ape is found in Further
+India.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_13" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p050.jpg" width="1123" height="503" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 13.—Left foot of the same animal.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The wauwau (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, F. Cuvier, <a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>),
+an ape of a rare species, may, according to Duvaucel,
+be recognized by his prominent supra-orbital arches,
+sunken eyes, a moderately flat nose, and large nostrils
+with lateral openings. The face of the male is hairless,
+and of a bluish black; that of the female is brown.
+The face is encircled by thick, whitish hair, through
+which the ears are only partly visible. There are a
+few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head,
+belly, inner surface of the arms and of the thighs
+are dark brown. The neck and shoulders are of a
+lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun or
+whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark
+brown. The sides of the posteriors and the backs of
+the thighs are brown, chestnut, or white. In the
+female the white hair which encircles the face is
+shorter, and verges on dun colour. The young
+animals are light yellow or brown. This animal
+inhabits the island of Sumatra.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_14" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p051.jpg" width="1579" height="1202" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 14.—A wauwau in the left foreground (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>); in the background to the light, two slender
+    apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecas entellus</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The grey gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leuciscus</i>, Kuhl) is
+covered with a thick, long, and woolly coat, with
+scattered hairs which are curly, and have two or
+three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The
+upper part of the head is black; light, or sometimes
+white, hair encircles the blackish face. The general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
+colour is dun. The front of the throat, the breast,
+and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of
+the neck, the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are
+darker. A brown or black stripe runs down the
+breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of
+the hands and feet are black. The colour of young
+specimens is more uniformly grey or dun. This
+animal is found in Java and Sumatra.</p>
+
+<p>The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck
+(<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Hoolock</i>, Harlan), has, in its adult condition,
+a prognathous face with prominent supra-orbital
+arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high,
+narrow nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged
+animals there are two oblique folds over the eyes,
+of a light grey colour. The rest of the hairy coat,
+the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger
+animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A
+line of grey extends from the breast downwards over
+the belly. This animal inhabits the mountainous
+district of Assam.</p>
+
+<p>The unko (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Rafflesii</i>, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire)
+is of a black colour, shading into reddish
+brown on the back and sides. Hair, of a grey colour
+in the male and white in the female, encircles the
+face. This ape is a native of Sumatra.</p>
+
+<p>The dun-coloured gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates entelloides</i>, Is.
+Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which
+is thick and woolly, and furnished with long hairs
+of a greyish yellow or dun colour. This coat is
+somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms
+and on the neck, where it shades into reddish
+yellow. The growth of hair surrounding the face is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
+lighter, verging upon white. The female is generally
+more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair
+on her face is of a reddish yellow rather than white,
+but not without a trace of white hairs. The face
+and the bare places on the hands and feet are black.
+Between the second and third toes there is a connective
+web reaching as far as the first joints. This
+animal inhabits the Malacca peninsula. The name
+of the species is derived from its assumed likeness
+to the Indian hanuman (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus Entellus</i>, F.
+Cuvier), of which an illustration is given in the
+background to the right of <a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The white-bearded gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i>,
+Ogilby<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>) is remarkable for the long, erect hairs
+which grow on the upper and back part of the scalp,
+and for the long white beard on the cheeks and
+chin, which joins the thick growth above the eyes.
+The rest of the body is dark black. Its native place
+is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The general colour of the tufted gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates
+pileatus</i>, J.&nbsp;E. Gray) is black, shading into grey
+on the shoulders, back, and thighs. A white ring
+surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there
+is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and
+often a patch of black on the breast. The whiskers
+are black. In other respects the animal varies
+according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam
+and Kambodja.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span></p>
+
+<p>The dark grey gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i>, Is.
+Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is of an ashen grey colour on
+the upper and outer side of its limbs, verging into
+brown; and on the under side it is dark brown.
+There is a narrow strip of light grey round the face,
+with a darker band round the back of the head. It
+is found in the island of Sulu.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these species of gibbons of which
+we have given a brief account, there are several
+others—as, for example, <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates concolor</i> (Harlan),
+from Borneo; <i class="taxonomy">H. Muelleri</i> (L. Martin), from the
+same place; <i class="taxonomy">H. choromandus</i> (Ogilby), from India,
+and many others. But since our space is limited,
+the description given above must suffice for a diagnosis
+of the species.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><span id="toclink_55"></span>CHAPTER III.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
+ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN STRUCTURE.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> order to complete as far as possible the description
+which we propose to give of the general natural
+history of these remarkable animals, it is necessary
+to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it is
+not so much our aim to give a detailed and
+exhaustive description of their anatomy, as to
+glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their inner
+structure which catch the eye. It seems to me
+expedient in this case to follow the method of
+systematic and descriptive anatomy, and to take
+the several natural organs in succession. This
+method, which has long prevailed for studying the
+structure of the human body, should also be our
+guide in our researches in comparative anatomy.
+Our readers need scarcely be told that the anatomy
+of anthropoids is only a small branch of the comparative
+anatomy of vertebrate animals in general.</p>
+
+<p>I begin by considering the bony structure of
+anthropoids, and, in particular, of the gorilla. And<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
+it will be well to note the important differences
+between the structure of the skull of a young and
+aged male, and of a young and aged female gorilla.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_15" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 17em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p056.jpg" width="1049" height="769" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 15.—Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skull of the aged male animal is large and
+heavy. Its average weight is one and a quarter
+kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter, from the
+alveolar point of the upper jaw to the occipital
+point, may be as much as 294 mm. The overhanging
+orbits are high in front, and flattened off
+behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge
+in the middle of the face. To these the back parts
+of the orbits are attached, in shape like a truncated
+cone, round and prominent in front, and narrowing
+into bony capsules in the direction of the
+brain-pan. They open directly in front, and the
+aperture is generally in the form of a regular square.
+The edges are seldom so blunted off as to present a
+figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
+Figs. <a href="#i_15">15</a>, <a href="#i_16">16</a>). The frontal bone, which in the young
+of both sexes is high, broad, and arched, becomes
+depressed in the centre in the aged male. The
+temporal ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to
+the coronal crest.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_16" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 13em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p057.jpg" width="789" height="1092" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 16.—Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the
+region of the frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites
+itself with the transverse occipital crest. It is of
+varying height,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> but is rarely altogether absent in
+an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
+crest we may see the two well-developed bony ridges
+which almost touch each other, and which indicate
+the upper limits of the temporal muscles on either
+side. In young animals these ridges tend downwards
+over the sides of the head, below the vertex
+of the skull. Their position and direction vary
+with the growth of the skull, and correspond with
+that of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital
+crest is of considerable height in the case of aged
+and vigorous animals, and is frequently somewhat
+concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore
+surface of this crest is formed of the two parietal bones,
+the hinder surface of the squamose portion of the
+occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is on the
+top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in
+that of other mammals, including man, it unites the
+parietal bones with those of the occiput. The point
+of union between the coronal and occipital crests
+divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves,
+curving outwards and downwards. The high, wide
+squamose portion of the occipital bone is somewhat
+flattened behind, or more rarely arched, while it is
+abrupt at its base and in some degree in front. Six
+curved lines, three on either side, opposite each
+other, sometimes mark the limits of the attachments
+of the cervical muscles on the head. The mastoid
+process of the temporal bone is present, but Brühl
+could find no trace of a styloid process on the skulls
+of gorillas and chimpanzees.</p>
+
+<p>The squamous portion of the temporal bone is
+often connected with the frontal bone by the process
+termed Virchow’s frontal process of the temporal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>
+bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow
+in their upper part, and widening below. When
+they are united in the centre of the nasal bridge, a
+sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed.
+The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity are
+remarkable for their size. In the skulls of young
+animals the inter-maxillary bones, which are in all
+anthropoids early united with those of the same
+region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal
+bones and those of the upper jaw.</p>
+
+<p>The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the
+enormous canine teeth project in the centre of the face
+on either side like pillars, just below the nostrils, and
+extend above and below the row of teeth in the two
+upper jaws (see <a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>). In this way the crowns of
+the canine teeth form a retreating triangular space,
+of which the base-line of the equilateral triangle
+corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin part
+of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the
+form of an equilateral triangle. In the latter case
+the base-line is covered by that section of the row of
+teeth containing the incisor teeth. The sides of the
+triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth
+(see again <a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>). The incisor teeth, enclosed
+between the latter, in that part of the lower jaw
+already described, are retreating. The rami of the
+lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of
+the lower jaw is obtuse (<a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>). The front or
+coronoid process and the back or condyloid process of
+the ramus of this bone are separated from each
+other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process
+projects abruptly above, but is less marked behind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p>
+
+<p>When we consider the internal form of the skull
+of an aged male gorilla, the first thing that strikes
+us is the marked development of the frontal
+sinuses, and especially their width in the region of
+the nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next
+observe the wings of the sphenoid bone, and that
+these large concave apophyses are provided with
+spaces only slightly separated from each other.
+These sinuses are not only plainly connected with
+each other, but with the sphenoidal sinuses. There
+is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with
+vestibules, and this has a deep communication with
+the maxillary sinus, or antrum of Highmore, embedded
+in the body of the upper maxillary bone.
+There are, finally, sinuses at the point of junction
+between the coronal and occipital crests.</p>
+
+<p>The maxillary region of the cranium of the young
+male gorilla is already somewhat prognathous, and
+the keel-shaped elevation of the bridge of the nose
+is also very apparent, but the development of these
+parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male.
+The whole contour of the cranium is oval, and without
+the high crests so characteristic of the aged
+male animal. It is well known that the Swedish
+anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has
+classified the skulls of different races of men as long-headed
+(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">dolichocephali</i>) and short-headed (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">brachycephali</i>).
+In the former class, the length is considerably
+greater than the height; while in the latter, the
+difference is either slight or non-existent. The
+skulls of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">dolichocephali</i> are long and oval; those
+of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">brachycephali</i> are short, round, or square. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
+addition to this division, which is of great value in
+the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of
+racial skulls, Retzius has constituted another. He
+has characterized skulls of which the profile is
+straight, or nearly straight, as <i lang="la" class="anatomy">orthognathous</i> (<i lang="de">rechtzähnige</i>);
+and those of which the maxillary region is
+very prominent, as <i lang="la" class="anatomy">prognathous</i> (<i lang="de">schiefzähnige</i>). These
+orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either
+dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p>
+
+<p>In applying this classification by Retzius to anthropoids,
+the gorillas and chimpanzees have been
+characterized as dolichocephalic and prognathous,
+the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic
+and prognathous. Several scientific men have
+sought to establish the noteworthy distinction that
+dolichocephalic anthropoids are found in Africa,
+and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This distinctive
+characteristic is held to agree with the
+geographical and ethnological conditions of the
+continents in question.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Virchow remarks in a later
+work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with
+every year of life, but that this is not so much due
+to the cranium as such, as to its bony outworks, such
+as the strongly developed supra-orbital arches, the
+enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measurements
+rather tend to show that the young gorilla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
+is brachycephalic, but that this characteristic
+diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the
+external excrescences are taken into account. But it
+is quite otherwise when the furthest point of measurement
+is taken from the frontal arch, not from the
+nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of
+the brachycephalic condition is established.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p>
+
+<p>In the skulls of such young males as those here
+mentioned, the temporal ridges, which in aged animals
+are in close proximity in the region of the developed
+bony crests, have already in some cases begun to
+approach each other, but they are still far apart. In
+young specimens we can distinguish, on each side
+of the parietal bones, two temporal ridges, opposite
+each other, and taking a nearly parallel course.
+The upper ridge, which loses itself on the external
+surface of the mastoid process, which is already
+developed, corresponds to the junction of the fascia
+of the cranial muscles (<i lang="la">Galea aponeurotica musculi
+epicranii</i>) with the fascia enclosing the large temporal
+muscles. The lower ridge, which is gradually
+merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process
+of the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the
+fleshy origin of the temporal muscle. This corresponds
+to the spot at which the two layers of the
+temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these
+temporal ridges can be only faintly traced; they become
+more strongly marked as his growth advances,
+and as they approximate more closely to each other
+on the vertex of the cranium. I have examined a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
+skull of which the sutures were still open, and could
+already trace the development of the coronal crest
+in two divisions, separated from each other by a
+longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these
+divisions corresponded to the two temporal ridges,
+which were in close proximity to each other. If the
+animal had not died at this stage of its development,
+it is probable that, with advancing growth, the two
+divisions of the crest would have been welded into
+one structure. Such a condition only characterizes
+a transitory stage of development, repeated in each
+individual.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where
+the longitudinal crest of which we have so often
+spoken is subsequently developed, we may often
+observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of
+a young male a longitudinal swelling, which increases
+very gradually. In the region of the two upper
+semicircular curved lines (<i lang="la">lineæ semicirculares s.
+nuchæ supremæ</i>), on the squamous occipital portion,
+or between these and the two central cervical lines,
+a transverse swelling is early developed; this swelling
+sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture,
+or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony
+excrescence, of which the anatomical term is <i lang="la">Torus
+occipitalis transversus</i>, corresponds to the first layer
+of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of
+the old male gorilla (see <a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region
+of the coronal suture, a small, insulated, intermediate
+bone may be observed (Virchow’s <i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>)
+between the squamous portion of the temporal bone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
+and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it
+is sometimes completely welded. In this case there
+is, above the <i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>, a direct connection
+between the temporal and frontal bones by means
+of the frontal process (Virchow’s <i lang="la">processus frontalis
+squamæ temporalis</i>), which is not rare in anthropoids.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a>
+This process often owes its origin to the
+<i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>, which is in its early stages attached
+to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again
+to this frontal process.</p>
+
+<p>The orbits are more rounded in young than in
+aged skulls; in the latter they are always angular,
+although the angles, especially the upper and
+external angles, may be more or less blunted.
+Virchow remarks that in the skull of a very young
+gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds its width,
+and that at that age the skull is therefore high.
+In the aged male gorilla the height of the orbit,
+according to the several measurements I have taken,
+varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width between
+37 to 45 mm.</p>
+
+<p class="hidden"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_17" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 13em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p065.jpg" width="811" height="1899" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <p>Fig. 17.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla
+corresponds in its powerful and massive form with
+the general structure of the body, which is remarkable
+for its height and strength (see <a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>). In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
+the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical,
+thirteen dorsal, and four lumbar vertebræ, thirteen
+ribs, and, even in aged animals, a sternum composed
+of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebræ
+display long spinous processes, which are most
+strongly developed between the fourth and seventh
+vertebræ. The extremities of this colossal structure,
+combined with the elevation of the occipital
+region, present a convex outline when seen from
+behind. This structure provides the point of insertion
+and support for the powerful cushion of cervical
+muscles. The dorsal vertebræ, which increase in
+height, width, and depth as they stand lower on the
+column, taper, and are keel-shaped at their junction
+with the cervical vertebræ. The central parts of the
+widely arched ribs, which are thirteen or sometimes
+fourteen in number, are very thick and powerful in
+the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs are attached
+by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two
+other costal cartilages are in proximity with them.
+The other cartilages are only rudimentary, and the
+terminations in the muscular system of the belly
+are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type
+here established, and from ten to eleven ribs are
+sometimes attached to the sternum by thread-like
+strips of ligament or cartilage.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal
+is of special interest. The chief parts of this portion
+of the skeleton—that is, the hip, pelvic, or
+innominate bones—are high, tapering in their lower
+part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate
+in the crest of the ilium, which describes a quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
+of a circle. There is, for the most part, only one
+small superior iliac spine, and the ischii are somewhat
+turned outwards, and furnished with broad,
+rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only
+a single large sacro-sciatic notch. The horizontal
+rami of the pubes are narrow, while the descending
+rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped
+like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards,
+and resembling the basal joint of a true tail. The
+coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a genuine tail.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interesting
+peculiarities. The clavicles are long and slender,
+with a leaf-shaped, flattened end articulating with
+the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with
+the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular
+bone, resembling the human scapula in its general
+form, and the supra- and infra-spinous fossæ are not
+strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus
+has its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees
+towards the axis of the shoulder. Frequently, but
+not invariably, the lower, flattened extremity of the
+humerus is pierced on one or both sides above its
+rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin
+the intercondyloid foramen.</p>
+
+<p>The radius has a powerful head, and a shaft considerably
+curved outwards, while it is, on the other
+hand, curved backwards and inwards at the elbow.
+The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges
+are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The development
+of the femur corresponds to that of the whole
+skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft is curved in
+front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
+is generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather
+laterally compressed.</p>
+
+<p>The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved outwards
+in the centre and inwards behind the astragalus.
+The head, with its cuneiform extremity, is
+of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The
+scaphoid bone, which is generally in connection with
+this projection, takes the same direction towards the
+inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion
+causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as
+if it had been subjected to a deviation or fracture
+of its longitudinal axis.</p>
+
+<p>In young and adult males, as well as in young
+females, the structure of the bones is generally
+less massive than in aged males. In the female
+skeleton the strongly developed depressions and
+ridges, especially in the bones of the extremities,
+are absent. The head of the ulna is, for example,
+less deeply set in the case of a female, and its projections
+are smaller than in the male animal. In
+the female, also, the head of the radius is smaller,
+and the triangular shape of its shaft is less strongly
+marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are
+wider, flatter, and less concave on their very projecting
+inner surface. They diverge more widely
+from each other, and this is also the case with the
+tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less
+depressed than in the male gorilla. Although the
+spinous processes of the vertebræ attain to some
+length and thickness, their development in the
+female is not so great as it is in the male sex.</p>
+
+<p>The bony structure of the chimpanzee offers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
+many points of resemblance to that of the gorilla,
+while it differs in certain particulars from the
+structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size
+of the skeleton is smaller than that of the gorilla,
+which is in agreement with the smaller relative size
+of the body of the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_18" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p069.jpg" width="997" height="887" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 18.—Skull of an aged male chimpanzee.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We must begin with a general view of the skull
+of the chimpanzee. In both sexes the frontal
+regions are smaller, while the coronal region is more
+rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests
+and prominent supra-orbital arches are wanting in
+the chimpanzee; the peculiar character of the bony
+ridges, projecting like tubes from the other parts
+of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more
+directly to the frontal region (see <a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a>). The
+bony bridge of the nose is more concave in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
+chimpanzee; the jaw-bones are smaller and less
+compressed in the centre than they are in the
+gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>When we undertake to describe the skull of the
+chimpanzee in detail, it becomes necessary to consider
+separately the skulls of aged and young males, and
+of aged and young females; for in this case also
+the distinctions of sex and age are very evident.
+On the skull of an aged male chimpanzee the
+temporal ridges are not much developed on the
+coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60
+to 90 mm. behind the orbits, and form only a
+small coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest
+is somewhat developed, and at its point of union
+with the coronal crest the temporal ridges divide to
+form its upper edges. This is the case not only
+with the Rio Quillu skull, from which <a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a> is
+taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte
+Tschègo given by Duvernoy.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> In some other specimens
+belonging to aged male animals the presence
+of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In
+these the temporal ridges are very small, and more
+or less distant from each other. While the transverse
+occipital crest maintains an almost uniform
+height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge,
+it is only slightly elevated behind in those chimpanzee
+skulls in which the crest is partially developed.
+In the gorilla male this ridge divides the
+squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes
+bevelled, sometimes slightly convex; in the male
+chimpanzee this part is more decidedly arched, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
+takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes
+are also present in the chimpanzee. The external
+occipital crest and the curved lines are generally
+apparent. The styloid processes are more plainly
+traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as
+in the chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process
+of the temporal bone, opposite to another bony
+process, issuing from the occipital bone. This has
+been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him
+the carotid process (<i lang="la">Processus caroticus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more
+rounded, with a distinctly circular rim, while the
+nasal bones are as long and narrow as in the gorilla.
+The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the
+external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than
+in the gorilla. The crowns of the canine teeth project
+in the same pillar-shaped form (<a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a>). The
+triangular space enclosed by these and by the row
+of teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and
+projecting, even more so than in the gorilla. But
+whereas in the latter the canine teeth are shaped
+almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chimpanzee
+they are more rounded and conical. In the
+general structure of the teeth of both species there
+are certain differences of which we shall speak
+presently.</p>
+
+<p>The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is
+still more arched than it is in aged animals. The
+temporal ridges are still far apart. The transverse
+occipital crest displays near the mastoid process
+well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls
+of very young males the transverse occipital swelling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
+of which we have spoken (<i lang="la">Torus occipitalis
+transversus</i>) is already developed. The orbits are
+distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of
+the nose is depressed; the crowns of the canine
+teeth are, in conformity with the still slight development
+of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the
+triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex
+than in older animals.</p>
+
+<p>The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its
+coronal and occipital parts, more uniformly arched,
+narrower, and more elongated than in aged males.
+The transverse occipital ridge usually develops
+itself in the region of the upper curved lines, or
+in the bony parts enclosed between these and the
+central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region
+is depressed. That section of the upper jaw which
+contains the incisor and canine teeth is small. In
+the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever sex or
+age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively
+small, with two low but wide rami, of which the
+coronoid and condyloid processes are divided from
+each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The
+rami of the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more
+abruptly retreating than is usually the case in the
+gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped
+almost like a half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely
+detached from the forehead; the want of elevation
+of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of
+the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between
+it and the nose and forehead (<a href="#i_20">Fig. 20</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The cancellous texture of the bones of the chimpanzee’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
+skull admits of a whole system of cavities
+communicating with each other, which are of the
+nature of the so-called sinuses
+present in the frontal, sphenoid,
+ethmoid, and maxillary bones of
+the human skull. In the chimpanzee,
+however, the sinuses are
+more extensive than in man, or
+even than in the gorilla. The
+large cavities of the forehead
+communicate with those of the nose and jaws. The
+sphenoidal sinuses and ethmoidal cells are large
+and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid bone
+and its pterygoid processes are provided with considerable
+cavities. The mastoid cells of the temporal
+bones are in connection with the cells of the
+greater wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid
+bone, and also extend through the squamous
+portions and zygomatic processes of the temporal
+bones, losing themselves in their upper part in the
+smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found
+between the outer and inner walls of the skull.
+These are of more uniform shape and size.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_19" class="figright land clear" style="max-width: 7em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p073.jpg" width="392" height="360" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 19.—Skull of a very young female chimpanzee.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance
+with the smaller size of the species, is relatively
+of a slenderer build than that of the gorilla.
+The spinous processes of the seven cervical vertebræ
+are more slightly developed, and have
+undivided extremities. The transverse processes of
+the fifth and sixth cervical vertebræ are almost of
+the same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen
+dorsal vertebræ, somewhat laterally compressed:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>
+this compression is greater than in
+man and in the gorilla. The four
+lumbar vertebræ of the chimpanzee
+are furnished with long, thin, riblike
+transverse processes. The so-called
+mammillary processes of
+the final vertebra are strongly developed
+in the male. The intervertebral
+foramina are small, as
+they are also in the gorilla and
+orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of
+the chimpanzee remind us of the
+human structure. The collar-bone
+is slightly curved, as in the gorilla.
+There is a marked difference
+between the sexes in the structure
+of the scapula which is
+broad and three-sided in the male,
+small and leaf-shaped in the female.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_20" class="figleft port clear" style="max-width: 16em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 6.5em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p074.jpg" width="367" height="1688" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 20.—Skeleton of the
+      forearm and hand of the
+      Central African bam-chimpanzee.
+      <i>a</i>, Ulna.
+      <i>b</i>, Radius.
+      <i>c</i>, Scaphoid bone.
+      <i>d</i>, Semi-lunar bone.
+      <i>e</i>, Cuneiform bone.
+      <i>f</i>, Pisiform bone.
+      <i>g</i>, Trapezium.
+      <i>h</i>, Os magnum.
+      <i>j</i>, Trapezoid.
+      <i>k</i>, Unciform bone.
+      <i>l</i>, Phalanges of thumb.
+      <i>m</i>, Metacarpal bones.
+      <i>n</i>, Phalanges.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The humeri have slender shafts,
+with well-developed condyles and
+ridges. The bones of the forearm
+are much curved, so that the interval
+between them is, as in the
+gorilla, somewhat wide. From the
+wrist to the final phalanges the
+hand is more slender than in the
+gorilla.</p>
+
+<p>The pelvis in this species of ape
+has high, narrow ilia, spreading
+in their upper parts, and projecting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
+forwards, so as to form the cavity of the
+abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior
+spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than
+in the gorilla and orang-utan. The ischiatic tuberosities
+are of a spreading form, and diverge considerably
+from each other. The pubic arch is deeply
+hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated.
+As in the gorilla, the os sacrum resembles the
+basis of a tail, but it is less developed and less
+conical in form.</p>
+
+<p>In the chimpanzee, as well as in other anthropoids,
+the coccyx gives altogether the impression of a
+laterally compressed and rudimentary tail. This is
+especially the case in young animals, in which the
+coccyx always appears to be very narrow and prolonged.
+In older animals this part gradually
+widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a
+rudimentary tail.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the femur resembles a section of a
+sphere, of which the upper part is sometimes wanting.
+Its shaft, which is curved in front, is much
+slenderer in the female than the male. The patella
+is oval. In the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally
+compressed, and bent inwards. The bones on the
+inner side of the foot take a backward direction,
+while those on the outer side, attached to the
+fibula, turn outwards.</p>
+
+<p>In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is
+much arched, and turned inwards. The scaphoid
+bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The metatarsal
+bones and phalanges have a considerable upward
+convexity (<a href="#i_21">Fig. 21</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_21" class="figright port clear" style="max-width: 16em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p076.jpg" width="388" height="964" style="max-width: 8em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 21.—Skeleton of foot
+        of the Central African bam-chimpanzee. <i>a</i>, Astragalus.
+        <i>b</i>, Os calcis. <i>c</i>, Scaphoid bone. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>,
+        Cuneiform bones. <i>g</i>, Cuboid bone. <i>h</i>, First metatarsal
+        bone. <i>j</i>, Second to fifth metatarsal bones. <i>k</i>, Phalanges.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the orang has also its special
+characteristics. We have already remarked, in
+describing the external form of the
+heads of these animals, that the
+skull is high and projecting, and
+retreating in its hinder part. In
+the old male orang this part of
+the bony structure is of smaller
+size than in the old male gorilla.
+The arch of the cranium is shorter
+and rounder than in that animal
+and in the chimpanzee. The central
+longitudinal crest of the vertex
+is present, but in accordance with
+the more spherical shape of the
+coronal part of the cranium, this
+crest is more arched above than
+in the gorilla, in which it slopes
+gently upward to the transverse
+occipital crest, which rises high
+and peaked from the back of the
+head. This latter crest is indeed
+developed in the orang, but it is
+not so high, and is more retreating. In consequence
+of this formation, the upper posterior part of the
+gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more
+abrupt and peaked than that of the orang. In the
+latter, also, the orbital arches are not so high and
+abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of
+the skull. In the orang the squamous occipital
+portion declines abruptly in front and below, yet
+it is generally more arched than in the gorilla.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
+The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes
+rounded, sometimes more square, are divided from
+each other by a narrow partition. The space between
+them and the anterior nares is not so
+great as in the gorilla. While in the last-named
+animal the space between the root of the nose and
+the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the
+chimpanzee it is generally vertical, and in the orang
+it is depressed (<a href="#i_22">Fig. 22</a>). The maxillary parts,
+furnished with strong canine teeth, are very prognathous,
+yet hardly to the same extent as in the
+chimpanzee. The body of the lower jaw is high,
+and its rami are high and wide. The bony crests
+of which we have spoken are absent in the female.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
+The coronal part and the squamous occipital parts
+are arched; the upper jaw is smaller, and the lower
+jaw is also less massive, than in the male animal.
+In very young animals the predominance of the
+strongly arched cranium over the countenance is
+apparent, and the increase of size in the latter
+occurs gradually (<a href="#i_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_22" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p077.jpg" width="1000" height="1042" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 22.—Skull of middle-aged female orang.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and
+wide at their base. They are more decidedly pear-shaped
+(<i lang="la">Apertura pyriformis</i>) than those of the gorilla
+and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these apertures
+are generally wider and more uniformly rounded.
+Bischoff justly observes that the bony part below
+the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide above,
+tapering away in the lower part of the face, is
+narrower and more vertical in the orang. The
+nasal bones of the orang are high and of moderate
+width. Brühl mentions the styloid process of the
+orang’s skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive
+when we compare it with that of the human skull.
+It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove. On the
+other hand, Brühl, as we have already observed, can
+find no trace of the styloid process in the skulls of
+the gorilla and the chimpanzee!<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p>
+
+<p class="hidden"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_23" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 32em;">
+  <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p079.jpg" width="1157" height="2059" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 23.—Skeleton of young orang-utan. <i>a</i>, Sternum. <i>b</i>, Radius. <i>c</i>, Ulna.
+      <i>d</i>, Tibia. <i>e</i>, Metacarpus. <i>f</i>, Phalanges. <i>g</i>, Great toe. <i>h</i>, Fibula. <i>j</i>, Hip-bones.
+      <i>k</i>, Coccyx. <i>l</i>, Vertebral column. <i>m</i>, Scapula. <i>n</i>, Femur.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are many large-celled bony cavities in the
+orang’s skull. These may be observed in the greater
+wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone,
+in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal
+bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in
+the condyles of the occipital bone, and in the zygomatic
+arch. The larger fore-cells on the squamous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
+part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide
+aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and
+pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. A sinus
+which may be observed on the greater wing generally
+communicates by a large round hole with the
+temporal cells. There is generally, but not always,
+a communication between the sinuses of the greater
+wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity.
+These cavities sometimes communicate with each
+other through a wide aperture at the base of the
+nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones
+has a cellular sinus, which communicates with the
+cells of the mastoid process, in its lower part with
+the tympanum, and in its fore-part with the ossicles
+of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary
+sinuses are in connection with the cells of the
+lachrymal bone. There is nothing in the orang’s
+skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the
+sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla
+and the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebral column of the orang has not the
+same colossal spinous processes which distinguish
+that of the gorilla. It differs also in many other,
+though less striking, particulars both from the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there
+are generally twelve dorsal vertebræ, tapering in
+their lower parts; while their long, thick, transverse
+processes, which are full of knots, take an upward
+direction. The upper articular processes of the four
+lumbar vertebræ present short and rather insignificant
+mammillary processes. The sternum of the
+young orang is generally formed of one large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
+upper bone, with six smaller bones below. In older
+animals the body of the sternum appears to consist
+of a tier of three bones connected together. The
+ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the
+clavicle is long and straight, and the scapula also
+resembles that of a man in form. The flat
+pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the
+ischiatic bones are short, with spatula-shaped tuberosities;
+the pubic arch is high, and the obturator
+foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and
+coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much
+as in the case of the anthropoids we have already
+described. We are reminded of the human structure
+in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved
+behind, and on its outer side. The ulna is very
+slender, and provided with a protracted, jagged
+styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering,
+while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and
+the anterior border and oblique line are sharp. The
+wrist, metacarpus, and fingers are long and narrow.</p>
+
+<p>The femur of the orang is remarkable for its
+large head, shaped like a section of a sphere, and
+its slender shaft. The latter is less bent than in the
+gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should
+be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in
+this case of an irregular form. The shank and foot-bones
+are remarkably slender. The scaphoid is
+tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn
+inward so much as in the gorilla. The hinder surfaces
+of the metatarsal bones and of the phalanges
+turn decidedly outwards.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to consider the bony structure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
+gibbons, in which there are many specific variations
+which our space will not allow us to consider in
+detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system
+must be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s
+skull is of an oval shape, without the crests so
+characteristic of other anthropoids, and even in the
+aged males of this species their development is so
+slight as to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital
+bone of male animals is, indeed, generally rounded,
+and the whole occipital portion is somewhat compressed
+in a downward direction, while the coronal
+region is at the same time flattened. The cranium
+gradually widens behind, so that, when seen from
+above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged
+males the orbits project from the low, retreating
+frontal bone, and are surrounded by a bony, circular
+rim.</p>
+
+<p>The face is not very prognathous, and the short
+wide nasal-bones form a wide, depressed partition
+between the orbits. The edges of the jaw-bones
+describe a parabolic curve and are considerably
+elongated. The palate is consequently long and
+narrow. The rami of the lower jaw are wide and
+low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly
+developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially
+the canine teeth, are long and projecting; yet, comparatively
+speaking, they never attain to the great
+development of those of other anthropoids.</p>
+
+<p>The number of vertebræ seems to be subject to
+considerable variation even in the same species, and
+various estimates are given by different naturalists.
+Müller, for example, has said that in several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
+species (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">H. leuciscus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">H. variagatus</i>,
+and <i class="taxonomy">H. concolor</i>) there are thirteen dorsal, five
+lumbar, six sacral, and four coccygeal vertebræ.
+Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal, five
+lumbar, four sacral, and three coccygeal vertebræ.
+In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> I counted thirteen dorsal, six
+lumbar, five sacral, and four coccygeal vertebræ.
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i> has long coccygeal bones, and
+an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression
+of serving for the application of a short tail, or,
+indeed, of being in itself a rudimentary tail. In
+other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar
+vertebræ differ little in structure from those of man.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly
+outwards, are strongly arched. The lowest of these
+project, owing to the width of the shaft. In the
+sternum there is a want of proportion between the
+smallness of its body and the size and width of its
+extremity. The ensiform appendix of this bone
+is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower
+extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are
+very slender, and much arched. The scapulæ,
+on the other hand, are high and narrow, spatula-shaped,
+and provided with a steeply projecting
+acromion process, a strongly developed coracoid
+process, and deep glenoid cavities. The upper
+limbs are, in conformity with the general structure
+of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones
+of the upper and forearm are elongated, with small
+extremities. The condyles are small, especially
+those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the
+metacarpus, and the fingers are also long and slender.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span></p>
+
+<p>In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow
+below, and expand in the form of a spatula above,
+and that their position is almost vertical. Their
+inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are
+directed somewhat forwards. The ischiatic bones
+are low, with wide, flattened, rugged tuberosities,
+and rounded <i lang="la">foramina obturatoria</i>. The ischiatic
+rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direction.
+There are large prominences on the pubic
+arch of the siamang.</p>
+
+<p>The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the
+arm. The heads of the femurs stand out plainly
+from their short necks and large trochanters, as
+segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in
+that of other anthropoids, the third trochanter (<i lang="la">trochanteres
+tertii</i>), often so apparent in the human
+femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are
+arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed,
+so that its transverse section forms a scalene triangle.
+The malleoli are compressed from before backwards.
+The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally
+compressed. The canal between the astragalus and
+the os calcis (<i lang="la">Sinus tarsi</i>) is very wide. The metatarsal
+bones and phalanges have large bases, long
+slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under
+side. Even the final phalanges are long and
+slender.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_24" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p085.jpg" width="1582" height="1129" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 24.—The Zulu king, Ketchwayo,
+    in fighting array, with two of his men.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We shall now find it profitable to compare the
+external characters of anthropoids with those of
+man. We are sometimes disposed to see the true
+likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked
+savages. These savages are often insufficiently fed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
+the skin is wrinkled, the face, even at an early age,
+is deeply furrowed, and their general appearance is
+neglected. The dark silhouette of such people
+stands out so distinctly against a clear background,
+their habit of life is so rude, their attitudes impress
+us so disagreeably, that we are involuntarily led to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
+make such a comparison. This tendency unfortunately
+gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti
+naturalists, and such as are zealous to establish a preconceived
+theory. A conscientious inquirer must,
+however, be cautious, and avoid too great generalization
+in such comparisons. For instance, much has
+been said of the pithecoid structure of all African
+negroes, yet this only applies to some peculiarly
+hideous races, in a state of physical degradation.
+There are many negro tribes in different parts of Africa
+which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies, and
+for a not ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour
+of the natives of Ashanti, Dahomey, and Ibos is well
+known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed and
+thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform,
+as we see in the photographs of Captain Glover’s force,
+their military bearing is very apparent. The tribes
+of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam, and A-Bantu
+present examples of distinguished warriors, however
+rude and savage. Dabulamanzi, commander of the
+Zulus at the butcheries of Isandlhwana and Ulundi,
+and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my possession,
+the impression of gallant warriors, however
+uncivilized. In all these cases it is difficult to establish
+the resemblance to anthropoid apes (see also <a href="#i_24">Fig. 24</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The Papuans, especially on the Australian continent,
+are generally classed with the African negroes
+in such comparisons. We admit that a horde of
+Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue,
+emaciated and dirty, may, as they roam through the
+shadeless woods, the steppes and thick scrub of their
+native country, present a strange and brute-like appearance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
+And if the foreign intruder takes a
+coarse pleasure in giving drink to these savages,
+their immodest gestures may afford a revolting impression
+of their bestial nature. Yet the habits even
+of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different
+under more favourable conditions. Although of
+small stature, they are not badly proportioned, and
+their manners and bearing are capable of improvement,
+so that they can act as native police,
+messengers, etc. This was the case also with the
+natives of Queensland, Australia, whom I saw in the
+Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomerang.
+Even in these tamed savages, however, we
+must note the projecting orbits, the deep depression
+between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of
+the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bushmen,
+negroes, Papuans, Malays, Japanese, and
+Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are
+altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may
+even be found in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in
+British India, asserted that he had found the
+missing link between man and apes in the mountainous
+district of the Western Ghauts. And
+indeed, the race he describes seems to have a strong
+resemblance to apes. “The forehead is low and
+retreating. The lower part of the face projects
+like the muzzle of an ape; the legs are short and
+bent outwards. The trunk and arms are comparatively
+long. The hands and fingers are contracted
+so that the latter cannot be freely extended; a
+thick skin covers the hollow of the hand and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small
+and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered
+both on their backs and soles with a thick skin.
