diff options
Diffstat (limited to '75484-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 75484-0.txt | 8839 |
1 files changed, 8839 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/75484-0.txt b/75484-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e22cd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/75484-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8839 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 *** + + + + + +Transcriber’s Note: Italics are enclosed in _underscores_; references +to specific area within illustrations, originally printed in smaller +point-size numbers, are enclosed in ~tildes~. + +Additional notes will be found near the end of this ebook. + + + + + THE + INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. + + VOL. LIII. + + + + + ANTHROPOID APES + + + BY + ROBERT HARTMANN + + PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN + + + WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS + + + LONDON + KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE + 1885 + + + + +(_The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved_) + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES 1 + + II. THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES 11 + + III. THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID + APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN STRUCTURE 55 + + IV. ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS 210 + + V. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF NATURE, + AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS 225 + + VI. LIFE IN CAPTIVITY 257 + + VII. POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM 285 + + VIII. A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS + OF THE ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, + ORANG, AND GIBBON 290 + + APPENDIX 309 + + INDEX 321 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + FIG. PAGE + + 1. Aged male gorilla 14 + + 2. Ear of a male adult gorilla 17 + + 3. The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin + Aquarium of 1876–77 22 + + 4. The same animal at a still earlier age 23 + + 5. Ear of chimpanzee 31 + + 6. Young chimpanzee 33 + + 7. Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan 38 + + 8. Ear of the orang-utan 39 + + 9. Adult male orang-utan 40 + + 10. Head of the white-handed gibbon 47 + + 11. Ear of the white-handed gibbon 48 + + 12. Left hand of _Hylobates albimanus_ 49 + + 13. Left foot of the same animal 50 + + 14. A wauwau in the left foreground (_Hylobates agilis_); in + the background to the right, two slender apes + (_Semnopithecus entellus_) 51 + + 15. Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile 56 + + 16. Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla 57 + + 17. Skeleton of an aged male gorilla 65 + + 18. Skull of an aged male chimpanzee 69 + + 19. Skull of a very young female chimpanzee 73 + + 20. Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African + bam-chimpanzee 74 + + 21. Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam-chimpanzee 76 + + 22. Skull of middle-aged female orang 77 + + 23. Skeleton of young orang-utan 79 + + 24. The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of + his men 85 + + 25. Aidanill, hairless Australian 88 + + 26. The same in profile 88 + + 27. Dewan, Aidanill’s sister 90 + + 28. Human ear 93 + + 29. Magot (_Innuus ecaudatus_) 94 + + 30. Capucin ape (_Cebus capucinus_) 98 + + 31. Hand of a very aged male gorilla 103 + + 32. Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile 104 + + 33. Satan’s ape (_Pithecia Satanas_). Shows the formation and + mode of using the feet in apes of the New World 106 + + 34. Human skull 108 + + 35. The Neanderthal skull 115 + + 36. Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon 119 + + 37. Naulette lower jaw 120 + + 38. Lower jaw of chimpanzee 120 + + 39. Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee 123 + + 40. Human skeleton 132 + + 41. Skeleton of an aged male gorilla 133 + + 42. Skeleton of human hand, back view 136 + + 43. Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon 138 + + 44. Section through the tibia of a male gorilla 138 + + 45. Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee 138 + + 46. Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above 140 + + 47. Coaita (_Ateles paniscus_) 142 + + 48. Muscles of the head and face of a European 151 + + 49. Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro 152 + + 50. Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3 153 + + 51. Palmar muscles of man 168 + + 52. Palmar muscles of gorilla 169 + + 53. Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand 170 + + 54. Muscular system of the human foot 177 + + 55. Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot 178 + + 56. The brain of an orang, seen from the side 191 + + 57. Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above 192 + + 58. Brain of gorilla, side view 193 + + 59. Brain of orang, seen from above 194 + + 60. Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain 196 + + 61. Mafuca 216 + + 62. The home of the gorilla 230 + + 63. Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind 244 + + + + +ANTHROPOID APES. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH ANTHROPOID APES.[1] + + +Our first acquaintance with the great anthropoid apes dates from the +times of remote antiquity. The West Coast of Africa, which is the +abode of these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as early as +B.C. 500. In B.C. 470 Hanno set out with sixty fifty-oared galleys, +laden with colonists and merchandise, on a grand expedition across +Morocco to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly mercantile, +partly undertaken with the purpose of establishing a colony. It seems +that at that time pioneering expeditions had previously taught them +how far the coast was adapted for colonization. The Carthaginians met +with “_gorillai_” on the lower range of the mountains of the Isle of +Sherboro, and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone(1). These +are described as hairy sylvan creatures who replied to the attacks of +the seafarers by throwing stones at them. Three of these monsters, of +the female sex, were captured, but they bit and scratched so furiously +that it was necessary to kill them on the spot. Pliny relates that at +the time of the Roman invasion, B.C. 146, two of the skins obtained +on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in the temple of +Astarte(2). It was subsequently shown that chimpanzees, not true +gorillas, were described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals are +not now found so far north. + + [1] A list of the numerous authorities for the substance + of this chapter is placed at the end of the volume. + +An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic, was found on the +pavement of the temple of Fortuna at Præneste (now Palestrina). This +mosaic is now in a museum at Rome, and has been described by several +authors. It represents a scene in tropical Africa, probably on the +Upper Nile. I find it difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the +mosaic amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the other +representatives of the animal world of tropical Africa(3). But it is +well known that these large apes are found on some of the streams of +the Upper Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes of these +animals: “On the Indian mountains to the south, in the land of the +Catharcludi, there are satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures, +sometimes going on all fours, sometimes upright like men, and they are +so active that they can only be captured when old or sick”(4). These +satyrs have been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbon may +also be intended, which is swifter and more agile, when in an upright +position, than the orang-utan. + +Subsequent to the remote period which we have cited, there is a long +silence respecting these remarkable animals. Only at the time when +Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we hear something about +them from Congo and Angola. The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of +the chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in 1598 (5). There are +later accounts of very large apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra +(6), Father Merolla of Sorrento (7), Froger (8), and William Smith (9). + +Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee under the erroneous name +of the mandril (_Cynocephalus Maimon_). The illustration is bad, but +it may be recognized by his description. In 1641 the Dutch anatomist +N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave a better illustration of this anthropoid +(10). This naturalist observed that the animal in question, _Homo +sylvestris_ or orang-utan (_Satyrus indicus_), is called quojas morrou +by the Africans. An anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is +still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699 (11). The anatomical +illustrations included in this work are remarkably well executed for +that time. + +Our biological acquaintance with the West African anthropoids is +considerably increased by the account given in the sixteenth century by +the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This man passed through the +forests of Lower Guinea, as sergeant of the Portuguese troops under +the command of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira Pereira. +In 1613 Battel’s account was published by his neighbour Purchas in +his _Pilgrims_ (12). Battel speaks of two kinds of large apes, the +engeco and the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks of the +Banna and the Mayombe. The engeco corresponds to the ndjéko or nschégo +(chimpanzee), the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla. +Battel’s description of the habits of these animals affords some +characteristic touches which will concern us presently. We may date our +earliest acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids from this +adventurer’s career. + +The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published in 1668 a detailed +description of Africa (13), in which there is much of value, and he +mentions the large apes, called quojas morrau or morrou, which inhabit +the kingdom of Congo (14). By these he apparently means the chimpanzee. + +Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the gorilla has been +recently given by Bowdich in his very interesting work on the “Mission +of the Anglo-African Company to Ashanti” (15). He says that there are +several remarkable species of apes in the territory of the Gaboon, +among which the ingenu (gorilla) is the strangest. The natives asserted +that this animal is much larger than the orang-utan, generally five +feet tall, and four feet broad from shoulder to shoulder. + +In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on the Gaboon, reported +to the distinguished anatomist Owen that there was an ape in that +country larger than the chimpanzee. In addition to this information, +he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of an English missionary, +Prince, in which the supra-orbital arch is strongly developed. Savage +gave to the animal the name of _Troglodytes Gorilla_, to distinguish +it from _Troglodytes niger_, the chimpanzee. Owen also described two +skulls of gorillas, sent to him from the Gaboon (16). The skull of +a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson, was drawn and +described by Professor Jeffreys Wyman, and with it the notes of the +donor were also published (17). In 1851 the skeleton of a gorilla +reached Philadelphia through the medical missionary H. A. Ford, who +also published the latest accounts of the new anthropoid (18). In 1849 +some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through Gautier Laboulaye, +and this valuable contribution to natural history was received by de +Blainville and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and 1852 more +perfect remains were presented to the Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet +and Admiral Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de Blainville +(19), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (20), and Duvernoy (21), they are +represented with great care. A splendid illustration of one of these +specimens, excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male, adorns +the _Photographie zoologique_, by L. Rousseau and A. Devéria, which +has, so far as I am aware, been published without any text (22). This +illustration is so true to nature that I made use of it in one of my +earlier publications (23). + +Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America of French parents, +and reared in his father’s mercantile house on the Gaboon, spent the +years 1855–65 in roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon, +the Ogōwē, and the Fernāo Vaz; he professed to have taken part in +gorilla-hunts, and he published several books about his travels (24). +Critical light has been thrown upon these works, especially by A. E. +Brehm and Winwood (25); the illustrations are defective, and the text +is full of tales of adventure. Du Chaillu’s information respecting the +African anthropoids was published in the _Proceedings of the Zoological +Society of London_ (26). His remarkable collection of the remains of +apes has been described by Jeffreys Wyman (27), to whom we are also +indebted for a notice of the materials collected by Savage (17). + +Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises on the gorilla +and the chimpanzee, in addition to those already cited. This English +professor had the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla, +imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (28). The travellers Burton +(29), de Compiègne (30), Savongnan de Brazza (31), Lenz (32), the +members of the German-African Loango Expedition (33), and Von +Koppenfels (34) have also contributed some information respecting the +gorilla in a wild state. Other works on the zoology and anatomy of +this animal have been published by Duvernoy, already cited, Dahlbom +(35), Haeckel (36), Flower (37), Issel (38), Giglioli (39), Chapman +(40), Mivart (41), Macalister (41A), Von Aeby (42), Lucae (43), Ecker +(44), Bolau (45), Pansch (46), Lenz (47), A. B. Meyer (48), R. Meyer +(49), Bischoff (50), Ehlers (51), Virchow (52), Von Bär (53), by the +author of this work (54), etc. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau, +Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect perfect specimens +of the gorilla. Two of the specimens which came into my hands were +unquestionably in the best condition, since I obtained them immediately +after their deaths in Berlin. A larger specimen of a female, 1000 mm. +tall, was in worse preservation, yet still quite available for the +purposes of study. + +The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is not yet exhausted. +Valuable information may be found in the anthropological works by C. +Vogt (55), in the writings of Pruner-Bey (56), and Magitot (57), in +Darwin’s works (58), in _Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères_, by Gervais +(59), in Huxley’s _Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_ (60), in Flower’s +_Osteology of the Mammalia_ (61), in Giebel’s _Odontographie_ (62), and +in many other handbooks and treatises on natural history, which want of +room forbids me to mention. + +In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living gorilla reached +England. It survived its arrival seven months, and a good illustration +of this creature, accompanied by a brief description, has been recently +published in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London_ +(63). In 1876, towards the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought the +second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin. It had been kept in +confinement in that country at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874, +and it died on November 13, 1877, at the Berlin Aquarium. Dr. Hermes +obtained a third specimen in September, 1881, which died soon after +its arrival in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the Berlin +Aquarium. + +The chimpanzee became the more general object of zoological and +anatomical study at an earlier period, since the species occupied +a wider area than the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have +already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the subject, and the animal +described by von Tulpe. In 1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the +chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London at the same time. In +vol. 35, pl. 2, of his Natural History, Buffon gives an illustration of +the chimpanzee, and pl. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very true to +nature, but still recognizable (64). It is commonly supposed that the +Dutch traveller Bosman, cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the +gorilla and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about five feet high, +living near Fort Wimba “d’une couleur fauve” (65). Although Buffon was +acquainted with the names chimpanzee and chimpezée, as well as with +Battel’s surmises about the pongo and the enjeco, yet he regarded the +jockos, pongos, and orangs as animals all belonging to one species. The +young African animals observed by him and von Tulpe (chimpanses) must +have been young pongos (66). The name pongo was afterwards applied to +the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin and skeleton of the chimpanzee +observed by Buffon when still alive, was preserved in the Zoological +Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (67). There is a beautiful illustration +of a young female which lived in the menagerie of the Jardin des +Plantes in Paris in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution +(68). This illustration, in which the animal is represented on all +fours, has since been frequently copied. Copies have also been made of +the drawings of the same individual in a walking position, and swinging +by one arm, which originally appeared in Vélins’ famous catalogue of +the Museum of Paris. Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahlbom have given +good illustrations of the head and body of an old male chimpanzee (69). +Numerous, and for the most part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee +have been given in several modern works and illustrated papers (70). +Undoubtedly the best representations of the chimpanzee, corrected from +photographs taken from life, are found in my osteological treatise on +the gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the little book which +preceded it (71). The form and mode of life of this species of ape +are fairly well described by Bischoff (72), as well as in the books +already mentioned, and especially in those by Temminck (73), Gervais, +Reichenbach, and Brehm. Recently the opportunities of describing the +bodies of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the anatomy of +this animal may also be found in the works of Tyson (11), Vrolik (74), +Champneys (75), Brühl (76), and Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik (77), +as well as in the works we have already mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy, +Bischoff, Issel, Giglioli, Lenz, etc. Du Chaillu (26), Duvernoy (78), +Bischoff (50), Gratiolet and Alix (79), A. B. Meyer (80), and the +author of this work (81) have treated of the external form and internal +structure of new species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee. + +Much has been written about the orang-utan since Vosmaer’s (82) day, +among others by Rademacher (83), Wurmb (84), Griffith (85), Temminck +(86), Schlegel and S. Müller (87), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (88), +Brooke (89), Abel (90), and Wallace (91). Camper (92), Owen (93), J. +Müller (94), Schlegel and S. Müller (95), Heusinger (96), Dumortier +(97), Brühl (98), Bischoff, Langer (99), etc., have studied the anatomy +of this animal. Good illustrations of the orang-utan are found in +Vélins’ catalogue, copied by Chenu (100) and Gervais (101), and in +Wallace; also in the designs by Mützel (102) and Max (103), and in my +work on the Gorilla, already cited. + +It had been already shown by Tilesius (104) and Cuvier (105) that +Wurmb’s young pongo is identical with the orang of Linnæus. We now +know certainly that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango) should only be +applied to the gorilla. + +The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid apes, the Indian +long-armed apes or gibbons, have been recently described, with +reference to their form and mode of life, by various travellers and +naturalists, especially by Duvaucel (106), Bennet (107), Martin (108), +Lewis (109), S. Müller (110), Diard (111); also by Buffon (112), Is. +Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (113), and Blyth (114), etc. Gulliver (115), +Bischoff (116), and the author of this work have studied the anatomy of +these creatures. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES. + + +In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan the external form is +subject to essential modifications, according to the age and sex. The +difference between the sexes is most strongly marked in the gorilla, +and these differences are least apparent in the gibbon. + +When a young male gorilla is compared with an aged animal of the same +species, we are almost tempted to believe that we have to do with two +entirely different creatures. While the young male still displays an +evident approximation to the human structure, and develops in its +bodily habits the same qualities which generally characterize the +short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception of the baboon, +the aged male is otherwise formed. In the latter case the points of +resemblance to the human type are far fewer; the aged animal has become +a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the structure of his hands and +feet the characteristics of the primates, while the protruding head +is something between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear, and the +boar. Simultaneously with these remarkable alterations of the external +structure there occurs a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an +aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and the incisor teeth have +almost attained the length of those of lions and tigers. On the upper +part of the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony crests are +developed on the crown of the head and on the occiput, and these are +supported by the high, spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, and +thus supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles of the neck and +jaw. The supra-orbital arches are covered with wrinkled skin, and the +already savage, and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla is +thereby increased. A comparison of the two illustrations (Figs. 1 and +3) which accompany the text, will make this clear. + +These distinctions are not so striking in the female as in the male +gorilla. Although there is much which is bestial in the appearance +of an aged female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the male, +the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads are absent in the +female, as well as the prognathous form of the skull and the length +and thickness of the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not, in +her whole structure, so far removed from the condition of the same sex +in youth as is the aged male. The structure of the female has on the +whole more in common with the human form. It has been said, and indeed +on good authority, that the female type should take the foremost place +in the study of the animal structure, since it is the more universal. +But H. von Nathusius maintains that we must take both sexes into +consideration in the study of domestic animals, since both are needed +to determine the breed.[2] I accept this condition in the scientific +study and description of wild animals also, of every kind and species. +All that is said of the universal type of the female animal is and +must remain in my eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation of +males and females, and of young individuals of both sexes, can throw +sufficient light on the history of the race. The male animal is the +larger, and predominant with respect to the complete development of +certain peculiarities of form in the specific organism, since these +are doubtfully present in the adult female, and are either altogether +absent in the immature young, or only rudimentary. + +Let us now consider, in the first place, the prototype of the species, +the aged male gorilla in the full strength of his bodily development +(Fig. 1). This animal, when standing upright, is more than six feet +in height, or 2000 mm. The head is 300 mm. in length. The occiput +appears to be broader below than above, since the upper part slopes +like a gabled roof towards the high, longitudinal crest of the vertex. +The projecting supra-orbital arches start prominently from the upper +and central contour of the skull. In this species, as in other apes, +and indeed among mammals generally, and especially in the case of the +carnivora, ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows are present. +In the gorilla these consist of a rather scanty growth of coal-black +bristles, about 40 mm. in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital +arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow slits, and with lids +which display many and deep longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set +with longer and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes glow +between the lids with a ferocious expression. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Aged male gorilla.] + +The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards from between the inner +corners of the eyes, and is keel-shaped in the centre. This part of +the head is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower in one +individual, shorter and wider in another. The skin in this region is +covered with a network of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the +nose and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at the base. +This part of the nose, attached to the very projecting forehead, has +the effect of an altogether snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a +central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole tip of the nose +into two symmetrical halves. This furrow is more strongly marked in the +case of adult animals than in the young. The aperture of the nostrils +is large and triangular, with the cartilaginous point turned upwards, +and the edges applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks +have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral margins of this +part of the nostril take an arched form, first diverging in different +directions, then gradually converging again towards the upper lip. The +lip is short, and this, combined with the large nose, gives a certain +resemblance to the mouth of an ox. This resemblance is the more +striking, as the whole of this region is covered with glandular skin of +a deep black colour, which is either glabrous or provided with a few +scattered hairs, but furnished with small flattened warts. + +Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very round, dwindling away and +becoming depressed in the lower part of the face. They are seamed with +curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend downwards in the same +direction as the wrinkles on the lower eyelids. The short upper lip is +provided with oblique folds which converge outwards in the centre. The +points of the strong canine teeth, which in many individuals are from +38 to 40 mm. long, and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other, +and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction, so that this part +of the face takes the form of a triangular, bevelled surface, with its +prominent base-line between the canine teeth. It may also be observed +that in many individuals of this species the nose is not very deeply +set on the upper lip; that in others, again, the nose is decidedly +raised, and the lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In many +such cases the prognathism of the face is strongly marked, so as to +give a baboon-like effect. In other specimens, again, this debased type +is not allied with strongly marked prognathism. + +If we take a front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla we see +that the upper edges of the great supra-orbital arches are bevelled +off below and at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the +broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The front view of the +head, and indeed of the whole animal, presents a strongly projecting +contour, an impression which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks, with +their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with its scarcely indicated +chin, retreats in the centre and dwindles into a triangular form. This +contour is characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the face is +glossy, set with few hairs, and of a deep black colour. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Ear of a male adult gorilla.] + +The ear (Fig. 2) averages 60 mm. in length, and from 36 to 40 mm. in +width. It seems to be fastened to the head by the back and upper part, +is generally of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly marked +helix. The helix varies in width in different individuals, and often +terminates on its inner edge in the projecting peaked excrescence +described by Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently. The +anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft which lies between +these two latter parts (_incisura inter tragica_) are generally fully +developed; the lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations in +the special structure of these parts may frequently be observed. + +The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on the neck, and when the +head is stretched they stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck. +Owing to the great development of the spinous processes of the cervical +vertebræ and of the muscles attached to them, and to the occipital +bones of the skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of a +bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their breadth, and the pectoral +muscles for their large size. The nipples of the breast, which are not +surrounded by any visible _areolæ_, stand out in youth, and afterwards +assume a horny texture which stiffens into a kind of bone. When one of +these animals is gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the +tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall in when the stomach +is empty. + +On the upper and forearms the plastic form of the strongly developed +flexor and extensor muscles is very apparent, testifying to the +enormous strength of the upper extremities. The hands are large, +and very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb, of which the +extremity takes a conical form, is short, extending little beyond the +middle of the second metacarpal bone. The extremities of the otherwise +broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed. The fore-finger is +not materially shorter than the middle finger. The third finger is +sometimes shorter than, sometimes of the same length as, the first, +and the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist is covered +with deep oblique folds. A network of wrinkles, oblique or curved, +also covers the skin on the back of the fingers, on which there are +callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes the fingers when +going on all fours, and turns the back of the hand on the ground, thus +producing this thickening of the upper skin on the joints. Callosities +of the same nature, although not so extensive, are not rare on the +second finger-joints. The palm of the hand is covered with a hard, +horny skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the roots of the +fingers. In spite of the blackness of the skin which covers them, these +characteristics are still apparent. + +The fingers are united by a strong web, reminding us of the membrane +found on the otter and other web-footed animals, and reaching nearly +to the first finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the root of +the fingers, although on the backs of the fingers there are only a few +isolated hairs. + +The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from behind, somewhat +resembles a trapezium in form, of which the longer of the two parallel +sides extends between the shoulders, and the shorter between the two +halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides, which are not parallel, +correspond to the sides of the back. The arrangement of all the +lower part of the trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out +prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat resembles a four-sided +pyramid with its apex reversed. The gluteal muscles are not strongly +developed. The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat angular +form. + +While the external sexual organs of the male are so covered by the +wrinkled skin of the abdomen that they are not prominent in their +passive condition, those of the female are, on the contrary, very +apparent; the external lips of the vagina, provided with large nymphæ, +and a large clitoris, are only apparent when the sexual instinct is +excited. + +The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which appear to be smoothed +off on the inner side, and somewhat arched on the outside. The lower +part of the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long-oval +form; the region of the calf is more strongly developed than in other +anthropoids. The bones of the foot are not at all prominent, and the +same remark applies to those of the hand. The contour of the back of +the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is convex, covered with strong +muscles, and padded with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole +of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the region of the +heel, and forward into the inner side of the foot, thus presenting the +primitive formation of a heel. + +The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a thumb from the other +toes, and can be used as such. The metatarsus serves as a base for its +projection, in the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore part +of the contour of the wrist. The great toe sometimes extends as far as +the joint between the first and second phalanges of the second toe, +sometimes nearly as far as the middle of the second phalanx. This +characteristic varies in different individuals. At the point of union +of the first metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the first +phalanx of the great toe, there is a round projection on the inner side +of the foot. The great toe is very broad at its root, then becomes +smaller, and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With its strong +lateral ridges of skin, which cover the sinews and cushions of fat, all +this part of the foot appears to be wide and flattened off from the +back to the sole. + +The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more slender than the +great toe. The second toe is in most cases rather shorter than the +third. The third and fourth toes are almost of the same length, +and only a little longer than the second toe.[3] The fifth toe is +considerably shorter than the fourth. The last phalanges of the toes +taper in front, and are furnished on their lower surface with long, +laterally compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is almost +trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side. The upper part of the +foot, although generally flat, rises a little in the neighbourhood of +the first metatarsal bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge. + +The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as far as the extremity +of the metatarsal bones, more sparsely on the back of the toes. +There are strongly marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot, +especially on the joints, often combined with horny callosities, +since the animal sometimes doubles up the toes and runs upon the back +of them. The nails of the hands and feet are black, like the whole +of their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much arched, and +generally somewhat wider at the base than in front. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The young male gorilla, from the specimen in +the Berlin Aquarium of 1876–77.] + +On the sole of the foot we find the region of the heel, the ball +of the great toe, in this case resembling the ball of a thumb, the +roots and tips of the toes, together with pads consisting of muscles, +tendons, and skin. The several divisions of these padded balls are +separated from each other by furrows which are longitudinal, oblique, +and transverse, and more or less distinct from each other. The black +skin which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny, but provided +with a series of papillæ. The whole skin of an aged animal is of a deep +black colour, somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting wrinkles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--The same animal at a still earlier age.] + +The young male gorilla does not essentially differ from the old male +in its general and external appearance. Its skull is, however, without +the crest which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of a +rounded form in the region of the crown and occiput. At this age the +head is not so high at the back and on the top as in aged males. The +orbits are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is not so +decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the nose is shorter. The lines +of the body in the young male are softer and less exaggerated, and the +expression of the face is less ferocious than in an aged male. The +horny callosities on the hands and feet are altogether wanting or only +faintly indicated, and the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at +the powerful development which we observe in the older animal. (Comp. +Figs. 3 and 4.) + +Considerable differences may be observed in the whole structure of the +adult female gorilla. The animals of this sex are smaller and weaker +than males of the same age. The skull of the female is smaller and +more rounded than that of the male, and the great bony crests are also +absent. The orbits are less prominent, and a front view of the head +gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The coronal arch rises +above this trapezoid. In the male, on the contrary, the crown seems to +lengthen above and behind into a pyramidal form. In the aged female +the bridge of the nose is generally shorter than in the aged male, +but even in this particular there is great variation in different +individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a female is much +depressed, and then the interval between the orbits and the end of the +nose is shorter: I intentionally avoid the term _tip_ of the nose, on +account of the blunted form of this organ. Even when the bridge of the +nose is more prominent, the interval between its end and the orbits is +sometimes very short. + +The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks, a smaller nose, and +a higher upper lip. This last peculiarity is shown in the correct and +well-stuffed specimens in the museums at Paris and Lübeck. Although, +in the process of drying, the skin of the nose