+This tribe seems to worship nature. They have no
+fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and
+honey, and exchange the latter, together with wax
+and other productions of their forests, for tobacco,
+clothes, and rice.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p>
+
+<p>Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been
+published concerning this race. The description
+given above leaves much to be desired. The assertion
+respecting the contracted fingers is obscure,
+and such a condition is directly opposed to any
+resemblance with the flexible hand of apes.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_25" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p088.jpg" width="1177" height="574" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="ilb in1">
+      <p>Fig. 25.<br> Aidanill, hairless Australian.</p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="ilb in4">
+      <p>Fig. 26.<br> The same in profile.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence
+is still dubious, to consider the portraits we subjoin
+of a man and woman, aborigines of Queensland,
+in a district watered by the Ballone. These are
+Aidanill, the brother, and Dewan, the sister,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
+members of a hairless family. The indefatigable
+Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles
+from Tulba, in order to examine them, and took
+the photographs from which our illustrations are
+taken.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p>
+
+<p>A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of
+its hair, may be traced in the keel or roof-shaped
+form of the skull; in the prominence of the supra-orbital
+arches; in the deep depression between the
+forehead and nose, of which only the centre of the
+bridge has a slight vertical elevation; in the broad,
+flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows; in the
+wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally projecting
+ears. Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in
+their treatise on <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i> (Figs. <a href="#i_25">25</a>, <a href="#i_25">26</a>,
+<a href="#i_27">27</a>). When we add to this the dark brown skin,
+the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark
+brown eyes, as they are described by Miklucho-Maclay,
+the external resemblance between many of
+the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more
+marked.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_27" class="figleft land" style="max-width: 11em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p090.jpg" width="644" height="591" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 27.—Dewan, Aidanill’s sister.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Projecting ears are common among men of different
+races, and I have observed them in Europeans
+who are otherwise well formed. Even in this latter
+case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of
+the resemblance which may often be observed between
+the human ear and that of apes. It is admitted
+that hardly any part of the organism varies
+so much in its characteristics as the external ear.
+This is the case with anthropoids, and almost more
+frequently with men. Individuals of all nations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
+are found with defective development of this or
+that characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha,
+and fossa, with lobules imperfectly formed or altogether
+absent. I have
+frequently observed
+such misshapen ears,
+which vary from the
+perfect type, and bear
+a certain resemblance
+to the ear of apes,
+among the hard-featured
+peasantry of
+Germany, Switzerland,
+France, Italy, and Poland,
+who cannot be said to count beauty as part of
+their inheritance. In Africa I found this defective
+formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks,
+and Turks who were living in the country, than
+among the fellaheen, Berbers, and negroes. The
+latter have been unjustly charged with the possession
+of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas, among the African
+races, these organs are, in the majority of cases,
+of a pleasing form. With respect to the Australian
+blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and Indian
+races, I cannot rely on my personal observation.
+According to my very limited experience, there is
+much individual variation among these races, and
+ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be
+sought for with success. The specific resemblance
+to apes can, indeed, only be ascertained by one who
+is accurately acquainted with the organism of these
+animals. These and similar ideas are often expressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
+by the unlearned, who do not really understand the
+characteristics in question.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the ear
+in the chimpanzee and orang.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> “The ears of the
+chimpanzee and orang are curiously like those of
+man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological
+Gardens that these animals never move or
+erect them, so that they are in an equally rudimentary
+condition, as far as that function is concerned,
+as man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors
+of man, should have lost the power of
+erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be,
+though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that
+owing to their arboreal habits and great strength
+they were but little exposed to danger, and so
+during a lengthened period moved their ears but
+little, and thus gradually lost the power of moving
+them. This would be a parallel case with that of
+those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting
+oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks
+of beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the
+power of using their wings for flight.</p>
+
+<p>“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me
+of one little peculiarity in the external ear which he
+has often observed both in men and women, and of
+which he perceived the full signification. His attention
+was first called to the subject whilst at
+work on his figure of Puck, to which he had given
+pointed ears. He was thus led to examine the ears
+of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully
+those of man. The peculiarity consists in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
+little blunt point, projecting from the inwardly
+folded margin, or helix. These points not only project
+inwards, but often a little outwards, so that
+they are visible when the head is viewed from
+directly in front or behind. They are variable in
+size and somewhat in position, standing either a
+little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on
+one ear and not on the other. Now the meaning
+of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but
+it may be thought that they offer too trifling a
+character to be worth notice. This thought, however,
+is as false as it is natural. Every character,
+however slight, must be the result of some definite
+cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves
+consideration. The helix obviously consists
+of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards;
+and this folding appears to be in some manner connected
+with the whole external ear being permanently
+pressed backwards. In many monkeys,
+which do not stand high in the order, as baboons
+and some species of macacus, the upper portion
+of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin
+is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
+were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily
+project inwards and probably a little outwards.
+This could actually be observed in a specimen
+of the <i class="taxonomy">Ateles beelzebuth</i> in the Zoological Gardens;
+and we may safely conclude that it is a similar
+structure—a vestige of formerly pointed ears—which
+occasionally reappears in man.”</p>
+
+<figure id="i_28" class="figright port" style="max-width: 7em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p093.jpg" width="422" height="763" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 28.—Human ear.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in
+which the pointed tip mentioned by Darwin may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
+easily discovered. This point may also be perceived
+in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of
+the orang-utan. Meyer has attempted
+to show that this Darwinian
+pointed tip is only due to
+the abortive development of part
+of the helix, and in this case we
+should not regard the occurrence
+as an ape-like pointing of the
+helix, but rather as its partial
+interruption owing to the pathological
+condition of that organ.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a>
+In a later edition of his work,
+Darwin admits, in reply to Meyer,
+that this explanation may apply
+to many cases in which there
+are several very small points, or when the whole of
+the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by
+Darwin, the prominence was so large that, if we were
+to assume with Meyer that the ear would have been
+normal if the cartilage had been uniformly developed
+along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must
+have occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases
+were mentioned to Darwin in which the upper edge
+of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed
+that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal.
+The ear of the fœtus of an orang given in Darwin’s
+illustration appears to be pointed, although in the
+adult animal that organ is very like the human ear.
+The Darwinian tip may also be seen in the fœtus of
+an orang described and illustrated by Salvatore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
+Trinchese in the <cite lang="it">Annali del Museo civico di Storia
+Naturale di Genova</cite> (1870). The tip of the helix is
+pointed in very young individuals of the gibbon
+species, especially in
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Lar</i>. Among
+the lower apes the
+pointed ear is very
+common (see <a href="#i_29">Fig. 29</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_29" class="figleft port" style="max-width: 12em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p094.jpg" width="639" height="870" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 29.—Magot (<i class="taxonomy">Innuus ecaudatus</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The eyelids of anthropoids
+greatly resemble
+those of man in
+their structure. In adult
+gorillas and chimpanzees
+there is always a
+semilunar fold (<i lang="la">plica
+semilunaris</i>) corresponding
+to the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">membrana
+nictitans</i>, or third eyelid
+of birds. In man there
+exists, instead of this, only a rudimentary apparatus,
+the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">caruncula lachrymalis</i>. In some individuals it
+attains to a considerable size, as I have observed in
+the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes.
+On the other hand, the conversion of the caruncula
+into a true, although only rudimentary, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">plica semilunaris</i>
+has not been observed by me in the human
+eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula
+in Melanesians (the Papuans of New Guinea), in
+the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula), and in
+the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the
+Palau archipelago), as two or three times as wide
+as that of the average European.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p>
+
+<p>The eye of the young male gorilla which was
+kept alive in the Berlin Aquarium from 1876–77
+was carefully examined by me in June, 1877. I
+found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball
+was whitish, surrounded by a dark brown ring. A
+second darker ring, sharply defined, surrounded the
+cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The
+sclerotic membrane, however, gradually deepens in
+colour so as to give the effect of a uniform dark brown.
+The iris retains a light brown colour for a longer
+period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal
+there is no brightness in the eye, except from reflected
+light. In the chimpanzee the iris is light brown, verging
+on yellow; and this is also the case in the orang.</p>
+
+<p>The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids
+has often been observed, and undoubtedly chimpanzees
+and orangs generally gaze placidly before them.
+I have, however, observed an animated expression
+in the eyes of the former species, and W.&nbsp;L. Martin
+has also observed a flash and brightening of their
+eyes. I shall never forget the expression of
+malicious anger in the eyes of the female animal
+Mafuca, at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The
+expression of the eyes of the gorilla in the Berlin
+Aquarium also changed frequently, especially when
+he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or
+when he was provoked to anger. The expression of
+this animal was very human, but necessarily it could
+only recall the darkly coloured eyes of negroes and
+other black races. In 1876 there were two very
+young orangs in the Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and
+the other hairless. These animals clung together in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
+a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes
+became bright and restless, and they again sought
+to embrace each other while uttering plaintive cries.
+On tickling one of the animals under the chin, it
+made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened,
+as Martin has observed in similar cases. The eyes
+of the gibbons which I have observed had a
+thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely
+animated by any fire.</p>
+
+<p>The instance we have mentioned of hairless
+Australians is the more remarkable since these
+aborigines are for the most part distinguished for
+their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian
+blacks and the Ainos of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps
+the most hairy races in the world. It is known,
+however, that in all countries and climates exceptional
+cases are found of individuals whose bodies
+are wholly or partially covered with hair, and these
+conditions sometimes affect whole families. Interesting
+historical and morphological researches
+respecting these hairy men have recently been made
+by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow, Bartels, and Ornstein.
+In many of these cases we are presented
+with decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican
+woman Julia Pastrana displays the strongest resemblance
+to apes. Other hairy men remind us at the
+first glance of some of the canine species. In all
+races the women are less hairy than the men. Darwin
+states that in the females of some species of
+apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in
+the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids,
+especially with the chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p>
+
+<p>The beard is, as we know, common to man and
+apes. Among apes it is more strongly developed in
+the male than in the female, and this is also the case
+in the human species. Darwin points out that the
+growth of the beard both of men and apes occurs at
+the period of their sexual maturity, and also that
+there is a remarkable parallel between men and apes
+in its colour. For when the human beard varies in
+colour from the hair of the head, which is frequently
+the case, it is, without exception, of a lighter, and
+generally of a reddish hue. Darwin observed this
+in England, and Hooker found no exception to the
+rule in Russia. J. Scott carefully observed the
+numerous races which are to be found in Calcutta,
+as in other parts of India, namely, the two Sikh
+races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese.
+Although most of these races have very little hair
+on the face, Scott found that in all cases without
+exception, in which there was any difference in
+colour between the hair of the head and the beard,
+the latter was of a lighter shade. In apes the
+colour of the beard often differs widely from that of
+the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always
+of a lighter shade, often white, sometimes yellow or
+reddish.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_30" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p098.jpg" width="1317" height="1373" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 30.—Capucin ape (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus capucinus</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“It is well known,” says Darwin, “that the hair
+on our arms tends to converge from above and below
+to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement,
+so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is
+common to the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some
+species of Hylobates, and even to some few American
+monkeys. But in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> the hair on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
+forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist
+in the ordinary manner; and in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates lar</i> it is
+nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclination;
+so that in this latter species it is in a transitional
+state. It can hardly be doubted that with
+most mammals the thickness of the hair and its
+direction on the back is adapted to throw off the
+rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
+dog may serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep.
+Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the
+hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang
+(whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to
+throw off the rain, when, as is the custom of this
+animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped
+round a branch or over its own head. We should, however,
+bear in mind that the attitude of an animal
+may perhaps be in part determined by the direction
+of the hair; and not the direction of the hair by the
+attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the
+case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers
+a curious record of our former state; for no one supposes
+that it is now of any use in throwing off the
+rain, nor in our present erect condition is it properly
+directed for this purpose.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p>
+
+<p>Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny
+that apes have eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eyebrows
+are present in all anthropoids—not growing
+thickly together like those of men, but scattered
+among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which
+clothes the parts above the orbits; nor do they
+maintain any definite direction. In the white-handed
+gibbon, these eyebrows are remarkable for their length
+and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to
+eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper
+eyelids of all mammals, including seals and pachydermata.
+On the upper lip of gorillas, chimpanzees,
+and orangs we may also observe a number of somewhat
+longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart
+from the otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
+the impression of a cat’s “whiskers.” In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates
+albimanus</i> I observed that these <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vibrissæ</i> attain to a
+considerable length (<a href="#i_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The external form of the trunk of anthropoids,
+taken as a whole, does not greatly differ from that
+of man. We have not, indeed, the well-formed
+human torso, with its graceful lines; and the formation
+of the posteriors, together with a want of expansion
+about the hips, displeases us in its departure
+from the human type (see Figs. <a href="#i_1">1</a> and <a href="#i_6">6</a>). We shall
+not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo
+Belvedere, or of the Olympian Hermes with that of
+a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the torso of a powerful
+male gorilla, from which the hair has been
+removed, may be favourably compared with that of
+one of the large-bellied, lean-armed weaklings who
+are everywhere to be found as living caricatures of
+the human species.</p>
+
+<p>The neck of anthropoids is generally short
+and thick. In the gorilla that part of the body
+has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have
+said, to the great development of the spinous processes
+of the cervical vertebræ, and of the muscles
+attached to them. A short, thick throat, and considerable
+development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it
+is called, is also not unfrequent in man. This peculiarity
+is sometimes supposed to be one of the national
+characteristics of the African blacks. Burmeister
+says that “the negro’s thick neck is the more striking,
+since it is generally allied with a short throat. In
+measuring negroes from the crown of the head to
+the shoulder I found the interval to be from nine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
+and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In
+Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom
+less than ten inches, and it is more commonly eleven
+inches in women, and twelve in men. The shortness
+of the neck, as well as the relatively small size of the
+brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more
+readily be taken as an approximation to the simian
+type, since all apes are short-necked, and the relative
+distance of these animals is somewhat further from
+the negro than that of the negro from the European.
+This shortness of the neck in the negro
+explains his greater carrying power, and his preference
+for carrying burdens on his head, which is
+much more fatiguing to the European on account of
+his longer and weaker neck.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p>
+
+<p>Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, however,
+much too general. It does not apply to
+many of the negro races—at any rate, not to those
+of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is
+the characteristic of the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas,
+Baris, and other large tribes of those regions.
+Among these people the interval between the top
+of the head and the shoulder is from ten to
+eleven, and even from eleven to twelve inches (240 to
+260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.). Burmeister has
+been thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks.
+Yet I am unable to trace the typical short neck,
+either in the well-known portraits of slaves by
+Maurice Rugendas,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> or in the collection of photographs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
+of Brazilian negroes which is in my possession.
+This characteristic is also absent, even in
+many portraits of West African and Mozambique
+blacks, tribes from which the slave population of
+Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many Mongolians,
+Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick
+necks, but this characteristic is more rare among
+the American aborigines and among Europeans. If
+we are to recognize an approximation to the simian
+type in this formation, it is one common to several
+nations, and it is not confined only, nor even chiefly,
+to the negro races.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of
+anthropoid apes cannot be compared with the length
+of the corresponding limbs in men. For although
+among negroes and the members of other primitive
+peoples we may occasionally observe unusually long
+arms, yet these are individual peculiarities which
+are also found among Europeans, and cannot be
+counted among racial characteristics.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_31" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 14em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p103.jpg" width="845" height="1373" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 31.—Hand of a very aged male gorilla.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long
+and narrow to be directly compared with the human
+hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla, especially
+the latter, have hands more like those of man. In
+the case of an adult male gorilla the first glance at
+this member reminds us of the knotty fist of a black
+dock labourer or lighterman, like those who, at Rio
+de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags
+of coffee and place them on their heads or on their
+herculean shoulders. Much has been said of the
+enlargement of the connective skin between the
+bases of the fingers of a negro hand, and of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
+pointed extremities of the fingers. Van der Hoeven,
+in his well-known treatise, <cite lang="de">De Natuurlijke Geschiedenis
+van den Negerstam</cite>, has described and drawn
+the hand of an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner.
+Hence there is a disposition to recognize in this
+peculiarity an important characteristic of the negro
+race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective
+web between the bases of the fingers is also extensive,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
+and the ungual phalanges taper at their extremities,
+there is also an inclination to ascribe an expressly
+anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this
+structure of the fingers is by no means universal
+among the negroes. An enlargement of the connective
+web is not indeed uncommon, but its extent
+varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers
+of other races. An attentive observer will be able<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+to trace it in the labouring population of country
+districts in Europe. I have myself frequently
+observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in
+the Lombard and Genoese provinces, through which
+I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871, when I devoted
+special attention to this point. In <a href="#i_32">Fig. 32</a> I give a
+negro hand of a type which seems to be common
+among the blacks in the inland districts of North-eastern
+Africa. It can hardly be denied that the
+form of this hand, which is certainly not flattered,
+possesses the characteristics of a thoroughly human
+organization.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_32" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 16em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p104.jpg" width="969" height="1346" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 32.—Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With respect to other primitive peoples besides
+negroes, we have not at present sufficient information,
+and we ought therefore to beware of premature
+generalization. The thin shanks, with
+imperfectly developed calves, found among many
+primitive races, and especially among the African
+and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly
+adduced as an instance of their ape-like formation.
+In fact, the general uncomeliness of these parts in
+the races in question is one of their significant
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_33" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p106.jpg" width="1407" height="1274" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 33.—Satan’s ape (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecia Satanas</i>).
+      Shows the formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those
+of other apes, including those of the New World,
+and as a rule it differs from the human foot
+in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, however,
+been justly observed that many individuals of
+different races have been able to use the great toe
+almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be
+found everywhere. Men who have been born without
+arms, or who have been deprived of them during life,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
+have been able to use their feet like hands, as some
+compensation for this privation. The most surprising
+instance of our time has occurred in the violinist
+without arms, whose performances are heard in
+various continental capitals. Another, mentioned
+by Bär, was able to write with his feet. But even
+people who have the full use of their upper limbs
+can often grasp with the great toe as if it were a
+thumb, so as to pick up small objects from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
+ground, or draw them towards them. Constant
+practice in such feats produces a certain dexterity.
+Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians make
+use of their outstretched great toes in climbing
+with as skilful a gripe as our schoolboys and sailors
+are also able to do in gymnastics, or in climbing up
+the masts. Among such people the distinction
+between the foot of man and apes is less marked,
+since, even when at rest, the great toe is apt to be
+somewhat detached from the others. This may be
+seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of individuals
+of the Central African tribe, the Makraka.
+Haeckel justly observes that there is no marked
+physiological distinction between the hand and foot
+which can be established on a scientific basis. In
+order to make such a distinction it is necessary to
+consider their morphological characteristics.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_34" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p108.jpg" width="1285" height="1321" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 34.—Human skull. <i>a</i>, Nasal bone. <i>b</i>, Upper jaw.
+        <i>c</i>, Lower jaw. <i>d</i>, Occipital bone. <i>e</i>, Temporal bone.
+        <i>f</i>, Parietal bone. <i>g</i>, Frontal bone. <i>h</i>, Malar bone.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><em>Structure of the skeleton.</em>—In comparing the skulls
+of anthropoids with those of men, we should, in the
+case of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-utan,
+content ourselves with young specimens rather than
+with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these
+species, the colossal development of the bony crests
+of the skull, as well as that of the jaws, the prominence
+of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the
+occipital bone, present distinctions of such a searching
+character that we are greatly hindered in the
+pursuit of the comparative method. But during
+the process of development the anthropoid skeleton
+admits of a direct comparison with that of man.
+In a young animal the rounded skull suggests a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
+parallel between it and the human head. It must
+be admitted that we find, especially in primitive
+peoples, many human skulls which in their whole
+plastic form differ little from the skulls of young
+gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the
+way the occipital bone is rounded off, young anthropoids
+and men are often found in a similar stage
+of development. The squamous occipital portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
+in a young negro, Papuan and Malay, is indeed often
+flatter and more bevelled than it is in a young
+gorilla or chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>We must not, however, assume that the two
+individuals brought into comparison are of precisely
+the same age, since such a point cannot easily be
+ascertained, even when subjects for examination are
+afforded by one of our larger museums. Savages
+are seldom able to give their precise age, and the
+attempt to do so often relies on insufficient data.
+The direct examination of the skull will afford some
+information on this point; but the conditions of
+growth in anthropoids are not so well known as to
+admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on
+the state of the teeth, on the stage at which the
+development of the bony crests has arrived, etc., in
+order to form an approximate estimate of the age
+of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>On the squamous occipital portion the arrangement
+of the curved lines which are the boundaries to
+the attachments of the cervical muscles, is common
+to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only indications
+of these lines are to be found in the lower
+order of mammals. In the human skull there is sometimes
+a formation belonging to the squamous occipital
+portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like
+character. This is the occipital swelling we have
+already described (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Torus occipitalis transversus</i>), which
+may be either enclosed by the two upper curved
+lines, or lie between these and the central curved
+lines, or may be altogether in the region of the
+latter. This swelling extends in a gradual manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
+above and below its bony support. Its edge may be
+more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its
+development, wider or narrower, with or without a
+central eminence, but its appearance is always
+striking. In young male and female gorillas, orangs,
+and chimpanzees this formation represents the completely
+formed transverse occipital crests, which are
+found for the most part in aged male animals of
+these species. These swellings may also be observed
+on the skulls of adult men of all times and all
+nations. They are by no means rare in the skulls
+which are in ordinary use at the Berlin School of
+Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in
+many groups of skulls. They are frequent among
+the skulls, for the most part without their lower
+jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in
+a Mohammedan burial-ground of the thirteenth
+century, near Cairo. These are the remains of
+Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most
+part, of the peasantry or fellaheen. Ecker was able
+to trace the sagittal crest in the skulls of Australian
+males, while it is absent in the females. Similar
+indications of the bony crest have been observed by
+me in the roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of
+many negroes, but in these cases I am not aware
+whether there is a corresponding distinction of sex.
+It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence
+is a human characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped
+connection formed by the sutures between the parietal
+bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, the
+squamous portion of the temporal bone, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
+frontal bone. One of the most common disturbances
+in the symmetry of the connecting suture, as we
+have already briefly mentioned, arises from the
+insertion of a frontal process of the squamous portion
+of the temporal bone between the lower angle of
+the parietal bone, the fore-part of the frontal bone,
+and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This
+process of the temporal bone varies in size, and may
+occur on one or both sides. A similar formation is
+common among gorillas, chimpanzees, macacas,
+magots (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>), and baboons.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> It is less frequent
+among orangs,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> gibbons, marmosets, and American
+species (howlers, hooded apes, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in representing
+this frontal process as theromorphological—that
+is, as a characteristic of the lower animals, and
+more especially of apes. Virchow has found this
+abnormal formation of the skull to be more common
+in some races than others. None of those in
+whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan
+races, and the existence of this process and stenocrotaphy,
+or temporal stenosis, seem to be due to a
+defective development of the greater wing of the
+sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones
+in its vicinity, by which the whole temporal region
+is contracted. This is a characteristic of the lower,
+but by no means of the lowest, races of men.</p>
+
+<p>Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+controvert the fact that this temporal process is a
+characteristic of the lower races. Stieda asserts
+that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a>
+He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the
+existence of this anomalous pterion on more than
+10,000 human skulls, and he has also received
+information from others. He considers the frequency
+of this frontal process in man to be theromorphological,
+or indeed pithecoid. According to Anutschin,
+this anomalous condition is not equally common in
+all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired
+races (Australians, Papuans, and negroes) the frontal
+process is most widely diffused; it is less frequent
+among Mongolians and Malays; and among Americans
+and white men its occurrence is from five to
+six times more uncommon than in the black races.
+Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the intercalary
+bone (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Ossa epipterica</i>), which is fused into the
+squamous portion of the temporal bone; and sometimes
+the process grows out of the squamous portion
+of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes or
+intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as
+pithecoid, since they are more rare in apes than in
+men. Schlocker has sought to show that the frontal
+process of the squamous portion of the temporal
+bone, the less common temporal process of the frontal
+bone, and the temporal intercalary bone (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Ossa epipterica</i>)
+are of equal value from the genetic point of
+view.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> This author regards the frontal process and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
+the immediate connection of the frontal and squamous
+portion of the temporal bones, as theromorphological
+characteristics, but he does not believe
+the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the
+lower races.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> This is also the opinion of Ten Kate.
+However this may be, the establishment of this
+theromorphological formation is important. Its immediate
+value as a contribution to the theory of the
+origin of species remains, as we shall presently see,
+even if we cannot trace it through intermediate and
+lower types.</p>
+
+<p>In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges
+which has been observed in some pre-historic human
+skulls, a likeness to the corresponding feature in
+anthropoids has been traced. And indeed there is
+such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee,
+in the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very
+dolichocephalic, with prominent supra-orbital arches,
+only divided from each other by a shallow depression.
+In the same skull the development of the supra-orbital
+ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses.
+In this pre-historic specimen—which, by the kindness
+of Professor Schaafhauser, I was able to examine
+closely at the congress of anthropologists at Berlin
+in 1880—the forehead retreats in a marked manner
+towards the flattened region of the crown. De
+Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both
+flattened and long (dolichoplatycephalic). The temporal
+ridges are not only very marked, but they
+approach each other in the region of the coronal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
+arch (<a href="#i_35">Fig. 35</a>). This also occurs in the adult female
+chimpanzee, as well as in the young male gorilla,
+in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_35" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p115.jpg" width="1390" height="1439" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 35.—The Neanderthal skull. A. In profile.
+    B. A front view.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It may here be observed that our men of science
+differ widely in opinion respecting the origin and
+ethnological significance of the Neanderthal skull,
+of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner
+regards it as the skull of an idiot.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> Virchow
+considers the specimen, and the similar one from
+Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum, as an altogether
+individual formation,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> a typical form modified
+by disease,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> in other words, a pathological skull.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a>
+King regards the skull as one belonging to one
+of the primitive races.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Schaaffhauser has, indeed,
+endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such
+a primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which
+are “Neanderthaloid” in form are to be found
+chiefly in Europe.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> If Huxley says decidedly that
+the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded
+as the remains of a human being which was a link
+between man and apes. At most this discovery
+only proves the existence of a man whose skull
+reverted in some respects to the simian type, just
+as a carrier or tumbler pigeon may sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>
+display the plumage of their original ancestor, the
+rock-pigeon (<i class="taxonomy">Columbia livia</i>). And although the
+Neanderthal skull is more like that of the ape than
+any other human skull with which we are acquainted,
+yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first appears,
+but is rather the ultimate expression of a series
+which may be gradually traced back from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
+highest and most fully developed type of human
+skulls. On the one side it approximates to the
+flattened Australian skulls, from which other
+Australian forms gradually lead to skulls which
+rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis
+skull. On the other side, it is still more closely
+allied with the skulls of certain ancient races
+which were either contemporaries or successors of
+those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone
+Age, people whose kitchen middens have been discovered
+in that country.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p>
+
+<p>Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls
+drawn by Busk, and taken from the tumuli of
+Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially
+in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other
+European skulls may, within certain limits, be
+compared with the Neanderthal skull, as, for instance,
+those found at Brüx, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth,
+Clichy, Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Furfooz,
+Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul. These all present
+interesting peculiarities of structure—strongly developed
+supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead,
+a flattened crown, etc., although none of them are so
+remarkable in these particulars as the Neanderthal
+skull. It has not, however, yet been proved that
+this skull represents a definite racial type, and it
+seems more probable that it was simply an individual
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as
+Spengel justly observes, distinguished from the
+Neanderthal skull, and from others of like character,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
+by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the
+other hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital
+arches, the retreating forehead, the skull compressed
+in the temporal region, the prognathous countenance,
+relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all
+these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly
+resemble those of anthropoids. If, for instance, we
+turn to the illustration given by de Quatrefages and
+Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven,
+Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr.
+Schadenburg’s negro skull, the most determined
+sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the
+anthropoid skull.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p>
+
+<p>Similar characteristics to those which we have
+already mentioned as distinguishing the structure
+of the Australian skull, enable us to determine the
+anthropoid character of the skulls of many individuals
+belonging to the dark-skinned African
+races. These consist chiefly in the retreating forehead,
+the flatness and compression of the coronal
+arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse
+angles of the lower maxillary bones, which may be
+noted in so many negro skulls. On the other hand,
+the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a
+rule, less marked in African races than in anthropoid
+species. There are specimens, however, as, for
+instance, the Congo skull given by de Quatrefages and
+Hamy,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> which give an overwhelming impression of
+anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
+a surprising degree in the skulls of intelligent, warlike,
+and light-skinned races of Central and Western
+Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale,
+Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all
+races of men, and especially among the Papuans
+and some African negroes.</p>
+
+<p>A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges
+in the coronal region may be observed in the skulls
+of various nations. This formation is most frequent
+in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In
+these cases it is generally allied with the shortness
+of the interval between the sides of the skull, taken
+in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism).</p>
+
+<p>In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones
+often rise abruptly towards the sagittal suture, and
+in its vicinity there arises a longitudinal bony
+prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into
+the external surface of the parietal bones. The
+sagittal suture sometimes remains intact, and is
+sometimes included by this process. This produces
+a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped
+skull (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">scaphocephalus</i>). Such a formation may be
+often observed in negroes and Papuans, and more
+rarely in the skulls of other races. The occurrence
+of a divided malar bone in human skulls,
+especially in those of the Ainos and Japanese, has
+been considered to be theromorphic, since it is
+occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
+myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces
+of such a formation among anthropoids.</p>
+
+<p>In 1863 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville
+half of a human lower jaw deposited in a black layer
+of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying on
+the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations
+which are for the most part imperfect, there was
+nothing remarkable about it except its abruptly retreating
+ramus (<a href="#i_36">Fig. 36</a>), but the specimen aroused
+great attention at the time, and it was assigned by
+many intelligent observers to the primitive men of
+the diluvial period. Unfortunately it was afterwards
+proved to be a gigantic imposture.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_36" class="figcenter land section" style="max-width: 14em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p119.jpg" width="808" height="527" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 36.—Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure id="i_37" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p120.jpg" width="850" height="378" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 37.—Naulette lower jaw.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure id="i_38" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p120b.jpg" width="856" height="399" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 38.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This is not the case with the lower jaws of
+Naulette, Aurignac, and Arcy, which are undoubtedly
+genuine and of great antiquity. The
+Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can
+trace the construction of the symphysis of the chin,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>
+which provokes comparison with the lower jaws of
+many anthropoids, especially those of the gorilla
+and chimpanzee (<a href="#i_37">Fig. 37</a>). The resemblance consists
+chiefly in the uprightness of the anterior surface,
+and especially of the body of the maxillary bone.
+In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats from
+the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the
+lower edge of the body of the maxillary bone (Fig.
+38); and in the Naulette specimen, as well as in
+the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of
+New Hebrides and elsewhere), there is a certain
+approximation to the simian type. A fossil ape
+(<i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus Fontanii</i>) has been found in the Middle
+Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the
+higher anthropoids, and in this case the jaw is only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
+slightly retreating. Gaudry considers that the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>
+was about the size of a man. The incisor
+teeth were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth
+were less rounded than in Europeans, and more like
+those of Australians. It has been surmised, although
+the fact cannot be established, that the last molar
+teeth were only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case
+with the human wisdom teeth. Gaudry gives the illustration
+of the lower jaw of a Tasmanian, from eleven to
+twelve years old, together with that of <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus
+Fontanii</i>. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is
+larger than in the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>, while the canine tooth
+and the pre-molars are much weaker. This distinction
+is important, since the smaller size of the front
+teeth is connected with the slight projection of
+the face, which is always a sign of human superiority.
+Although the canine tooth of the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> is
+broken, we can see that it must have been considerably
+higher than the other teeth, and indeed the
+canine teeth of the male animal must have been very
+powerful. There is also a slight prominence in the
+teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men.
+<i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus</i>, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica,
+was an ape less closely resembling the anthropoids.
+In the structure of the head it resembles the slender
+ape (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>), and in the structure of the limbs
+it is like a macaca (<i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>). Gaudry believes that
+Sansan’s <i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i> was related to the gibbon. An
+ape of the size of the orang-utan, which belongs to
+the slender apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus sub-himalayanus</i>),<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
+was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of
+the Sewalik mountains.</p>
+
+<p>In the comparative study of the human organization,
+and that of anthropoid apes, it is important to
+examine sections, and especially longitudinal sections,
+of characteristic skulls.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Virchow has caused drawings
+to be made, from specimens in the Berlin
+Museum, of a gorilla, a chimpanzee, an orang-utan,
+and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s skull,
+when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow
+that it looks as if compression had been applied to
+it; and yet the Australian skull is extremely small
+in comparison with that of men in general, since its
+cubic space is only 1150 ccm. In the gorilla<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a>—at
+least in the old male, from which the drawing is
+taken—the immense size of the frontal sinuses, and
+the swellings which cover them, together with the
+strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of
+size. But, as Virchow observes, “all which adds to
+the size of the skull is bestial, and not human.” It
+is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the
+chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be
+somewhat more favourably compared with that of
+the human skull. It approaches in size to that of a
+microcephalic native of the Rhein-Pfalz (of which
+an illustration is also given), which ranks a good deal
+below the Australian skull, and approximates more
+closely to the simian type. The internal space
+of the skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+may also be more favourably compared with those
+of men.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_39" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p123.jpg" width="938" height="519" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 39.—Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned the presence of
+extensive sinuses and cells in the skulls of anthropoids,
+exceeding those of human skulls, and this
+is apparent in the accompanying illustration of
+a longitudinal section of the skull of a chimpanzee
+carried through its centre (<a href="#i_39">Fig. 39</a>). The
+length of this skull between the nasal partition and
+the most prominent part of the occipital bone is
+128 mm.; that of the internal space is 108 mm.
+10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the
+frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thickness
+of the bony part of the skull. In an aged male
+gorilla, the first measurement is 153 mm., the second
+115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements
+were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. In a
+still more aged male orang they were respectively
+140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness
+of the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to
+be noted in the aged gorilla male. In the adult
+chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
+of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and
+indeed without interruption into the parietal bone
+adjoining it. For such investigations the thin
+and light bones of individuals which have lived
+a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and
+fat specimens which have died after prolonged
+confinement.</p>
+
+<p>Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans
+the orbital part of the nose, or that part which is
+between the orbits, is longer than the infra-orbital
+or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital portion
+is considerably the longest, although only in
+adult animals. There are stages in the period of
+development in which these animals display the
+characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of
+a child. The proportions of the skulls of Malays
+take a middle place between those of Europeans and
+of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the
+nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but
+in many cases it differs essentially from that of
+Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful attempt
+to establish this statement by statistics.</p>
+
+<p>The same inquirer makes some interesting
+remarks on the comparative height and width of
+the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult
+apes and men differ more in these respects than
+the young specimens of these organisms. The
+orbits both of a child and an adult, especially in the
+case of a European, are much more like those of a
+young ape than of an aged animal of the same
+species. In the chimpanzee and the orang-utan the
+proportions are the same as in men; that is, the width<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
+of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems
+to arise from the exceptionally strong development
+of the supra-orbital ridge. It is most probable
+that in very young anthropoids the width of the
+orbit exceeds its height.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Zuckerkandl goes on to
+say that in anthropoids the height of the orbits is
+greater than their width, and that this difference
+increases with age. But this is not absolutely correct,
+for even in aged animals the proportions vary,
+and the height and width of the orbits sometimes,
+although rarely, remains the same.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the vertebral column in men and
+anthropoids, Rosenberg has sought to show in the
+embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes the
+form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage
+of development it is enclosed by the ilia, and
+anchylosed with the sacrum. The same author has
+proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic
+equivalents of the vertebræ, which we must now
+consider. According to this theory, as Welcker has
+observed,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is
+homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B,
+the thirtieth vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth
+of another, although in one case it may be a lumbar
+vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in
+a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar
+vertebræ of the lower apes have, in the case of men,
+their descendants, undergone a threefold metamorphosis,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
+and, after their modification into sacral vertebræ,
+have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal
+vertebræ.</p>
+
+<p>Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the
+lumbo-sacral vertebræ, <i>i.e.</i> those constituents of the
+vertebral column which form the transition from
+the lumbar to the sacral vertebræ, are invested with
+fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. According
+to their position in the vertebral column, they
+are to be regarded as lumbar vertebræ, introduced
+too early or too late into the structure of the sacrum.