may have shrunk a +little, yet there is still room for the upper lip, provided with folds +which are either vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen and +Mützel[4] have given satisfactory illustrations of these parts. In the +aged female the shape of the neck is not, as in the aged male, strong +and bulging, so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in conformity +with the not inconsiderable development of the spinous processes of +the cervical vertebræ, and with that of the powerful cervical muscles. +Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen which was kept in +the Berlin Aquarium, between July, 1876, and November, 1877, this +enlargement of the neck was present in a marked degree. In still +younger individuals, however, under a year old, in which the spinous +processes of the vertebræ have not yet been developed, there is no such +enlargement, but, on the contrary, this region of the neck takes a +concave form. + +In conformity with the smaller size of the body, the shoulders, arms, +and thighs of the adult female are smaller than those of the full-grown +male, but they are still very powerful. While giving suck, the breasts +of the female are swelled in the form of a half-cone, instead of +assuming the convex shape which is observed in many European women, +and still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian, and South +Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical rather than conical in shape, and +covered with finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard and +horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang slackly down, like short +empty pouches. The belly swells in the neighbourhood of the crest of +the ilium, and increases in thickness at the groin. The external sexual +organs, in the period of excitement, swell in a manner resembling the +lips of a woman’s pudenda. + +In a young female the cranium is rounded, and the face is only slightly +prominent. In aged specimens, especially in those of the male sex, +there is a somewhat typical prolongation of that part of the face which +lies between the eyes and the end of the nose, and this is to a slight +extent apparent in the young female. Variations in form and in the +extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent even at this early +period. The trunk and limbs are more slenderly built than in a male of +the same age. + +The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long, thick, straight or +stiffly curved bristles, and also of shorter, thinner, and curled +woolly hair. On the crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff, +from 12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under the influence +of anger. While the sides and fore-part of the chin are only clothed +with short, stiff hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the +chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which turn outwards from +the sides of the face and on the neck are 30 or more mm. in length. +On the shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long, hanging down +on the upper arms and the back. In the middle of the upper arm the +hair is from 50 to 70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend +of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to grow in an upward +direction. On the back of the forearm it again grows downwards. In +the middle of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the hairs +takes place, as one portion goes in front of the radius, while the +other portion turns behind the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft +of curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes directly back; and +the lower tuft, also curved, turns outwards. On the back of the hand +the hairs turn towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the hairs +are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the breast their direction is +as a rule upwards and outwards. On the belly they converge from the +ribs towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs the hairs are +about 160 mm. long, and here, as on the lower part of the leg, they +tend outwards, while on the back of the foot they grow towards the +toes. On the back, shoulders, and on the thigh and leg, the bristles +are slightly curved. This quality increases the general impression of +shagginess and fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of these +creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very thick, and is not much +matted. + +The colour of the hair not only differs on different parts of the body, +but also in different individuals. On the crown of the head it is of +a reddish brown, or rarely of a decided brown or black. The hairs in +this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root, greyish white in +the centre, and brownish red, shading into the dark brown tip. The +hair on the lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes whitish, +or both colours are found together. The hair growing at the sides of +the face is grey below, dark brown or almost black above. On the neck +and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the root, and gradually +becomes lighter towards the tip. In the centre it is brown, shading +into a lighter colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour +is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark, sometimes brown or +reddish. The hair on the back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish +or light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown ring towards +the tip, which is of a dark grey colour. Many of these hairs on the +back have two brown rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and +feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the root, brownish grey, +dark brown, or black at the tip. Round the posteriors there is a circle +of white, grey, or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm. in length. +In both sexes variations from the colour of the coat here described are +not rare. It has been already observed that the brownish red colour +of the hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another shade. In +many individuals the neck, shoulders, and back are of a dark grey, +brown, or even black colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and +feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey and brown hair +intermingled. + +The second species of anthropoid apes is the chimpanzee. In this case +also we must consider successively the aged and young male, and the +aged and young female animals. + +The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the adult gorilla. In this +species also the male is larger than the female. The chimpanzee is, +speaking generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla. + +The head of the aged male chimpanzee fundamentally differs from that of +the aged male gorilla, since the skull of the former has a depressed +crown, and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly indicated. +Since the orbits are also less strongly developed than in the aged male +gorilla, and the spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ do not +assume the same elevated form which is characteristic of the latter +species, the countenance of the chimpanzee is not of a square shape, +and there is not space for the strong muscular system arching over +the neck like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla. The +head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged and young specimens, the +concave neck which is common among apes, that is to say, a depression +between the head and the throat. In an aged male the crown of the head +presents a rounded, arched contour, since, as we have already said, +the prominent bony processes are wanting. Although the supra-orbital +arches are not so excessively prominent as in a gorilla of the same +age, they are strongly developed, covered with wrinkled skin, and in +this case also there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with +shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids are furnished with +thick eyelashes. The inner angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of +the gorilla. + +A general physiognomical distinction between the gorilla and the +chimpanzee consists in the fact that the bridge of the nose is shorter +in the latter than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part of the +organ is depressed, yet the depression is of a conical and convex +form, and is covered with a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In +the chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle of the eye and the +upper lateral contour of the cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter +than in the gorilla. There is also some difference in the form of +the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less apparent, the +nostrils are not so widely opened nor so thickly padded. (Fig. 3.) +In the chimpanzee, as well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical +furrow directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these are likewise +divided from the rest of the face by the broad pear-shape furrow which +surrounds them. The upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as +30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower. As in the gorilla, +the chin forms a triangle of equal sides, with its apex reversed. + +The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the whole less resemblance +to the human ear, and its contour is larger than that of the gorilla. +But this organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult to +lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges from 59 to 77 mm. +in length, and from 42 to 80 mm. in width. Many individuals have a +distinct lobule to the ear, others not. (Fig. 5.) In this example +the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others they are wanting. +The tragus and anti-tragus are more or less apparent in different +individuals, as well as the other modifications of the external +cartilage of the ear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Ear of chimpanzee.] + +An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather rounded shoulders, a powerful +chest, long muscular arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand, +which seems to be very slender in comparison with that of the gorilla. +The thumbs vary in length, for the most part reaching as far as the +metacarpal phalanges, but not in all cases. The middle finger is longer +than the other three; the first and third fingers are shorter by the +length of the last phalanx, the third is a little longer than the +first, and the fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to the +middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches between the bases of +the four fingers. There are horny callosities on the back of the hand +of the aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla, supports +himself on the backs of his closed fingers. The fingers are laterally +compressed, but slightly arched on the back of the hand, and more +decidedly so on the palm. A network of furrows covers the back of the +hand, and these are more deeply impressed on its palm. The thumb is +separated from the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to six +furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the palm. The finger-nails +are short, wide, and arched, very convex at their free edges. + +In the aged male the sides of the belly are compressed, the thighs +are broad and muscular, and somewhat flattened both on the inner and +outer sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks are somewhat +laterally compressed, and the calf of the leg is very slightly +developed. As in the gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like +formation of the great toes, which are of considerable size. They +extend, when drawing anything towards them, as far as the second +phalanx of the second toe. The four other toes are more slender and +only a little longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly +developed, and slopes away below. The joint between the first phalanx +of the great toe and the first metatarsal bone is marked by an angular +projection on the inner edge of the foot. The back of the foot is very +slightly convex. The last phalanx of the great toe is very much sloped +off on its upper surface, but this is less apparent in the other parts +of this member. The last phalanges of the other laterally compressed +toes are strongly arched on the under surface. Considerable convexities +may also be observed under the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the great +toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of the toe-nails resembles +that of the fingers. Large callosities are not unfrequently found on +the backs of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports himself on +these parts. A connective web is found between all the toes except the +great toe and its neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that +between the roots of the fingers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Young chimpanzee.] + +Although the young male chimpanzee is distinguished from the aged +male of the same species by differences in the structure of many +of its parts, yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as +those between the young and aged male gorillas. The skull of the +younger animal, which is altogether devoid of the prominent bony +crest and ridges, is shaped almost like a truncated cone in the +region of the crown; in some individuals of only a few years old, the +bony development of the orbits has already begun, starting from the +principal part of the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled +skin. The short and depressed bridge of the nose becomes longer and +higher, the cartilaginous end of the nose becomes larger, and the +prognathism of the face increases with each successive stage of growth. +The strength of the trunk and limbs is early developed. The sexual +characteristics are gradually and plainly developed; but the male +gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal ferocity. + +The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller head, with an oval crown +to the skull. The orbits are not so strongly developed as in the aged +male, the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are not nearly +so strong. The body of an animal of this sex is rounder in all its +parts; and the belly, with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in +the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the same angular formation +of muscles.