+If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the
+sacrum, so as to form an upper promontory or outwork,
+this variety offers a point of transition to a
+future formation (?) in which this vertebra normally
+becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will
+now display twenty-three free vertebræ. If, again,
+this transition occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of
+the series, which thus becomes the chief sacral vertebra,
+this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a characteristic
+survival of the racial development, an atavism.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p>
+
+<p>According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral
+vertebra in one animal corresponds to the same
+sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever their
+number may be. The cervical vertebræ of one
+animal, which may be five, seven, or even eleven in
+number, correspond to the cervical vertebræ of
+another animal. The vertebral column of one
+animal corresponds to the vertebral column of
+another, taken as a whole, but not to two-thirds or
+three-fourths of that column. In accordance with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
+the requirements of a given animal, that part
+of the bone which belongs to the sections of the
+breast and loins is more or less abundant, and the
+vertebræ are homologous in accordance with their
+region, and not with their number.</p>
+
+<p>Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close
+connection with the ilium, joined with it throughout
+its extent, and that this vertebra at the same
+time always appears to support the pelvis. This
+vertebra is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra,
+and the twenty-fifth of the series. It may be termed,
+as Welcker suggests, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i>. Such a
+main support is found, according to Holl, in every
+vertebral column, however anomalous its other conditions
+may be, and the only irregularity consists
+in its number in the series. This bone serves as a
+natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral
+column. The <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i> must always be
+regarded as the first sacral vertebra. It begins the
+series of sacral vertebra, and, on account of its subsequently
+important position, it must be regarded as
+primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower
+vertebræ, which are afterwards included with it in
+the sacrum. When in its primary condition the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra
+fulcralis</i> is twenty-fifth in the series, the twenty-fifth
+to the twenty-ninth vertebræ are included in
+the sacrum. When the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i> is the twenty-sixth
+vertebra, the sacrum includes the thirtieth. Hence
+it follows that the sacrum is, from the first stages of
+its development, a formation which begins with the
+twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes
+four other vertebræ. Holl considers that the lumbo-sacral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
+form of the last lumbar vertebra, which stands
+between the lumbar and sacral vertebræ, does not
+indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra,
+but rather an arrest in its development.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p>
+
+<p>When we examine a human sacrum we see that its
+first vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the series, is formed
+like the lumbar vertebræ in its upper part, setting
+aside those portions of it which form part of the
+lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses,
+which serve as a support to the ilia, owe most of
+their substance to the first sacral vertebra. Thus,
+since it has to support the whole weight of the pre-sacral
+vertebræ, it is in fact a true <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Holl justly says that there are few instances in
+which the human <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os sacrum</i> consists of less than
+five vertebræ, and in no case are there less than
+four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines
+the pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral
+column.</p>
+
+<p>In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar
+vertebral column is deeply sunk between the high,
+wide, and flattened ilia, which converge closely
+towards the vertebral column. In man these bones
+are not so much higher than the base of the sacrum,
+and their crests diverge more widely from the vertebral
+column. In the large apes the lateral masses
+of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below
+their anchylosis with the pelvic bones. In an aged
+male gorilla, for instance, the transverse processes
+of the two lower lumbar vertebræ often extend to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
+hinder borders of the ilia, although the second of
+the lower lumbar vertebræ is somewhat higher than
+the top of the crest of the ilium. This is still more
+remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in
+which the lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged
+in between the two ilia. In a young male chimpanzee,
+and in the adult female, both the lower
+lumbar vertebræ are almost compressed between
+the upper segments of the ilia. In the orang the
+lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia.
+Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second
+are articulated with these bones.</p>
+
+<p>In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the
+twenty-fifth of the series, is the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>. In this
+animal the first to the third sacral vertebræ form
+part of the connection with the crests of the ilia.
+In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra
+fulcralis</i>, and from the first to the third are
+likewise connected with the ilia, but the third only
+to a limited extent; and in young males and in old
+females the connection is generally confined to the
+first and second sacral vertebræ. In the orang-utan
+the twenty-fourth vertebra is generally the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually
+the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>. In the siamang I found that the fifth of
+the five lumbar vertebræ was between the ilia.
+Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second
+were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> the fifth and sixth of the six lumbar
+vertebræ were between the ilia, and the first and
+second of the five sacral bones were articulated with
+these.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span></p>
+
+<p>In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chimpanzee,
+and the orang we may observe an inconsiderable
+forward projection between the penultimate
+cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebræ.
+In the region below the second lumbar vertebra a
+similar forward projection may sometimes be observed.
+The so-called promontory at the entrance of the
+pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the
+lumbar and sacral vertebræ, which is remarkable in
+man, is only faintly apparent in anthropoids. The
+vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a
+dorsal curvature (see Figs. <a href="#i_17">17</a> and <a href="#i_23">23</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebræ
+are tapering in the gorilla, and this is, in fact, the
+case. In climbing, or when he goes on all fours,
+the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its
+position. This curvature is still more apparent
+when the animal, in climbing, withdraws his body
+from the tree, mast, or whatever it may be, and
+bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature
+of the vertebral column may be observed in men
+who stiffen their hands and feet to climb up a tree
+or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so erect
+as to be able to place his hands behind his head,
+the dorsal curvature of his spine is necessarily
+straightened, and indeed it becomes rather a ventral
+curvature.</p>
+
+<p>The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high,
+narrow, and projecting ilia, and the lowest lumbar
+vertebræ deeply embedded between them, together
+with the sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, which
+directly remind us of the vertebræ of a rudimentary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
+tail, present the points of unlikeness with the human
+skeleton in this part of the skeleton of these animals
+in the strongest light (comp. Figs. <a href="#i_40">40</a> and <a href="#i_41">41</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished
+from the human thorax in normal cases by the
+abrupt way in which it widens outwards. The
+thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging
+pelvic bones, which enclose the belly and give it a
+tun-shaped form, contrast with the graceful moulding
+of the corresponding parts of the human form.</p>
+
+<p>Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones
+of the shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of
+anthropoids, in which they differ from corresponding
+parts in the human structure, have been already
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby
+asserts that the head of the bone forms a cycloid,
+placed transversely, while in man its shape is that
+of the segment of a sphere. But I have pointed
+out in my treatise on the gorilla that there is a not
+inconsiderable variation in the form of the head of
+the humerus in these animals, and it is sometimes
+cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a segment
+of a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang,
+and gibbon this part of the humerus is always a
+segment of a sphere, while in man its form is
+not equally invariable. Aeby further observes that
+the transverse-cycloidal form of the head of the
+humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference that
+this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accustomed
+to turn them transversely on their axis. But
+the direct observation of a living anthropoid, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
+well as the examination of its dead body, make it
+clear that the action of the ball and socket is remarkably
+free, and this theoretical surmise is contradicted
+by the perfection of the natural mechanism.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_40" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 11.5em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p132.jpg" width="776" height="2150" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 40.—Human skeleton.—<i>a</i>, Parietal bone.
+      <i>b</i>, Frontal bone. <i>c</i>, Cervical vertebræ. <i>d</i>, Sternum.
+      <i>e</i>, Lumbar vertebra. <i>f</i>, Ulna. <i>g</i>, Radius.
+      <i>h</i>, Carpus. <i>i</i>, Metacarpus. <i>k</i>, Phalanges. <i>l</i>, Tibia.
+      <i>m</i>, Fibula. <i>n</i>, Tarsus. <i>o</i>, Metatarsal bones.
+      <i>p</i>, Phalanges. <i>q</i>, Patella. <i>r</i>, Femur.
+      <i>s</i>, Os innominatum. <i>t</i>, Humerus. <i>u</i>, Clavicle.</p>
+    </div>
+    <div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure id="i_41" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 13em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p133.jpg" width="831" height="2048" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 41.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.
+    <div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The excessive curvature of the forearm which we
+notice in the gorilla and the chimpanzee in their
+natural condition is rare in man, and when it does
+occur it must be regarded as an abnormal and
+pathological phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal
+bone, corresponding to de Blainville’s <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os intermedium</i>
+and Gegenbaur’s <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i>. In a very young
+animal I found that this small bone was furnished
+with a peculiar point of ossification. The bony
+structure of the wrist is developed in the following
+succession:—First, the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os magnum</i> and unciform
+bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the
+trapezium; fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the
+cuneiform bone; sixth, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i>; seventh,
+the trapezoid bone. The pisiform bone and the
+sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the scaphoid
+bone, of which we shall speak presently in
+their relation to the muscular system, are at first
+simply cartilaginous.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal
+bone in the gorilla and the chimpanzee has been fruitless,
+since its occurrence is only exceptional. In the
+gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid,
+semi-lunar, trapezoid, and <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os magnum</i>. Gegenbaur
+considers the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> to be a true constituent of
+the wrist, dating from an earlier condition, but he
+has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent survival.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
+Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable proof
+of the presence of this bone in the human embryo.
+It is generally absorbed again, but sometimes it
+persists, and may be found in an adult as a well-formed
+ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence
+of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> in man have been chiefly collected
+and published by the diligence of the Russian
+anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that there
+may also be indications of <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> in the carpus
+of embryos of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up
+to this time materials for such researches have been
+wanting.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot accept the theory that <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i>
+is merely a detached portion of the scaphoid bone.
+In a very young chimpanzee this bone is undoubtedly
+superficially indented with two transverse furrows,
+but the three segments display only one uniform
+development of bone. The distinct formation of <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os
+centrale</i>, and its occasional appearance in man, testify
+that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg
+holds that this bone is not merely the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> of
+mammals, but that it is homologous with the two
+<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ossa centralia</i> of the fossil <i class="taxonomy">Enaliosauria</i>. It has
+become abortive in proportion to the reduction in
+size which has taken place.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> There would be no
+great difficulty in tracing back this bone to remote
+types of vertebrate animals, even as far as the
+<i class="taxonomy">Urodela</i> (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> The persistence
+of this bone in man must be regarded as
+a reversion, not as an arrest, of development.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_42" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 14em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p136.jpg" width="732" height="1073" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 42.—Skeleton of human hand, back view. <i>a</i>, Scaphoid bone.
+        <i>b</i>, Semi-lunar bone. <i>c</i>, Cuneiform bone.
+        <i>d</i>, Pisiform bone. <i>e</i>, Trapezium. <i>f</i>, Trapezoid bone.
+        <i>g</i>, Os magnum. <i>h</i>, Unciform bone.
+        <i>l-l′</i>, Metacarpal bones. <i>m-m′</i> and <i>nn</i>, Phalanges.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the femur of several mammals, especially in
+the horse, ass, rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly
+indicated in the carnivora and other families, there
+is, in addition to the two great and small trochanters,
+a third, termed by Waldeyer <i lang="la" class="anatomy">trochanter tertius</i>.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a>
+Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed
+at the top of the outer ridge of the superior bifurcation
+of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, may be observed in human
+skeletons of all races, but is either absent in anthropoids
+or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>
+regards its presence as theromorphic, but not as
+a characteristic of savage or lower races.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p>
+
+<p>The human tibia displays in some instances a
+compression or lateral flattening of its shaft or
+centre-piece, so that its transverse diameter is quite
+out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is
+termed sword-bladed, or platycnemic. Bones of
+this form have been chiefly discovered in ancient
+deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar, at Perthi-Chwareu,
+in Wiltshire, in Lozère, at Clichy, at
+Saint-Suzanne (Sarthe), and especially at Cro-Magnon
+(<a href="#i_43">Fig. 43</a>), Janischwek, etc.</p>
+
+<p>A similar formation has also been observed among
+men belonging to cultured races, both of ancient
+and modern times. Virchow, for example, discovered
+such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third
+and fourth century of the Christian era) and at
+Hanai-Tepe in Troas. All the large schools of
+anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibiæ,
+which are to some extent platycnemic. These are
+also observed in the skeletons of primitive peoples
+of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas,
+and other African races. While some scientific men
+regard these bones as the result of an unhealthy
+condition, and the effect of rachitis, others more
+justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the
+muscles in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed
+by Busk and others, that the platycnemic tibiæ
+discovered in ancient sites of Europe have belonged
+to a degraded race diffused over the whole continent,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
+is contradicted by the wide diffusion of this characteristic,
+even in modern times. And it is doubtful
+whether platycnemy is absolutely restricted to the
+lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an
+extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kujawish
+grave of the Stone Age, which belonged to
+a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and size,
+so that, taken by itself, the impression which it
+gave to an anatomist was that of a highly organized
+race.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_43" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p138.jpg" width="1039" height="509" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption width30">
+    <div class="ilb lm1">
+      <p>Fig. 43.</p>
+      <div class="blockquot hang">
+        <p>Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon.</p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="ilb lm2">
+      <p>Fig. 44.</p>
+      <div class="blockquot hang">
+        <p>Section through the tibia of a male gorilla.</p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="ilb lm3">
+      <p>Fig. 45.</p>
+      <div class="blockquot hang">
+        <p>Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee.</p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is important to remark that platycnemy has
+been regarded as a pithecoid structure, and for this
+reason the attempt has been made to establish the
+degraded position of those peoples which are most
+remarkable for platycnemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins
+has already observed, although the tibiæ of the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some extent
+platycnemic, they are much less so than the platycnemic
+bones of the human skeleton. The tibia of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
+a male gorilla in the College of Surgeons Museum
+has an index width of 68·1, that of a female of 65·0,
+while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61·1,
+which is about the average of the tibias of Perthichwareu.
+It is unnecessary to indicate the other
+marked distinctions between the tibiæ of men and
+apes; if platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it
+must be admitted that man has in this particular
+far exceeded apes.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> Neither the gorilla, the chimpanzee,
+the orang-utan, nor even the baboon possesses
+a tibia which is flattened in its upper or middle
+part. In all these apes the middle of the bone is
+more or less rounded, almost as if it had been rounded
+by a turning-lathe. According to my experience,
+the degree of platycnemy in anthropoids is subject
+to certain variations. It appears to me to be least
+marked in the aged male gorilla (<a href="#i_41">Fig. 41</a>), and in
+the gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">syndactylus</i>), in which
+latter animal the transverse section of the tibia
+represents an almost equilateral triangle. The
+platycnemy was more marked in an almost adult
+female gorilla, still more decided in an aged male
+chimpanzee, which came from the river Kiulu, and
+again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the other
+hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another
+aged male chimpanzee which came from Loango,
+was rounded, and not platycnemic. In the tibia of
+an adult orang-utan which I examined, the platycnemy
+was very marked. But I agree with Boyd-Dawkins
+in never having met with an anthropoid in
+which the platycnemy is so considerable as it is,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
+for instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another
+found at Troy.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_46" class="figleft port clear" style="max-width: 16em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 10em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p140.jpg" width="466" height="1274" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 46.—Skeleton of the human
+      foot, seen from above. <i>a</i>, Astragalus.
+      <i>b</i>, Os calcis. <i>c</i>, Scaphoid
+      bone. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Cuneiform
+      bones. <i>g</i>, Cuboid bone. <i>h</i>,
+      Metatarsal bones. <i>ii</i>, Phalanges.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of
+apes, we see that all the same characteristics are
+present in their tarsus that we
+find in the human tarsus. In
+each case there is an astragalus,
+an <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os calcis</i>, a scaphoid
+bone, three cuneiform bones,
+and a cuboid bone. There are
+undoubtedly several peculiarities
+in which the tarsus differs
+from the corresponding part
+of the human foot. The first
+metatarsal bone is joined to
+the first cuneiform bone by
+an articular facet which extends
+from the back to the
+sole of the foot. This joint
+plays a part resembling that
+of the thumb of the human
+hand (see Figs. <a href="#i_20">20</a> and <a href="#i_46">46</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In Huxley’s opinion, the
+hinder limbs of the gorilla
+terminate in a true foot, with
+a very movable great toe. It
+is undoubtedly a prehensile
+foot, but in no sense a hand.
+It is a foot which does not
+differ from the human foot in any essential characteristics,
+but only in relative circumstances, in
+the degree of flexibility, and in the subordinate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
+arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it
+must not be supposed that he wishes to undervalue
+differences which, however, he does not regard as
+fundamental. They are important enough of their
+kind, since in any case the structure of the foot
+is in close correlation with the other parts of the
+organism. Although it cannot be doubted that the
+increased division of labour in man, which relegates
+the function of support entirely to the legs and
+feet, is a significant advance in structure; yet, regarded
+as a whole from the anatomical point of
+view, the points of agreement between the human
+foot and that of the gorilla are much more striking
+and significant than their differences.</p>
+
+<p>The differences in the foot of the orang are still
+greater; in the very long toes and short tarsus, the
+short great toe and the removal of the heel from the
+ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which
+connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the
+absence of a long flexor muscle to move the great
+toe, the orang’s foot differs still more from that of the
+gorilla than the latter differs from the human foot.
+In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still
+further removed from those of the gorilla than in the
+case of the orang. In the American apes the thumb
+can no longer be opposed; in the ateles it is reduced to
+a mere rudiment, covered with skin; in the sahius it
+is bent forwards and provided with a curved claw like
+the other fingers. In all these cases there is no doubt
+that the hand differs more from that of the gorilla
+than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p>
+
+<p>Flower remarks that the chief distinction between
+the foot of a man and an ape consists in the fact
+that the latter is transformed into a prehensile
+organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the
+phalanges are of the same number in both orders,
+and in the same relative position, only in the foot
+of the ape the facet for articulation of the first cuneiform
+bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
+obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side
+of the foot. Thus, the great toe is separated from
+the others, and so placed, that when it is bent, it
+is directed downwards towards the sole, and is opposed
+to the other toes, much more opposed to them
+than is the case with the thumb of the human hand.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a>
+Owen also speaks of the characteristic transformation
+of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed
+to the other toes, and adapted for grasping.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_47" class="figcenter port clear" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p142.jpg" width="1328" height="1394" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 47.—Coaita (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles paniscus</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>K.&nbsp;E. von Bär does not agree with Huxley in
+considering that there is less difference between
+man and the gorilla than that which exists between
+different species of apes. “There are,” Von
+Bär remarks, “differences of various kinds among
+apes. In some the thumb is only a stump; in
+others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the
+hinder extremities are so long and curved that they
+cannot be extended on flat ground; in many of the
+smaller apes this member is still more like a hand
+than in the larger species, and the fingers can be
+easily spread out on the ground. In this case the
+foot is of a much blunter form, and is more flexible,
+so that the sole, which is properly turned inward,
+can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of
+the animal, the more sharply cut the structure of the
+foot must be, so that it does not admit of the free
+movements which are possible in the hand. But
+all these are only modifications of a climbing foot,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
+or prehensile member—that is, of a hand, not modifications
+of a foot resting firmly on the ground and
+supporting the whole weight of the body.</p>
+
+<p>“It must not be forgotten that the structure of
+the skeleton is subject to mechanical laws, which
+may be traced through the whole series of the
+animal world. This is readily apparent when we
+turn to the human structure.</p>
+
+<p>“The human foot rests for the greater part of its
+length on the ground, that is to say, with the heel
+and centre of the foot, which form together a firm
+arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and
+also of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os calcis</i>, which in man form a very
+prominent part, taking a backward and downward
+direction, and of five other bones. The metatarsus
+consists of five bones, on which the five toes are
+inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are considerably
+longer than the separate phalanges. Thus,
+the arch on which man is supported in an erect
+position extends from the heel to the extremities
+of the metatarsal bones. The several bones are
+slightly movable, but they are so firmly connected
+that they can diverge but little from each other,
+unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press
+the toes upon the ground, it is again necessary to
+exert the muscles. The arched instep has this advantage,
+that the foot can take a better hold of the
+slight inequalities of the ground. In a profile view
+of the skeleton of a human foot, the shortness of
+the toes, in comparison with the length of the
+arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural
+position, even when man is not walking or standing,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
+the sole of the foot is not turned inwards, but downwards....
+The toes of the gorilla take the form
+of a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a
+thumb, while the other toes are turned outwards. In
+the gorilla the tarsus is short, and the heel is bent
+inwards. The several bones of the human foot are
+undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla,
+but the organ is changed into a prehensile organ or
+hand. The conditions are the same as in the parts
+of the mouth in insects which in some cases form
+movable mandibles, while in others they are attenuated
+into a proboscis. When it is asserted that
+apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to
+say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated
+mandibles.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p>
+
+<p>All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally
+make use of their hinder extremities in order to
+snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in
+climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to
+secure the fruit they have seized from the voracity
+of their fellows, they take it between the toes of one
+hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away
+more quickly by means of the other, and by the
+use of both hands.</p>
+
+<p>From what we have said, it will be seen how
+difficult it is to reconcile the views of different
+observers with respect to the fitting term to be
+given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against
+those who uphold the designation of <em>hind hands</em> we
+must oppose the anatomical structure, and also the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
+fact that a true hand ought to possess the power of
+rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but
+not in the hind, extremities of apes. On this account
+I have already adopted, as more suitable and equally
+distinctive, the term of <em>prehensile foot</em> for this
+member.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> I agree with Haeckel in rejecting the
+common designation of apes as four-handed or
+quadrumanous.</p>
+
+<p>The bands or ligaments which connect the different
+parts of the anthropoid skeleton together,
+and convert the detached elements into a movable
+machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the
+same structure in man. A detailed account of these
+ligaments would, for several reasons, be out of place
+in this work, and I shall only mention a few special
+and more interesting distinctions. Such, for example,
+is the uncommon strength of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum
+nuchæ</i> in the gorilla, which is quite in harmony with
+the great development of the spinous processes of
+the upper cervical vertebræ, and with the flattening
+of the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral
+vertebræ are deeply inserted between the high ilia,
+the ilio-lumbar ligaments (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamenta iliolumbalia</i>)
+and the sacro-iliac ligaments (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamenta iliosacralia</i>)
+are of considerable size. In agreement with the
+projection in a downward direction of the high,
+narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic ligaments
+which extend between these and the sacrum are
+very long in the chimpanzee. Although in this case
+the ischial spine is only represented by a roughness
+of the bone, yet there is on either side between this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
+and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic ligament
+(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum spinoso-sacrum</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The well-known anatomist, J.&nbsp;F. Meckel, has
+asserted that the depression in the head of the
+femur (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">fovea capitis</i>), which serves for the insertion
+of the round ligament (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum teres</i>), is absent
+in the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that
+it is also absent in the gibbon. In a skeleton of
+a young chimpanzee which had not shed its milk-teeth,
+and of which the ligaments were also preserved,
+Welcker found a fully developed round
+ligament inserted almost in the centre of the head
+of the femur. This agrees in every particular with
+the same formation in man. On the other hand,
+no trace of a round ligament was to be found in
+the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartilaginous
+envelope of the head of the femur was smooth
+throughout, without any indication of a place for inserting
+the ligament. Welcker again found no such
+depression in the femur of an aged male orang-utan, nor
+was there any trace of it in another aged male orang,
+designated as <i class="taxonomy">Simia Morio</i>. Welcker believes that
+he has established the fact that the round ligament
+is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present
+in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same
+naturalist remarks that, although we may certainly
+assume that the round ligament is absent wherever
+there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet
+the existence of such a depression in the acetabulum
+(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">fovea acetabuli</i>) is not enough to prove that a round
+ligament was inserted in it. The innominate bones
+of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
+and displayed a small, but well-defined depression,
+as if destined for a receptacle for this ligament,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a>
+running from the cotyloid notch down to the bottom
+of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the
+semilunar-shaped articular cartilage.</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the
+absence of the round ligament in the orang-utan,
+and its presence in the chimpanzee, had been previously
+established by Camper and Owen.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> In
+three specimens of orangs which he had obtained
+immediately after death, Owen found that the
+round ligament was imperfectly developed on both
+sides. The chimpanzee differs from the orang in
+possessing a depression on the head of the femur.
+In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression
+has almost the same depth and relative position as
+in man. At Welcker’s request, Professor Dippel
+ascertained the presence of the depression in the
+femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved
+in the natural history collection at Darmstadt.
+St. George Mivart saw the skeleton of an orang in
+which the femur was marked with a slight but
+plainly indicated depression, just where the round
+ligament is usually attached. Welcker thinks it probable
+that in some specimens of the gorilla the
+round ligament is only slightly developed, and that
+in others it is altogether wanting. On several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
+femurs of gorillas, this naturalist observed only
+doubtful traces of the depression in question. Duvernoy
+found the round ligament fully developed in
+the gorilla and chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find
+it in the orang-utan, but ascertained its presence in
+the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was
+fully developed in <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these somewhat conflicting assertions,
+I have myself observed, in the gorilla innominate
+and femur bones examined by me, more or less
+distinct indications of the depression which receives
+the round ligament. The ligament itself has been
+preserved with the body of a gorilla. The same
+remark applies to the skeletons and bodies of chimpanzees.
+In the case of the skeleton of an orang,
+slight indications of a depression were observed on
+the head of the left femur, and these indications
+were absent in the femurs of other specimens. In a
+large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium,
+only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were
+apparent in the right acetabulum, and these were
+intermingled singly or in groups with the cartilaginous
+cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous
+corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these
+facts we may conclude that the round ligament is
+generally but not invariably present in the gorilla
+and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in
+the orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the
+majority of cases. I have myself observed it in
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">leuciscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">syndactylus</i>. Owen
+asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is partly
+due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>
+of this surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that
+the ligament is not unfrequently absent in other
+anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all these arboreal
+and climbing animals is extremely ungainly.</p>
+
+<p>The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very
+interesting. I must necessarily refrain from giving
+a detailed account of it, and will only mention
+some points in connection with this organic system,
+and their relation to corresponding points in the
+muscular system of man. I rely partly on the
+researches of others, and partly on my own. The
+amount of material which has been collected up
+to this time is, unfortunately, too scanty to enable
+us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases.
+We are often unable to decide whether the conditions
+presented to us in the case of anthropoids
+are normal or exceptional. Nor are the statistics of
+muscular variations in the human subject by any
+means firmly established. My own labours in this
+direction are not yet concluded. The assertions on
+the subject which have been published to the world
+and accepted as authoritative have already been
+shown to be to some extent untrustworthy. Even
+the little which I am now able to produce may not
+altogether stand the test of subsequent research.
+Brühl justly remarks that in no department of
+anatomy more than in that which treats of the
+muscles, is it more essential that we should not
+decide whether a form is normal or exceptional until
+it has been repeatedly examined.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_48" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p151.jpg" width="731" height="910" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 48.—Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1, 1′, Occipito-frontalis.
+      2, 3, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris
+      alæque nasi. 6, Compressor naris. 7, Levator labii superioris. 7′, Zygomaticus
+      minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 8′, Zygomaticus major. 9, Orbicularis oris.
+      9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris.
+      11, Masseter. 12, 13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered.
+      15, Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21,
+      Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the
+      parotis is removed). F. Skin of neck.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
+like those of men, except in a few unimportant particulars
+(comp. Figs. <a href="#i_48">48</a> and <a href="#i_50">50</a>). I have not observed
+in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man
+branch out from the orbicular muscle of the eye,
+and overlap the cheeks and temples, and which are
+considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo
+negro which was dissected by me (<a href="#i_49">Fig. 49</a>, <span class="subnum">3</span>, <span class="subnum">3′</span>). In
+apes that portion of the orbicular muscle which
+covers the supra-orbital ridge is very marked.
+There is generally a considerable layer of muscle
+on the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in
+detail in anthropoid and other apes, including those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
+of America; <i>i.e.</i> the zygomatic muscles, the levator
+labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris
+alæque nasi. This has also been done by Duvernoy,
+Alix, and Gratiolet, in the case of anthropoids
+dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and
+Bischoff.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_49" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 24em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p152.jpg" width="914" height="895" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 49.—Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′,
+      Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 4′, Levator labii superioris. 6,
+      Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 6′, Compressor naris. 7′, Levator anguli
+      oris. 8, 8′, Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis oris. 9′, Levator menti.
+      9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 9‴, Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13,
+      Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens
+      aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, Sterno-mastoid.
+      22, Deeply set muscles of neck. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. C,
+      Zygoma. E, Parotis. *, Stensonian duct.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygomatic
+muscle in the orang with the small zygomatic
+in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and the baboon,
+as well as in <i class="taxonomy">Innus sinicus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Ateles</i>, I myself was
+quite able to trace a division into a large and small
+zygomatic. In the gorilla dissected by me the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
+levator labii superioris alæque nasi was very wide
+(<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">6</span>). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dissected
+the small zygomatic muscle, together with
+the levator labii superioris alæque nasi, in the
+manner introduced by Henle as a single square
+muscle of the upper lip (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus quadratus labii
+superioris</i>). In the gorilla I observed a levator
+alæque nasi, together with the already mentioned
+levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any
+separate levator labii superioris. The very wide
+cartilage of the nose is occupied by a considerable
+amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
+present in the orang, but they are of small size and
+separated into detached bundles. The pyramidalis
+nasi may be traced in every instance, especially in
+the gorilla (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">4</span>) and in the orang. It is not
+so strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon,
+but is not absent in these apes, nor in those which
+are not anthropoid, such as the baboon, and ateles,
+or climbing ape.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_50" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p153.jpg" width="890" height="904" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 50.—Head-muscles of gorilla presented in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis.
+      3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator alæ nasi. 6,
+      Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7′, Levator
+      anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9′, Orbicularis oris. 10, Risorius.
+      11, 16, Masseter. 1′, Buccinator. 12, Depressor anguli oris. 13, Buccinator.
+      14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens,
+      and retrahens aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis.
+      B, Cartilage of nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonian duct.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>I myself follow the original division of the muscles
+into those which belong to the nostril and upper
+lip, in accordance with the principles of Duchenne,
+Darwin, Gamba,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> and others, and I do so the more
+readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the
+manifold and lively mimetic action which takes place
+in this particular region of an ape’s head. The
+distinct action of the levator labii superioris alæque
+nasi, the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a
+strongly developed levator anguli oris, are especially
+characteristic of the gorilla; but they are also perceptible
+in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s
+face is the least mobile. I observed that in the
+gorilla the risorius was very long, branching slightly
+in the fore-part of the corner of the mouth, and
+behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest
+bundle covered the platysma myoides, but could
+not be regarded as part of the latter. In one chimpanzee
+I found that the risorius was slightly developed,
+and in other animals of that species I failed
+to trace it at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
+Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix. Fig. 1, <span class="subnum">15</span>) with the
+risorius strongly developed. I have not observed
+this formation either in the orang or the gibbon,
+but it was apparent in one of the ateles (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles
+leucophthalmos</i>). In this case the muscle covered
+the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, <i>i.e.</i> the
+duct leading out of the parotid gland (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, *).</p>
+
+<p>For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius
+of this ape as only a radiation of the platysma
+myoides, but my opinion upon this point is again
+shaken.</p>
+
+<p>In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an
+equally faint depressor labii inferioris may be observed,
+the latter partly covered by the large and
+predominant orbicularis oris (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). In the chimpanzee
+the two depressors are plainly apparent, and
+in the gibbon the one first named was at any rate
+developed. The platysma myoides, the depressors
+just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares
+are in this animal in close connection with each other.
+Froriep’s suggestion becomes ever more probable,
+that these muscles of the lower lip owe their origin
+to the intersection of the opposite portions of the
+skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The
+buccinator muscle in anthropoids resembles on the
+whole that of man, and in both cases is pierced by
+Stenson’s duct (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). The form of the masseter
+muscle is common to both (see <a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">11, 16</span>).
+In the external ear of anthropoids there is an attrahens,
+attollens, retrahens (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). Compared with
+that of a white man, and still more with that of
+a negro (see Figs. <a href="#i_48">48</a>, <span class="subnum">19</span>, and <a href="#i_49">49</a>, <span class="subnum">17</span>), the attollens is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
+only slightly developed. The muscles attached to the
+cartilages of the ear are extremely scanty or partially
+wanting, which is also sometimes the case with man.
+The muscles of the helix are most strongly marked
+in the gorilla (see, for example, <a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">21</span>). Tiedemann,
+Bischoff’s brother-in-law, carefully observed
+two living chimpanzees in Philadelphia for six
+months without detecting any movement of the
+ears. My own observation confirms his assertion
+and the remarks of Darwin, which I have already
+quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are incapable
+of moving their ears. I know of no individual
+exceptions. This is the more remarkable since
+some men have retained the power of voluntarily
+moving their ears, and the same power is also found
+in some species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons,
+macacas, and magots.</p>
+
+<p>It will not here be out of place to say something
+of the characteristics, previously mentioned, of the
+physiognomical expression of anthropoid apes. Thus,
+for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he can
+move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which
+covers this region. The chimpanzee can also move
+the skin of the head, but with no very apparent
+bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which
+was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his
+hair and the skin of his head when he was much
+enraged. It is known that in some instances man
+also possesses this power.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of the expression of the
+eyes of these animals. I will only add that when
+anthropoids of every species are in great pain or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
+seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often
+most affecting.</p>
+
+<p>The forehead of these animals is frequently
+marked by transverse furrows, and especially, as
+Darwin justly observes, when they raise their eyebrows.
+The same great observer considers that the
+countenances of anthropoids are, in comparison with
+those of men, generally inexpressive, and indeed,
+chiefly in consequence of the fact that they do not
+wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. The
+wrinkling of the forehead, which is one of the most
+significant forms of expression in man, is due to
+the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which
+the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each
+other, so as to form vertical folds on the forehead.
+It has been asserted that the orang and chimpanzee
+possess these muscles, but they seem to be
+rarely exercised—at any rate, to any remarkable
+extent.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> When Darwin brought a chimpanzee
+out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine,
+he only once observed a slight wrinkling of the
+forehead. When the same observer tickled the
+nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was
+slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared
+between the eyebrows.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> Darwin never observed any
+wrinkling of the forehead in an orang. I myself
+have observed a contraction of that region of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
+brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a
+wrinkling of the skin which covers the bridge of
+the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and
+have illustrated this expression by a drawing.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin goes on to say that when a young chimpanzee
+is tickled, to which, as in the case of children,
+their armpits are peculiarly sensitive, he generally
+utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although
+sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the
+mouth are then drawn back, and this sometimes
+causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. This
+wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human
+laugh, is still more apparent in some of the other
+apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of the upper
+jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing
+sound, and in this respect he differs from man.
+Darwin further observes that when the tickled
+young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes
+over his face, which, according to Wallace, may be
+called a smile. Darwin has observed something
+similar in the chimpanzee.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p>
+
+<p>My own observation confirms what has been said
+of the chuckling of a tickled chimpanzee. When
+Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium,
+played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that
+establishment, a contortion of the corner of the
+mouth, resembling a somewhat sardonic smile, at
+once appeared. No specimen displayed this smile
+with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who
+delighted visitors by his inexhaustible humour in
+1879. The gorilla, of which an illustration is given<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
+in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>, also drew down the corner of his mouth
+when he was pleased, by means of the muscular
+system which we have just described.</p>
+
+<p>When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both
+rows of teeth, and opens his mouth to utter sounds
+of fury, while making ready to fight. It is well
+known that anthropoids are able to pout and project
+their lips; and Darwin says that they do this, not
+only when they are slightly teased, and are sullen
+or disappointed, but also when anything occurs to
+make them uneasy.</p>
+
+<p>I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight
+wrinkling of the region of the nasal cartilage, and
+even a vibration in a lateral and upward direction.
+In any case, the muscles which we have described
+as acting on the nose and upper lip are exercised.</p>
+
+<p>The platysma myoides, which extends in man from
+the lower row of teeth to just below the clavicle,
+occupies about the same area in the gibbon and in
+other apes (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). In the chimpanzee, however,
+this muscle extends as high as the zygomatic arch,
+or even higher. In the gorilla also I observed that
+this part extends comparatively high on the face.
+In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper
+fibres of this muscle seem to form the risorius.
+In one case the platysma myoides sent forth a
+fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the beginning
+of the lower temporal ridges. In the gorilla
+I saw that the uppermost fibres of the platysma
+myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig.
+50, <span class="subnum">10</span>).</p>
+
+<p>From the corresponding muscle in the orang the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
+lower fibres tend far backward, and are in connection
+with the deltoid muscle covering a segment of the
+capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin
+of the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw.
+In cases in which it extends far in an upward direction,
+as in those we have cited, it affects the lateral
+extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces
+of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion
+of the corner of the mouth. It may also have to do
+with the grumbling sound issuing from the throat-pouch,
+which is uttered by the animal when agitated,
+as he rapidly opens and closes his mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in
+these animals, and especially in the orang and
+gibbon, can be divided without difficulty into a
+sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions
+diverge from each other in a downward direction.
+As Bischoff justly states, a muscle not hitherto observed
+in man may be traced in all four species of
+anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the external
+part of the clavicle to the transverse process
+of the first cervical vertebra. Bischoff has called it
+the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other
+apes, although the site of its origin varies, sometimes
+occurring on the spine of the scapula. Our
+Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in regarding
+this muscle as “a brilliant proof of the relation of
+all apes with each other.” I give this assertion
+without further comment.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles which extend between the head,
+sternum, and clavicle, together with the muscles of
+the acromion process of the scapula, make an external<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall
+describe presently. The pectoralis major of the
+gorilla, as well as that of man, divides into two
+portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other to
+the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided
+from the deltoid by a wide interval, filled with
+connective tissue and fat. But both portions of
+the pectoralis major are divided by a tolerably
+wide space, into which, in Bischoff’s opinion, the
+throat-pouch is inserted. This, however, I do not
+believe, since that organ would be compressed and
+strangulated between the two portions of muscle
+whenever they were exercised. It may, however,
+be supposed that room for an enlargement of the
+throat-pouch when the animal is bellowing is
+afforded by the existence of these spaces. Bischoff
+is right in the assertion that the clavicular portion
+of the pectoralis major is wanting in the orang-utan.
+The upper part of this muscle springs
+directly from the sternum. The lower sternal ribs
+give origin to the pectoralis minor. The chimpanzee
+and gibbon display clearly in this muscle
+the separation we have mentioned into a clavicular
+and a sternal portion.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes
+is full of interest. In the gorilla it divides into an
+upper portion of firmer tissue, less easily separable
+into digitations, which arises from the third to the
+fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three
+digitations, of which the upper segment laps considerably
+over the lower segment of the upper portion.
+In the chimpanzee an upper portion of less firm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
+texture extends from the second to the fourth, and
+a lower with three digitations from the fourth to the
+seventh ribs. This second lower portion is sometimes
+absent. I have seen the upper portion attached to
+the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower
+portion to the ridge of the greater tuberosity of the
+humerus. In the orang an upper portion, separable
+into three digitations, extends from the second to
+the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process.
+A lower portion, also separable into three digitations,
+extends from the fifth to the seventh ribs, and is
+also attached either to the greater tuberosity of the
+humerus or to its edge; this latter portion projects
+below over the pectoralis major. In the gibbon
+(<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>), the upper portion starts from
+the second, the lower from the third to the fifth
+ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoralis
+minor is in man also sometimes separable into digitations,
+which may be connected both with the coracoid
+process and with the capsular ligament of the
+shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of insertion
+of this muscle is remarkably slender.</p>
+
+<p>According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous,
+hood-like fascia covers the whole region of the occiput
+and neck. In adult males this fascia is 20 mm.
+in thickness. In a female dissected by me the rudiments
+of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were
+present. Duvernoy is justified in supposing that
+this is not yet developed in the young gorilla, and
+that a layer of connective tissue and fat is substituted
+for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius
+divided into distinct bundles of flesh by layers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
+fat (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">15</span>). The fascia corresponds to the
+great development of the trapezius, and the same
+characteristic development exists in other anthropoids.
+The adult male gorilla displays a powerful
+<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum nuchæ</i> in connection with the long spinous
+processes of the cervical vertebræ, as well as powerful
+inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi-spinales
+colli and dorsi. The great development
+of the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ of
+gorillas (<a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>), and also chimpanzees and orangs,
+involve the development of powerful semi-spinales,
+as well as of strong, fourfold spinales and inter-spinales
+muscles. The whole of the fleshy formation
+of the neck of an adult male gorilla which
+is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and
+especially the splenius capitis and colli, the long
+cervical muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus longissimus cervicis</i>), and
+the long head-muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus longissimus capitis</i>),
+which have also been regarded by me as parts of
+the long spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and
+vertical muscles at the back of the head. With
+Chappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as
+modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales.</p>
+
+<p>The levator anguli scapulæ is divided in anthropoids
+as in man. The subclavius is slender, except
+in the gorilla, and in the latter animal it sends a
+tendon obliquely to the coracoid process.</p>
+
+<p>In all anthropoids the deltoid is strongly developed.
+In the gorilla it projects forwards and
+outwards in order to attach itself to the humerus,
+almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the
+brachialis anticus in a manner with which we are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
+only imperfectly acquainted. It extends nearly as
+far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee
+its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and
+it was previously suggested by Vrolik, that in the
+chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis muscle possesses
+at its origin a moderately large second portion,
+which tends downwards over the lesser tuberosity of
+the humerus, and adheres to its edge. But I have
+seen both portions of the muscle in question attached
+to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of
+this species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the
+position of this muscle corresponds to that in man.</p>
+
+<p>Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common
+to all apes which starts from the tendinous attachment
+of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i> on the edge of the lesser
+tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on
+the inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle
+they give the name <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimo-condyloideus</i>. Bischoff
+goes on to say that this muscle goes in some cases
+into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in
+others, as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner
+inter-muscular septum and to the internal condyle
+of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends as
+far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it
+reaches to the condyle, where it is pierced by the
+ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that this formation is
+wanting in man.</p>
+
+<p>This structure is indeed remarkable in anthropoids.
+The muscle starts in a lateral direction from
+the insertion point of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>. In the
+gorilla alone I observed that it started from the
+coracoid process of the scapula, together with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
+two portions of the pectoralis minor; it was connected
+for a space with the coraco-brachialis, and
+finally it was attached, in the upper part of the lower
+third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum
+which is found between the brachialis anticus and
+the triceps. In the chimpanzee, on the other hand,
+it has its origin in the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>, and divides
+into an anterior and posterior portion; the former is
+attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while
+the latter is connected either with the middle or
+inner head of the triceps. In the orang the same
+division of this muscle may occur. In one of these
+animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and
+semi-membranous, attached by an extremely slight
+tendon to the coracoid process of the shoulder-blade,
+while the hind portion issued from the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus
+dorsi</i>. They were both in connection with the triceps
+and brachialis anticus. In other instances the
+muscle consisted only of the posterior portion,
+issuing from the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>. In the white-handed
+gibbon, the muscle issued from the region
+in which the tendons of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i> and of
+the teres major are united, and was inserted into
+the fascia which is found between the bicipital and
+the brachialis anterior. This attachment may also
+occur in the centre of the shaft of the humerus.
+Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous
+instances of this formation in coloured races.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p>
+
+<p>It is well known that in man the biceps is inserted
+into the tuberosity of the radius by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
+a flattened round tendon. This tendon, however,
+opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad
+expansion, which passes into the fascia of the
+forearm, and is termed <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Aponeurosis bicipitis</i>. In
+the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong
+fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into
+the palmar fascia. In the gibbon the short head
+of the muscle does not always start from the lesser
+tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of
+the pectoralis major (Huxley), but sometimes from
+the edge of the lesser tuberosity, which is here
+connected with the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>, as well as with
+the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is
+more to the side, and with the triceps. In the
+gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the supinator
+longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius,
+instead of extending to the styloid process of that
+bone, as it does in other anthropoids, and in man.</p>
+
+<p>The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla,
+but not in other anthropoids. The long flexor
+muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales resemble
+those of man (Figs. <a href="#i_51">51</a>, <a href="#i_52">52</a>). The flexor longus
+pollicis is absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy considers
+that it is replaced by a tendon of the long
+flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable to
+verify the existence of this tendon. The same
+muscle is also absent in the chimpanzee and the
+orang, but it may be traced in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>.
+Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator
+radii teres only sends forth one head,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> but I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
+found it to be bicipital in animals of this species.
+The lower or hinder head issues, as in man, from
+the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the
+gorilla and in the chimpanzee it extends far in a
+downwards direction on the radius (<a href="#i_52">Fig. 52</a>). The
+flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with
+one head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and
+with the other from the radius. Bischoff describes
+the structure of the long abductor of the thumb in
+the orang, the baboon, the <i class="taxonomy">pithecia</i>, and the <i class="taxonomy">hapale</i>
+as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the
+chimpanzee, and the macaca the tendon divides into
+two parts. Nor does one tendon belong, as in man,
+to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is
+wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only
+implies a continued division of the attachment to
+the trapezium, as well as to the metacarpal bones of
+the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs
+in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short extensor
+of the thumb. In this point, again, apes
+display a greater likeness to one another than to man.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_51" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p168.jpg" width="744" height="1339" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 51.—Palmar muscles of man. <i>a</i>, Ligaments of wrist, especially the anterior
+      ligament. <i>c</i>, <i>c′</i>, Sheathing ligaments. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Oblique fibres of the ligaments
+      of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor sublimis, and of the
+      flexor profundus muscles of the fingers. 3, The reciprocal perforation of these
+      tendons. 4, Continuation of the tendons of the flexor profundus of the fingers.
+      5, Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 7, 8, 9, Flexor
+      brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11, 12, Flexor brevis, abductor,
+      and opponens minimi digiti. 13, Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal inter-osseous
+      muscle.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>According to my own researches, the long abductor
+of the thumb in anthropoids forms a muscle not
+more considerable than one in proximity with it, of
+which the origin and more central direction recall
+the short extensor of the human thumb. In all
+four species I found that the abductor had two
+tendons, and was attached to the trapezium. The
+muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of
+the first metacarpal bone. I have not been able to
+discover an extra extensor of the thumb in the
+gorilla. The question now arises what we should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
+think of the second muscle, which is found in these
+animals in the vicinity of the abductor. In my
+opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a short
+extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an
+extension of the metacarpal bone of that member,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
+and in this act of extension it is supported by the
+long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
+must be remembered that the comparatively short
+thumbs of anthropoids have not to be employed in
+so many different ways as the human thumb, and
+that we cannot therefore be surprised that the development
+of the short extensor is less complete.
+A special extensor muscle of the index finger is
+either altogether absent in the gorilla or very
+slightly developed, while it is very apparent in
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> (<span class="subnum">6</span>, <a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>). In the chimpanzee
+this muscle sends a tendon to the middle finger.
+In the orang there is one extensor common to the
+four fingers. In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as
+the other extensor and flexor muscles, is remarkable
+for its excessive slenderness. The manifold
+connections of the extensor tendons with each other
+are an interesting peculiarity (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_52" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p169.jpg" width="845" height="1535" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 52.—Palmar muscles of gorilla. <i>a</i>, Anterior ligament. <i>b</i>, Remains of the
+      skin of palm, here covered with a very sinewy skin. <i>c</i>, <i>f</i>, Oblique fibres of
+      the ligaments of the sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, Flexor
+      tendons. 3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis, whence
+      in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues (comp. <a href="#i_51">Fig. 51</a>, <span class="subnum">5</span>).
+      4, 3, 3′, 5, Abductor, flexor brevis, abductor pollicis. 6, 7, 8, Opponens, flexor
+      brevis, abductor, minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12,
+      Flexor sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi ulnaris.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
+common to the fingers, and enlarged in the region
+of the third and little fingers. A superficial flexor,
+belonging to the index finger, started from the
+inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of
+the inter-muscular septum. The deep finger-flexor
+was attached to the four fingers. In the orang the
+first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly
+for the index finger, as well as one for the other
+three fingers. The deep flexor only displayed two
+bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand, the
+superficial flexor displays four bellies.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_53" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p170.jpg" width="996" height="602" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 53.—Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand. 1, The extensor carpi
+      radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus pollicis. 3, Extensor primi internodii
+      pollicis. 4, Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis
+      digitorum. 6, Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi
+      ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation of the same
+      to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous muscles of this region. A, The
+      posterior annular ligament.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at
+least as my experience goes, a so-called sesamoid
+bone. It is in this instance in connection with
+the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the
+fibres of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the
+wrist pass into each other. In the chimpanzee the
+tendon of the long abductor muscle of the thumb
+sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the
+other fibres of the tendon of this muscle, which
+divides into several strips, are inserted in the
+trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the
+first metacarpal bone.</p>
+
+<p>The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which
+Bischoff has denied the existence, is certainly
+present in these animals. In the chimpanzee the
+lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the
+thumb have their origin in the sesamoid bone.
+The middle fibres, of the same muscle issue from
+the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid
+bone. On the other hand, the upper part of the
+muscle has its origin in the anterior annular ligament.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
+In the orang, the lower fibres of the short
+abductor of the thumb likewise have their origin
+in the sesamoid bone, while the central fibres
+again start from the anterior annular ligament.
+The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into
+the base of the first metacarpal bone. In a dissection
+of the orang the flexor longus pollicis sent
+a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This
+sesamoid bone is also found in the gorilla, although
+Duvernoy and Rosenberg do not appear to be aware
+of its existence.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p>
+
+<p>In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short
+abductor, a short bicipital flexor, an opponens, and
+an abductor of the thumb. The longer belly
+of the short flexor extending in a more radial direction,
+and in connection with the opponens, is only
+slightly developed. In the muscular system of a
+gorilla’s little finger we may observe an abductor,
+a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the
+chimpanzee displays a short abductor, an opponens,
+a short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the
+thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and an
+opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed
+a short abductor, a short flexor with two bellies,
+an opponens, and an adductor of the thumb. In
+addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer
+and Bischoff describe another short, independent
+muscle, representing the long flexor, and attached
+to the second phalanx, but I have not myself ascertained
+the existence of this muscle. The same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
+anatomists mention an adductor between the third
+metacarpal bone and the first joint of the thumb,
+and another between the second metacarpal bone
+and the second joint of the thumb, passing on into
+the extensor tendon. I am myself convinced of the
+existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the
+fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed
+by Langer the second opponens) passes on into the
+extensor tendon. In the little finger of the orang
+there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens.
+In the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly
+indicated opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an
+adductor of the thumb. In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>
+this adductor divides into four or five portions,
+which are attached to the whole of the first metacarpal
+bone. In the little finger there is an
+abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the
+same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached
+by one portion to the second metacarpal bone, by
+the other to the base of the second phalanx of the
+index finger (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>, <span class="subnum">9</span>, <span class="subnum">10</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford
+terms <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Contrahentes digitorum</i> (contractors of the
+digits), which lie deep in the palm of the hands
+and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril,
+baboon, and other apes.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> They rest upon the inter-osseous
+muscles, and are covered by the tendons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>
+of the long flexors of the digits, as well as by the
+lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace
+these <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculi contrahentes</i> in the gorilla. In a female
+chimpanzee I observed a <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus contrahens</i> for
+the fourth, and another for the fifth finger, and the
+same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I
+observed a <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus contrahens</i> for the fourth, and
+one for the fifth fingers, and two faintly indicated
+<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Contrahentes</i> for the fourth and fifth toes. Similar
+muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and
+of the fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in
+the white-handed gibbon.</p>
+
+<p>In correspondence with the height of the pelvic
+bones, the gluteus maximus of these animals only
+displays a moderate width in comparison with its
+length. The tendon which attaches it to the
+femur extends low down, almost as far as the knee-joint.
+The gluteus medius and minimus are also
+long, in correspondence with this structure of the
+pelvis, although they are attached to the large trochanter,
+and to the posterior inter-trochanteric line.
+The climbing muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus scansorius</i>), which
+extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of
+the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chimpanzee,
+and by Bischoff in the orang, and is described
+by them as strongly made; it appears to be absent
+in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis
+generally forms portions of the neighbouring muscles.
+The tensor vaginæ femoris, which is strong and wide
+in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced or
+altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is
+not, as in man, attached to the inner surface of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
+tibia, just below the internal tuberosity, but it is
+inserted much lower down on this surface. In the
+gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the
+deep fascia of the thigh, and two others to the internal
+border of the tibia. In the chimpanzee and
+the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down.
+In the orang it does not go so far, but the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">gracilis</i>
+and <i lang="la" class="anatomy">semi-tendinosus</i> are in the same relative position.
+The biceps of the femur is very apparent in the
+orang; its long head divides in two parts, of which
+the lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united
+with the short head.</p>
+
+<p>Bischoff at first denied the existence of the
+plantaris in the chimpanzee, and Brühl had previously
+done the same, but it is as normally present
+in that animal as in man, in whom also it is sometimes
+absent. I, however, as well as other observers,
+have failed to discover it in the gorilla, orang, and
+gibbon. The popliteus is developed in every instance.
+The tibio-fibular muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus peroneotibialis</i>),
+covered by the popliteus, of which the
+existence was ascertained by Gruber, has not been
+observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the
+exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very
+apparent in a red sea-cat monkey (<i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus ruber</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into
+two heads, and the peroneal muscles have not
+the same relative width in anthropoids and man,
+since in the former case the calf of the lower limb
+is small, and it lacks the pleasing roundness which
+characterizes this part of the human structure.
+These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
+appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo
+Achillis is present, but it has not the prominent
+development in height and width which we observe
+in man. The long extensor, flexor, and tibial
+muscles are in all cases fully developed. The
+peroneus tertius, as it is termed, although it should
+only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus
+digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> I myself am
+not disposed, with Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to
+regard this muscle as an abductor. Brühl perceived
+in a chimpanzee a fourth rudimentary peroneal
+muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus peroneus intermedius</i>), extending
+between the peroneus and the little toe, a muscle
+sometimes found in man, and which I have myself
+only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee the extensor longus
+digitorum passes through a remarkably strong transverse
+ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which
+covers the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes
+(<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>). Brühl has described the characteristic
+contraction and extension of the tendons of the long
+and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee,
+but I have myself found some difficulty in producing
+this action. In <a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a> I have endeavoured to represent
+this condition in the most natural way. The extensor
+proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The
+extensor brevis digitorum produces a large, oblique
+belly for the great toe (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>). In the gorilla there
+is for the great toe an abductor, a bicipital flexor, an
+adductor, and an opponens (comp. <a href="#i_54">Fig. 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p>
+
+<p>From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for
+the great toe rises with a certain independence.
+On the right foot of a chimpanzee I observed a fifth
+belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>).
+As my illustration is taken from this specimen,
+I have represented the foot with, or in spite of, this
+interesting anomaly, which, as we know, sometimes
+occurs in man.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_54" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p177.jpg" width="1192" height="1208" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 54.—Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus and extensor
+      proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum. 3, Tendon of peroneus tertius.
+      4, 5, Peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. 4′, 5′, Tendons of the same.
+      6, 7, Tendons of the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
+tendons, belonging to the second and third toes.
+The flexor longus digitorum displays perforated
+tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor
+longus pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which
+goes into the toe itself, while the other is connected
+with the flexor longus digitorum, and displays perforated
+tendons for the third and fourth toes, while
+the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes
+have their origin in the other flexor.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_55" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <div  class="ibox" style="max-width: 20em;">
+    <img src="images/i_p178.jpg" width="790" height="1137" alt="">
+  </div>
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 55.—Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1. Tibialis anticus
+      muscle. 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3, Extensor communis digitorum.
+      4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor
+      brevis digitorum. 8, Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous
+      muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
+are powerful. The first inter-osseous muscle is likewise
+well developed and bicipital. There is a short
+flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have
+not yet been able to assure myself of the existence
+of an opponens for that toe. In the chimpanzee
+the muscular system of the great and little toe
+does not essentially differ from that which we
+have described in the gorilla. The flexor brevis
+digitorum forms the perforated tendons of the
+second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum
+provides the fourth and fifth toes with perforated,
+and the second and fifth toes with perforating,
+tendons, while those which belong to the third
+and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor
+longus pollicis. As in the gorilla, the latter
+muscle produces a fibrous investment for the tendons
+of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there
+is an abductor of the great toe, a very slightly
+developed opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an
+adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes
+appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in
+man. It provides the second and fifth toes with
+perforating tendons, while those of the third and
+fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus
+digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the
+great toe. The perforated tendons in this case
+generally belong to the short flexor muscle. In
+addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe,
+there is the long flexor already described.</p>
+
+<p>In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor,
+a short bicipital flexor, and a slightly developed
+opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped adductor is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
+attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle
+is, as in the same animal’s hand (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>), attached
+to the first phalanx of the second toe. The flexor
+longus digitorum provides the third and fourth
+toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off
+a tendon for the great toe. On the little toe
+there is a remarkably slender perforating tendon.
+While the first of the two long flexors represents
+the human flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus
+digitorum is in this instance limited to the little
+toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the
+gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are
+connected together by an aponeurosis. It may be
+here mentioned that in the human foot the flexor
+longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the
+second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon,
+as Bischoff justly observes, a muscle covers the
+flexor longus digitorum, which is still undivided, but
+already enlarged. From this muscle perforated
+tendons issue for the third and fourth toes. The
+second toe is provided with such a tendon from the
+flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have mentioned
+seems to represent the Quadratus plantæ,
+which is often developed in the other anthropoids,
+although only to a slight extent. With respect to
+the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon,
+I need only say that in the latter species the opponens
+seems to be absent (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the foregoing account that,
+in spite of several apparently important peculiarities,
+in spite of great and manifold variations
+which are established, even although our authorities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
+do not always agree together, the muscular system
+of anthropoids is on the whole very like that of
+man. It displays, especially in the lower limbs,
+peculiarities of structure which render them capable
+of walking in an upright position, and others again
+which they have in common with the lower animals,
+but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of
+the muscular system of these animals are predominant.</p>
+
+<p>The digestive system of anthropoids likewise
+affords interesting points of comparison. The cavity
+of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered by large
+and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the
+mouth and the gums are flesh-coloured; they
+assume a darker colour in older animals, and are
+then sometimes marked with spots of a bluish or
+brownish grey. Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity
+in the mucous membrane of the mouths of the
+gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls
+buccal folds, which pass on both sides from the fore
+surface of the upper and lower jaw into the mucous
+membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height of
+the canine teeth.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> I have myself only observed
+these folds in the gorilla, of which an illustration is
+given in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>, and not in any other specimen. I
+have observed scarcely any indications of these
+folds in other anthropoids, and then only of such a
+doubtful nature that I am not disposed to regard
+the circumstance as of any special significance.
+A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
+only slightly developed, but always perceptible, is
+present in all anthropoids.</p>
+
+<p>The tongue is small, and not provided at its base
+with several great concave follicles as in man; these
+are at least only faintly represented, and not easy
+to observe. Around them there rise pock-like,
+tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged
+gorilla are apt to become hard and horny. These
+are also prominent between the follicles of the
+tonsils. The circumvallate papillæ of the tongue
+are less numerous than in man, and often, especially
+in the chimpanzee, they take the form of a cross, or
+of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V.</p>
+
+<p>The uvula and palate present no special variation
+from the human type. On the hard palate there
+are a number of folds, or rather swellings, which
+extend laterally from the central suture of the
+palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw;
+these are sometimes simple, sometimes complex,
+and vary in their details in individual cases.
+They are particularly marked in the adult chimpanzee,
+and are also very apparent in the gibbon,
+and they are arranged with a somewhat ornamental
+regularity. These inequalities are not altogether
+insignificant in the human palate, but this subject
+has not been much studied since Gegenbaur directed
+the attention of scientific men to them, and special
+light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and
+Ehlers, as far as anthropoids are concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth afford us important material for comparison.
+In the case of anthropoids the formula for
+the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World apes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>
+(<i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i>) will generally apply: <i>i</i> 2/2 <i>c</i> 1/1 <i>p</i> 2/2 <i>m</i> 3/3.
+The following is the formula for the milk-teeth:
+<i>i</i> 2/2 <i>c</i> 1/1 <i>m</i> 2/2. Magitot and Giglioli<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> have shown
+that the milk-teeth are cut in the same order as
+those of man—first, the lower; second, the upper
+incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth,
+the back pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. According
+to the same authors, the permanent teeth are
+cut in the following order:—first, the first molar
+teeth; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor
+teeth; third, the pre-molars; fourth, the canine
+teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth; sixth, the
+third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla,
+Giglioli found that the permanent canine teeth were
+cut almost simultaneously with the third molar
+teeth, and after the appearance of the second molar
+teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to
+be a longer process than that of the other teeth.</p>
+
+<p>In anthropoids the structure of the permanent
+teeth varies with the species, and even with the sex.
+In the gorilla the two upper central incisor teeth are
+wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair
+of lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth
+are of about the size of the upper lateral incisors,
+and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but not so
+wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged
+male are curved in their lower part, both outwards
+and inwards. Their form is that of a three-sided,
+cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded,
+and near its inner edge a deep furrow may be observed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
+extending from the neck of the tooth almost
+to its point. The outer and inner sides of the
+tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in
+front, and level or slightly concave behind. The
+inner side is concave, and furnished, nearly in the
+centre, with a deep longitudinal farrow. The lower
+canine teeth of an aged male are shorter than the
+upper, curved on their upper and outer surface, and
+somewhat behind. Their form is also that of a
+three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longitudinal
+furrow which traverses their inner segment
+is much shorter than that on the upper tooth. The
+outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time
+somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior
+segment with two longitudinal furrows, or more
+rarely with one, reaching from the neck to about
+the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that
+of the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower
+canine teeth project like pillars over the upper ones
+(Figs. <a href="#i_15">15</a>, <a href="#i_16">16</a>). The canine teeth of a young male
+gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although
+they already present the form of a three-sided
+pyramid. The canine teeth of the adult female
+gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult
+male, and are laterally more compressed. The
+three-sided pyramidal form is only slightly marked.
+The outer surface is convex and furnished with a
+scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On
+the inner surface, or that which is turned to the
+cavity of the mouth, there are from two to three
+longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the
+centre of the tooth. The lower teeth are of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
+three-sided, pyramidal form, presenting an interior,
+posterior, and inner superficies.</p>
+
+<p>The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide,
+and are furnished with a large outer, and a smaller
+inner, cusp. The three four-cusped upper molars
+display a more regular and symmetrical arrangement
+of their cusps than is the case with the
+female, in which the position of the cusps is rather
+variable. Except for the difference of size, the
+relative conditions of these teeth are the same in
+male and female. The first pointed lower pre-molars
+are in the male of the form of a four-sided
+pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface,
+flat on the side directed to the cavity of the mouth,
+and marked with furrows on the posterior surface.
+The small second and lower pre-molars have two
+anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is generally
+worn away at an early age. Each molar tooth
+has two outer and two inner cusps, opposite to each
+other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail
+to notice the likeness to the conditions of the human
+teeth, a likeness which is still more striking in the
+female.</p>
+
+<p>In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central
+incisor teeth are broadly chisel-shaped, while the
+upper and lower lateral incisors are smaller. In
+the male there is often a considerable gap between
+these and the canine teeth. The latter
+present the form of a three-sided pyramid, of which
+the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards, while
+the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its
+upper third, and terminating at the base of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
+crown in a posterior cusp. The pre-molars have an
+external and an inner cusp; the molars have two
+external and two inner cusps, connected with each
+other by their enamel. The lower canine teeth of
+these animals are likewise of the shape of a three-sided
+pyramid, of which the anterior angle is very
+blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are
+sharply cut. The anterior surface is not grooved
+like the upper canine teeth. The lateral angle is
+much rounded. The back teeth plainly display
+the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed
+in man. In the orang-utan the characteristics of
+the upper incisors are such as we have described in
+the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine
+teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and
+are furnished with a longitudinal furrow on the
+anterior side. A similar furrow is found on the posterior
+superficies of the lower canine teeth. The
+back teeth display no special characteristics when
+compared with those of other anthropoids.</p>
+
+<p>The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much
+worn down by age on their posterior surface. Deep
+transverse grooves of varying size characterize the
+teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal distribution
+of the coating of enamel. These are developed
+with their advancing growth. In addition to these
+incised furrows, longitudinal marks, with raised
+edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior
+surface of the incisor teeth.</p>
+
+<p>In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor
+teeth is smooth; in this animal the upper central
+incisor teeth are the largest, while the lower central<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
+incisors are the smallest. The long and strong
+upper canine teeth, which are laterally compressed,
+display a sharp posterior angle, and an anterior and
+inner longitudinal furrow.</p>
+
+<p>It has sometimes been said that the grooves
+found on the external contour of the back teeth of
+anthropoids, extending to their roots, constitute a
+not unimportant distinction between their structure
+and that of the human teeth, in which the grooves
+do not extend to the roots. But the corresponding
+human teeth do sometimes exhibit very deep and
+extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any
+peculiar significance to this assumed distinction.
+The development of the canine teeth, like those
+of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important.
+A supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be
+observed both in man and in anthropoids, including
+also the gibbon.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>
+
+<p>The stomach and intestines of these animals present
+only a few striking differences from the same
+organs in man. The length of the intestines varies
+in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only
+observed the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">valvulæ conniventes</i> to be somewhat
+clearly developed in the gorilla and the orang. The
+cæcum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the
+power of free movement in the peritoneum, and
+furnished, especially in the case of the orang, with
+a large, very long, and spirally coiled vermiform
+appendix.</p>
+
+<p>The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
+in the orang this division is not very clearly marked.
+I have not myself observed a subdivision of these
+lobes, occurring on their edges, which is mentioned
+by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla.
+Bischoff notices in the gorilla the absence of the
+H-shaped arrangement of the fissures on the under
+surface of the liver, so noticeable in man; and the
+same remark applies to other species of anthropoids.
+Moreover, the fissures on this part of the liver are
+not incised on the substance with the same uniform
+depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the
+orang is not remarkable for its size; in the chimpanzee
+I found that this organ is large and twisted,
+and it is also large in the gibbon.</p>
+
+<p>The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+and gibbon, shorter and wider in the orang.
+On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled off. There
+is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark.</p>
+
+<p>The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole
+a structure resembling that of man. This is especially
+the case at the entrance to that organ.
+The anterior and specially vocal portion of the
+glottis is short, about as long as the respiratory
+portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep cavity
+in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+and orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs
+correspond to Morgagni’s sacs. These are the thin-skinned
+elastic sacs, closely united with their surroundings
+by connective tissue. The right laryngeal
+sac appears to be of larger diameter than the left.
+According to Duvernoy’s and Ehlers’ accurate account
+only the upper portion of this organ occurs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
+in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang,
+a lower projection is displayed, extending behind
+the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder, and
+another extending to the pectoralis major muscle.
+In the chimpanzee only the posterior segment is
+developed. It has been asserted that in several
+cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal
+sac, communicating with the two Morgagni sacs,
+but I agree with Ehlers in thinking this improbable.
+In such instances it seems likely that, owing
+to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one
+of the sacs has been overlooked. In an aged orang
+the throat-pouches, fastened together by connective
+tissue, and covered by the external skin of the
+throat, hang down slackly and heavily over the
+middle of the breast (see <a href="#i_9">Fig. 9</a>). According to
+Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons
+which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca
+asserts that it has two detached sacs, placed close
+to the larynx.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> The halves of the thyroid cartilage
+are generally connected with each other by an
+intermediate piece.</p>
+
+<p>The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from
+sixteen to eighteen cartilaginous rings, but in the
+siamang there are twenty-one. They ramify into
+branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than
+on the left side.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> There is a further lateral ramification<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
+on the right side, situated above the artery.
+Huxley and Ehlers hold that the lungs of a gorilla
+are cleft like those of the human organism, the
+right divided into three, and the left into two
+lobes. I have myself observed this type, and
+in one instance I found three lobes on the left.
+In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was
+divided into three, and the left into two lobes.
+Bischoff observed an instance of a chimpanzee
+which had four lobes on the right and two on the
+left side. In an orang dissected by me I found
+only one lobe on each side, with thin, slightly
+indented notches on the anterior edges of the right
+lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same
+time a strongly marked indentation between the
+lobes. The lungs of a gibbon are described as
+having four lobes on the right, and only one or two
+on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in
+which there were three lobes on the right, and two
+on the left. It appears that there are not unimportant
+individual variations of this structure in
+every species of anthropoids; and indeed, human
+lungs are by no means exempt from them.</p>
+
+<p>The male sexual organs correspond on the whole
+with the form and arrangement of these organs in
+man. I must not omit to mention that the penis
+of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog-headed
+apes, is much more like the penis in man
+than is the case with anthropoids, with the exception
+of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the
+scrotum is short and tightly stretched. The right
+testicle is a little higher than the left, and is divided<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
+from it by a wide raphé. The internal female organs
+are also like those of the human organism, with
+only slight variations. Bischoff is correct in the
+assertion that the external lips of the pudendum and
+the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau,
+Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is
+a menstruation which occurs periodically, at any
+rate in the case of the chimpanzee, and the other
+species cannot be exempt from the process. At such
+times there is a blush and enlargement of the
+external parts, and a profusion of the external lips of
+the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely
+apparent. The nymphæ and the clitoris are of
+considerable size and importance. There is often
+an excessive enlargement and reddening of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
+parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the
+chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca,
+during the period of sexual excitement.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_56" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p191.jpg" width="1074" height="844" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 56.—The brain of an orang, seen from the side (Vogt, from Gratiolet).
+      F, Frontal lobe. P, Parietal lobe. O, Occipital lobe. R, Fissure of Rolando.
+      S, Fissure of Sylvius. C, Cerebellum.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><em>Nervous system.</em>—In this part of the organism we
+are especially interested in the structure of the
+brain. Bastian justly remarks, with reference
+to the brain of apes, that this family possesses
+many cerebral characteristics in common, by which
+their close connection with each other may be
+verified. Distinct stages of development have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a
+consecutive series. Starting from the brains of
+lemurs, which do not greatly differ from those of
+rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct
+transition forms to the more highly developed cerebral
+hemispheres of the large anthropoid apes, the
+chimpanzee, the gorilla, and orang-utan.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_57" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p192.jpg" width="1069" height="1073" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 57.—Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper part of the
+      right hemisphere is removed so as to lay bare the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from
+      Marshall). L, Longitudinal fissure (other indications the same as in <a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>).
+      <i>c s</i>, The corpus striatum in anterior cornu of the ventricle. <i>c a</i>, Hippocampus
+      major in descending cornu. <i>h m</i>, Hippocampus minor in posterior
+      cornu.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Very opposite views prevail among anatomists
+with regard to the question which species of anthropoids
+possesses the most highly developed brain.
+Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest,
+and that of the orang as the most highly developed.
+In all these apes the lateral halves of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
+the cerebrum, always divided from each other by
+a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum
+as far as a minute posterior segment. In this
+respect I find the brain of the gorilla a little behind
+the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have only
+observed the projection of the cerebellum through
+the cerebrum in the case of an orang<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> (see also
+<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>). Retzius asserts that the cerebellum of
+Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering is
+generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar
+races. In German and Latin races the cerebrum
+overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian, Indian,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
+and Negro races the covering appears to be generally
+imperfect.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_58" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p193.jpg" width="1073" height="847" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 58.—Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau and Pansch). I., Frontal lobe.
+      II., Fissure of Rolando. III., Parietal lobe. IV., Temporal lobe. C, Cerebellum.
+      <i>f s</i>, Fissure of Sylvius. <i>s c</i>, External fissure parieto-occipital.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>While the ground form of the gorilla brain
+approximates to a long oval, and in this respect
+resembles the human brain, the brain of chimpanzees
+and orangs is of a round-oval form. This
+is especially the case with the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a>).
+In my opinion, the gorilla brain is distinguished
+from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that
+of the orang, by its very complex convolutions
+(<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_59" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p194.jpg" width="754" height="827" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 59.—Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a specimen in the
+      Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F, frontal lobe. O, Occipital lobe.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island
+of Reil in the fissure of Sylvius is generally—at least,
+according to my experience—overlapped by the
+operculum, although there are instances in which
+this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as
+Bastian justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is
+much less horizontal than in man, and occupies a
+position more like that which it takes in the black
+sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas.
+In the gorilla its direction is more horizontal than
+in the two other species of anthropoids. The central
+fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very marked,
+especially in the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a> R); but it
+may also be easily traced in other species of anthropoids
+(<a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a>, II., <a href="#i_56">56</a>, R). The so-called simian
+fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes of
+the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occipital
+fissure), presented in <a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a> <i>s c</i>, is very marked
+in the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a>, <i>d</i>). The frontal lobes
+of the gorilla brain are high, while those of the
+chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
+of the orang, which are high and short, terminate
+in a beak-shaped curvature, but this is not invariably
+the case.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_60" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p196.jpg" width="1101" height="721" style="max-width: 24em;" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <div class="blockquot hang">
+      <p>Fig. 60.—Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain (Bola and Pansch). <i>s.cm</i>,
+      Colloso marginal fissure. <i>f, p</i>, Internal parieto-occipital fissure. <i>f, c</i>, Calcarine
+      fissure, the posterior part of the hippocampal fissure.</p>
+    </div>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the anthropoids we have been considering, and
+also in several of the lower species of apes, there
+are three other fissures of less importance in addition
+to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure
+parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind
+it, the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i> fissure, placed immediately
+above the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i> on the inner side of the
+hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine fissure
+(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura calcarina</i>) (<a href="#i_60">Fig. 60</a>). The latter ends near
+the point of junction of the inner and lower surfaces
+of the posterior division of the hemisphere.
+The upper temporal convolution, termed by several
+anatomists <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Gyrus supramarginalis</i>, is said by Gratiolet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
+to be absent in anthropoids; but Rolleston,
+Bastian, and myself have all found it well developed<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a>
+(<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>, orang, and <a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a>, gorilla).</p>
+
+<p>Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution
+(Broca’s convolution) is very slightly developed in
+the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon. “Its great
+development in men,” Gewährsmann writes, “constitutes
+one of the most marked distinctions between
+the brains of apes and of men.”<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> In most of the
+other species of apes this convolution is altogether
+absent, but Pansch is justified in the assertion that
+it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly
+agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must
+accept his statement on this point (see the orang,
+<a href="#i_59">Fig. 59</a>). Gratiolet remarks that the so-called
+annectant gyri (<i lang="fr" class="anatomy">plis de passage</i>) which serve
+as a covering or <i lang="la" class="anatomy">operculum</i> for the posterior lobes
+in apes, are only superficially apparent in man. In
+the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions
+is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise
+large and undulated in man. In the orang the
+second annectant gyrus is covered, but this covering
+is absent in man.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></p>
+
+<p>In considering the inner structure of the brain
+of these animals, we are first struck by the shortness
+of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i>. The soft and thick anterior
+commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the
+thin posterior commissure have also been justly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
+noted. In the lateral ventricles more of the characteristics
+described in the human brain are absent.
+The four eminences resemble those of man; nor does
+the fourth cerebral ventricle present any remarkable
+differences of form. Neither does the base or lower
+surface of the brain display any important deviation
+from the human type. The transverse section of
+the nerves at their intersection appears to me, however,
+to be somewhat more oval than is the case in
+man.</p>
+
+<p>There has recently been an attempt to recognize
+a pithecoid character, or atavism, in microcephalic
+men, the smallness of whose heads is allied with
+a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid
+structure of the brain has also been traced in several
+individuals who are not microcephalous, but subject
+to pathological affections. We will first consider
+those who belong to the latter category. Krause
+examined the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven
+years and a half, which, as the author remarks,
+approximated in structure to the pithecoid type,
+although without displaying microcephalic characteristics.
+The two cerebral hemispheres were wanting
+in symmetry; they diverged from each other in the
+region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the
+left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge
+which curved outward and backward so that the
+cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower
+surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly
+marked ethmoidal prominence. Neither of the
+fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left less so
+than the right; the operculum was only slightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
+developed; and the island of Reil and its fissures were
+almost uncovered. This formation is almost the
+same as that of the brain of anthropoids. The two
+central fissures of Rolando were close together, or
+less deeply impressed on the edge of the hemispheres
+than is normally the case, and forming no
+joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central
+fissures seemed to represent the central fissures.
+The intra-parietal fissures, diverging outwardly
+further than in man, received the parieto-occipital
+fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical
+brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure
+became in this case a deep fissure like the simian
+fissure, crossing the occipital lobes, and almost
+completely dividing them from the parietal lobes.