[5] The hands and feet of the female are also smaller and +slenderer. In a young female the characteristics here described are +presented in the mitigated form which corresponds with its youthful +condition. But the female sometimes becomes a very strong and even +violent creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg Zoological +Garden, where a female specimen, in splendid condition, survived for +several years under the faithful care of old Siegel.[6] + +The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light, yet muddy flesh +colour, which sometimes verges upon brown. Spots, varying in size and +depth of colour, sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a +blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found on different +parts of the body of many individuals, especially on the face, neck, +breast, belly, arms and hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the +back. The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour, merging +into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker shade with the gradual +development of the body. The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases +slightly curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally stiff +and elastic. The parting on the forehead is often so regular that it +might have been arranged by the hairdresser’s art (see Fig. 6). Close +behind that part of the head at which the projecting supra-orbital +ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is in the chimpanzee an +altogether bald place, or only a few scattered hairs. Round the face +the growth of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the neck it is +from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and it falls in the same long locks +over the shoulders, back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so +long, and takes a downward direction on the upper arm, and an opposite +direction on the forearm, while there is often a longitudinal parting +on the centre of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On the +back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of whorl; the upper hairs +turn upwards and backwards, the middle ones turn backwards, the lower +ones backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands and the roots +of the fingers are hairy. On the front of the thigh the hair takes +a downward direction, while behind it grows backwards. On the shank +it grows downwards in the region of the tibia, and turns back on the +inside of the leg. The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are +likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these scattered hairs on +the face, chin, and ears. On the supra-orbital arches there are from +eight to twenty, or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner +of eyebrows; and eyelashes are likewise present. + +In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of a black colour. +Short whitish hairs may be observed on the lower part of the face and +chin, as well as round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the hair +is shot throughout with reddish or brownish black. + +The orang-utan, the chief representative of the anthropoids in +Asia, differs from the African forms of this group, almost at the +first glance, in the height of his skull, of which the fore-part is +compressed and shortened in a backward direction. In the aged male it +is, however, provided with high and erect bony crests, which give a +prognathous appearance to the countenance. We take an aged male as the +type of our description. + +The forehead is high and erect, not retreating like that of the +chimpanzee; it is open, and has moderately convex frontal eminences. +From the centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval eminence +sometimes projects. The supra-orbital ridges are strongly arched, +yet not so prominent as that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting +aside that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened, nor are +their lids large and furrowed, but on the lower lids there are deep +wrinkles. The small bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but +sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it issues from the central +longitudinal depression of the face. The end of the nose, further +removed from the eyes than is generally the case in the chimpanzee, +is not so broad as it is in the latter animal and in the gorilla. The +wings of the nose are narrow and highly arched in their upper part, +divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and the nostrils are +small and oval, separated by a thin partition. The upper lip is high, +broad, and projecting, and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from the +cheeks and from the upper part of the face by a deep depression; and +behind the cheeks two large and long-shaped or sometimes triangular +pads of fat often project forwards and downwards. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan.] + +The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not remarkably thick. The chin +is very retreating, but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (Fig. 7). +The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and 12 mm. in width, and has +a general resemblance in structure to the human ear (Fig. 8). On the +fore-part of the short, thick neck there are irregular, and in some +places very deep circular folds of skin. The throat-pouch distends part +of this slack, wrinkled skin, which hangs down in front like a great +empty wallet (see Figs. 7 and 9). + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Ear of the orang-utan.] + +The structure of the other parts of the body lacks even to some extent +the powerful and symmetrical formation which we observe in the gorilla, +and indeed in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet rather angular +and sloping shoulders, with flattened breast, rounded back, and still +more rounded belly, is tun-shaped, and gives the impression of a +want of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal region resembles +the projecting rump of a fowl, and this may also be observed in the +young gorilla and chimpanzee. The long, muscular arms reach to the +ankles when the animal is in an erect position, and are altogether +out of proportion with the rest of the body. The powerful upper arm +is shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long and narrow. The +thumb, which reaches as far as the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a +displeasing and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the fingers, +sometimes extending along a third of the first phalanx, sometimes along +half. The middle finger is somewhat longer than the first and third +fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The fourth finger is +comparatively long. The palm of the hand is flat, only marked by a few +deep furrows. The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed, and +the nails on their tapering ends are arched. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Adult male orang-utan.] + +The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner side, are, however, very +muscular, but become much smaller on their back side. The calf of +the leg is less developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the +chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and slender. The narrow, +flat heels project very slightly behind. The great toes are short, with +wide extremities, rounded above, and provided on the sole with thick, +fatty skin. In old age these animals not only often lose the nails of +their great toes, but sometimes even the last phalanges themselves. +This is not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is the case +with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in this condition lose +portions of their tails or toes, but it also occurs among orang-utans +in their wild state. The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe +is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on the under side of all +but the great toe, where they rarely occur. The backs of the hands and +feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin, and on the hands +there are callosities. + +This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic disposition than the +gorilla and chimpanzee, has a very strange appearance, with its +projecting head and short neck; its face widening in the middle +and tapering towards the forehead and chin; its tun-shaped trunk, +long, thin extremities, and shaggy coat. It differs widely from the +chimpanzee and gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the +compression of the forehead is less marked than in aged animals, and +the bony crests which conduce to raise the coronal arch in its upper +and hinder part are also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less +strongly developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers of fat +upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more detached from the neck, +the structure of the whole body is slenderer, the expression of the +countenance is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end, may +generally be observed on the great toe. + +In the adult female, as I have pointed out elsewhere, the physical +characteristics of the young male are repeated in an exaggerated form. +The skull, displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed high, but +more rounded than in the aged male; the face is prominent, but the head +is more detached from the neck than in the latter case. On account of +the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still more tun-shaped than +in the aged male. When giving suck, the breasts are distended in the +form of a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall together +and only present two short, wrinkled, slightly prominent folds of skin; +the small, horny nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of +which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether disappears. The +throat-pouch is less strongly developed than in the aged male, but the +limbs are as fully developed. The head of the young female is still +more rounded, with a more flattened though still projecting face, and +the limbs are slenderer, and thus still more out of proportion with +the thick trunk than is the case with a young male. + +The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour, sometimes mixed +with brown, but the greyish blue shade is predominant. A yellowish or +brownish grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils, upper lips, and +chin there is often a ring of a dirty, yellowish brown colour, forming +a strange contrast with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The +arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish black, more rarely +brown or reddish brown. + +The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long, curved, waving +bristles, and some scanty downy hairs. On the back of the head, on the +shoulders, back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to 235 mm. +in length. In other individuals they were, however, much shorter--20, +40, or 60 mm. long. There is often a natural parting of the hair of +the head, which falls asunder on either side. In some cases there is +no parting, and the hair streams wildly down; and in others, again, +it stands upright, stiffening from the sides and top of the head in a +demoniacal manner (Figs. 7 and 9). A beard frequently encircles the +cheeks and chin. The hair grows upwards and outwards on the neck and +fore-part of the throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper +arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite direction on the forearm. +On the wrist the hair grows in the manner described in the case of the +gorilla. There is only a scanty growth of hair on the breast and belly, +and it is also short and weak on the face, ears, and backs of the hands +and feet. I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have seen, but +they may occur, and the eyelashes are fully developed. + +The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something like burnt sienna, +and the hair-tips on the back parts of the body are generally brown. +In some individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish brown; +in others it is lighter, and in the latter case the breast and belly +are of a yellowish white. The beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some +individuals almost devoid of hair have been observed. + +The gibbons, or long-armed apes (_Hylobates_), constitute the fourth +group of anthropoids. Many kinds of this group are known, and I feel +bound to describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able +to give an idea of their structure. With respect to these animals, I +cannot only rely on the materials which are accessible to me, but must +also make use of the descriptions given by others.