+The so-called <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura calcarina</i>, to which we have
+referred above, had its origin on the upper surface
+of the occipital lobe, then joined the parieto-occipital
+fissure, and went directly into the hippocampal
+fissure (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura hippocampi</i>) on its right
+side. This abnormal structure is also in conformity
+with the typical brain of apes. The first occipital
+convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes
+by the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts
+that this formation occurs in many species of apes.
+The upper temporal convolution was remarkably
+reduced on both sides, possessing only an average
+width of 5 mm. This characteristic reminded
+Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee. In that
+animal the upper temporal convolution is always
+reduced. Krause therefore asks whether some human
+brains may not possess the typical structure of apes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
+without being microcephalic. The brain we have
+described scarcely differed from the normal weight;
+it possessed all the convolutions and fissures, and
+indeed, the convolutions were perhaps more numerous
+than in the normal structure, yet it was different
+in every respect, and approximated in its whole
+structure to the simian rather than to the human
+type. Krause adds that if the brain had been
+placed before him without any intimation of its
+origin, he should have been quite justified in concluding
+that it belonged to an anthropoid ape,
+which stood somewhat nearer to man than the
+chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>It is an unquestionable fact that some human
+beings, whether children or adults, who are endowed
+with a defective bodily structure, and who are
+affected with more or less pronounced physical
+incapacity and mental weakness, by their appearance,
+ungainly tricks, and helpless and aimless
+motions, impress us in the most forcible way with
+their resemblance to apes. Different degrees of
+idiocy affect individuals of limited intellect, and
+remind us of an absolutely brutish condition.
+Krause describes the “ape-like” boy of seven and
+a half years old, whom he had examined, as cheerful
+and inclined to play and dance, but as passionate
+when he was teased. The child was very supple,
+fond of climbing, and with great strength in his
+arms and hands, of which the latter had a horny
+appearance, reminding him of the hands of a
+chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his
+legs wide apart. His gait was uncertain, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>
+was apt to tumble, falling with his knees bent
+forward and his legs doubled under him; he was
+fond of hopping, and at such times looked still more
+like an ape. The great toes of both feet were at
+an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression
+of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that
+this deviation was produced by the child’s endeavour
+to supply a broader basis of support for his uncertain
+gait; but he subsequently changed his opinion,
+since he did not find the same peculiarity in other
+children of diseased brain, as, for instance, in those
+suffering from water on the brain. The boy could
+say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was
+long before he could pronounce these words in two
+syllables; for the most part, he only uttered a sound
+resembling a grunt. He imitated the barking of
+a dog, with the sound of rolling <em>r</em>’s. He often
+stamped his feet and clapped his hands together,
+making a grunting noise as Krause had observed
+in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy
+was smaller than other children of his age, and had
+weak eyes; his head was sore, and his forehead
+narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly
+marked, and his whole nature and all his movements
+strikingly resembled those of apes. He had
+been much neglected by his parents.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
+
+<p>When I was a student at Berlin I had the opportunity
+of observing a similar being of twelve years
+old, in what was at that time the Weinbergswege,
+near the Rosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
+a large head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes,
+a morose expression, a thin neck, prominent belly,
+crooked legs, large hands and feet. The boy was of
+a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady:
+saliva often dribbled from his wide mouth; and
+as he walked he held on to the furniture, walls,
+etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and
+so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to
+give him peculiar pleasure to creep on his hands
+and knees, and at such times he would stamp with
+the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon
+the ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait,
+and the gurgling sound which was all that the boy
+could utter, constituted the points of his resemblance
+to apes. All the other conditions of life
+were those of a being whose mental and physical
+growth was arrested, and who, although not epileptic,
+was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant
+what afterwards became of him.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of a discussion on the instance
+adduced by Krause, Virchow asks whether the
+psychological conditions of such a brain are indeed
+simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied
+the microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of
+Bürgel, Hanau) will find that psychologically she
+had nothing in common with an ape. In her case
+all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape
+were wanting; the simian psychology was altogether
+absent, and there was only the psychology of an
+imperfectly developed and deficient young child.
+Every characteristic was human. Virchoff had the
+child in his room for hours together during a period<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
+of two months, and was constantly occupied about
+her, without observing anything in her nature
+which reminded him even remotely of the psychological
+conditions of apes. She was a degraded
+specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from
+the human type.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p>
+
+<p>I also examined Margaret Becker, as well
+as another microcephalic girl, who was in the
+Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With
+respect to the former and more animated being, I
+have nothing essential to add to the information
+published by Virchow. Ida X——, the other
+individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the
+time of my researches aged thirteen years and five
+months. Her figure was slightly made and well
+proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a
+modified extent of that of the microcephalic Aztec,
+and also of the heads represented in ancient sculpture
+of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit
+to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy
+hair. She was altogether impassive; could only
+utter the syllables <em>da-da</em>; and once betrayed a slight
+sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the
+measuring-rod was placed against the inner side
+of her thigh, for the sake of obtaining the dimensions
+of the different parts of her body.</p>
+
+<p>Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacobwitz,
+of Waschahel, is also extremely interesting.
+She was a microcephalic girl of the age of fourteen,
+and a Hungarian Jew by race.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Virchow remarks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
+that, in his opinion, all Esther’s most striking characteristics
+presented the strongest contrast to those of
+apes, since only negative traits have hitherto been
+established, while all which characterizes the positive
+development of the psychical life of apes was absent
+in this case. The same remark applies to Ida X——.
+Virchow goes on to say that there was undoubtedly
+something brute-like in the defects in question,
+but that in order to reproduce the animal in its
+actual form and nature, so as to show that the
+microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the
+positive side of animal life must to some extent be
+presented to us, and this was absolutely wanting.</p>
+
+<p>Virchow also had the opportunity of examining
+a pair of twin children, one of whom was quite
+normally developed, while the other (Karl R——)
+was microcephalic. This was a very significant
+case, since two individuals of the same birth were
+under consideration, so that the question could be
+asked with greater confidence—Is this atavism, or
+a morbid condition? From this point of view, it
+was of special interest to establish the fact that the
+microcephalic child had, in fact, displayed positive
+signs of a morbid condition.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p>
+
+<p>When I go through the accounts collected by
+C. Vogt of the lives of well-known microcephalic
+beings,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> I can find nothing which specifically
+reminds me of the actions and habits of apes,
+although we have an intimate acquaintance with
+their ways. These individuals give the general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
+impression of human beings whose bodily and
+mental development has been arrested. According
+to Virchow’s experience, all the cerebral disturbances
+are concentrated in the cerebrum in these microcephalous
+cases. The anterior portions of the
+cerebrum are affected to the greatest, and the
+posterior to the least, extent. Those parts which
+are developed latest suffer the most, while those
+which are the first to be developed generally escape
+disturbance.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p>
+
+<p>Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to
+show that the mothers of microcephalic children
+have suffered from severe pains of the uterus during
+pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms
+of the uterus distinctly affect the development of the
+brain of the offspring. Flesch thinks it possible that
+these spasms of the uterus may have something to do
+with the origin of microcephaly.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> But he also asks
+whether this morbid condition of the uterus may not
+have been produced by a previously diseased condition
+of the offspring. This observer is, moreover,
+still more inclined to make the influence of the
+father responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly.
+In view of the fact that there is much reason to
+suppose there has been a compression of the uterus,
+and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels
+justified in looking for a compression which has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
+perhaps resulted from some growth on the ovary.
+Hence ensues a disturbance, probably inflammatory,
+of the organ of nutrition.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a></p>
+
+<p>Aeby also regards microcephaly, not as an expression
+of atavism, but as the result of a morbid
+degeneration. “Microcephalic subjects do not
+point back to the milestone which man left behind
+him in hoar antiquity, and it is not through them
+that the chasm between man and animals can be
+bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.”</p>
+
+<p>Virchow’s researches led to the following conclusions,
+which we must here subjoin:—1. There is
+no species of apes which presents that precise configuration
+which is found in a microcephalic brain.
+2. Psychology offers the strongest arguments against
+men-apes. 3. The instinctive side of psychical
+activity, which is almost wholly absent in microcephalic
+subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids
+as well as in other animals.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these remarks, it may also be observed
+that among savage races the medicine-men,
+shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often assume
+ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances,
+and other gestures which are inseparable from their
+trade. Owing to their state of excitement, in which
+they are not always mentally responsible for their
+acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
+unconscious. It is very common among the inspired
+Arabs termed Haschasch, who, sometimes as dervishes,
+sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam
+through the country and extend their wanderings
+from the interior of Africa to the latticed gates of
+Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong also the dancing
+mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape-like
+gesture in the market-places and streets of
+Bokhara, as well as in the other chief cities of
+Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures
+are conventional, and even adopted as the means of
+stimulating the proposed effects, but at the same
+time they impress us with the idea that a man under
+such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts
+the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr,
+an Islamite rite of worship, accompanied by obligatory
+howls and contortions of body, we are tempted
+to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild
+apes. And the illusion is still stronger if the performers
+in the Zikr are black fakirs, dressed as
+warriors.</p>
+
+<p>The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids
+has not, up to this time, been analyzed with the
+completeness we could wish. As far as the observations
+of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with
+my personal experience in this department, no
+marked distinction can be established between the
+structure of these organs in anthropoids and those of
+the nervous system in man.</p>
+
+<p>H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the
+nervous lumbo-sacral plexus to the vertebral column
+of men and animals, and has come to the conclusion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
+that there is the most complete agreement between
+men and animals with respect to the relations
+of the vertebral column to the peripheral nervous
+system. According to this author, man, from the
+anatomical point of view, stands so completely within
+the class of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign
+to him any other place in zoology is open to the
+charge of being biassed by considerations which
+have nothing to do with facts.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p>
+
+<p>The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not
+present any noteworthy points of difference from
+these organs in man. I have written, but not yet
+published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals,
+showing their general agreement with the conditions
+of the human eye. On the skin of the fingers and
+toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be
+detected which are connected with the sense of
+touch.</p>
+
+<p>The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to
+this time been studied in any exhaustive manner.
+The heart strongly resembles that organ in man. In
+the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great
+arterial branches have the same relative conditions
+as in the human organism. A common origin from
+one branch of the subclavian artery, and of the
+right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the
+orang and with a certain constancy in the gibbon, so
+far as we can judge from the researches which have
+been made up to this time. But we know that this
+form of deviation from the common type is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
+altogether rare in man. Bischoff and others have
+justly maintained that the resemblance to man which
+is found in these animals in the arrangement of the
+heart and larger blood-vessels appears to be connected
+with their mode of life. For although their
+habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that they
+are for the most part in an upright position.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the femoral arteries displays a
+somewhat interesting deviation from the normal
+human type. High up near the femoral arch an
+artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve,
+diverges from the femoral artery, which extends,
+together with its accompanying parts, as far as the
+back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces
+the sartorius.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><span id="toclink_210"></span>CHAPTER IV.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Up</span> to recent times it was generally supposed that
+there was only one species of gorilla, and the differences
+in the structure of the skeleton and of the
+external body which were observed in the several
+specimens under examination, were either regarded
+as the expression of a purely individual variation
+or as due to differences in age and sex. Not long
+ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the
+Congo the skeleton and skin of an aged female
+gorilla, which had been killed by Lucan and Petit
+in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the
+Kuilu river in 4° 35′ south latitude. This specimen
+was of less bulk than the common gorilla
+(<i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>), and its head was comparatively small.
+The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the
+occiput, was much more strongly developed in this
+animal and the temporal fossæ were deeper. That part
+of the skull which extends behind the supra-orbital
+arches was narrower, and so also was the space between
+the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
+centre of this space is more marked, the nasal bones
+are arched and not flattened, the orbital aperture
+is larger in comparison with the general size of
+the skull, and the frontal processes of the malar
+bones are wider and more arched. One interesting
+characteristic consists in a small, vertical, styloid
+prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital
+process. On the vertebral column the spinous processes
+of the first, second, and third cervical vertebræ
+are only slightly developed in height, while the
+spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebræ
+are as high and large as those of <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>. The
+transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebræ are
+remarkable for their length, and in their transverse
+extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib.</p>
+
+<p>In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac
+crest is more convex, the tuberosity of the ischium
+is somewhat more everted, the neck of the femur
+is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and
+its lower surface is more arched. The clavicle
+appears to be shorter and less curved: the scapula
+is more arched near its inner border; its outer
+border is distinctly concave, while in <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>
+it is prominently convex. The base of the acromion
+process is larger, and the olecranon fossa of the
+humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm
+and hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more
+slender, and their prominences and inequalities are
+less marked. The smaller bulk of the fore and hind
+limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of
+the head.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
+black on the limbs, with red patches on the head,
+and reddish in the pubic region, does not essentially
+differ from that which has been described
+by different authors in the case of other skins which
+have indeed been artificially restored. But the
+hide essentially differs from that of other specimens
+in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the
+belly from the grey of the back, by the reddish tint
+of the hair which clothes the pubic region, and also
+in the abundant growth of hair which so closely encircles
+the cheeks and chin. But, according to our
+authorities, the most remarkable difference consists
+in the fact that the whole of the back is covered
+with long, thick hair, while in <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i> this
+part is either bare or only covered with short hair,
+partly worn away. Hence these authors conclude
+that this species, which they assert to be new, and
+have named <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Mayema</i>, from the negro chief of
+that name, does not rest its back against a tree so
+often as the <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>, but leads a more arboreal
+life, climbing from tree to tree.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></p>
+
+<p>I admit that if I were to take into account all
+the individual differences of the gorilla skulls and
+skeletons of the same sex and of about the same
+age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or
+more species of gorillas. I have observed such
+differences in the case both of male and female
+individuals of about the same age, and have given
+an exact description of them in my osteological
+work on the gorilla to which I have so often referred.
+I cannot, however, refrain from regarding these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
+differences as of a purely individual character.
+Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier—as,
+for instance, their remarks on the comparative
+smallness of the head, on the slenderness and
+smoothness of the limb bones—appears to me to
+point to the youthfulness of this Landana specimen.
+The unlearned may be struck by what is said of
+the small spinous processes of the upper cervical
+vertebræ in this specimen, but in the common gorilla
+the processes of the three upper vertebræ are also
+small (see <a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>). Individual and sexual variations
+in the general development of the cervical
+spines may be observed, not only in this case, but in
+the chimpanzee, and even in man. I think it very
+doubtful whether a characteristic of species can be
+founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What
+is said of the colouring of the coat of the so-called
+new species appears to me still less worthy of consideration.
+I have spoken above in detail of the
+many individual varieties of the colour of the hair
+in different specimens of gorillas. I have also
+observed long, thick hair, not always short, scanty,
+and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of
+different sexes. The condition described by Alix
+and Bouvier must refer to the hides of aged and
+sickly animals, or to those younger individuals
+affected by the kind of mange which is widely
+diffused in Africa. Every gorilla delights to rub
+his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans
+against it in a contented mood, and so also does the
+chimpanzee. This is the habit of many other mammals,
+such as cats, lions, boars, deer, and elephants.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
+Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude.
+Without more convincing proofs that <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Mayema
+Alix et Bouvier</i> constitutes a distinct species, I should
+prefer to leave the matter in suspense.</p>
+
+<p>I frankly admit that I am more doubtful how to
+decide the question whether we can at present
+assume that there are several or only one species of
+chimpanzees. <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i> has always been
+regarded by me as to a certain extent a typical form
+of this animal, and in the second chapter of this
+work I selected it as the subject for my general
+description. It is this type of chimpanzee which
+has usually reached Europe from the West Coast
+of Africa. The face of this animal is moderately
+prognathous; the head, even in aged males, is round,
+the ears are large and of somewhat the form presented
+in <a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>, the skin is of a dirty flesh-colour,
+and the hair is black. Reichenbach’s <i class="taxonomy">Pseudanthropos
+(Troglodytes) leucoprymnus</i><a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> is only so specified
+on account of the whitish hair which clothes its
+posterior—a character observed in all true chimpanzees,
+and therefore without specific value.
+Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has
+had an illustration made from a damaged skin of a
+large (probably male) chimpanzee; but we can only
+form an imperfect opinion of its general external
+appearance from this figure.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> There is as little
+certainty about Gray’s <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes vellerosus</i> from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
+the Kamarum mountains.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Duvernoy’s remarks on
+<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Tchégo</i>, which he asserts to be a new
+species, relate to an aged male specimen of which
+the form is also doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu,
+Jeffries Wyman has sought to establish two new
+species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouvé (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes
+calvus</i>) and the Koolo-Kamba (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes
+Koolo-Kamba</i>). I have vainly endeavoured to obtain
+a satisfactory account of these two supposed new
+species from the descriptions which are intended to
+establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately
+rendered more confused by the illustrations he subjoins.
+That of the Nschiego Mbouvé is only taken
+from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee,
+that of the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female
+gorilla. But we may come to the general conclusion
+that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and perhaps
+even specific, variations from the ordinary type
+of chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_61" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p216.jpg" width="1095" height="1127" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 61.—Mafuca.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the
+female ape Mafuca (often erroneously termed Mafoca),
+which was brought from the Loango coast and placed
+in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was
+a wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height,
+reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The
+face was prognathous; the ears were comparatively
+small, placed high on the skull, and projecting outwards;
+the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed;
+the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
+of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, moreover,
+strongly built, and the region of the hips and the
+belly were contracted, while the hands and feet
+were large and powerful. When I first saw this
+savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was
+full of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I
+saw a female gorilla, not quite adult, an opinion
+shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von Siebold and
+others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau
+and A.&nbsp;B. Meyer. At that time I made a drawing
+of its profile, which is given in <a href="#i_61">Fig. 61</a>, and which
+was taken at a moment when the animal happened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
+to be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some
+slight errors,<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> the illustration faithfully reproduces
+its general and quite original character, and especially
+the expression of its countenance. From the
+structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show
+that this animal was simply a chimpanzee. No
+rational explanation can be attached to this suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined
+the dead body of the female gorilla of which I have
+already spoken, and which was of about the same
+age, I should have been still more disposed to regard
+Mafuca as a true gorilla. The general physiognomical
+resemblance between these animals was
+very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my
+earlier works, the female gorilla had a high upper
+lip, and a somewhat small nose. Mafuca’s upper
+lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise the
+physical correspondence between the two animals
+is very great. The hands of the female gorilla are
+still broader than those of Mafuca; and indeed,
+Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as
+a new slender-handed species of anthropoid. The
+assumption which I have already contested in the
+earlier pages of this work, that the female type
+should be placed in the foreground in describing
+the species, is especially untenable in the case of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
+gorilla, in which the male character is extremely
+predominant.</p>
+
+<p>To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A
+cross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee was
+often suggested at the time. I was myself inclined
+to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt
+in his contemporary treatise on the subject, as
+well as in the magnificent work which has lately
+appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its illustrations
+and the genius of its style.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> H. von Koppenfels
+heard much of such crossings when he was on the
+Ogowe, nor is their occurrence by any means
+impossible, and indeed they have been directly
+observed among other species of apes while in confinement.
+Koppenfels also affirmed that he had
+shot two such cross-bred animals, which were associating
+with a troop of gorillas. The traveller
+sought to kill others of the troop, but, when creeping
+on hands and knees through the thick bushwood, he
+was constrained to retreat by the attacks of some
+stinging ants (<i class="taxonomy">Anomma arcens</i>). The skins and
+skeletons of the supposed cross-breds were brought
+to the Natural History Institution in Dresden.
+A.&nbsp;B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mistaken
+in these instances, and that the remains
+sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly those of
+chimpanzees.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> It must be remembered that Koppenfels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
+was a clever hunter, and on the whole a
+good observer of nature, but that he was no zoologist,
+and may have been mistaken as to the nature of
+the animals he had shot. At the same time the
+possibility of the existence of such cross-bred
+animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer
+must be convinced that his assertion cannot be
+generally accepted: “Any consideration of the
+question as to cross-breeding is like fighting with
+windmills—that is, making difficulties where none
+exist.”</p>
+
+<p>If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are
+merely chimpanzees, it is, at any rate, very interesting
+to learn that these animals were found in the company
+of gorillas. We must hope that scientific travellers
+will in future feel bound to devote their special
+attention to this question.</p>
+
+<p>In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who
+was attached to Güssfeldt’s Loango Expedition,
+brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a female chimpanzee,
+Paulina, which varied a good deal in countenance from
+the chimpanzees we have commonly seen.
+The ears projected widely in a lateral direction, the
+supra-orbital arches were prominent, the nose was wide,
+the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet.
+I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead,
+which reproduced these characteristics of Paulina
+with more or less distinctness. I have nothing to
+urge against those who wish to regard such individuals
+as the representatives of a special variety.
+I would only warn them against the risk of accepting
+as such the species entitled by Du Chaillu and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>
+Wyman, <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</i>, which appears to
+be ill-established.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt has been made, chiefly by the
+unlearned, to regard Paulina as the image of Mafuca.
+There is, however, a considerable physiognomical
+difference between the two animals. For me and
+many other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this
+time an enigma, which is slurred over by others with
+the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on the other
+hand, and animals of the same character, display
+much to remind us of the illustration given by
+Gratiolet and Alix of their <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i>,
+although the drawing was taken from a specimen
+dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its
+hair through maceration in an impure preserving
+fluid. The growth or the lack of hair involves
+considerable external differences in specimens of
+these animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there
+is a resemblance between Paulina and her fellows,
+and Aubry’s chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>The certain special characters presented by chimpanzee
+forms here mentioned (Paulina and <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes
+Aubryi</i>) remind us of the bam found on the
+Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably
+first discovered by A. de Malzac, and was afterwards
+more exactly described by Schweinfurth.</p>
+
+<p>In <cite>Cassell’s Natural History</cite> (i. 39) the Nschiego-Mbouvé
+(<cite>Troglodytes Tschégo Duvernoy</cite>; <cite lang="fr">Troglodytes
+calvus Du Chaillu et Wyman</cite>), is described and
+drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from a stuffed
+specimen. In this there is much to remind us of
+the profile of Mafuca, including the very shrivelled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
+nose. An illustration is given in the same work of
+the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as a distinct
+species, and identified in the systematic catalogue
+as <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</i>, together with <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes
+Aubryi</i>; here we see a full-grown chimpanzee
+of the ordinary kind, to which a front view of the
+head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published
+by Gratiolet and Alix, has been affixed. Honest
+research should stand aloof from such confusion.
+By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the representative
+of the species already established by Duvernoy,
+<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Tschégo</i> or <i class="taxonomy">Anthropopithecus</i>, and this
+assertion is accepted by Martin.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> The latter remarks
+that this ape cannot be classified either with the
+chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons
+for his assertions.</p>
+
+<p>In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide
+whether there are several or only one species of
+chimpanzee. As things are at present, my conviction
+is strengthened that it is only possible to make
+a provisional settlement, and I am able to admit
+a certain constancy in the varieties of chimpanzees.
+First, The original representative of the species
+(<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This
+animal has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches
+are strongly developed in the male, more slightly in
+the female; the countenance is not very prognathous,
+and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are
+from 75 to 78 mm. in height; and the whole height
+of the body varies between 1100 and 1300 mm.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
+The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh-colour,
+or rarely of a blackish brown or speckled
+general colour. The hair is either wholly black or
+black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another
+variety, bam or mandjaruma (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger
+varietas Schweinfurthii Giglioli</i>). The head of this
+animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital arches are
+only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the
+upper lip rather low in comparison with the other
+variety; the ears are somewhat smaller, and the face is
+more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees. The
+limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly
+developed. The skin is of a dark reddish flesh-colour
+in youth, and with the increase of physical
+development it becomes a reddish brown, dark
+brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot
+with reddish or dark brown, or sometimes of a
+reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or yellowish
+grey, especially on the back. To this variety the
+mandjaruma belongs, of which an illustration is given
+by von Issel, and also the portrait taken from life
+of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my osteological
+work on the gorilla,<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> as well as <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes
+Aubryi</i> (?), and similar animals, of which I have
+given illustrations in the <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>
+
+<p>The question might now be raised whether we
+may assume that there is any distinct species of
+anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla and
+the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span>
+Du Chaillu’s <cite lang="fr">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</cite>, Duvernoy’s
+<cite lang="fr">Troglodytes Tschégo</cite>, the large stuffed animals in the
+Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have
+given illustrations in the <cite lang="de">Archiv für Anatomie</cite>,
+plate vii. fig. 1 (1875); and in the <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für
+Ethnologie</cite>, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps Mafuca and the
+ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might
+also be included.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> Duvernoy’s name for the species,
+<cite>Troglodytes Tschégo</cite>, seems to me not quite suitable,
+since the West African chimpanzees in general
+are distinguished by that Latinized specific name.
+However, this scientific term may be accepted in
+default of a better, until we are enabled by the
+possession of more abundant materials to establish
+the existence of such an independent species.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the orang the unity of species is
+also not yet ascertained. The Malays of the country
+to which they belong assert that there are different
+forms of this animal, which go by the general name of
+meias. The descriptions current among that people
+respecting these varieties are surprising. We are
+tempted to believe in the existence of different
+species, and some zoologists, Brühl among others,
+hold that there are, at any rate, two such species.
+Wallace, who is intimately acquainted with the
+species, says nothing on this point in his work on
+the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from
+his general remarks that he is disposed to recognize
+only one species of this animal. There are, perhaps,
+constant varieties, limited to different places, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
+future will throw more certain light on this question.
+It is better, therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead
+of indulging in peremptory and unnecessary negations.
+With respect to the gibbon, the question of
+variety of species has been long decided.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><span id="toclink_225"></span>CHAPTER V.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF
+NATURE, AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa,
+between lat. 2° N. and 5° S., and long. 6° and 16° E.
+They are most widely diffused in the northern part
+of this territory, on the rivers Ogōwē, Gaboon, and
+Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly
+found in the chain of mountains which extends for
+about a hundred miles from the coast of Guinea,
+between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is
+known as the Serra do Cristal. They have also been
+found at the source of the Danger (Muni, Mooney).
+In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a day’s
+journey from the mouth of that river. In the years
+1851 and 1852 gorillas were seen in large numbers
+on the sea-coast, probably driven thither from the
+interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four or
+five specimens were obtained in the course of a few
+months. After this they again completely disappeared
+from the neighbourhood of the coast, so
+that an American merchant captain offered 6000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
+dollars for a live specimen without being able to
+obtain it. According to H. von Koppenfels, the
+gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the
+mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo.</p>
+
+<p>According to Pechuël-Lösche, the gorilla is rare
+on the Loango coast. In this district it inhabits the
+mountainous forests or the strip of country in their
+immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes
+were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down
+to the mouths of these rivers, and also in the ravines
+of the plateau of Buala; but they now only come to
+the coast at Banya, where the same authority believes
+that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuël-Lösche,
+Falkenstein, nor Güssfeldt have ever seen
+the species in its wild state.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The specimen brought
+to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained
+by Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on
+the Loango coast, where it was presented to him
+by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos
+Santos. This animal, which was then extremely
+young, had been brought from the Kuilu district by
+a negro, who had shot its mother.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p>
+
+<p>In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district
+most frequented by gorillas was in the region of the
+Gaboon, which presents a pleasant variety of hill
+and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine,
+tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a
+scattered growth of underwood. There are a number
+of trees and shrubs, bearing fruits which the
+natives find inedible, but which are greedily devoured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
+by gorillas. They show a special preference
+for the following fruits:—First, those of the oil
+palm (<i class="taxonomy">Elaeis guineenis</i>), of which they also devour
+the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cabbage;
+second, the grey plum tree (<i class="taxonomy">Parinarium
+excelsum</i>), which bears a mealy and insipid stone-fruit;
+third, the melon tree (<i class="taxonomy">Carica Papaya</i>); fourth,
+the pisang (<i class="taxonomy">Musa paradisiaca</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Musa sapientum</i>);
+fifth, two sorts of scitamines (<i class="taxonomy">Amomum granum paradisi
+s. Afzelii</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Amomum malaguetta</i>), the last of which,
+according to Lindley, produces the malaguetta
+pepper; sixth, <i class="taxonomy">Amomum grandiflorum</i>; seventh,
+a tree bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the
+gorilla cracks the shell with a stone (this is probably
+one of the <i class="taxonomy">Sterculiaceæ</i>, like the Kola-nut);
+eighth, another tree with which we are not yet
+botanically acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit.
+Du Chaillu asserts that these animals are also very
+fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple. Although
+they live in places far from human habitations, yet
+they rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of
+the negroes in the harvest-time, and this is a fact
+confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage reports that
+gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in
+hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not
+sound improbable. Like most species of apes, the
+gorilla preys upon the smaller mammals, upon birds
+and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas
+which have been kept in confinement at Berlin have
+been quite omnivorous, and have displayed a special
+taste for animal food.</p>
+
+<p>In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
+Güssfeldt saw a fetish called Bunsi, constructed of
+the skulls of animals, and quite peculiar to Bakunyaland.
+It consisted of a pile of the skulls of animals
+which had been slain in hunting, and which were
+brought as an offering to the fetish by the hunter
+in order that his good luck might be maintained.
+The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls
+of antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there
+were also many skulls of gorillas. Among these
+Güssfeldt saw two fine specimens with high bony
+crests. When he inquired where gorillas were
+found and killed, the natives of Ntondo pointed to
+a neighbouring forest.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Güssfeldt describes the character of the forest of
+Mayombe, where gorillas are also found, somewhat
+as follows:—This forest does not correspond to our
+idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps
+perplex a South American traveller, since it is more
+like the forests of mountainous districts in Germany.
+The luxuriant growth of lianas is characteristic of
+a tropical primeval forest: they form a second
+roof of leaves above the green masses of the closely
+set trees. But in this case the parasitic vegetation
+is scanty, although not wholly absent, as the
+kautschukranke (<i class="taxonomy">Landolphia florida</i>) shows, which
+was at one time very abundant, but is now nearly
+extinct. Its growth no longer obstructs the view of
+the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling
+beeches. The underwood of our German forests is
+here chiefly supplied by the large linear leaves of
+the scitamines, of which the most common variety is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
+termed matombe by the natives. Ferns, or rather
+tree-ferns, are not wanting, and the ground is
+covered with dead leaves. The trees of this forest
+have been untouched by the axe, except in places
+cleared for the construction of a new village.
+Where a tree falls there it lies, encumbering, as it
+may for years, the narrow path which leads through
+the thicket. An eternal twilight always prevails
+here, and on cloudy days it might be supposed
+that the sun was eclipsed. The atmosphere is close
+and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight
+is most depressing to mind and body. The dense
+stillness is rarely broken by the wailing cry of
+a bird, and no wild creature can be seen. Those
+who wander in these forests are always going up
+or down hill, since there is no level ground, and
+by paths scarcely wide enough for a white man,
+which are covered with smooth and slippery roots,
+while the feet and clothes are constantly caught by
+boughs and lianas, which also sting the face, so that
+the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion, for
+light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space
+on which the village of Bayoma stands, surrounded
+by palms and bananas.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> In the work I have quoted
+on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour
+drawing, by Pechuël-Lösche, of a forest frequented
+by gorillas is reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of
+this interesting illustration (<a href="#i_62">Fig. 62</a>).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_62" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p230.jpg" width="1990" height="1131" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 62.—The home of the gorilla.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male
+and female and their young of varying ages, and
+the family group inhabits the recesses of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
+forest.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> According to von Koppenfels, they frequent
+the same sleeping-place not more than three or
+four times consecutively, and usually spend the
+night wherever they happen to be when night
+comes on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators
+in the assertion that the gorilla constructs a bed for his
+night lair upon the trees. He chooses for this purpose
+a full-grown tree, not more than 0·30 m. in thickness,
+breaks and bends the branches together at a
+height of from five to six metres from the ground, and
+covers them with the twigs he has torn off, or with
+the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of
+Africa. The male animal spends the night crouching
+at the foot of the tree, against which he places his
+back, and thus protects the female and their young,
+which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal
+attacks of leopards, which are always ready to
+devour all species of apes.</p>
+
+<p>In the daytime the gorillas roam through the
+tracts of forest which surround their temporary
+sleeping-places, in order to seek for food. In walking
+they place the backs of their closed fingers on
+the ground, or more rarely support themselves on
+the flat palm, while the flat soles of the feet are also
+in contact with the ground. The toes are generally
+extended, and a little separated from each other,
+but occasionally they are doubled under. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
+gait, as Huxley justly observes, is tottering; the
+movement of the body, which is never in an upright
+position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some
+extent from one side to another. As their arms are
+longer than those of the chimpanzee, they do not
+reach out so much; but the gorilla also throws his
+arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then
+gives a half-swinging, half-springing motion to his
+body. When assuming the position for walking,
+the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so
+balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite
+of his apparently clumsy and unwieldy form, the
+gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily dexterity.
+He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels
+asserts, when ranging from tree to tree, he will
+go to their very tops. He first tries whether the
+branches will bear his weight, and if one branch
+is not strong enough, he makes use of three or four
+at once. He will also run along the branches on all
+fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw a full-grown
+animal, as danger approached, spring down
+from a tree which was thirty or forty feet high,
+and then hastily crash through the brushwood. All
+Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that
+there is only one adult male attached to each group.
+As soon as the young male reaches maturity, a conflict
+for the mastery takes place, and, after his rival is
+killed or driven away, the stronger animal becomes
+the head of the community.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla.
+Koppenfels once observed a male and female with
+two young ones when they were feeding. The head<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
+of the family remained at his ease, while his wife
+and children plucked fruits for him from a small
+tree which stood by, and if they were not sufficiently
+nimble, or if they took too large a share for themselves,
+the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted
+a box on the ear.</p>
+
+<p>The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very
+dangerous animal by the negroes who inhabit the
+same country, and who themselves are often deficient
+in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror
+serve to increase their scanty fame as hunters. And
+what even the luxuriant fancy of negroes could not
+paint as sufficiently terrible has been exaggerated
+by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We
+will not here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of
+which Brehm justly says that they seem to have
+been devised by an indifferent romance-writer, who
+has given his pen free play.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> In the letters to
+Bastian, which are in my hands, Koppenfels has
+endeavoured to modify the accounts of the alleged
+ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the fragment
+of poetry given by that esteemed traveller in
+one of his letters.</p>
+
+<p>The same author writes in another place: “As
+long as the gorilla is unmolested he does not attack
+men—and indeed, rather avoids the encounter.”
+These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds,
+sometimes protracted like <em>kh-eh, kh-eh</em>, sometimes
+roaring or growling. When the animal is scared by
+man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and he
+only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
+into a corner. At such times his size, strength, and
+dexterity makes him a by no means despicable
+enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious
+yelp, stands up on his hind legs like an enraged
+bear, advances with clumsy gait in this position
+and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair
+on his head and the nape of the neck stands erect,
+his teeth are displayed, and his eyes flash with
+savage fury. He beats his massive breast with his
+fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds
+that if no further provocation is given, and his
+opponent gradually retreats before the animal’s rage
+has reached its highest point, he does not return to
+the attack. In other cases he parries the blows
+directed against him with the skill of a practised
+fighter; as is also done by the bear, he grasps his
+opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else throws
+the man down and rends him with his terrible
+canine teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him
+with his firearm. Savage states that the hunter
+awaits the approach of his prey with levelled gun,
+and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the
+animal to seize the barrel of the gun, and fires
+when, as is commonly the case, he tries to carry it
+to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the
+barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed between
+his teeth. When hunters of the Ogōwē are
+attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes make
+a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s
+fury with the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz
+told me that he had seen the skin of a male gorilla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
+which was injured in the region of the arms, probably
+in this way. But such a duel generally ends
+in the death of the hunter.</p>
+
+<p>Pechuël-Lösche talked with two Loango hunters
+who had killed gorillas. They stated that they had
+not gone in search of the dreaded animals, but that
+they chanced to encounter them in the forest.
+Only if they met a solitary animal did they venture
+to creep close to it and shoot it, and then they
+escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe
+from the fury of any of its companions which might
+be lingering near. After several hours they would
+return in a larger company to carry off their prey.
+In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten;
+but, according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked
+by the negroes, in the Gaboon territory, and constituted
+one of their favourite dainties.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time Europeans have been rarely
+successful in killing gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts
+that he has been one of the luckiest, but this
+assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless
+attempts were made by Winwood Reade, de Compiègne,
+Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In the
+letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he
+mentions that he had already, up to March, 1874,
+four gorillas. In the number of the <i class="taxonomy">Gartenlaube</i> shot
+which we have mentioned above, he describes some
+of his hunting adventures, and goes into details
+scarcely adapted for the readers of such a publication.
+On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels, accompanied
+by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake
+Eliva, observing a gorilla family, consisting of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
+parents and two young ones. The female climbed
+up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down its
+fruits. The male went to the water’s edge to drink,
+and was then shot by Koppenfels, while the female
+and her young swiftly escaped. Another time this
+traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the
+Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka,
+and is bounded on the south-east by the mountains
+of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval forests.
+It was here that he observed the troop of chimpanzees
+and gorillas of which we have already
+spoken, feeding on the kola nuts, of which they are
+very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen
+of the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo
+mountains he shot a male gorilla, 1090 mm. in
+height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and
+it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and
+then crashed down upon its face. It dragged down
+in its fall a liana of great strength with all its dry
+and green branches.</p>
+
+<p>Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying
+between 1500 to 2000 mm., and very rarely exceed
+that height. The height of the females is about
+1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by
+Ford, weighed 170 lb. without the viscera. The
+gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the Aschangolo mountains
+was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the
+people of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Galloa, and
+Bakalay the gorilla is called Njina, Njeïna, or
+Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called
+Nguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu
+or M’Pungu.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p>
+
+<p>As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee
+occupies a much wider area than the gorilla. In
+West Africa it is found in the latitude of the Portuguese
+territory, which ranges from Cachêu in the
+north down to the Coanza in the south. The species
+is known to exist in certain districts of north and
+south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in
+East Africa, to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba
+territory, and, as the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts,
+even in the remote district of Sofalla in the south-east
+of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the
+truth of this fact.</p>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They
+subsist on wild fruits of various kinds, but they will
+also visit forsaken plantations, and even those which
+are still under cultivation, and in some cases it seems
+that they do not reject animal food. Pechuël-Lösche
+says that on the Loango coast they frequent the
+mountains and their vicinity. They are found in the
+district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of Tschissambo,
+and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as
+the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee either lives in separate families
+or in small groups of families. In many districts,
+as, for example, in the forest regions of Central
+Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those
+of the gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the
+south-west coast, it seems to live more upon the
+ground. The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam inhabits
+the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia
+and Schweinfurth; that is, the forest trees growing
+one above the other in stages, of which the growth is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>
+so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here
+the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The powerful
+stems, thickly overgrown with wild pepper, bear
+branches from which hang long streams of bearded
+moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remarkable
+fern to which Schweinfurth gave the name of
+elephant’s ear. The large tun-shaped structures of
+the tree-termites are found on the higher branches.
+Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports
+for the colossal streamers of <i class="taxonomy">Mucuna urens</i>, and form
+bowers overhung with impenetrable festoons, which
+are as large as houses, in which perpetual darkness
+reigns.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p>
+
+<p>When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he
+generally supports himself on the backs of his closed
+fingers rather than on the palm of the hand, and he
+goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes
+on the closed toes. His gait also is weak and
+vacillating, and he can stand upright on his feet for
+a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same
+time he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them
+above his head, which is a little thrown back, in
+order to maintain his balance.</p>
+
+<p>These animals send forth loud cries, which echo
+plaintively through the great tropical forests.
+Pechuël-Lösche says that the horrible wails, the
+furious shrieks and howls, which may be heard
+morning and evening, and often in the night, make
+these creatures truly hateful to travellers. “Since
+they are really accomplished in the art of bringing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
+forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard
+at a great distance, and are reproduced by the echoes,
+it is impossible to estimate the number of those
+who take part in the dreary noise, but often we
+seemed to hear more than a hundred. They generally
+remain upon the ground among the dense underwood
+and thickets of scitamine, and only climb trees
+for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be
+plainly discerned on soft ground: they stop short
+wherever the <i class="taxonomy">amomum</i> grows, of which they are very
+fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen
+scattered all around.” The same narrator observes
+that the mischievous and active sea-cat monkeys,
+which abound on the Loango, frequently provoke
+the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious
+tricks until the tormented creatures cause the forest
+to echo with their discordant cries.</p>
+
+<p>These animals wander about, always in search of
+fresh feeding-grounds. They also construct nests
+and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes the night
+below the nest of his family, which is placed on
+a forked branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the
+Nschiego-Mbouvé also builds a pent-house. An
+illustration of this structure, which is only moderately
+successful, and has undoubtedly been embellished
+in London, is given by him. Koppenfels
+believes that the so-called pent-house is only the
+family nest, under which the male places himself;
+while Reichenfels thinks it possible that some
+parasitic growth, perhaps a <i class="taxonomy">Loranthus</i>, gave rise to
+the belief that such a pent-house is erected.</p>
+
+<p>When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
+ground with their hands, but they do not, as the
+gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist. They
+generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if
+driven to extremity, or wounded, they defend themselves
+with their hands and teeth. The direct
+conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in
+order to obtain the mastery over him, all the
+strength and presence of mind of a strong and
+courageous man. I shall always remember the large
+female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand
+up against a powerful man. Great daring was
+required to control the fury of Mafuca. The Soko
+also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the
+west of Lake Tanganyika, bravely defended itself,
+when attacked.</p>
+
+<p>The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with firearms
+or arrows, and also kill them with javelins.
+The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties of
+twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the woodland
+galleries so closely interwoven by the liana, and
+when they have thrown nets over these, they kill
+the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten in
+different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes
+serve for fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the
+stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth saw the skulls of
+men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons, antelopes,
+wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree.</p>
+
+<p>In the Gaboon district, as we have already said,
+the chimpanzee is called Nschégo, Nschiego,
+Ndjéko, and the same names serve for the people
+of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By
+the people of Aschira and Malimba the animal is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>
+called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call the
+chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders
+who speak Arabic adopt the name Bam or M’Bam.</p>
+
+<p>The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic
+islands of Borneo and Sumatra, more frequently in
+the former island. It is particularly common a few
+days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the
+river Sampiet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote
+districts on the southern and western coasts.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> The
+Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock that the
+orang was also found further to the north, and at
+Teweh, as well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a>
+Wallace states that this animal is widely diffused
+in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the south-west,
+south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that
+it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It
+seems at first sight inexplicable that this ape should
+be unknown in Sarawak, while it abounds in Sambas
+on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer
+acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of
+the orang enables us to discern sufficient grounds
+for the apparent anomaly in the physical conditions
+of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed
+the orang, he only found it in low marshy districts
+which were at the same time covered with primeval
+forests. Many isolated hills rise from these
+marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and
+have planted them with fruit trees. These are a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
+great attraction to the orang, which devours the
+unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh.
+He cannot live on high and dry ground. Thus, for
+example, he comes in troops into the low parts of
+the Sadong valley; but on reaching the limits where
+the ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the
+ground, though flat, is dry, the orang is no longer
+found. The lower part of the Sadong valley is
+indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout
+with a growth of tall trees, only for the most part
+with the Nipa palm; and near the town of Sarawak,
+the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed
+with scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with
+jungle which was formerly cultivated by the Malays
+and Dyaks.</p>
+
+<p>The orang is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo,
+and in the former island is chiefly found in the
+north-eastern districts of Siak and Atjin. Rosenberg
+states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy
+forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel,
+living in thick woods which, on account of their
+impenetrability, are seldom trodden by the foot of
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests
+which are not too thickly overgrown, while the
+gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not wholly
+devoid of water.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken
+and tolerably high primeval forest is necessary for
+the well-being of the orang. Such forests are like
+open ground to them, since they can move to and
+fro in every direction, with the same ease that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
+Indians cross the prairie and the Arabs the desert;
+they go from the top of one tree to the other without
+ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country
+which stand high and dry, being more frequented by
+men, and more often traversed by clearings, and
+subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle,
+are unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this
+animal. He is, in these tracts, more exposed to
+danger, and more frequently constrained to descend
+upon the ground. It is also probable that in the district
+frequented by orangs there is a greater variety
+of fruits, since the low hills, which stand like islands
+in the marshy plain, serve as gardens or plantations
+in which the trees of the hill country flourish.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace observes that it is strange and interesting
+to watch an orang passing at his ease through
+the forest. He goes with circumspection along one
+of the larger branches in a half-upright position,
+which is rendered necessary by the great length of
+his arms and the shortness of his legs. He seems
+always to choose such trees as have their branches
+interwoven with those which surround them, and
+when these are within reach he extends his long
+arms, seizes the boughs in question with both hands,
+as if to try their strength, then swings himself carefully
+on to the next branch, and goes on as before.
+The woodcut we subjoin, taken from a photograph
+by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to
+explain this ape’s mode of climbing<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> (<a href="#i_63">Fig. 63</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_63" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_p244.jpg" width="1384" height="1689" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 63.—Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As Wallace further remarks, the orang never
+leaps or springs, seems to be in no haste, and yet
+makes his way through the forest almost as fast as
+a man can run on the ground below. His long,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
+powerful arms are of the greatest use, enabling him
+to climb the highest trees with ease, to seize the
+fruits and young leaves from branches which would
+not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves
+and boughs with which he forms his nest. This
+structure, which serves for his nocturnal refuge, is
+generally placed on some low, small tree, which
+stands only from twenty to fifty feet from the
+ground, probably because such a situation is warmer
+and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the
+orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night,
+but Wallace thinks this improbable, since, in this
+case, the deserted nest would be more frequently
+found; this author saw some such nests in the neighbourhood
+of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since
+many orangs must have been there every day, in
+the course of a year their forsaken layers would be
+very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the
+orang is wet he covers himself with pandanus-leaves
+or large ferns, and this has perhaps led to the
+belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees.
+The orang only leaves his layer when the sun is
+tolerably high, and the dew has dried off the leaves.
+He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but
+seldom returns two days running to the same tree.</p>
+
+<p>These animals seem to be much afraid of man.
+Wallace never saw two full-grown specimens together,
+but both male and female are often accompanied by
+their half-grown young, and three or four young
+animals may be seen going about together without
+their parents. The orang generally lives on fruit,
+but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and young<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span>
+shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are
+particularly fond of the durian, of which the smell
+is so offensive and the taste so good (<i class="taxonomy">Durio
+zibethinus</i>). They destroy much more than they
+consume, and leave many fragments below the
+trees on which they have been feeding. I do not
+know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and chimpanzees,
+display any taste for carnivorous food.
+Huxley, who has collected much information about
+anthropoids which is not accessible to others, states
+that it is not known whether the orang destroys
+living animals.</p>
+
+<p>The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all
+fours laborious and unsteady. If chased, he runs
+faster than a man, but is soon overtaken. The very
+long arms, which are only slightly bent in running,
+raise the body in a remarkable way, so that the
+orang almost assumes the position of a very old
+man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a
+stick. When walking, this ape places the closed
+fingers, or rarely the open palm, of the hands upon
+the ground. The toes of the feet are also curved
+inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned
+downwards. More rarely the toes are completely
+closed, or the whole of the sole of the foot serves as
+the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot
+in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to
+bring the heel more upon the ground, while the
+curved toes partly touch the ground with the
+upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface
+of the outermost toes of each foot rest altogether
+on the ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span></p>
+
+<p>Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down
+upon the ground, and indeed only when he is driven
+by hunger to seek for the juicy young shoots on the
+banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes
+down to the water, of which he generally finds a
+sufficient supply in the hollow of leaves. This
+traveller on only one occasion saw two half-grown
+orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of
+the Simunjon hills. They were at play together,
+standing upright and alternately seizing each other
+by the arms. This observer also considers that the
+orang is only able to stand upright when he
+has some support for his hands, or when he is
+attacked.</p>
+
+<p>Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when
+the orang drinks, he crouches down to the water’s
+edge and sucks in the liquid with his lips. Occasionally,
+also, he draws water in the palm of his hand,
+and gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this
+when in captivity. In an old number of the <cite>Penny
+Magazine</cite> there is a woodcut of an orang which is
+very true to nature, in which he is represented as
+squatting down by the water, washing his hands,
+and this is really his habit.</p>
+
+<p>Müller and Schlegel<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> state that the adult males
+live alone except during the pairing season. Aged
+females and young males are often seen together in
+parties of two or three, and the mothers generally
+keep their young with them. Pregnant females
+generally live apart, and continue to do so for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
+good while after the birth has taken place. The
+young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live
+long under the protection of their mother, who,
+when she is climbing, carries her little ones in her
+bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair.
+It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang
+becomes capable of propagating his species, nor how
+long the females continue to bring forth young.</p>
+
+<p>This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of
+the agility of the chimpanzee, nor even of the
+gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his actions,
+and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses
+into repose. In sitting, the back is so bent, and the
+head so depressed, that the orang’s eyes are directed
+downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on
+with his hands to the higher branches, but generally
+his arms fall idly by his sides. In such positions
+the orang will remain for hours in his place, almost
+motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a
+note of his deep, gruff voice. By day he is accustomed
+to go from one tree-top to another, and he
+only comes down to the ground at night. When
+anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself
+in the underwood. When not hunted, he remains
+long in one place, and indeed, for several days together
+on the same tree. He seldom passes the
+night on a high tree, which he finds too cold and
+windy, and when night approaches he scrambles
+down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to
+the top of some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong
+palm, the pandanus, or the parasitic orchids which
+are characteristic of the primeval forests of Borneo.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
+He constructs his nest out of small branches and
+leaves, laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with
+the leaves of orchids, <i class="taxonomy">Pandanus fascicularis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Nipa
+fruticans</i>, etc. The nests observed by Müller were
+some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of
+from ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were
+from two to three feet in diameter. Some of them
+had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches thick.
+In others the branches intertwined for a foundation
+were united in a common centre, forming a uniform
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves
+his lair about nine a.m., and repairs to it again about
+five p.m., or a little later, when it is growing dusk.
+He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change,
+on his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and
+supporting his head on his hand. When the night
+is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body, and
+especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves,
+or with fronds of fern.</p>
+
+<p>Although the orang lives in the daytime on the
+branches of large trees, he seldom crouches on a
+thick bough, as other apes, and especially the
+gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to
+the slender, leafy branches, so that he really reaches
+the tree-top. He has not the sessor-callosities found
+on other apes, including the gibbon, and the hips
+are not so wide and prominent as in those species
+provided with callosities.</p>
+
+<p>The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He
+is particularly careful about his feet, and seems
+much more sensitive to any injury to them than is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
+the case with other apes. In climbing he alternately
+uses one hand and one foot, or else, as soon
+as he has taken a firm hold with his hands, he draws
+up both feet together. In his passage from one
+tree to another, he always looks out for a place
+where two branches come close together, or intertwine.
+Even when hotly pursued, he displays
+wonderful caution, trying the strength of the
+branches, and pressing them down by the weight of
+his body, so as to make a bridge from tree to tree.
+On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists
+essentially agree with those of Wallace.</p>
+
+<p>There is an eager search for these apes in their
+native place. Bock states the Malays of Samarinda,
+in the south-east of Borneo, capture them near the
+small brooks and streams which flow into the
+Mahakkam close to that town. These animals come
+down to the river-bank in the early morning and
+return in the course of the day to the thicket.
+When the natives take an orang alive, they sell him
+for three dollars to the Chinese, who at first feed
+the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice, but are
+never able to keep him alive for any time in
+captivity.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Although, in the ordinary course of his existence,
+the orang shows himself to be melancholy, slothful,
+and indifferent, yet in moments of danger he becomes
+angry and able to defend himself. When pursued,
+he is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches,
+and the thick, thorny outer husks of the durian fruit.
+This is the more probable since the Tscheladas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
+(<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus Gelada</i>), the Hamadryas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus
+Hamadryas</i>), and other baboons are in the habit of
+hurling branches, stones, and hardened clods of
+earth with great adroitness at those who attack
+them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the
+arm of his opponent, biting and scratching it whenever
+he can get at it. Wallace says that no wild
+animal ventures to fight with these powerful creatures,
+and that they can even obtain the mastery
+over crocodiles and gigantic snakes.</p>
+
+<p>The name orang-utan is derived from the words
+orang, man, and utan (belonging to woods), and is
+therefore merely wood-man. It is an error to write
+orang-<em>utang</em>, which, according to Von Martens,
+signifies an <em>indebted</em> man.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> The Malay name, meias,
+is often used, and they are distinguished as meias-pappan
+or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi. According
+to Rosenberg, the orang is called mawas
+in Sumatra, and Bock says that the Dyaks of Dusun
+call it këu.</p>
+
+<p>The gibbon in all its movements, and especially
+in those of its long arms, has a very singular
+appearance. In the second chapter of this work I
+have already described the geographical distribution
+and grouping of the species of these remarkable
+animals. Although they occasionally come down
+upon the ground, they are for the most part arboreal
+in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of
+high and even of mountainous districts to any others.
+Many find shelter in the bamboo thickets, especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
+in those formed by the gigantic stems of <i class="taxonomy">Bambusa
+macroculmis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Bambusa gigantea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg
+asserts that the first syllable is merely the article,
+lives gregariously in Sumatra, and possibly in
+Malacca. Martens saw one of these animals in
+Sumatra, swinging himself from tree to tree, right
+across the path, about fifty feet in front of him.
+Diard states that a powerful old male acts as leader
+to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sunrise,
+and keep quiet during the day, always on the
+watch, and scampering off at the slightest noise.
+They find it easy to get away on trees, but, according
+to some accounts, when surprised upon the
+ground, they show no agility, and are readily
+captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the
+siamang and unko inhabit mountainous forests
+3000 ft. above the sea, keeping to the trees which
+grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending
+to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger
+they hasten down the mountain with speed which
+rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few moments
+to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests
+which partly enclose Tobing, as well as on the
+mountains of Barissa, the siamang is not rare. Bock
+says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests,
+this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant
+called <i class="taxonomy">Daun simantung</i>. This ape makes a horrible
+roaring noise.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> When a young one is wounded, its
+mother turns in a threatening manner towards the
+aggressor, yet without being able to do him any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
+serious injury. The mothers seem to act with great
+tenderness towards their young, taking them down
+to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms
+that before they are able to run alone the young
+animals are always carried by the parent of the
+same sex, the male by the father, the female by the
+mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to
+tigers and panthers (<i class="taxonomy">Felis macroscelis</i>). The species
+is considered by the natives to be slothful and
+unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the
+Malays are skilled in the care of animals, they are
+unable to keep these stupid and slothful apes alive
+in captivity for any length of time.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Harlan states that the hulock is found on the
+Garrau mountains, near Gulpara, in Assam. These
+apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to the
+mountains themselves, which are several hundred
+feet higher, and exposed to the winds. Their
+favourite food is a fruit called propul, which is very
+abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen
+encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to
+150 together, near the Naga and the Abors in the
+wooded hills to the east of Assam. The noise they
+made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen
+crossed their path, he was threatened by them, and
+pursued with angry gestures and piercing howls.
+They had also attacked a native of the district.
+Snakes of considerable size (<i class="taxonomy">Python reticulatus</i>)
+were torn to pieces by them.</p>
+
+<p>The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
+appears to live more commonly in pairs than in
+troops. We learn from Duvaucel that these animals
+move through the trees with great swiftness, grasping
+the slenderest and most flexible branches. They
+swing two or three times to and fro, and then spring
+with outstretched arms so that the flat surface of
+the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this
+way they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and
+go on for hours without fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbons are generally more capable than other
+anthropoids of walking upright. Some species,
+such as the lar, the white-handed, and the slender
+gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in
+maintaining this position. They press the flat soles
+of their feet upon the ground, turn out their knees
+and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the
+shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms
+by their sides, with the slender hands hanging
+slackly down. Others walk with their raised arms
+crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking
+on perfectly flat ground, he sways his arms to
+and fro like balancing poles. On irregular ground
+they seize any projection in the way with their outstretched
+arms, and, holding on to it, swing the
+body strongly forwards. In this way they make
+better progress over wide tracks of country, since
+every such effort enables them to pass more readily
+over difficult ground. When in great haste, they
+go upon all fours without closing either fingers
+or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting
+position upon their posteriors, cross their long arms
+and stare at whatever is before them with an air<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>
+of indifference. When seated on the branches of
+trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above
+them for the sake of security (<a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>). In this
+position some gibbons (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates lar</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hulock</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Albimanus</i>)
+have recently been photographed in the
+Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for
+the most part content with a vegetable diet, gibbons
+sometimes eat animal food, such as lizards; and
+Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these
+animals whole. I do not at this moment remember
+Huxley’s authority for the statement that gibbons,
+when they drink, dip the hand in water and lick it
+off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive
+animal. They sleep in a sitting position without
+building nests: like other anthropoids, they digest
+their food quickly.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally,
+the length of the period of gestation is still a matter
+of uncertainty. The young are of slow development,
+and are not fully mature before their fourteenth
+or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration
+of their lives accurately known, since observations
+made on captive specimens only lead to vague conclusions.
+If we observe the processes of osseous
+development in the skeletons of aged specimens of
+gorillas in order to make an approximate estimate,
+we may infer that the duration of the life of anthropoids,
+at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls
+short of the average length of human life. But up
+to this time the question remains undecided.</p>
+
+<p>These creatures do not appear to be free from
+morbid conditions in the wild life which is in conformity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
+with their nature. In addition to the
+injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often
+be observed, and which have been caused by the
+weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws of their
+own kind, there are often traces, especially on the
+skulls of chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and
+maxillary necrosis, as well as of curvatures, excrescences,
+and united fractures of other parts of the
+bony structure.</p>
+
+<p>This brief description is enough to show that
+anthropoids in their free life develop an intelligence
+which sets them high above the other mammals.
+They do not, however, display the keenness of scent
+and quickness of sight which distinguish some
+animals of a lower order, such as canine beasts
+of prey and ruminants manifest in many different
+ways. The structure of their nests is rude in comparison
+with that of some other mammals—as, for
+example, of rodents. But we must not forget that
+several of the lower races of men, such as the
+degraded Bedja, the Obongo, the Fuegians, many
+aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the Australian
+blacks, scarcely rise above the inartificial structure
+of an anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their
+huts.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><span id="toclink_257"></span>CHAPTER VI.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> accounts given by the earliest observers of
+gorillas would lead us to expect that the attempt
+to tame even young apes of this species must be
+fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a
+young male gorilla, a creature of from two to three
+years old, which was quite as furious and unmanageable
+as any adult specimen could have been. The
+negroes of the district between the Rembo and
+Cape Santa Catharina had surprised the mother
+and her young one in the forest, and after killing
+the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in
+capturing the latter by throwing a cloth over his
+head. By means of a wooden slave-fork, fixed upon
+its neck, the animal was transported to the village
+in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time.
+Young as he was, the gorilla displayed extraordinary
+strength, and after he had been successfully
+fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack
+his new master again, tearing his trousers, and then
+retreating sullenly into a corner. He would only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
+eat the wild berries and fruits collected for him in
+the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple
+leaves. He escaped from his cage, and was only
+recaptured, after many fruitless endeavours, by
+throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that
+he had never seen so furious a creature as this
+gorilla. He flew at every one who came near him,
+bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed,
+on every possible occasion, that he was of a thoroughly
+malicious and unkindly nature. He broke
+loose a second time, and was again captured, and at
+the end of ten days he died suddenly.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young
+female gorilla, which clung affectionately to its
+mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators were
+affected by its grief. The creature was too young
+to be fed on anything but milk, and since this was
+unattainable, it died three days after its capture.</p>
+
+<p>Reade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate
+in their experience with the gorillas captured by
+them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about one
+of these animals:—“On my return to the Gaboon
+from a journey to Okanda, I was attacked by a somewhat
+serious fever which hung about me for a long
+while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the
+German factory on the Gaboon, was some compensation
+to me for this involuntary idleness. The
+creature came from Kamma (Fernand Vaz), the
+place from which Du Chaillu also obtained his
+specimens, and was captured out of a troop of eight
+animals. A small dog, which had been somewhat
+injured by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, prevented<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span>
+the young one from escaping until a negro
+came up, seized it by the neck, and got another
+man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was
+conveyed to the basket-factory of the house, and
+there, as is unfortunately done in most cases, the
+two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his
+using them to bite his captors.</p>
+
+<p>“This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably
+two years old, and has reconciled himself to captivity
+and to intercourse with men with no great
+difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened
+round his neck, which gives him plenty of room to
+move about; but for the greater part of the day
+he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfortable
+in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold,
+wind, and rain, and a thick sail-cloth is wrapped
+round the cask at night. He generally adopts a
+squatting position, with his arms folded across his
+breast, and he is always observant of surrounding
+objects. He always seats himself so as to have
+nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies before
+him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full
+length on his back or side, using one hand as a kind
+of pillow; and he never sleeps like other apes, in a
+squatting position. He goes upon all-fours with
+the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while
+the forehands are closed, so that he goes upon the
+knuckles, and he has the lateral gait characteristic
+of the species. At this moment he suffers terribly
+from the so-called dissous or sand-fly; both his forehands
+are full of blisters, which contain the eggs of
+this annoying little insect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p>
+
+<p>“In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the question
+of food is necessarily the most important. We
+have already offered him rice, bread, milk, etc., such
+things as may be obtained on board ship, as well as
+in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has
+occasionally eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s
+biscuit more readily, and once he ate some rice,
+but for the most part he does not touch it. His
+favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of
+which he eats the inner kernel; he is likewise fond
+of bananas and oranges, and above all, of sugar-cane,
+which he takes from my hand with evident
+pleasure, and chews. He will also take a glass of
+water from my hand, carry it steadily to his mouth,
+and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he
+was much excited, I have heard him utter a growling
+noise; generally he is quite dumb.” This
+animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body,
+preserved in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by
+me in some of the researches of which I have given
+an account.</p>
+
+<p>Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the
+gorilla represented in Figs. <a href="#i_3">3</a>, <a href="#i_4">4</a>, during the first
+months of his captivity: “When this animal reached
+the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first
+care to procure all the forest fruits within reach,
+as well as a she-goat, in order to restore the young
+anthropoid’s failing strength. It can easily be supposed
+that we watched his attempts to eat with
+great interest, and were very much relieved when
+he not only readily drank milk, but ate various
+fruits with evident increase of appetite, and especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
+those of <i class="taxonomy">Anona senegalensis</i>, which are of
+about the size of a walnut, with a rough husk, and
+grow in the savannahs. In spite of this, however,
+he remained for a long while so weak that he would
+fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of
+the day crouching asleep in a corner. He gradually
+became accustomed to cultivated fruits, such as
+bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he
+became stronger, and was more often present at our
+meals, he began to demand for himself whatever
+he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually
+accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood
+of transporting him successfully to Europe was
+increased.”</p>
+
+<p>This is perhaps the only way in which other
+and possibly older specimens can be rendered fit to
+endure the passage to Europe. Every attempt to
+embark them immediately after their capture, without
+previously weaning them from their old modes
+of life, and adapting them slowly and systematically
+to their altered conditions, has invariably resulted,
+sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein
+also recommends, relying on the experience he has
+had of apes in a state of nature, that this species
+should be supplied with some form of animal food.
+He gives this further account of the captive
+<span class="locked">gorilla:—</span></p>
+
+<p>“In the course of a few weeks he became so accustomed
+to his surroundings, and to the people whom
+he knew, that he was allowed to run about at
+liberty, without fear that he would make any attempt
+to escape. He was never chained, nor confined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
+to a cage, and was watched only in the way
+that little children are watched when they are at
+play. He was so conscious of his own helplessness
+that he clung to human companionship, and displayed
+in this manner a wonderful dependence and
+trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous,
+malicious, or savage qualities, but was sometimes
+self-willed. He expressed the ideas which occurred
+to him by different sounds, one of which was the
+characteristic tone of importunate petition, while
+others expressed fright or horror, and in rare instances
+a sullen and defiant growl might be
+heard.</p>
+
+<p>“In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and
+simple pleasure, he might be seen to rub his breast
+with both fists, while raising himself on his hind
+legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings
+after quite a human fashion, by clapping his hands
+together, an action which no one had taught him;
+and he executed such wild dances, sometimes overbalancing
+himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling
+round, that we were often disposed to think that
+he must be drunk. Yet he was only drunk with
+pleasure, and this impelled him to display his
+strength in the wildest gambols.</p>
+
+<p>“His dexterity in eating was particularly remarkable.
+If any of the other apes chanced to enter
+his chamber nothing was safe from them; they
+snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it
+away with a certain aversion, or carelessly to let
+it drop. The gorilla behaved quite differently: he
+took up every cup or glass with instinctive care,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
+clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down
+again so softly and carefully that I cannot remember
+his breaking a single article of our household goods.
+Yet we never taught the creature the use of our
+vessels and other manufactured articles, since we
+wished to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in
+a state of nature. His behaviour at meal-times was
+quiet and mannerly; he only took as much as he
+could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger,
+and looked on with indifference when any of the
+different forms of food heaped up before him were
+taken away. If, however, nothing was given him,
+he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the
+dishes from his place at table, and accompanied
+every plate carried off by the negro boys with an
+angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and sometimes
+he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by
+in order to express his displeasure more plainly by
+a bite or a blow. In another minute he would play
+with the negroes as with his fellows, and this distinguishes
+him altogether from other apes, and
+especially from baboons, who appear to feel an instinctive
+hatred against many of the black race, and
+take a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity
+against them.</p>
+
+<p>“He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel
+without even putting his hands into it or upsetting
+it, and in the case of smaller vessels, he carried them
+to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but sometimes
+his high spirits made him careless, and he
+once fell to the ground from a tree, which was
+fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
+remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s
+web, or rubbish of any kind, he sought to brush it
+off with absurd horror, or held out his hands to have
+it done for him. There was no offensive smell about
+him. It was his favourite amusement to play and
+paddle about in the water, nor did the fact that he
+had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing
+himself by rolling in the sand with other apes
+immediately afterwards. His good-humour and
+shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special mention
+as his strongest characteristic. When he was
+chastised, as it was necessary to do at first, he never
+resented the punishment, but came up with a beseeching
+air, clinging to my feet, and looking up
+with an expressive air which disarmed all displeasure.
+When he was anxious to obtain anything,
+no child could have expressed its wishes in a more
+urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he
+did not obtain what he wanted, he had recourse to
+cunning, and looked anxiously about to see if he was
+watched. It was just in these cases, when he obstinately
+pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible
+not to recognize a deliberate plan and careful calculation.
+If, for example, he was not allowed to leave
+the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he
+would, after several attempts to get his own way
+had been baffled, apparently submit to his fate and
+lie down near the door in question with assumed
+indifference. But he soon raised his head in order
+to ascertain whether fortune was on his side, edging
+himself gradually nearer and nearer, and then, looking
+carefully round, he twisted himself about until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span>
+he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered
+cautiously round, and with one bound galloped off
+so quickly that it was difficult to follow him.</p>
+
+<p>“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity
+when he felt a desire for the sugar or fruit which
+was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room; he
+would suddenly leave off playing and go in an
+opposite direction, only altering his course when he
+believed that he was no longer observed. He then
+went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it,
+and made a quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar-box
+or fruit-basket, sometimes closing the cupboard
+doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his
+plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape
+with it, and his whole behaviour made it clear that
+he was conscious of transgressing into forbidden
+paths. He took a special, and what might be called
+a childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on
+hollow articles, and he seldom omitted an opportunity
+of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin trays,
+whenever he passed by them—a noisy amusement to
+which he was much addicted during our homeward
+voyage on board the steam-vessel, in which he was
+at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked
+strange noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the
+skylight, and especially the long-drawn note of a
+pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as to
+cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and
+it became expedient to keep him at a distance.
+When he was slightly indisposed, we made use of
+this kind of music with results as successful as if we
+had administered purgative medicine.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p>
+
+<p>My personal observations enable me to add but
+little to this excellent and exhaustive account. It
+is well known that this ape throve in the Berlin
+Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities,
+was at first covered with dry, cracked patches, which
+the late veterinary surgeon Gerlach believed to be
+due to mange; but these gradually disappeared, and
+as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a
+dark black colour, and there was a fresh growth of
+hair. The creature generally slept in the bed of his
+keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an orderly
+manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but
+nourishing food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He
+sometimes ate fruit, and bananas were occasionally
+provided for him. When taking his meals, drinking,
+etc., I saw that he always behaved with good
+manners. He often moved freely about in an office-room
+of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient to
+the Director as to his keeper. He was generally
+good-tempered, fond of play, but rather mischievous,
+and he would snatch roughly, and occasionally try
+the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried to
+seize from visitors things which attracted his
+curiosity, such as the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets,
+lace falls, and the like. But on the whole he behaved
+with propriety, playfulness, and good temper,
+and there was much which resembled man in his
+look and bearing.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape
+suffered from malaria, and he subsequently suffered
+from other complaints, from which he recovered.
+He died in November, 1877, of a galloping consumption.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
+The gorilla now living in the Berlin
+Aquarium is also very playful and affectionate.</p>
+
+<p>The chimpanzees which have up to this time been
+observed in captivity, have been, while in good
+health, lively and amusing animals, and generally
+good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a specimen
+about two years of age, and this ape always
+walked upright, even when he carried heavy loads.
+It is known that other apes can also be trained to
+adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a
+serious and melancholy expression, moved slowly,
+was gentle and patient, and obedient to a word or
+sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them
+in an orderly manner, sat down to table like a man,
+opened his napkin and wiped his lips with it, made
+use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and
+clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in
+sugar, poured out tea, let it get cold before drinking
+it; but, while doing all this, he did not seem happy.
+He ate all the ordinary food of men, but preferred
+fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea,
+and sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one,
+coming close to them, and taking pleasure in their
+caresses. He took such a fancy to one lady, that
+when other people approached her he seized a stick
+and began to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated
+his displeasure at such behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chimpanzee
+which likewise came from the Gaboon, and
+which, as soon as she came on board, reached out her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
+hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good
+terms with the whole crew, including the cabin-boy.
+When the sailors were at meals the ape regularly
+appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry
+she made a baying noise like a dog, and on another
+occasion she wailed like a spoiled child, scratching
+herself vehemently. She was lively and cheerful in
+warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to
+northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was
+glad to wrap herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed
+uneasy in an upright position, and when she assumed
+it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her hands
+were very strong, and she could hold on to a cord and
+swing for a long while without interruption. She
+gradually acquired a taste for wine, and once stole
+a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was
+fond of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank
+from a glass, and took pleasure in imitating the behaviour
+of men. She was attracted by shining metals,
+pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on
+a hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition.</p>
+
+<p>According to the account of Captain Grandpré, a
+female chimpanzee on board his vessel would heat
+the oven, taking care that no coals fell out, and
+carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of
+which she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all
+the duties of a sailor, such as drawing up the anchor,
+furling and making fast the sails. She patiently
+endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching
+out her hands imploringly to ward off his blows.
+But after this she refused all food, and died in five
+days of grief and hunger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p>
+
+<p>A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick,
+and twice blooded. When he again fell ill, he held
+out his arm as if to demand another venesection.</p>
+
+<p>In reading these accounts, which have gone the
+round of various old-fashioned books on natural
+history, the question arises what we are or are not
+to believe, for many particulars appear to be exaggerated.
+Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin
+Aquarium, disputes the assertion made by others
+that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept
+for a long while in that establishment, poured out
+wine for herself at an evening party, and clinked
+glasses with a neighbour.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p>
+
+<p>There is, however, an account given by Broderip
+of a male chimpanzee, which was brought from the
+Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological
+Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and
+faithful. The creature, clothed in a little jacket,
+nestled for the most part in the lap of an old female
+keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played
+with his toes, just as a child does under like circumstances.
+He took Broderip’s hand without fear,
+and touched the ring on one of his fingers with his
+teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial
+substances with his teeth. He held fast to his
+keeper’s gown when she proposed to leave him, and
+he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed
+great terror when an anaconda was brought into the
+room in a basket, and did not dare to take an apple
+from off the closed lid of the basket; but as soon as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
+the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the
+apple and became cheerful again. He willingly
+placed himself in a swing, and held on to the cords
+with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting
+position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or sometimes
+resting his face on his hands. But he would
+also sleep upon his belly, with his feet drawn up,
+and his head on his arms.</p>
+
+<p>A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin
+Aquarium in 1876, was remarkable for his excessive
+liveliness. He had contracted a friendship with a
+fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their
+intimacy was confirmed by their games together,
+accompanied by many tender embraces. The small
+orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed
+the chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and
+the former betrayed remarkable intelligence. In
+consequence of a general repair of his cage, Dr.
+Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we
+owe this account, was obliged to keep the chimpanzee
+in his office, in company with himself and other
+officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed himself
+to his new surroundings, and was on particularly
+friendly terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy.
+When the child entered the room, the chimpanzee
+ran to meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized
+his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might
+play together. The child was often rough with
+his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth, pinching
+his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was
+never known to lose his temper. He behaved very
+differently to boys between six and ten years old.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
+When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he
+ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook
+one of them, bit the leg of another, seized the jacket
+of a third with the right hand, jumped up, and with
+the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short,
+he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he
+were infected with the joyous excitement of youth,
+which induced him to riot with the troop of schoolboys.</p>
+
+<p>One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son
+a slight tap on the head, on account of some miscalculation
+in his arithmetic, the chimpanzee, who
+was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart
+box on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that
+some one was staring or mocking at him, and said,
+“Do not put up with it,” the creature cried,
+“Oh! oh!” and rushed at the person in question
+in order to strike or bite him, or express his displeasure
+in some other way. As he made distinctions
+in the age of human beings, so also with
+animals. He was gentle and considerate in his
+behaviour to young dogs and apes, while with older
+animals he was as boisterous as he was with the
+schoolboys. When he saw that Hermes was writing,
+he often seized a pen, dipped it in the inkstand, and
+scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special
+talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium.
+It was amusing to see him squeezing up the cloth,
+moistening the pane with his lips, and then rubbing
+it hard, passing quickly from one place to another.</p>
+
+<p>Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in
+her external habits, but in her disposition. At one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
+moment she would sit still with a brooding air, only
+occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance
+at the spectators; at another she took pleasure in
+feats of strength, or she roamed to and fro in her
+spacious enclosure like an angry beast of prey. She
+would insert the index finger of her right hand in the
+opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds,
+climb up the pole with it, and let it fall with a crash
+and clatter from a height of six feet. This ape would
+sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence
+which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond
+of playing with old hats, which she set upon her
+head, and if the top was quite torn off, she drew it
+down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who
+entered the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear
+their clothes. She hardly obeyed any one except
+Schöpf, the director of the Dresden Zoological
+Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit
+on his knee and put her muscular arms round his
+neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of this,
+Schöpf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish
+tricks, since her good-humour was of short duration.