[7] + +The gibbons have as a rule very long arms, reaching to their ankles +when they stand upright. The face is not very prognathous, the crown +of the head is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are small +callosities on their posteriors, which are absent in the gorilla, the +chimpanzee, and the orang-utan. + +The largest species of these animals, which inhabit part of the +continent and of the islands of Asia, is the siamang (_Hylobates +syndactylus_, F. Cuvier).[8] According to Diard, its arms are not +quite so long as those of the wauwau (_H. agilis_, F. Cuvier). This +animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating forehead, a long, +moderately arched crown to the head, and a slightly arched occiput. The +base of the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only slightly +prognathous in the aged male. According to Diard, the eyes are deeply +set, the nostrils are very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic +arch, the mouth opens widely, the chin is of insignificant size. It is +the only one of the gibbons which possesses the throat-pouch, already +described as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in aged +animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in front. The second and +third toes are connected together by a thin web, reaching to the last +joint in the male, and to the penultimate joint in the female. The +hairs on the forearm turn their points upward, and form a kind of whorl +on the wrist. The animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and +tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs. According to Bock, +the face is encircled by a grey or white beard. This animal is about a +metre in height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra. + +The lar (_Hylobates Lar_, Illig) is another species of gibbon. The +structure of the body is much more slender than that of the animal +just described; the head is round, the eyes are large, the nose +projects from its depressed surroundings with only a very slight ridge, +and the cartilaginous end is shaped like a triangle with unequal +sides. This triangular end is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and +the small nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are divided +from each other by a thin partition. The structure of the upper lip is +peculiar. In the centre, just below the base of the nasal partition, +it is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical lateral halves by a +vertical furrow. Each of these halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging +the small lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and the +zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the lower eyelids, there are +the flat, depressed cheeks. The small chin presents itself below the +central cleft of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face of this +gibbon, of which the general appearance is very singular, is surrounded +by a circle of thick hair, which resembles the circular hood of an +Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both generally and in +detail, is not confined to the lar, but applies to other species of +gibbons, including the siamang (see Figs. 11 and 15). It is a feature +which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at the first glance, +from the other forms of anthropoids already described. The colour of +the lar’s face is reddish brown or tawny; the hair which surrounds it +is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with short, light grey +hair on the backs of the hands and feet. The black ears are almost +hairless. The lar has up to this time seldom found a place in our +zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and Siam. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Head of the white-handed gibbon.] + +The white-handed gibbon (_Hylobates albimanus_, Vigors and Horsfield) +is often confounded with _H. Lar_. But _H. albimanus_ has a black face, +and the general colour of the skin is black, including the inside of +the hands and feet. Thick white hair encircles the face, and the backs +of the hands and feet are covered with short white or light grey hairs, +while the rest of the coat is quite black. The hair of the forearm +grows downwards, towards the wrist. The ears of these apes are almost +of the shape of an equilateral triangle. The helix of the ear runs like +a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix passes through the +centre of the slightly depressed external surface of the ear, of which +the whole arrangement does not essentially differ from that of the ear +of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous substance of the organ is a +good deal inflected, broad behind and in the upper part, dividing into +two limbs in front and below. There are indications of the tragus and +anti-tragus. The detached lobule of the ear is absent (Fig. 11). This +structure of the external ear is common to other species of gibbons, +although in many cases the upper part of the helix is wrinkled, and the +anti-helix is sometimes more fully developed, and more like that of the +human ear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Ear of the white-handed gibbon.] + +The face in this species is small. The supra-orbital arches are +strongly developed, and almost join in the centre. The eyes are large, +dark, and have a mild and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent +in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed below it. The bridge +of the nose is imbedded between the cheeks, which, especially when +seen in profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is covered +with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape described in the +former species, and so are the upper lip and chin (Fig. 10). Long, +bristly hairs stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip, and +short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The white hairs which +encircle the face grow like a beard on the chin. The whole face has a +melancholy, almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the trunk +drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there is a short thumb, laterally +compressed, which does not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal +joint. The ball of the last phalanx forms a thick, rounded pad, which +is repeated in a lesser degree on the under side of the first phalanx +of the thumb, and on its ball. The thumb-nail is bent back, as unlike a +claw as the flattened, long, and narrow nails of the other fingers. The +middle finger is only a little longer than the first, and the fourth +not much shorter than the third finger (Fig. 12). + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Left hand of _Hylobates albimanus_.] + +The foot is neatly made, short and narrow, without a projecting heel. +The great toe is very long, reaching almost to the last phalanx of the +second toe. The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great toe, +especially its last joint, are provided with thick, rounded pads. The +middle toe is not much longer than the second, the fourth is shorter +again, and the fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is only +a very short web between the roots of the fingers, but it extends much +further on the toes (Fig. 13). This species of ape is found in Further +India. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Left foot of the same animal.] + +The wauwau (_Hylobates agilis_, F. Cuvier, Fig. 14), an ape of a rare +species, may, according to Duvaucel, be recognized by his prominent +supra-orbital arches, sunken eyes, a moderately flat nose, and large +nostrils with lateral openings. The face of the male is hairless, and +of a bluish black; that of the female is brown. The face is encircled +by thick, whitish hair, through which the ears are only partly visible. +There are a few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head, belly, +inner surface of the arms and of the thighs are dark brown. The neck +and shoulders are of a lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun +or whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark brown. The sides +of the posteriors and the backs of the thighs are brown, chestnut, +or white. In the female the white hair which encircles the face is +shorter, and verges on dun colour. The young animals are light yellow +or brown. This animal inhabits the island of Sumatra. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A wauwau in the left foreground (_Hylobates +agilis_); in the background to the light, two slender apes +(_Semnopithecas entellus_).] + +The grey gibbon (_Hylobates leuciscus_, Kuhl) is covered with a thick, +long, and woolly coat, with scattered hairs which are curly, and have +two or three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The upper part +of the head is black; light, or sometimes white, hair encircles the +blackish face. The general colour is dun. The front of the throat, the +breast, and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of the neck, +the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are darker. A brown or black +stripe runs down the breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of +the hands and feet are black. The colour of young specimens is more +uniformly grey or dun. This animal is found in Java and Sumatra. + +The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck (_Hylobates Hoolock_, +Harlan), has, in its adult condition, a prognathous face with prominent +supra-orbital arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high, narrow +nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged animals there are two +oblique folds over the eyes, of a light grey colour. The rest of the +hairy coat, the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger +animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A line of grey extends +from the breast downwards over the belly. This animal inhabits the +mountainous district of Assam. + +The unko (_Hylobates Rafflesii_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is of a +black colour, shading into reddish brown on the back and sides. Hair, +of a grey colour in the male and white in the female, encircles the +face. This ape is a native of Sumatra. + +The dun-coloured gibbon (_Hylobates entelloides_, Is. Geoff. +Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which is thick and woolly, +and furnished with long hairs of a greyish yellow or dun colour. +This coat is somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms and on +the neck, where it shades into reddish yellow. The growth of hair +surrounding the face is lighter, verging upon white. The female is +generally more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair on her face +is of a reddish yellow rather than white, but not without a trace of +white hairs. The face and the bare places on the hands and feet are +black. Between the second and third toes there is a connective web +reaching as far as the first joints. This animal inhabits the Malacca +peninsula. The name of the species is derived from its assumed likeness +to the Indian hanuman (_Semnopithecus Entellus_, F. Cuvier), of which +an illustration is given in the background to the right of Fig. 14. + +The white-bearded gibbon (_Hylobates leucogenys_, Ogilby[9]) is +remarkable for the long, erect hairs which grow on the upper and back +part of the scalp, and for the long white beard on the cheeks and chin, +which joins the thick growth above the eyes. The rest of the body is +dark black. Its native place is doubtful. + +The general colour of the tufted gibbon (_Hylobates pileatus_, J. E. +Gray) is black, shading into grey on the shoulders, back, and thighs. +A white ring surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there +is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and often a patch of +black on the breast. The whiskers are black. In other respects the +animal varies according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam and +Kambodja.[10] + +The dark grey gibbon (_Hylobates funereus_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) +is of an ashen grey colour on the upper and outer side of its limbs, +verging into brown; and on the under side it is dark brown. There is a +narrow strip of light grey round the face, with a darker band round the +back of the head. It is found in the island of Sulu.[11] + +In addition to these species of gibbons of which we have given a +brief account, there are several others--as, for example, _Hylobates +concolor_ (Harlan), from Borneo; _H. Muelleri_ (L. Martin), from the +same place; _H. choromandus_ (Ogilby), from India, and many others. But +since our space is limited, the description given above must suffice +for a diagnosis of the species. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH +THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. + + +In order to complete as far as possible the description which we +propose to give of the general natural history of these remarkable +animals, it is necessary to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it +is not so much our aim to give a detailed and exhaustive description +of their anatomy, as to glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their +inner structure which catch the eye. It seems to me expedient in this +case to follow the method of systematic and descriptive anatomy, and +to take the several natural organs in succession. This method, which +has long prevailed for studying the structure of the human body, should +also be our guide in our researches in comparative anatomy. Our readers +need scarcely be told that the anatomy of anthropoids is only a small +branch of the comparative anatomy of vertebrate animals in general. + +I begin by considering the bony structure of anthropoids, and, in +particular, of the gorilla. And it will be well to note the important +differences between the structure of the skull of a young and aged +male, and of a young and aged female gorilla. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile.] + +The skull of the aged male animal is large and heavy. Its average +weight is one and a quarter kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter, +from the alveolar point of the upper jaw to the occipital point, may +be as much as 294 mm. The overhanging orbits are high in front, and +flattened off behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge in +the middle of the face. To these the back parts of the orbits are +attached, in shape like a truncated cone, round and prominent in front, +and narrowing into bony capsules in the direction of the brain-pan. +They open directly in front, and the aperture is generally in the form +of a regular square. The edges are seldom so blunted off as to present +a figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp. Figs. 15, 16). The +frontal bone, which in the young of both sexes is high, broad, and +arched, becomes depressed in the centre in the aged male. The temporal +ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to the coronal crest. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Front view of the skull of an aged male +gorilla.] + +This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the region of the +frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites itself with the transverse +occipital crest. It is of varying height,[12] but is rarely altogether +absent in an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal crest we +may see the two well-developed bony ridges which almost touch each +other, and which indicate the upper limits of the temporal muscles on +either side. In young animals these ridges tend downwards over the +sides of the head, below the vertex of the skull. Their position and +direction vary with the growth of the skull, and correspond with that +of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest is of considerable +height in the case of aged and vigorous animals, and is frequently +somewhat concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore surface of +this crest is formed of the two parietal bones, the hinder surface of +the squamose portion of the occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is +on the top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in that of +other mammals, including man, it unites the parietal bones with those +of the occiput. The point of union between the coronal and occipital +crests divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves, curving +outwards and downwards. The high, wide squamose portion of the +occipital bone is somewhat flattened behind, or more rarely arched, +while it is abrupt at its base and in some degree in front. Six curved +lines, three on either side, opposite each other, sometimes mark the +limits of the attachments of the cervical muscles on the head. The +mastoid process of the temporal bone is present, but Brühl could find +no trace of a styloid process on the skulls of gorillas and chimpanzees. + +The squamous portion of the temporal bone is often connected with the +frontal bone by the process termed Virchow’s frontal process of the +temporal bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow in their upper +part, and widening below. When they are united in the centre of the +nasal bridge, a sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed. +The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity are remarkable for +their size. In the skulls of young animals the inter-maxillary bones, +which are in all anthropoids early united with those of the same +region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal bones and those of +the upper jaw. + +The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the enormous canine teeth +project in the centre of the face on either side like pillars, just +below the nostrils, and extend above and below the row of teeth in the +two upper jaws (see Fig. 16). In this way the crowns of the canine +teeth form a retreating triangular space, of which the base-line of +the equilateral triangle corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin +part of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the form of an +equilateral triangle. In the latter case the base-line is covered by +that section of the row of teeth containing the incisor teeth. The +sides of the triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth (see +again Fig. 17). The incisor teeth, enclosed between the latter, in +that part of the lower jaw already described, are retreating. The rami +of the lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of the lower jaw +is obtuse (Fig. 15). The front or coronoid process and the back or +condyloid process of the ramus of this bone are separated from each +other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process projects abruptly +above, but is less marked behind. + +When we consider the internal form of the skull of an aged male +gorilla, the first thing that strikes us is the marked development of +the frontal sinuses, and especially their width in the region of the +nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next observe the wings of the +sphenoid bone, and that these large concave apophyses are provided +with spaces only slightly separated from each other. These sinuses are +not only plainly connected with each other, but with the sphenoidal +sinuses. There is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with +vestibules, and this has a deep communication with the maxillary sinus, +or antrum of Highmore, embedded in the body of the upper maxillary +bone. There are, finally, sinuses at the point of junction between the +coronal and occipital crests. + +The maxillary region of the cranium of the young male gorilla is +already somewhat prognathous, and the keel-shaped elevation of +the bridge of the nose is also very apparent, but the development +of these parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male. The +whole contour of the cranium is oval, and without the high crests so +characteristic of the aged male animal. It is well known that the +Swedish anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has classified the +skulls of different races of men as long-headed (_dolichocephali_) +and short-headed (_brachycephali_). In the former class, the length +is considerably greater than the height; while in the latter, the +difference is either slight or non-existent. The skulls of the +_dolichocephali_ are long and oval; those of the _brachycephali_ are +short, round, or square. In addition to this division, which is of +great value in the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of +racial skulls, Retzius has constituted another. He has characterized +skulls of which the profile is straight, or nearly straight, as +_orthognathous_ (_rechtzähnige_); and those of which the maxillary +region is very prominent, as _prognathous_ (_schiefzähnige_). These +orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either dolichocephalic or +brachycephalic.[13] + +In applying this classification by Retzius to anthropoids, the +gorillas and chimpanzees have been characterized as dolichocephalic +and prognathous, the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic +and prognathous. Several scientific men have sought to establish the +noteworthy distinction that dolichocephalic anthropoids are found +in Africa, and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This distinctive +characteristic is held to agree with the geographical and ethnological +conditions of the continents in question.[14] Virchow remarks in a +later work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with every year +of life, but that this is not so much due to the cranium as such, as +to its bony outworks, such as the strongly developed supra-orbital +arches, the enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measurements +rather tend to show that the young gorilla is brachycephalic, but that +this characteristic diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the +external excrescences are taken into account. But it is quite otherwise +when the furthest point of measurement is taken from the frontal arch, +not from the nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of the +brachycephalic condition is established.[15] + +In the skulls of such young males as those here mentioned, the temporal +ridges, which in aged animals are in close proximity in the region +of the developed bony crests, have already in some cases begun to +approach each other, but they are still far apart. In young specimens +we can distinguish, on each side of the parietal bones, two temporal +ridges, opposite each other, and taking a nearly parallel course. The +upper ridge, which loses itself on the external surface of the mastoid +process, which is already developed, corresponds to the junction of the +fascia of the cranial muscles (_Galea aponeurotica musculi epicranii_) +with the fascia enclosing the large temporal muscles. The lower ridge, +which is gradually merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process of +the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the fleshy origin of the +temporal muscle. This corresponds to the spot at which the two layers +of the temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these temporal +ridges can be only faintly traced; they become more strongly marked +as his growth advances, and as they approximate more closely to each +other on the vertex of the cranium. I have examined a skull of which +the sutures were still open, and could already trace the development +of the coronal crest in two divisions, separated from each other by a +longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these divisions corresponded +to the two temporal ridges, which were in close proximity to each +other. If the animal had not died at this stage of its development, +it is probable that, with advancing growth, the two divisions of the +crest would have been welded into one structure. Such a condition only +characterizes a transitory stage of development, repeated in each +individual. + +In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where the longitudinal +crest of which we have so often spoken is subsequently developed, we +may often observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of a young male +a longitudinal swelling, which increases very gradually. In the region +of the two upper semicircular curved lines (_lineæ semicirculares s. +nuchæ supremæ_), on the squamous occipital portion, or between these +and the two central cervical lines, a transverse swelling is early +developed; this swelling sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture, +or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony excrescence, of which +the anatomical term is _Torus occipitalis transversus_, corresponds to +the first layer of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of +the old male gorilla (see Fig. 15). + +In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region of the coronal +suture, a small, insulated, intermediate bone may be observed +(Virchow’s _os epiptericum_) between the squamous portion of the +temporal bone and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it +is sometimes completely welded. In this case there is, above the _os +epiptericum_, a direct connection between the temporal and frontal +bones by means of the frontal process (Virchow’s _processus frontalis +squamæ temporalis_), which is not rare in anthropoids.