+She was rather fond of the keeper, but not always
+obedient to him, and the whip was often in request,
+even at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a
+spoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could
+pour from larger vessels into smaller ones without
+spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the
+morning and evening, and a mixed diet between
+whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and
+water, and sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the companionship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
+of a pretty sea-cat monkey, but she teased
+the creature so much that a special refuge was set
+apart for it, into which she could not enter. She
+was so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm
+that she seized her sleeping playfellow by the tail
+and dashed it to the ground. She chased the mice
+which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She
+was much afraid of snakes, which is not usually the
+case with chimpanzees. If she was left alone for
+any time she tried to open the lock of her cage
+without having the key, and she once succeeded
+in doing so. On that occasion she stole the key,
+which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her
+axilla, and crept quietly back to the cage. With
+the key she easily opened the lock, and she also
+knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off
+her keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out
+of reach with them, and throw them at his head
+when he asked for them. She could wring out wet
+cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief.
+When her illness began, she became apathetic, and
+looked about with a vacant, unobservant stare. Just
+before her death, from consumption, she put her
+arms round Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit
+her, looked at him placidly, kissed him three times,
+stretched out her hand to him, and died.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> The last
+moments of anthropoids have their tragic side!</p>
+
+<p>We owe to Wallace an interesting account of
+young orangs in a state of captivity. This observer
+shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large female ape<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>
+of this species, which had a young one about a foot
+long. As Wallace carried this creature home, it
+took such a firm hold of his beard that he had much
+difficulty in getting free, for the unequal phalanges of
+the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At
+that time the creature had not a single tooth, but
+the two lower front teeth were cut a few days later.
+Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female animal
+to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged
+to give it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill inserted
+in the cork, from which, after some attempts,
+it learned to suck very well. Sugar and cocoa-milk
+were added, to make the pap more nourishing.
+When Wallace put his finger in the creature’s
+mouth, it sucked at it vigorously, then pushed it
+angrily away and began to scream, as a child does
+in like circumstances. When it was fondled and
+caressed, it was quiet and content, but began to
+scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for
+the first two nights it was very noisy and restless.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s
+cradle, with a soft mat which was changed and
+washed every day. The little ape itself liked to be
+washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream,
+and never stopped until carried to the spring by its
+master, when it became quiet at once, although it
+struggled when first touched by the cold water, and
+made absurd grimaces when water was poured over
+its head. It was extremely fond of being dried and
+rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly happy when
+Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with
+extended arms and legs while the long hair on its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
+back and arms was brushed out. At first it clung
+helplessly by all-fours to whatever it could get hold of,
+and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save
+his beard. When restless, it worked its hands above
+in the air, in search of something to hold, and if it
+got hold of a stick or piece of cloth with two or three
+of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default of
+anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while
+it often folded its arms, and seized with each hand the
+long hair which grew below the opposite shoulder.
+The strength of the creature’s gripe soon diminished,
+however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for
+giving it exercise and strengthening its limbs.
+With this object he made a short ladder of three or
+four rounds, to which he suspended the young orang
+for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it was
+pleased, but finding itself unable to assume a comfortable
+position when holding on by all four hands,
+it let go with one after another and at last fell to
+the ground. Often, when only hanging by two
+hands, it let go with one, in order to cross it over
+the opposite shoulder, and get hold of its own hair,
+and on finding this much more agreeable than the
+piece of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to
+the ground, where it lay on its back with folded
+arms, quite content and apparently none the worse
+for its numerous tumbles.</p>
+
+<p>When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of
+hair, he endeavoured to construct an artificial mother
+by stitching together a piece of buffalo hide which
+he suspended about a foot from the ground. At
+first this seemed quite successful, since the small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
+orang could cling round it and always find something
+hairy to which it held fast with great persistency.
+Wallace now hoped that he had made
+the little orphan happy, and so it was for a while,
+until it remembered its lost mother and tried to
+suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to the
+hide, and hunted about for promising places; but
+when its mouth was only filled with wool and hair
+it was much displeased, cried vehemently, and gave
+up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On
+one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and
+Wallace was afraid it must be choked; but after a
+good deal of cough it threw it up, and he destroyed
+the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt
+to give the little creature some occupation.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the
+ape with a spoon. He mixed soaked biscuit with
+egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet potatoes.
+It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces
+in order to express its satisfaction or displeasure
+with what was offered. The little being licked its
+lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its eyes with
+an expression of extreme content when it had a
+mouthful of anything it particularly liked. On the
+other hand, when the food was not sufficiently sweet
+and savoury, the orang turned it about in its mouth
+for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then
+spat it out. If the same food was presented again, it
+screamed violently and threw its arms about like a
+passionate child.</p>
+
+<p>Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young
+orang, a macaca (<i class="taxonomy">Macacus cynomolgus</i>), likewise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
+young, was brought to him. The two animals
+became at once the best of friends, neither showing
+the least fear of the other. The small macaca had
+not the slightest scruple about sitting on the other’s
+body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the
+orang, the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels
+which dropped, and when the meal was over it
+licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips,
+and even tore open its mouth to see if anything
+remained there; then it lay down on the poor creature’s
+body as if it were a comfortable cushion. The
+small, helpless orang endured all these insults with
+the most unexampled patience, only too glad to
+have something warm to cling to and encircle fondly
+with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when the
+other little ape wished to get away, the orang held
+on as long as possible to the movable skin of the
+back or head, or to its tail, so that it cost the macaca
+many violent struggles to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour
+of these two animals, which were of nearly the same
+age. All the observations hitherto made show that
+very young anthropoids display a helplessness resembling
+that of children of about the same age,
+although other families of apes, in common with most
+young mammals, kittens, puppies, etc., early attain
+to greater activity and independence.</p>
+
+<p>When Wallace had kept the orang for about a
+month, and placed it on the ground, its legs straggled
+outwards, or it overbalanced itself and fell
+heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would
+hold on to the edge, and once or twice it fell out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
+in consequence. If allowed to be dirty or hungry,
+or otherwise neglected, it would cry loudly until it
+received attention, or sometimes would cough or
+struggle like an adult animal. If there was no one
+in the house, or if no one paid attention to its cries,
+it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them
+when a step was heard.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of five weeks the two upper front
+teeth were cut, but throughout that period the
+creature had not grown, and remained of the same
+size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the
+want of milk or other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk
+seemed to produce diarrhœa, of which it was cured
+by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of
+what appeared to be intermittent fever, and died
+within a week.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received
+an orang of two or three years old. He was for the
+most part sluggish and inert, but had occasional fits
+of better humour and playfulness. When angry he
+would attack strangers, but he generally sat cross-legged
+on a low stool, or on the ground before the
+fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the giraffes
+of the establishment inquisitively stretched their
+long necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the
+creature evinced no fear, but tried to seize the long-legged
+animals by the muzzle. This orang answered
+to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often
+searching in his pocket for the dainties concealed
+there. He was uneasy when separated by the cage-bars
+from his master; and when confined in an enclosure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
+of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire
+asunder and squeezed himself through the hole, so
+that the cage had to be made stronger. The creature
+presented an absurd appearance dressed in a jacket
+and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he
+saw, he looked alternately at it and his keeper, and
+protruded his lips like a snout. In drinking, this
+animal took the vessel in his hand, brought the rim
+to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity.
+I may here observe that when anthropoids drink in
+this way, they generally take the vessel in one hand,
+and support it with the back of the fingers of the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>When the orang we have just described was disappointed
+in his desire to obtain anything, he threw
+himself on the ground, howling and screaming until
+he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits
+of passion, in one of which he tried to destroy the
+bars of his cage by hitting them with the stool.
+As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent
+to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on
+the return of his keeper.</p>
+
+<p>An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in
+1827, was less phlegmatic than animals of this species
+usually are. He played with those who carried him
+when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair,
+and so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a
+cloth, throwing one end over his shoulder, as he had
+seen the servants of the house do. He was particularly
+fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit.
+He was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he
+could reach, first with the fingers, then with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
+lips, and finally with his teeth. He was fond of
+biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His
+absurd gestures, combined with his air of solemnity,
+excited laughter even in the grave natives. He was
+once drinking tea, when some one filled the empty mug
+with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw
+himself on his back, screamed, and struck his breast
+and belly with his hands. His gait was clumsy and
+unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When he
+went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself
+on his hands and swung himself forward with his
+feet. If he lost his balance in walking upright, he
+fell upon his head, and then went on by turning
+somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went
+into the house and tried to get a portion of his
+master’s breakfast. In spite of his usual inquisitiveness,
+he was not at all excited by the sight of
+his melancholy countenance in the glass.</p>
+
+<p>The large orang which was in the Berlin Aquarium
+in 1876 was a sullen companion, and looked
+like an old Bedouin as he crouched down and peered
+from under the covering which was thrown over
+him. His keeper could only trust him when he
+brought him an orange, and if he approached the
+bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him,
+gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he
+was not excited by hunger. Then he started from his
+usually sitting position, and devoured the food which
+was cautiously passed through the door. If kept waiting,
+he threw himself on his back in a rage. When
+his hunger was satisfied, he played with the straw,
+the cord, or with his blanket. When it was necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>
+to change his straw, he was lured away by
+holding out an orange at the top of his pole, and the
+change was effected while the ape was tearing open
+the rind and sucking out its contents. In the evening
+he never omitted to clear out a hole in the
+straw, and to roll himself in his blanket. Gabriel
+Max has drawn a striking likeness of the resigned
+attitude of a sick orang.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbons have often been observed in a state of
+captivity. Of the slothful and inanimate siamang
+there is nothing of much interest to report. The
+other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic,
+shy, and timid, but hardly ever averse from human
+society. Within a month Harlan was able to make
+a hulock so tame that he would hold on with one
+hand to him, while putting the others on the ground,
+and so walk about with his keeper. He came to
+his master’s call, seating himself close to him on
+a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or
+chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil
+the cloth. He was fond of cooked rice, bread soaked
+in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee, tea, chocolate,
+milk, etc. Generally he only dipped his fingers
+in the drinking vessels and licked off the liquid,
+but he could drink in human fashion. He searched
+the house for spiders and other creeping things,
+and brushed away flying insects with his right
+hand. The creature was very affectionate, and
+when Harlan came to him in the morning, he
+greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which
+went on for about a minute. He came to a call even
+when at a distance, and was pleased to be combed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
+brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by
+Harlan behaved in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> of the Berlin Aquarium,
+which I have already mentioned, was, as described
+by Hermes, and also according to my own observations,
+a very peaceable creature, although, if compelled
+to do what he did not like, he sometimes
+tried to bite a little, especially when just taken
+from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken
+by the hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased.
+Although much less lively than the chimpanzee
+which was his companion, and less inclined to play,
+he was pleased with children, and watchfully observed
+their movements. His dexterity was wonderful.
+He was almost always present at dinner
+and supper, when the table was covered with dishes,
+and he ran up and down it, in order to go from one
+person to another, without touching, still less upsetting,
+the smallest article. His food consisted
+chiefly of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and
+Kiel sprats, of which he was particularly fond, as
+well as of sweet grapes. Before taking any liquid,
+he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascertain
+that it was not too hot; then he drank it up,
+without taking the cup or vessel in his hand, as the
+chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or moist food,
+and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing
+to eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his
+favourite dainty, and if hungry when he saw them,
+he uttered a gentle noise which resembled the cry
+of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise,
+<em>Hu</em>, <em>Hu</em>, to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
+or when the same sound was uttered by others; and
+it was in this way that he greeted Hermes when he
+came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest
+when seated on a woman’s arm, with his long arms
+wound round her neck, and would sit quiet in this
+position as long as he was permitted to do so, and
+when taken away would scream like a child. When
+Frau Hermes left the room, he would run after her,
+and try to scramble up as soon as he reached her;
+if she took his hand, he went with her quietly.
+This gibbon may be compared favourably with other
+anthropoids, on account of his extraordinary cleanliness.
+He always returned to the place first used
+for his necessities, and never made his bed or the
+room unclean. There was not a trace of smell about
+him, so that he was quite an agreeable companion;
+and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ children
+without causing the least disturbance or discomfort.
+He was fond of swinging to and fro by a
+cord, to which he held with one hand.</p>
+
+<p>A specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i> was kept in Paris
+for about a year. It was very intelligent, yet less
+so than other anthropoids. It knew its keepers and
+frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled;
+but it showed no preference for one person more
+than another, not even for its keeper.</p>
+
+<p>Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live
+bird was let into the cage of an <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>.
+After watching its flight, the ape swung himself on
+to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand
+and the bird with the other. Its objects, both
+the bird and the bough, were attained with as much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>
+certainty as if only one object had arrested its
+attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked out
+the feathers, and then threw it away.</p>
+
+<p>Another female specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>
+suddenly attacked her keeper, sprang upon him,
+scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him on
+the breast, so that it was fortunate for the man that
+the creature had shortly before lost her canine
+teeth. It was said that the same ape had killed
+a man in Macao.</p>
+
+<p>Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from
+caries of the teeth and jaws, from chronic and acute
+bronchial and intestinal catarrhs, from inflammation
+and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of
+the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of
+the skin and intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn
+from many sources, these animals display much
+resemblance to men. Among others, Bock observed
+an aged male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from
+consumption, which lay nearly all day wrapped in
+a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a violent
+cough.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p>
+
+<p>On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees
+we find traces of caries of the teeth and jaws, by
+which, therefore, these animals may be affected in a
+state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin
+and intestines.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII"><span id="toclink_285"></span>CHAPTER VII.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> racial history of apes can only be traced with
+any certainty up to the Miocene period. The fact
+of the contemporary existence of apes and pachydermata
+has been frequently asserted, but it is still
+too far from being established to merit further consideration
+here. Traces of the slender ape (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>)
+have, however, been found in the Miocene
+of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik,
+and in the region bordering on the Himalayas. The
+name given to one of these fossil species (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus
+subhimalayanus</i>) seems to establish its locality.
+The numerous remains of <i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus Pentelici</i> in
+Attica have, however, given rise to controversy.
+Gaudry and Beyrich were disposed to assign these
+specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but Gaudry
+has since declared that, while the structure of the
+skull and teeth is that of <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, the structure
+of the limbs is that of a macaca. He regards,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
+therefore, <i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus</i> as an interesting form of
+apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p>
+
+<p>The separation of these two species of apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>
+and <i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>) must, he considers, have
+occurred rather late. <i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i>, from the fresh-water
+marl, Sansan, is assigned by Gaudry and
+others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe,
+however, that it is nearer to the next neighbour on
+the south, the magot (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>), on account of the five
+fangs of its last tooth. Köllner thinks the connection
+with <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i> not improbable.</p>
+
+<p><i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus Fontanii</i>, of which I have already
+spoken, seems, as I judge from a cast taken by Fric
+in Prague, to be of an expressly anthropoid character;
+but the scantiness of the materials do not
+allow us to form any precise conclusions as to the
+zoological position of this extinct animal. The
+structure of the back teeth, as we have already
+said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always
+cautious in his judgments, is of opinion that the
+ape’s teeth found in the ironstone of the Suabian
+Alps in the secondary mammal formation, are of
+a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals
+to which they belonged must therefore have been
+of the same type. Fossil remains of the African
+stumpy ape (<i class="taxonomy">Colobus</i>) have also been found at Steinheim.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a>
+<i class="taxonomy">Macacus priscus</i> of the valley of the Arno
+seems to be allied with the African macaca.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> Owen’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
+<i class="taxonomy">Macacus pliocenus</i> from Essex is closely related to
+<i class="taxonomy">Macacus sinicus</i>. Fossil apes have also been observed
+in America. <i class="taxonomy">Protopithecus</i> was a very large
+animal, related to <i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>. Another fossil species,
+found in South America (<i class="taxonomy">Laopithecus</i>), must have
+been closely related to man. This latter fact is
+the more remarkable, since it has generally been
+assumed, and indeed with reason, that there is a
+marked division between the apes of the Old and
+New Worlds.</p>
+
+<p>The species now found in tropical America of
+the silky apes (<i class="taxonomy">Hapale</i>), the Sahui (<i class="taxonomy">Jacchus</i>), the
+leaping apes (<i class="taxonomy">Callithrix</i>), the bellowing apes (<i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>),
+and the rolling apes (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus</i>), were already
+represented in the diluvial period of that continent.
+It does not appear that any extensive generic diffusion
+of apes has taken place since that period. It
+is otherwise with the development of species, which
+seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have
+occurred late. This may be inferred from the
+physical characteristics of gorillas and chimpanzees,
+which, with all their differences, have much in common
+with each other. In the fourth chapter we
+have described forms of apes lying between the
+gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible
+that these are a reversion to one or the other form.
+The numerous varieties of form among anthropoids
+point to a continuance of the process of severance
+in this family of apes, and little more than an
+isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual
+conversion of varieties into constant species.</p>
+
+<p>On account of their external bodily characteristics,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
+of their anatomical structure, and their highly
+developed intelligence, anthropoids not only stand
+first among apes, but they take a still higher place,
+approximating to the human species. In accordance
+with what I have said in the second and third
+chapters, I set aside the order of the <i class="taxonomy">Quadrumana</i>,
+and accept the Linnæan order of the <i class="taxonomy">Primates</i>, both
+for men and apes. I would include men as <i class="taxonomy">Erecti</i>
+with anthropoids as <i class="taxonomy">Anthropomorpha</i> in a sub-family
+of the <i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>. In the case of apes (<i class="taxonomy">Simiina</i>) I
+should retain the convenient distinction between
+those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal
+aperture (<i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Platyrrhina</i>). The semi-apes
+(<i class="taxonomy">Prosimii</i>) should constitute a separate order of
+mammals. The following systematic scheme shows
+the classification I <span class="locked">suggest:—</span></p>
+
+<p class="center p1 vspace b0">
+I. <span class="smcap">Mammals</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Mammalia</i>).<br>
+A. <i class="taxonomy">Monodelphia</i>, Blainv. (<i class="taxonomy">Placentalia</i>, Owen).
+</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang">
+
+<p>I. Order: <i class="taxonomy">Primates</i>, Linnæus.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>1. Family: <i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(1) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Erecti</i> (<i class="taxonomy">Homo sapiens</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(2) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Anthropomorpha</i>, Linnæus.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i class="taxonomy">Dasypoga</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Anthropomorpha, without
+the sessor callosities.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(α) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes</i>, E. Geoffroy.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Species: The gorilla (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, Savage
+and Wyman). The chimpanzee (<i class="taxonomy">Tr. niger</i>,
+E. Geoffroy).</p>
+
+<p>The other species are not accurately known.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(β) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Pithecus</i>, E. Geoffroy.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Species: Orang-utan (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecus Satyrus</i>, E. Geoffroy).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i class="taxonomy">Tylopoga</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Anthropomorpha, with
+sessor callosities.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(λ) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>, Illig.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p><div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Species: see <a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>2. Family: Apes proper (<i class="taxonomy">Simiina</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(1) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Genera: <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Colobus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus</i>,
+<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>(2) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Platyrrhina</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Genera: <i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Lagothrix Ateles</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cebus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Pithecia</i>,
+<i class="taxonomy">Nyctipithecus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Callithrix</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Chrysothrix</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hapale</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span id="toclink_290"></span>CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE
+ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Huxley’s</span> statement, that the lowest apes are further
+removed from the highest apes than the latter are
+from men, is, according to my experience, still perfectly
+valid. It cannot be denied that the highest
+order of the animal world is closely connected with
+the highest created being.</p>
+
+<p>In the third chapter I have sought to show in
+what way the pithecoid characteristics of men may
+be proved. From the latter chapters, also, much
+may be learned with respect to the anthropoid
+characteristics of anthropoids. The external form
+first provokes the comparison. There is much in
+the bodily structure which spans the apparent
+chasm between men and apes, and this is evident
+to the simplest understanding. The head, and the
+general form of the body, especially in young male
+and female gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and
+even in gibbons, if we exclude the length of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
+arms, display many points of resemblance with man.
+It is shown even in separate organs of the body—as,
+for instance, in the ear. The illustrations given in
+the second chapter of the ears of apes, including
+that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me
+from such specimens as had least resemblance to
+man, and yet even in these a certain likeness must
+be recognized.</p>
+
+<p>I have already observed that the old males of
+an anthropoid species are always further removed
+from man than the young, and this is especially the
+case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male
+gorilla, with its great cranial crests and powerful
+jaw, displays striking differences from the human
+type. This is an important fact, since in the case
+of man we almost without exception regard the fully
+developed male adult as the typical form.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the limbs, the differences between
+the arms and hands of man and those of anthropoids
+are apparent, but less striking than in the case of the
+lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in
+it something abnormal which distinctly differs from
+the human foot, adapted for walking. Nor can the
+prehensibility of the human toes in certain cases be
+directly compared with the prehensibility of an
+ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a
+thumb. Haeckel remarks that newly born children
+can also take a strong grip with the great toe, and
+if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot
+as firmly as with the hand.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> This power is, however,
+only partial and subordinate, compared with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
+manifold and developed prehensibility of an anthropoid’s
+foot. The possibility of walking upright to a
+certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent
+is no exclusive privilege of anthropoids, since this
+power may be acquired by training in the case of
+other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc.
+Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and
+climbing apes, as well as some semi-apes, bears,
+ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals, can go for
+some distance in an upright position, quite as readily
+as anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a>
+The structure of anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted
+for going on all-fours, or for climbing. The projection
+of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary
+tail has, as is well known, been observed in some
+isolated cases in the human species. This peculiarity
+is supposed to be hereditary in the case of
+some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam
+of Central Africa, and some of the Southern Malays.
+But this surmise has not yet been confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that when we compare
+men and anthropoids, the profile of the coloured man
+presents a striking likeness to that of anthropoids.
+This is believed by the coloured people themselves,
+who, especially among negro races, regard the large
+apes as accursed individuals of their own species, as
+dumb and hairy men, and so on. It should, however,
+be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an important
+part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is
+comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place themselves
+on the same level as animals, while civilized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span>
+races reject such ideas with self-conscious pride. I
+may add that civilized men are revolted by the proverbial
+ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhorrence
+any admission of actual relationship with them.
+We must, however, remember that men are by no
+means generally endowed with physical beauty, and
+especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations
+we find individuals whose ugliness is little inferior
+to that of anthropoids, and which sometimes even
+exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused physical
+beauty may be made by the peoples of classical
+antiquity; by the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav
+races; by the Circassians, Armenians, Tartars, Turks,
+Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians,
+Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but
+such attractions are rare among other peoples of the
+world, such as the Mongols, the majority of negroes,
+Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already
+shown that among some of the lower races it is
+impossible not to recognize a purely external and
+physical approximation to the simian type.</p>
+
+<p>Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds,
+shrink from admitting any relationship between
+men and apes, since the mental organization of the
+former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-link
+with the anthropoids of which they think so
+meanly. Yet it should not be forgotten that the
+modes of living in degraded races differ little from
+those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what
+I have said of the Australian aborigines, whose
+brutal instincts demand our whole attention when
+we undertake such comparisons. A horde of Botocudos,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
+mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince
+Maximilian of Neuwied,<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> and a village on the upper
+Yupurá, inhabited by the Mirenhas, and described
+by Martius,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> left upon the travellers a grisly impression
+of their brutal degradation. This impression
+might be further strengthened if we could inspect
+a hutted encampment of the Obongo or the Doko.</p>
+
+<p>It has been observed that the rudest savage is in
+a condition to show pity and loyalty to his own
+fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter of 1881–82,
+when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe,
+one of them fell sick, and was cared for by his
+savage companions with affection, and even with
+a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we
+have seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the
+members of their family in the same way, and
+display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has
+been especially noticed in the case of several orang-utans
+which have tended each other. Love for
+their young, and not rarely love for their mates
+expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking
+comparatively, deeply rooted in the animal world.
+It is well known that both rude and civilized peoples
+are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it is
+erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each
+other. These acts of cruelty, murder, and rapine
+are often the result of the inexorable logic of
+national characteristics, and are unhappily truly
+human, since nothing like them can be traced in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
+the animal world. It would, for instance, be a grave
+mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty
+executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former
+only satisfies his natural appetite in preying on
+other mammals. The atrocities of the trials for
+witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed
+by the negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice
+of human victims made by the Khonds, the dismemberment
+of living men by the Battas, find no
+parallel in the habits of animals in their savage
+state. And such a comparison is, above all, impossible
+in the case of anthropoids, which display no
+hostility towards men or other animals unless they
+are first attacked. In this respect the anthropoid
+ape stands on a higher plane than many men.</p>
+
+<p>A great chasm between man and anthropoids is
+constituted, as I believe, by the fact that the
+human race is capable of education, and is able to
+acquire the highest mental culture, while the most
+intelligent anthropoid can only receive a certain
+mechanical training. And even to this training
+a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by
+anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting
+subjects of study in the menagerie, but they never
+become, like our ordinary domestic animals, useful
+members of the household economy. I myself hold
+that all human races are capable of culture, while
+differing in the degree to which it is possible for
+them to attain. I do not, for example, suppose
+that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so
+educated as to be placed on a level with the highest
+intellects of our own nation. But how many ages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>
+it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans!
+It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages
+may be constituted serviceable members of human
+society, as we may see from the changes which have
+taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the
+Tahitians, and the Maoris in the course of the last
+eighty years. In our days the envoys of the Queen
+of Madagascar have understood how to move in the
+highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour,
+and we must recognize this fact as significant,
+without, however, deluding ourselves by too wide
+deductions from it.</p>
+
+<p>The remark has often been made that the African
+blacks, Indians, etc., display great docility when
+young, and are very receptive of wisdom and culture,
+but stop short at a certain point, as if unable
+to advance beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like
+apes in advancing age, relapse into their originally
+savage state. It may, however, be inferred that
+these attempts to educate young savages are
+generally wrecked by mistaken methods of instruction.
+The young sons of nature are often too much
+indulged, their childish performances are over-estimated,
+their minds are over-taxed, the due development
+of mind and body is checked; they become
+arrogant, and then people are surprised that, as
+self-consciousness increases in their immature brains,
+a greater or less amount of conceit is developed.
+There are cases in which a savage, who has been
+with much labour educated and civilized, relapses
+into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the
+enemy of his former protector, as a robber or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
+rebel; yet, even to the end of his life, he has developed
+qualities and conditions which recall to
+him better times. We see an example of this in
+some of the civilized Maoris who afterwards joined
+the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their
+countrymen the strength of a firmer organization
+against the English supremacy. The bearing of
+these relapsed savages always has in it something
+higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy
+of a morose old chimpanzee or orang.</p>
+
+<p>Nor have the attempts to educate savages been
+uniformly unsuccessful. The great Indian chief
+Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and Ramon
+Castilla; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova
+king, Radama I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kamehameha
+I., Pomare II., Georges, and Kokabau, show
+what may be made of such materials under favourable
+circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca;
+the steadfast leader Perus, who belonged to a needy
+Arriero family; the Haytian who was formerly driver
+on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal
+savages as the Malagasy and Polynesians educated
+by European missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that nations, in the earliest
+periods of their existence, have to pass through
+certain rude conditions of their development, and
+the most highly civilized nations are not exempt
+from this law. The transition period of the Stone
+Age is necessary for all, and with the use of metals
+a higher and more cultivated life has been gradually
+developed. Even for those who do not recognize
+any sharp line of demarcation between the stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
+and metal periods, yet, speaking generally, they will
+admit that the times in which stone instruments,
+and those in which bronze and iron instruments
+were chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in
+historical culture. As we know, there are also
+certain phases of development in the Stone Age. In
+its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked
+tool could not procure for its owner any regular
+shelter: he lived in caves, clefts, or under a scanty
+covering of leaves, and made use of his tool in
+killing wild animals; in cutting wood; in preparing
+skins, tendons, and gourd-vessels; in dismembering
+the prey obtained in hunting; and in extracting
+marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and
+sharpening these stone tools, a progressive improvement
+in the conditions of human life went hand in
+hand.</p>
+
+<p>We can picture to ourselves the physical and
+psychical conditions of the first and earliest men of
+the Stone Age as those of extremely rude savages,
+but who were endowed with the gift of working out
+for themselves higher conditions of life.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin
+Academy of Sciences, exhibited the lower jaw of a
+rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at Billy, Allier, in
+which there was a notch which must, in the opinion
+of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of
+man. The Abbé Delaunay found in the Miocene of
+Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib of a Halitherium,
+which was notched, and which likewise appeared to
+have been subjected to human manipulation.
+Garrigou is of opinion that certain bones found at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>
+Sansan were broken by the hand of man, and
+Dücker expressed a similar belief about the fossils
+of Pikermi. These ideas have been strongly opposed.
+Many of the marks on these bones have been represented
+to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora,
+rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in
+the Miocene of Thenay, near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-Cher,
+of which he ascribes the working to beings
+of a higher intelligence than the animals of that
+period. This opinion is shared by eminent anthropologists,
+such as Vibraye, Worsaae, Mortillet, de
+Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt
+the accuracy of the account given of their position
+at Thenay, by so experienced a geologist as
+Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the quaternary
+epoch is only concerned with the question
+whether these flints at Thenay were artificially
+worked or not. The stones were found in a layer of
+the same kind of rubble. When a number of such
+flints are placed together, only a few people can
+discover an incontestable distinction between the
+artificially shaped and the unshaped stones. The
+alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age
+still demands careful examination. The epoch of
+the Middle Miocene is very ancient, and Léberon
+distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone
+of Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper
+Miocene, of Eppelsheim and Pikermi. According to
+this author, the next in succession was the Lower
+Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of
+Perrier, Solilhac, and Coupet. Next came the fauna
+of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
+boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata,
+these latter were of very long duration. Above the
+fauna of the boulder clay are those of the diluvium,
+followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and of
+our own time.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be thought of the many changes
+which have taken place, whether they are regarded
+as the result of distinct and independent creations
+or as the result of transformations, no geologist can
+doubt that an immense tract of time was required
+for the production of these forms. In the Middle
+Miocene there is not a single species of mammal
+which corresponds to any of our extant species. If
+we start from the standpoint of simple palæontology,
+it would be difficult to assume that the being which
+shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained unaltered
+in the midst of all these changes. If, as
+Gaudry remarks, it can be shown that the flints
+collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone
+were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist
+would not hesitate to recognize in the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>
+the author of this handiwork.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a></p>
+
+<p>But, speaking provisionally, the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> which
+is assumed to have used these flints, and of which we,
+unfortunately, know only the little which can be
+gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must remain
+the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his
+advanced anthropomorphism is concerned. No anthropoid
+now in existence has shown itself capable
+of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use. Moreover,
+the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
+descent are becoming ever more convinced that man
+cannot be the issue of any extant form of anthropoids.
+It is true that a close, and in many respects
+a very close, physical connection may be traced
+between men and anthropoids, but not the possibility
+of a direct descent from the one to the other.
+This is especially shown from the physical development
+of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble
+men in their youthful stages, and lose this character
+more and more as they grow older. The absolute
+deficiency of any capacity for the further development
+of the intellectual qualities of our modern
+species of anthropoids is another proof of this fact;
+their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of
+other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are
+still far behind the intelligence of man, which is
+capable of still further development.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of physical growth, as I feel myself
+compelled often to repeat, anthropoids constantly
+diverge further from the human organization.
+C. Vogt justly observes: “When we consider the
+principles of the modern theory of evolution, as it is
+applied to the history of development, we are met
+by the important fact that in every respect the
+young ape stands nearer to the human child than
+the adult ape does to the adult man. The original
+differences between the young creatures of both types
+are much slighter than in their adult condition:
+this assertion, made long since in my lectures on the
+human race, has received a striking confirmation
+from recent autopsies of young anthropoids which
+have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
+proportion to the age of the specimen, the characteristic
+differences in the form of the jaw, the
+cranial ridges, etc., become more evident. Both
+man and apes are developed from an embryonic
+condition, and from the period of childhood in a
+diverging or almost opposite direction into the final
+type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain
+in their whole organization features which correspond
+to those of the human child.”<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> Quenstedt
+also says: “However much <i class="taxonomy">Homo sapiens</i> is raised
+by his intelligence above all other animals, however
+important the physical differences are which divide
+him from apes, yet the scene of their existence in the
+world is by no means so wide that, as time goes on,
+the narrow limits between them may not approximate
+more closely.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p>
+
+<p>In these words the opinion I have already
+expressed is set forth, an opinion which continues
+to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have
+descended from any of the fossil species which have
+hitherto come to our notice, nor yet from any of the
+species of apes now extant. It is more probable
+“that both types have been produced from a common
+ground-form, which is still more strongly
+expressed in the structure of young specimens,
+because the age of childhood is less advanced”
+(Vogt).</p>
+
+<p>This supposed progenitor of our race is necessarily
+completely hypothetical, and all the attempts
+hitherto made to construct even a doubtful representation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
+of its characteristics are based upon the
+trifling play of fancy.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at
+any rate, descended from a highly organized form.
+He goes on to say:</p>
+
+<p>“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests
+will never be shaken, for the close similarity between
+man and the lower animals in embryonic
+development, as well as in innumerable points of
+structure and constitution, both of high and of the
+most trifling importance, the rudiments which he
+retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is
+occasionally liable—are facts which cannot be disputed.
+They have long been known, but until
+recently they told us nothing with respect to the
+origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of
+our knowledge of the whole organic world, their
+meaning is unmistakable. The great principle of
+evolution stands up clear and firm, when these
+groups of facts are considered in connection with
+others, such as the mutual affinities of the members
+of the same group, their geographical distribution
+in past and present times, and their geological
+succession. It is incredible that all these facts
+should speak falsely. He who is not content to
+look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as
+disconnected, cannot any longer believe that man
+is the work of a separate act of creation. He will
+be forced to admit that the close resemblance of
+the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog;
+the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole
+frame, independently of the uses to which the parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
+may be put, on the same plan with that of other
+mammals; the occasional reappearance of various
+structures—for instance, of several distinct muscles,
+which man does not normally possess, but which are
+common to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analogous
+facts;—all point in the plainest manner to the
+conclusion that man is the co-descendant with the
+other mammals of a common progenitor.”<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a></p>
+
+<p>“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom
+of the vertebrata,” observes the same great English
+naturalist in another place, “at which we are able
+to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of
+a group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ
+of existing Ascidians. These animals probably gave
+rise to a group of fishes as lowly organized as the
+lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other
+fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed.
+From such fish a very small advance
+would carry us on to the amphibians. We have
+seen that birds and reptiles were once intimately
+connected together; and the Monotremata now, in
+a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles.
+But no one can at present say by what line of
+descent the three higher and related classes, namely,
+mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from
+either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely,
+amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals,
+the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from
+the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials;
+and from these to the early progenitors of the
+placental mammals. We may thus ascend to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>
+Lemuridæ, and the interval is not wide from these to
+the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into
+two great stems, the New World and Old World
+monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
+Man, the wonder and glory of the universe, proceeded.”<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Setting aside for the present this long pedigree
+of man, let us consider some of the isolated phases
+which have been established in the still incomplete
+condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes
+are concerned, whose near relation to men and
+apes has of late been strongly urged, I agree with
+those who, like Vogt, consider that their order, with
+its variety of forms, points to a complex origin,
+probably from marsupial animals, with which their
+organization presents many common features; hence
+it appears that some of their forms belong to the
+earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well
+acquainted. “In conclusion,” he writes, “it appears,
+from these facts, that any very close connection
+between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with
+man, cannot be proved. With the exception of the
+opposing thumb, which is and was a widely diffused
+characteristic common to many species, the semi-apes
+have not a single anatomical feature in common
+with apes. Their jaw, the most permanent characteristic,
+places them in the insectivorous class; to
+enroll them among the ancestors of man is to set
+at nought all the principles of scientific research.”<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a></p>
+
+<p>That purely hypothetical being, the common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>
+ancestor of man and apes, is still to be found, and
+this is the task assigned to palæontology. Whether
+this science, to which a great future belongs, will
+ever accomplish the task, is a question which concerns
+itself. Meanwhile, considering the great
+palæontological achievements of our day, the discovery
+of the <i class="taxonomy">Odontornithes</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Ætosauri</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhamphorynchi</i>,
+<i class="taxonomy">Holoptychia</i>, etc., we need not despair of the possibility
+of discovering the true link between the
+world of man and mammals. This purely speculative
+side of research, this purely scientific mode of
+treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied
+with unproved assertions, but will rather trust to
+the strenuous labour of future times, and this need
+not disturb any religious or political convictions.
+Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be
+discovered in some geological stratum, yet research
+will have to overcome immense difficulties, if it is to
+explain the development of the understanding and
+of speech, and the growth of independent human
+intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account,
+refuse to recognize the possibility of achieving some
+new discoveries in this direction. To do so would
+be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and
+this would be unworthy of our former intellectual
+achievements. Let us therefore labour on with
+courage.</p>
+
+<p>In matters which concern ethnology we are constantly
+shown that even those races of men which
+are very remote from each other, and of whom it
+cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times
+united in one nation, have made the same technical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>
+discoveries, and have adopted similar manners and
+customs and similar religious observances. This
+allows us to infer that there is a physical and
+psychical unity of human nature which indeed
+separates into races and varieties, but not into
+distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypothetically
+the primeval type will predominate even
+in the progeny which has been modified by a distinct
+and separate development, and we need not be
+surprised by reversions to the animal structure,
+even in man, the ultimate scope of organic development.
+Nor will the developed culture of man offer
+any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic
+conditions which we have pointed out in the third
+chapter of this work, such as the frontal process of
+the squamous temporal portion, the transverse
+enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed
+ear, etc., occur both in the higher and lower races
+of man; just as, for example, both in primitive and
+high-bred races of horses there are reversions to
+fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the physical, but the mental development
+of man advances uniformly, and not <i lang="la">per saltum</i>.
+Physical qualities and defects may occur in a given
+number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent
+in an equal number of Europeans, and conversely
+may occur in the one and be absent in the other;
+yet, in their mental condition, negroes and Papuans
+must always be regarded as in a lower order than
+Europeans. And if physical superiority is more
+widely diffused in European peoples than elsewhere,
+owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
+nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often
+also to the sexual selection prompted by æsthetic
+considerations, yet the reversion to such animal
+characteristics as do not exercise any modifying
+influence on the bodily development of the individual,
+occurs both in these and other races. I
+conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the
+fine passage with which Darwin ends his work on
+the descent of man.</p>
+
+<p>“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at
+having risen, though not through his own exertions,
+to the very summit of the organic scale; and the
+fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been
+aboriginally placed there, may give him hopes for
+a still higher destiny in the distant future. But we
+are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only with
+the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it.
+I have given the evidence to the best of my ability:
+and we must acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man,
+with all his noble qualities; with sympathy which
+feels for the most debased; with benevolence which
+extends not only to other men, but to the humblest
+living creature; with his god-like intellect, which
+has penetrated into the movements and constitution
+of the solar system;—with all these exalted powers,
+man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible
+stamp of his lowly origin.”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX"><span id="toclink_309"></span>APPENDIX.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">It</span> was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s
+<cite lang="de">Blicke auf das Pflanzen- und Thierleben in den indischen
+Malaienländern</cite> (Münster, 1883) came into my hands.
+The author, who was for several years physician
+and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has
+given an interesting account of the orang-utan. It
+appears that this animal is only found in the northern
+part of Sumatra, and is more common on the western
+than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is
+only occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are
+fond of the flesh of this ape, which they shoot, especially
+in the interior of the island, with poisoned darts,
+projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is
+then carefully cut out.</p>
+
+<p>Mohnike states that in Borneo <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates concolor</i> is
+called Ouo-ouo by the Malays, and Kalawet by the
+Dyaks. Dark specimens of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates variegatus</i> are in
+the Malay dialect called <i class="taxonomy">itam</i>, or black Unko, and light
+specimens are called <i class="taxonomy">puti</i>, or white Unko. A good illustration
+of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i> is given in the <cite>Proceedings
+of the Zoological Society</cite>, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added to what I have said in the text,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>
+that the uvula of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff,
+<cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Anatomie des Gorilla</cite>, p. 37; and Rückart,
+<cite lang="de">Der Pharynx als Sprach- und Schluck-apparat</cite>, p. 24,
+plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882). I have, however,
+examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite
+perceptible, as well as the palate and arched root of the
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which
+I have spoken above, the fragment of a lower jaw
+has lately been found in the Schipka cave, Moravia,
+declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like child.
+Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and
+considers that it belongs to an adult of the mammoth
+age, who suffered from retention of the teeth, and that
+there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same author
+subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly
+examined in Brussels, to a close analysis, and is somewhat
+disposed to admit the pithecoid character of this
+specimen (<cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, p. 277: 1882).</p>
+
+<p>R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the
+Naulette jaw and that from the Schipka cave are
+pithecoid forms. He finds in these two specimens the
+actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial
+period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower
+jaw, from any living specimens. This author is of
+opinion that in the diluvial period there must have
+been races of men far inferior to the lowest races now
+in existence (<cite lang="de">Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und
+aus der Schipkahöhle</cite>, Leipzig, 1883).</p>
+
+<p>See Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
+Freunde zu Berlin</cite>, November 19, 1878, for
+remarks on the tendon, the blood-vessels of the shoulder
+and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to those given in
+the text.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="AUTHORITIES_FOR_CHAPTER_I">AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth1" href="#AUTH1">1</a>)  “Hinc (<i>i.e.</i> Θεῶν ὄχημα) tridui navigatione torrentes
+igneos prætervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti
+Ceras dicitur (Νότου Κέρας). In sinus recessu insula erat
+priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in quo insula
+erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant
+autem multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas
+interpretes Gorillas (Γορίλλας) vocabant. Nos persequentes
+viros quidem capere non potuimus, omnes enim
+effugiebant quum per præcipitia scanderent et saxis se
+defenderent; sed feminas cepimus tres, quæ mordentes
+et lacerantes ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus
+eas et pelles detractas asportavimus Carthaginem.
+Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona deficeret”
+(Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geographi
+Græci Minores, ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth2" href="#AUTH2">2</a>)  Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la
+cote de Guinée (Leiden, 1853), p. 3.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth3" href="#AUTH3">3</a>)  Marc. de Serres first directed the attention of
+naturalists to this mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur
+Natur- und Heilkunde, book 42. It has been frequently
+said that the original of this mosaic is in the Museum
+of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in
+question also consists of a landscape with hippopotami,
+crocodile, etc., but it cannot be compared with that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
+Palestrina, which is to my knowledge in the Barberini
+palace at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth4" href="#AUTH4">4</a>)  See the Natural History of the younger Pliny,
+ii. 172; vii. 2.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth5" href="#AUTH5">5</a>)  Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni
+Africani quod tam ab incolis quam Lusitanis Congus
+appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim ex Edoardo
+Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio
+sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus
+et imaginibus rerum memorabilium quasi vivis, opera
+et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan. Israelis de Bry,
+fratrum exornata (Francofurti, <span class="allsmcap">MDXCVIII.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth6" href="#AUTH6">6</a>)  Abhandlungen der Königl. Bayrischen Akademie
+der Wissenschaften (iii. cl. ix. div. 1).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth7" href="#AUTH7">7</a>)  A voyage to Congo and several other countries
+in Southern Africa, Church collection of voyages and
+travels (London, 1744), i. 651.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth8" href="#AUTH8">8</a>)  Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695–97 aux côtes
+d’Afrique, etc. (Paris, 1699).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth9" href="#AUTH9">9</a>)  Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth10" href="#AUTH10">10</a>)  Observationes Medicæ (Amsterdam), § 56. I
+have recently had occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s
+representation of an ape is not founded on that of an
+orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head of
+the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more
+of an orang than of a chimpanzee.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth11" href="#AUTH11">11</a>)  The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that
+of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. With an Essay concerning
+the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients (edit. i.,
+London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth12" href="#AUTH12">12</a>)  Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of
+the edition published in London in 1625 (vol. ii. 982).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth13" href="#AUTH13">13</a>)  Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van
+Egypten, Barbaryen, Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland,
+Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc. (Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii.
+1679). I have made use of the German version of 1760.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth14" href="#AUTH14">14</a>)  The name Quojas Morrou is also used by
+Tulpe. A living specimen of these animals was given
+by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and
+is perhaps the one described by Tulpe.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth15" href="#AUTH15">15</a>)  Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti
+(London, 1819: trans. Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826).
+I have made use of the latter translation.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth16" href="#AUTH16">16</a>)  Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: On a
+new species of Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth17" href="#AUTH17">17</a>)  A description of the external characters and
+habits of Troglodytes Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and
+of the osteology of the same, by Jeffreys Wyman
+(Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth18" href="#AUTH18">18</a>)  Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a
+new species of Orang on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847).
+Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston Soc. of Nat.
+Hist., 1850, 1852.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth19" href="#AUTH19">19</a>)  Ostéographie (Paris, 1839–64). Atlas, vol. iv.,
+Mammifères, plate i.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth20" href="#AUTH20">20</a>)  Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de
+Paris, vol. x.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth21" href="#AUTH21">21</a>)  Ibid., vol. viii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth22" href="#AUTH22">22</a>)  An impression on steel: A mode of photographic
+illustration used by Nièpce de St. Victor,
+which has since been materially improved.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth23" href="#AUTH23">23</a>)  Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by
+G. Mützel, plate i.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth24" href="#AUTH24">24</a>)  Adventures and explorations in Equatorial
+Africa (London, 1861). A journey to Ashango Land
+(London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs (London,
+1872).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth25" href="#AUTH25">25</a>)  Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a
+tour in Equatorial, South-Western, and North-Western
+Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm, Thierleben, edit. i.,
+i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth26" href="#AUTH26">26</a>)  Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>
+new species of mammals discovered by him in Equatorial
+Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc., London. 1861.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth27" href="#AUTH27">27</a>)  Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860.
+See also Du Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations,
+chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s Vollständigste Naturgeschichte
+der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth28" href="#AUTH28">28</a>)  Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla
+from the River Danger, indicative of a variety of the
+great chimpanzee (Troglod. Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog.
+Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on the Gorilla
+(London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography
+(London, 1840–45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and
+Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology,
+vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative
+anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866–68,
+vol. iii.).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth29" href="#AUTH29">29</a>)  Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and
+the cataracts of the Nile (London, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth30" href="#AUTH30">30</a>)  Compiègne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris,
+1875; Gabonais, p. 260).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth31" href="#AUTH31">31</a>)  De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878,
+No. 936.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth32" href="#AUTH32">32</a>)  Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878),
+p. 171.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth33" href="#AUTH33">33</a>)  Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein,
+p. 149.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth34" href="#AUTH34">34</a>)  Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth35" href="#AUTH35">35</a>)  Zoologiska Studier, Andra Häftet. (Lund, 1857).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth36" href="#AUTH36">36</a>)  Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, etc.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth37" href="#AUTH37">37</a>)  The Medical Times, 1872.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth38" href="#AUTH38">38</a>)  Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa proveniente
+dall’ Africa centrale, in den Annali del Museo
+Civico di Genova, i. 53.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth39" href="#AUTH39">39</a>)  Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth40" href="#AUTH40">40</a>)  Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences
+(Philadelphia, 1879), pt. iii. p. 385.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth41" href="#AUTH41">41</a>)  On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates:
+Philosophical Transactions (1867), 299.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth41A" href="#AUTH41A">41<span class="allsmcap">A</span>)</a> Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla:
+Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy of Science,
+2nd series, vol. i.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth42" href="#AUTH42">42</a>)  Ueber die Schädelform des Menschen und der
+Affen, Leipzig, 1867.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth43" href="#AUTH43">43</a>)  Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der
+Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol. v.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth44" href="#AUTH44">44</a>)  Archiv. für Anthropologie, viii. 67.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth45" href="#AUTH45">45</a>)  Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften,
+herausgeg. vom Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-Altona
+(Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74–83.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth46" href="#AUTH46">46</a>)  Ibid., p. 84, etc.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth47" href="#AUTH47">47</a>)  Die anthropomorphen Affen des lübecker Museums
+(Lübeck, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth48" href="#AUTH48">48</a>)  Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoolog. Museum
+zu Dresden (1877), No. 2, p. 225.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth49" href="#AUTH49">49</a>)  Der Gorilla, mit Berücksichtigung des Unterschiedes
+zwischen Menschen und Affen, etc. Denkschrift
+des Offenbacher Vereins für Naturkunde (Offenbach,
+1863).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth50" href="#AUTH50">50</a>)  Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schädelbildung
+des Gorilla, Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (München,
+1867). Vergleichende anatomische Untersuchungen
+über die äussern weiblichen Geschlechts- und
+Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Abhandl.
+der königl. bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl.
+ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beiträge zur Anatomie des
+Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth51" href="#AUTH51">51</a>)  Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse.
+Abhandl. der K. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Göttingen,
+vol. 28.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth52" href="#AUTH52">52</a>)  Ueber den Schädel des jungen Gorilla. Monatsberichte
+der königl. Akademie der Wissensch. zu
+Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth53" href="#AUTH53">53</a>)  Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch.,
+plate ii. (Petersburg, 1876), v. 235.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth54" href="#AUTH54">54</a>)  Various works on the gorilla under the following
+titles:—Beiträge zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthropomorphen
+Affen, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, series iv.
+198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hüftgelenk der
+anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber. der Gesellsch. Naturforsch.
+Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den
+Torus occipitalis transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des
+Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26, 1880. Die menschenähnlichen
+Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
+wissensch. Vorträge, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth55" href="#AUTH55">55</a>)  Vogt’s Vorlesungen über den Menschen (Giessen,
+1863).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth56" href="#AUTH56">56</a>)  L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société
+d’Anthropologie, vol. iv. series ii., 1870.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth57" href="#AUTH57">57</a>)  Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de
+Paris, 1872.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth58" href="#AUTH58">58</a>)  Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl. von J.&nbsp;V. Carus,
+v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart, 1875).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth59" href="#AUTH59">59</a>)  Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris,
+1854), vol. i. p. 27.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth60" href="#AUTH60">60</a>)  Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated
+Animals (London, 1871).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth61" href="#AUTH61">61</a>)  Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the
+Mammalia (London, 1870).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth62" href="#AUTH62">62</a>)  Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung
+des Zahnsystems der lebenden und fossilen
+Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth63" href="#AUTH63">63</a>)  Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. (London, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth64" href="#AUTH64">64</a>)  Hist. Nat. générale et particulière, vol. 35
+(Paris).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth65" href="#AUTH65">65</a>)  I quote here the passage which Bosman has
+taken from the foregoing work by Buffon: “Les singes
+que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en flamand, sont
+de couleur fauve, et deviennent extrêmement grands:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
+j’en ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cinq pieds
+de haut et de bien moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont
+méchants et très forts; un marchand m’a conté, que dans
+le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé par
+un très-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force
+à attaquer l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.”
+Bosman goes on to speak of another species of ape in
+the same district, which is as hideous as those of the
+larger kind (Beschrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34;
+Voyage de Guinée, p. 258).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth66" href="#AUTH66">66</a>)  Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid remarks
+in his work on the position of man in nature.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth67" href="#AUTH67">67</a>)  Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac,
+Gervais and Lemaout (Paris, 1842), i. 82.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth68" href="#AUTH68">68</a>)  Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth69" href="#AUTH69">69</a>)  Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quadrumanes
+(Paris, 1851), plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais,
+Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), i. 16, 22.
+By A.&nbsp;B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des
+Menschen und der Säugethiere (New edit., Leipzig),
+plate i. fig. 4. H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;L. Reichenbach, Die Vollständigste
+Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig),
+plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth70" href="#AUTH70">70</a>)  J.&nbsp;B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i.
+46, 68.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth71" href="#AUTH71">71</a>)  Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos.
+vi., vii., viii., xiii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth72" href="#AUTH72">72</a>)  Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by
+H. Tiedemann, Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mittheilungen
+bearbeitet by L. Bischoff (Bonn, 1879).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth73" href="#AUTH73">73</a>)  Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth74" href="#AUTH74">74</a>)  Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le
+Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1841).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth75" href="#AUTH75">75</a>)  On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee,
+etc. (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, series ii.
+1871, p. 176).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth76" href="#AUTH76">76</a>)  Brühl, Myologisches über die Extremitäten des
+Chimpanse (Wiener Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg.
+1817).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth77" href="#AUTH77">77</a>)  Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen
+van den Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1849).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth78" href="#AUTH78">78</a>)  Des caractères anatomiques des grands singes
+pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii.
+Vergleichung der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen
+des Chimpanse: very well illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth79" href="#AUTH79">79</a>)  Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes
+Aubryi (Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Histoire
+Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth80" href="#AUTH80">80</a>)  Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoologischen
+Museum zu Dresden, No. 2 (Dresden, 1877).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth81" href="#AUTH81">81</a>)  Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hartmann,
+Beiträge zur Zoologischen und Zootomischen
+Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen Affen.
+Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert
+and Du Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872–76,
+with many plates, some of them chromo-lithographs.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth82" href="#AUTH82">82</a>)  Description de l’espèce de singe aussi singulier
+que très rare, nommé Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo.
+Apporté vivant dans la ménagerie de M. le Prince
+d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis d’animaux
+rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, representing
+the orang, which accompany this work are not
+badly done.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth83" href="#AUTH83">83</a>)  Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap.
+Tweede Deel. (Derde Druk, 1826).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth84" href="#AUTH84">84</a>)  Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-outang
+of de Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe
+des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn Baron v. Wollzogen
+(Gotha, 1794).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth85" href="#AUTH85">85</a>)  General and particular descriptions of the vertebrated
+animals; order quadrumana (London, 1831):
+with coloured plates.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth86" href="#AUTH86">86</a>)  Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth87" href="#AUTH87">87</a>)  Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis
+der Nederlandsche overzeesche besittingen (1839–45).
+Zoologie, p. 1.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth88" href="#AUTH88">88</a>)  Description des mammifères nouveaux ou imparfaitement
+connus de la collection du Muséum
+d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum, etc.,
+ii. 485.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth89" href="#AUTH89">89</a>)  Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842),
+ix. 54.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth90" href="#AUTH90">90</a>)  Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853.
+Asiatic Researches, xv. 489, 491.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth91" href="#AUTH91">91</a>)  Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth92" href="#AUTH92">92</a>)  Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger
+anderer Affenarten. Herbell (Düsseldorf, 1791).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth93" href="#AUTH93">93</a>)  On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-utan
+and Chimpanzee: London and Edinburgh Philosoph.
+Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of the Zoolog.
+Soc. of London, i. pt. iv.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth94" href="#AUTH94">94</a>)  Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836,
+p. 46; 1839, p. 209.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth95" href="#AUTH95">95</a>)  L. s. cit.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth96" href="#AUTH96">96</a>)  Vier Abbildungen des Schädels der Simia
+Satyrus von verschiedenem Alter zur Aufklärung der
+Fabel vom Orañ-Utañ (Marburg, 1838).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth97" href="#AUTH97">97</a>)  Note sur les métamorphoses du crâne de l’Orang-Outang,
+Bulletins de l’Académie de Bruxelles (1838).
+Annales des Sciences Naturelles (1839), p. 56.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth98" href="#AUTH98">98</a>)  Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Orangarten
+(Wien, 1856).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth99" href="#AUTH99">99</a>)  Die Muskulatur der Extremitäten als Grundlage
+einer vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth100" href="#AUTH100">100</a>)  L. s. c., Fig. 42, plate vii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth101" href="#AUTH101">101</a>)  L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure).</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth102" href="#AUTH102">102</a>)  Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1876), vol. 15.
+Brehm’s Thierleben, i. 83.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth103" href="#AUTH103">103</a>)  Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52),
+with the erroneous title, “Sick Chimpanzee.”</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth104" href="#AUTH104">104</a>)  Naturhistorische Früchte der ersten kais.
+russischen Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth105" href="#AUTH105">105</a>)  Le règne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth106" href="#AUTH106">106</a>)  Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist.
+Nat. des mammifères (Paris, 1819–35), plate iii. fig. 4.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth107" href="#AUTH107">107</a>)  Wanderings in New South Wales (London,
+1834), vol. ii. chap. viii.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth108" href="#AUTH108">108</a>)  Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth109" href="#AUTH109">109</a>)  Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth110" href="#AUTH110">110</a>)  See work cited in note 83.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth111" href="#AUTH111">111</a>)  See work cited in note 63, p. 140.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth112" href="#AUTH112">112</a>)  Hist. Nat. des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth113" href="#AUTH113">113</a>)  Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth114" href="#AUTH114">114</a>)  Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv.
+172; Ibid., 1847, xvi. 730.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth115" href="#AUTH115">115</a>)  Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11.</p>
+
+<p>(<a id="auth116" href="#AUTH116">116</a>)  Beiträge zur Anatomie des <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leuciscus</i>.
+From the Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of
+Science, 2nd series, vol. x. plate iii.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter footnotes">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES.</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> <cite>Vorträge über Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss</cite>, i. 61: Berlin,
+1872.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> Comp. Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der
+Gorilla</cite>, p. 14, Anm. 4.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> Owen, <cite>Memoir</cite>, etc., plate ii.; Brehm, <cite lang="de">Thierleben</cite>, i. 56.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> Comp. Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly
+one of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its
+habits, expression, and disposition.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Comp. Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, fig. 27, representing the Hamburg
+animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of
+the German Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of
+the press, states that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates
+lenciscus</i> (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i> of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another
+<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the
+same way; and the skeletons of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i> (F.
+Cuvier), and of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed.
+Poeppig’s <cite lang="de">Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs</cite>, vol. i. fig.
+24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with
+which I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in
+Bock’s <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 342: Jena, 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> A specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i> (Ogilby) may be seen in
+the British Museum. Comp. J.&nbsp;E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys,
+lemurs, etc.: London, 1870.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> A good woodcut of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates pileatus</i> (J.&nbsp;E. Gray) appears in
+Huxley’s work, <i lang="de">Man’s Place in Nature</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> A very good coloured illustration of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i>,
+probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff.
+Saint-Hilaire’s <cite lang="fr">Description des mammifères nouveaux, ou imparfaitement
+connus de la collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle</cite>.
+<cite lang="fr">Archives du Muséum</cite>, v. 26.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in
+the fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in
+the Natural History Museum in Paris.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> <cite lang="de">Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt
+von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius</cite>, p. 33: Stockholm,
+1864.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes</cite>, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes
+(<cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, March
+18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan,
+is brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin,
+June 7, 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Virchow, <cite lang="de">Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am
+Schädel</cite>, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, xii. 23:
+1880. <cite lang="de">Monatsbericht der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
+zu Berlin</cite>, p. 523: 1880. The <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os epiptericum</i> may be
+observed in cranium No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly
+seen in Fig. 4, p. 127, in <cite lang="de">Darwinismus und Thierproduction</cite>
+(Munich, 1876), in which I refer to this skull. See also Bischoff,
+<cite lang="de">Schädelwerk</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> This illustration is from Duvernoy’s <cite lang="fr">Des caractères anatomiques
+des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes</cite>, plate ii. It is an
+excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the
+vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> Brühl, <cite lang="de">Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes</cite>, pp. 2, 3.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> “The Missing Link,” <cite>Engineering and Mining Journal</cite>, xx. 3:
+New York.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> <cite>Report of Anthropological Society</cite>, Berlin, April 16, 1881.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, p. 21.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> Virchow’s <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Pathologische Anatomie</cite>, liii. 485: 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> <cite>Report of Anthropological Society</cite>, Berlin, March 9, 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i. p. 192.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> <cite lang="de">Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner</cite>,
+ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851–53.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> <cite lang="fr">Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil</cite>: Paris, 1839.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> <cite lang="de">Anthropogenie</cite>, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus
+speciosus</i>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> Brühl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection
+between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal
+bone.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 121: 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> Schlocker, <cite lang="de">Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion</cite>. Inaugural
+dissertation. Dorpat, 1879.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobachtungen und Messungen</cite>,
+p. 56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie</cite>, iv. fig. 305.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</cite>,
+p. 164: 1872.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> <cite lang="de">Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft
+für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 49.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> <cite lang="de">Die Urbevölkerung Europas</cite>, p. 46.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> <cite>Quarterly Journal of Science</cite>, January, 1864. Comp, also
+Fuhlrott, <cite lang="de">Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal</cite>: Duisburg, 1865.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, viii. fig. 63.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> <cite lang="de">Zeugnisse</cite>, etc., 157.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> <cite>Crania Ethnica</cite>, plate xxvi.; <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, series
+12, plate viii. fig. 2.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> <cite>Crania Ethnica</cite>, plate xxxvi.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> Ten Kate, <cite>loc. cit.</cite> pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that
+the facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far
+this formation affects men (<cite lang="de">Monatsbericht der Akademie der
+Wissenschaft zu Berlin</cite>, p. 258: 1881). The detachment of the
+malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up
+to this time been too rarely observed in anthropoids to merit
+serious consideration in this work.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> Joly, <cite>Man before Metals</cite>: London.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> Gaudry, <cite lang="fr">Les enchainements du monde animal</cite>, p. 232: Paris,
+1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, pp. 68, 109.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 148, with illustration: 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschädel</cite>, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart,
+1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> Welcker on His und Braune, <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, 1881.
+Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s <cite lang="de">Morphologisches Jahrbuch</cite>, i. 172.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Geburtshülfe</cite>, p. 161.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien</cite>,
+lxxxv. fig. 1: 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, etc., by Reichert and Du
+Bois-Reymond, pp. 639–643: 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Wiedersheim, <cite lang="de">Morphologisches Jahrbuch</cite>, ii. 421.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 463: 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> <cite lang="de">Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel. Aus der Abhandlungen
+der Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin</cite>, p. 47: 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>:
+April 17, 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> See Spengel’s <cite>Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> <cite>Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</cite>, p. 481:
+London, 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> <cite>An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia</cite>, p. 310:
+London, 1870.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> <cite>On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates</cite>, ii. 551. Also see my
+own works in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, p. 648: 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> <cite lang="de">Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften</cite>, ii. 316:
+St. Petersburg, 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, etc., p. 653: 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> Welcker in His and Braune’s <cite lang="de">Archiv. Jahrg.</cite>, i. p. 71.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> Camper, <cite lang="fr">Œuvres</cite>, i. 152; <cite lang="de">Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan</cite>,
+etc.; Owen, <cite>Transactions of the Zoological Society of London</cite>,
+i. 365–368; Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s <cite lang="de">Archiv.
+Jahrg.</cite>, ii. p. 106.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> <cite lang="de">Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift</cite>, p. 4: 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> Duchenne’s <cite lang="fr">Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine</cite>. Darwin’s
+<cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>. Gamba’s <cite lang="it">Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia
+applicata alle arti belle</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> Macalister, in the <cite>Annals and Magazine of Natural History</cite>,
+vii. 342 (1871), asserts that he was unable to distinguish the
+corrugator from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally
+unsuccessful.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> Darwin’s <cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> Darwin, <cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> <cite>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</cite>,
+1879. <cite lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</cite>, 1873, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> <cite>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</cite>,
+1879.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, by Reichart and Du Bois-Reymond,
+p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> Halford, <cite>Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quadrumanous,
+but cheiropodus</cite>: Melbourne, 1863. <cite>Lines of demarcation
+between Man, the Gorilla, and the Macaca</cite>: Melbourne, 1863.
+I only know these two treatises from Bischoff’s quotation.
+<cite lang="fr">Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates leuciscus</cite>, pp. 23, 24.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor
+longus digitorum.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse</cite>, p. 32, plate
+ii. fig. 3.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris</cite> (1869), pp. 83,
+113.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> As, for example, in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>. Comp. Giobel,
+<cite>Odontographia</cite>, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> <cite lang="de">Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan.
+Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche
+Bezittingen</cite>: Leiden, 1840. <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie
+de Paris</cite>, iv. pp. 368–371: 1869.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> Comp. Aeby, <cite lang="de">Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des
+Menschen</cite>, p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> <cite>The Brain as an Organ of Mind.</cite> International Scientific
+Series.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought,
+in a horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cerebrum.”
+I do not understand what he means by the expression
+<em>ought</em>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> <cite>Natural History Review</cite>, p. 201: 1861.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der königl.
+bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</cite>, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> Gratiolet, <cite lang="fr">Mém. sur les plis cérébraux de l’homme et des
+primates</cite>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 133: 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> Ibid., p. 25: 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 28: 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 129: 1867.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 283: 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, <cite lang="de">Ueber die Ursachen der Microcephalie</cite>.
+Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> <cite lang="de">Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben.</cite> Reprint
+of a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth
+year of the University of Wurzburg, p. 27.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+p. 248: 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> <cite lang="de">Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere</cite>, p. 219:
+Leipzig, 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France</cite>, p. 1: 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> <cite lang="de">Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen</cite>, p. 191: Leipzig
+and Dresden.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> See Chenu, <cite lang="fr">Encyclopédie d’Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes</cite>,
+p. 34.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the
+British Museum. Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too
+small. Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head
+makes them look larger, the want of proportion must be admitted.
+It might easily have been altered, but I preferred to reproduce
+the original sketch as it stood.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild.</cite>, by C. Vogt and Specht,
+p. 11: Munich, 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> <cite lang="de">Mafoca Betreffendes.</cite> Reprinted from the reports of the
+<cite lang="de">Gesellschaft für Natur und Heilkunde zu Dresden</cite>, Sitzung, xxvii.
+p. 9: 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> <cite lang="de">Thierleben</cite>, ii. 80, 81. <cite lang="de">Illustrirte Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs</cite>,
+i. 11: Leipzig, 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut erroneously
+gives this as a male instead of a female specimen.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> <cite>Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his
+death</cite>, ii. 52–55: London, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, Abth. i. p. 123.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, p. 103.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death
+we must all deplore, is taken from his article in the <cite lang="de">Gartenlaube</cite>
+(1877, No. 25); from his correspondence with his family, which
+I have been allowed to see; and from a long paper addressed to
+Professor Bastian from Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> <cite lang="de">Illustrirtes Thierleben</cite>, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> Schweinfurth, <cite lang="de">Im Herzen von Afrika</cite>, p. 335: New edition,
+Leipzig, 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and
+birds kept in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published
+in the Dutch language about 1862.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, etc., p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the
+posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in
+structure.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche
+overzeesche Bezittingen</cite>: Leiden, 1840–45.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> <cite lang="de">Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische Abtheilung</cite>,
+vol. i. p. 249: Berlin, 1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> <cite lang="de">Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 327.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this
+species (<cite>Transactions of the Linnæan Society</cite>, xiii. 241).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> G. Broesike, <cite lang="de">Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender
+Freunde zu Berlin</cite>: December 18, 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>,
+March 18, 1876, p. 93.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> See also Nissle, <cite lang="de">Die Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, pp. 56, 57:
+1876.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> Wallace’s <cite>Malay Archipelago</cite>, vol. i.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> <cite lang="fr">Enchainements</cite>, p. 235.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> Fraas, <cite lang="de">Wurtembergische Jahresheft</cite>, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> Forsyth, <cite lang="it">Atti della Societá Italiana di Scienze Naturali</cite>, xiv.:
+1872.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> <cite lang="de">Anthropogenie</cite>, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> We do not here include the leaping and running mice.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> <cite lang="de">Reise nach Brasilien</cite>, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas</cite>, etc.,
+i. 534: Leipzig, 1867.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">133</a> <cite lang="fr">Les Enchainements du monde animal</cite>, p. 240.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">134</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild</cite>, p. 49.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">135</a> <cite lang="de">Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde</cite>, 3rd edit., i. 38: Tübingen, 1882.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">136</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">137</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, i. p. 212.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">138</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild</cite>, p. 67.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX"><span id="toclink_321"></span>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<hr class="narrow">
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">A</li>
+
+<li class="indx">A-Bantu, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abors, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeby, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">African negroes, pithecoid structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aidanill, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ainos, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alix, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Angola, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthropoid apes, development of acquaintance with, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">external form of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">external and anatomical structure of, compared with the human, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ears of, and men, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">neck of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">trunk of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">carpus of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hand of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">upper limbs of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skull of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">vertebral column of, and men, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">humerus of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tibia of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hinder extremities of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">muscular system of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skin of head of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">clavicle of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">digestive system of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">teeth of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tongue of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">vertebral column of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">liver of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stomach and intestines of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">spleen of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sexual organs of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">brain of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nervous system of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">peripheral, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">vascular system of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">varieties in the form of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical distribution, habits in a state of nature, and native names of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">life in captivity of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">position of, in the zoological system, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthropomorphism of gorilla, orang, chimpanzee, and gibbon, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aschangolo, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aschira, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ashanti, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astarte, temple of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Authorities for Chapter I., <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Australian blacks, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">B</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baboon, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baker, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ballone, river, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bam (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banya, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bär, K.&nbsp;E. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bari, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bartels, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bastian, Ch., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Battel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bennet, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beyrich, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biceps of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>Bischoff, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blainville, D. de, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blyth, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bolau, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bond, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Borneo, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bosman, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boucher de Perthes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bourgeois, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bouvier, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowdich, E., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brain of apes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brazza, De, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brehm, A.&nbsp;E., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brooke, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brosse, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brühl, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broca, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broderip, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buala, plateau of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buchholz, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buchta, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffon, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burmeister, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burton, R., <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushmen, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busu, Bakalaya, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">C</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cachêu, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camaroon river, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carpus of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catharcludi, land of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Champneys, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chapman, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chenu, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chimpezée, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chinchoxo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chudzinsky, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clavicle of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colobus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Compiègne, A. de, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cuvier, G., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">D</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dabulamanzi, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dahlbom, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dahomey, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danger, river, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dapper, O., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darwin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delaunay, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Devéria, A., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diard, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Digestive system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dippel, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Chaillu, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duchenne, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dücker, Von, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dumortier, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duncan, P.&nbsp;M., <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Durand, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duvaucel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duvernoy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyaks, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Dusun, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">E</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ears of anthropoids and men, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ehlers, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eliva, lake, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Engeco, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyelids of anthropoids and of man, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">F</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fan, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Falkenstein, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Femur of mammals, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flower, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foot of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ford, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fortuna, temple of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Four-handed, rejection of the term, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Franquet, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Froger, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>Froriep, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">G</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gaboon district, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galloa, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gamba, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garrau mountains, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garrigou, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gaudry, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gautier Laboulaye, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gegenbaur, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical distribution of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gervais, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ghauts, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbon, skeleton of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. albimanus</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. entelloides</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. funereus</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Hoolock</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Lar agilis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. leuciscus</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. leucogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. pileatus</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Rafflesii</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Giebel, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Giglioli, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glover, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorilla, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skull of an aged male, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skull of young male, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skeleton of aged male, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skeleton of female, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grandpré, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gratiolet, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gray, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Griffith, E., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gruber, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gulliver, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gulnarber, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Güssfeldt, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">H</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Habit of anthropoids in a state of nature, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Haeckel, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hair, growth of, in man and anthropoids, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamadryas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus</i>), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hand of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">muscles of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hanno, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harlan, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hausanese, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Head, skin of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">muscles of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henle, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heusinger, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoeven, Van der, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holl, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hooker, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Human foot, skeleton of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Human structure compared with that of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Humerus of gorilla, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Huxley, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyrtl, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">I</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibos, natives of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ihering, H. von, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Issel, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">J</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Japanese, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jeffreys Wyman, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jockos, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">K</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kamma, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Klebs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kolk, Van der, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Koppenfels, H. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kotaringin, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krause, R., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>Kuilu, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">L</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lainier, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lambdoidal suture, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Langer, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Laopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lartet, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Larynx, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laussedat, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lewis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lenz, H., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Life in captivity of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ligaments of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ligaments, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Limbs of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liver of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingstone, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loango, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lopez, Ed., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lucae, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lucan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luemme, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">M</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Macacu, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Macalister, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mafuca, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magitot, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mahakkam, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malays, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malacca peninsula, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malimba, people of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malzac, A. de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mammals, femur of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mammals, systematic scheme of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mandril, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mandjaruma, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martens, Von, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martin, W.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martius, Von, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Max, G., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mayombe, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meckel, J.&nbsp;F., <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meias, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Merolla, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meyer, A.&nbsp;B., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meyer, B., <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meyer, R, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miklucho-Maclay, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mivart, F., <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mpongwe, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Müller, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muni (Mooney), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mirenhas, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muscular system of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mützel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">N</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naga, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nathusius, H. von, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Native names of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ndjéko (nschégo), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niam-Niam, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nervous system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neck of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ntondo, village of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nuehr, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">O</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Obongo, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ogōwē, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orang-utan, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orang-utan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skull of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">skeleton of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ornstein, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orungu, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Owen, R., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">P</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pansch, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pechuël-Lösche, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Papuans, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pedro da Cintra, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pelvis of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penaud, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>Petit, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pigafetta, P., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Platysma myoides, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plinius, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pongo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ponta-Negra, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prince, Mrs., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Protopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pruner-Bey, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Q</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quatrefages, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quenstedt, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quojas morrau, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">R</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rademacher, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reade, W., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reichenbach, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Retzius, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rolleston, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosenberg, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rousseau, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">S</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sachs, Dr., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sadong, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sambas, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sarawak, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Satyrs, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Savage, Dr., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schaaffhausen, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schilluk, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schlegel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schweinfurth, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott, J., <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sexual organs of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siamang, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siebold, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simiina, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeleton of human foot, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeleton of aged male gorilla, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of female gorilla, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeleton of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skin of head of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skull of adult chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skull of aged male gorilla, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of young male gorilla, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skull of orang-utan, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smith, W., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soko, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spengel, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spleen of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stieda, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Structure of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stomach of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sungi-Kapajan, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tapanoli, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teeth of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Temminck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teweh, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Throat pouch, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thorax of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tibia of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiedemann, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tilesius, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tongue of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Traill, Dr., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trinchese, Salvatore, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trunk of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tscheladas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus Geleda</i>), <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tschissambo, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tulpe, N. von, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tyson, E., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">U</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>Unko, (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Rafflesii</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">V</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vascular system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vélins, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vertebræ, cervical, of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vertebral column of anthropoids and men, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virchow, R., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vogt, C., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vosmaer, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vrolik, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">W</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waldeyer, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wallace, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wau-wau (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welcker, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilson, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wimba, Fort, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woolner, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wurmb, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zuckerkandl, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="p4 center small wspace"><span class="bt">PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter transnote">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
+consistent when a predominant preference was found
+in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
+quotation marks were remedied when the change was
+obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned
+between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions
+of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page
+references in the List of Illustrations lead to the
+corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Transcriber added figure numbers 43–45 to the illustration on <a href="#i_43">page 138</a>,
+so that the captions will be unambiguous on small screens.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of
+the book, just before the Index.</p>
+
+<p>The index was not checked for proper alphabetization
+or correct page references.
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#AUTHORITIES_FOR_CHAPTER_I">Authorities for Chapter I</a> numbered 11, 17, 26, and 50 are referenced twice in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>. The
+backlinks to those references all lead to the first occurrence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75484 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75484)