[16] This process +often owes its origin to the _os epiptericum_, which is in its early +stages attached to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again to +this frontal process. + +The orbits are more rounded in young than in aged skulls; in the latter +they are always angular, although the angles, especially the upper and +external angles, may be more or less blunted. Virchow remarks that +in the skull of a very young gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds +its width, and that at that age the skull is therefore high. In the +aged male gorilla the height of the orbit, according to the several +measurements I have taken, varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width +between 37 to 45 mm. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.[17]] + +The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla corresponds in its +powerful and massive form with the general structure of the body, +which is remarkable for its height and strength (see Fig. 16). In +the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical, thirteen dorsal, +and four lumbar vertebræ, thirteen ribs, and, even in aged animals, +a sternum composed of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebræ +display long spinous processes, which are most strongly developed +between the fourth and seventh vertebræ. The extremities of this +colossal structure, combined with the elevation of the occipital +region, present a convex outline when seen from behind. This structure +provides the point of insertion and support for the powerful cushion of +cervical muscles. The dorsal vertebræ, which increase in height, width, +and depth as they stand lower on the column, taper, and are keel-shaped +at their junction with the cervical vertebræ. The central parts of the +widely arched ribs, which are thirteen or sometimes fourteen in number, +are very thick and powerful in the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs +are attached by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two other +costal cartilages are in proximity with them. The other cartilages +are only rudimentary, and the terminations in the muscular system of +the belly are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type here +established, and from ten to eleven ribs are sometimes attached to the +sternum by thread-like strips of ligament or cartilage. + +The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal is of special +interest. The chief parts of this portion of the skeleton--that is, +the hip, pelvic, or innominate bones--are high, tapering in their +lower part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate in the +crest of the ilium, which describes a quarter of a circle. There +is, for the most part, only one small superior iliac spine, and +the ischii are somewhat turned outwards, and furnished with broad, +rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only a single large +sacro-sciatic notch. The horizontal rami of the pubes are narrow, while +the descending rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped +like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards, and resembling the +basal joint of a true tail. The coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a +genuine tail. + +The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interesting peculiarities. +The clavicles are long and slender, with a leaf-shaped, flattened end +articulating with the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with +the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular bone, resembling +the human scapula in its general form, and the supra- and infra-spinous +fossæ are not strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus has +its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees towards the axis of +the shoulder. Frequently, but not invariably, the lower, flattened +extremity of the humerus is pierced on one or both sides above its +rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin the intercondyloid +foramen. + +The radius has a powerful head, and a shaft considerably curved +outwards, while it is, on the other hand, curved backwards and inwards +at the elbow. The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges +are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The development of the femur +corresponds to that of the whole skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft +is curved in front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia is +generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather laterally compressed. + +The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved outwards in the centre and +inwards behind the astragalus. The head, with its cuneiform extremity, +is of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The scaphoid bone, +which is generally in connection with this projection, takes the same +direction towards the inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion +causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as if it had been +subjected to a deviation or fracture of its longitudinal axis. + +In young and adult males, as well as in young females, the structure of +the bones is generally less massive than in aged males. In the female +skeleton the strongly developed depressions and ridges, especially in +the bones of the extremities, are absent. The head of the ulna is, for +example, less deeply set in the case of a female, and its projections +are smaller than in the male animal. In the female, also, the head +of the radius is smaller, and the triangular shape of its shaft is +less strongly marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are wider, +flatter, and less concave on their very projecting inner surface. They +diverge more widely from each other, and this is also the case with the +tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less depressed than in +the male gorilla. Although the spinous processes of the vertebræ attain +to some length and thickness, their development in the female is not so +great as it is in the male sex. + +The bony structure of the chimpanzee offers many points of resemblance +to that of the gorilla, while it differs in certain particulars from +the structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size of the skeleton +is smaller than that of the gorilla, which is in agreement with the +smaller relative size of the body of the chimpanzee. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Skull of an aged male chimpanzee.] + +We must begin with a general view of the skull of the chimpanzee. In +both sexes the frontal regions are smaller, while the coronal region is +more rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests and prominent +supra-orbital arches are wanting in the chimpanzee; the peculiar +character of the bony ridges, projecting like tubes from the other +parts of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more directly +to the frontal region (see Fig. 18). The bony bridge of the nose is +more concave in the chimpanzee; the jaw-bones are smaller and less +compressed in the centre than they are in the gorilla. + +When we undertake to describe the skull of the chimpanzee in detail, +it becomes necessary to consider separately the skulls of aged and +young males, and of aged and young females; for in this case also +the distinctions of sex and age are very evident. On the skull of an +aged male chimpanzee the temporal ridges are not much developed on +the coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60 to 90 mm. behind the +orbits, and form only a small coronal crest. The transverse occipital +crest is somewhat developed, and at its point of union with the coronal +crest the temporal ridges divide to form its upper edges. This is +the case not only with the Rio Quillu skull, from which Fig. 18 is +taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte Tschègo given by +Duvernoy.[18] In some other specimens belonging to aged male animals +the presence of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In these +the temporal ridges are very small, and more or less distant from +each other. While the transverse occipital crest maintains an almost +uniform height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge, it is +only slightly elevated behind in those chimpanzee skulls in which the +crest is partially developed. In the gorilla male this ridge divides +the squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes bevelled, sometimes +slightly convex; in the male chimpanzee this part is more decidedly +arched, and takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes are +also present in the chimpanzee. The external occipital crest and the +curved lines are generally apparent. The styloid processes are more +plainly traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as in the +chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process of the temporal bone, +opposite to another bony process, issuing from the occipital bone. This +has been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him the carotid process +(_Processus caroticus_). + +The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more rounded, with a +distinctly circular rim, while the nasal bones are as long and narrow +as in the gorilla. The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the +external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than in the gorilla. +The crowns of the canine teeth project in the same pillar-shaped form +(Fig. 18). The triangular space enclosed by these and by the row of +teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and projecting, even more so +than in the gorilla. But whereas in the latter the canine teeth are +shaped almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chimpanzee they are +more rounded and conical. In the general structure of the teeth of both +species there are certain differences of which we shall speak presently. + +The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is still more arched than +it is in aged animals. The temporal ridges are still far apart. +The transverse occipital crest displays near the mastoid process +well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls of very young +males the transverse occipital swelling of which we have spoken +(_Torus occipitalis transversus_) is already developed. The orbits +are distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of the nose is +depressed; the crowns of the canine teeth are, in conformity with the +still slight development of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the +triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex than in older +animals. + +The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its coronal and occipital +parts, more uniformly arched, narrower, and more elongated than in aged +males. The transverse occipital ridge usually develops itself in the +region of the upper curved lines, or in the bony parts enclosed between +these and the central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region is +depressed. That section of the upper jaw which contains the incisor and +canine teeth is small. In the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever +sex or age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively small, with two +low but wide rami, of which the coronoid and condyloid processes are +divided from each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The rami of +the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more abruptly retreating than is +usually the case in the gorilla. + +The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped almost like a +half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely detached from the forehead; the +want of elevation of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of +the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between it and the nose and +forehead (Fig. 20). + +The cancellous texture of the bones of the chimpanzee’s skull admits +of a whole system of cavities communicating with each other, which +are of the nature of the so-called sinuses present in the frontal, +sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones of the human skull. In the +chimpanzee, however, the sinuses are more extensive than in man, +or even than in the gorilla. The large cavities of the forehead +communicate with those of the nose and jaws. The sphenoidal sinuses and +ethmoidal cells are large and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid +bone and its pterygoid processes are provided with considerable +cavities. The mastoid cells of the temporal bones are in connection +with the cells of the greater wings and pterygoid processes of the +sphenoid bone, and also extend through the squamous portions and +zygomatic processes of the temporal bones, losing themselves in their +upper part in the smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found +between the outer and inner walls of the skull. These are of more +uniform shape and size. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Skull of a very young female chimpanzee.] + +The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance with the smaller size +of the species, is relatively of a slenderer build than that of the +gorilla. The spinous processes of the seven cervical vertebræ are more +slightly developed, and have undivided extremities. The transverse +processes of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebræ are almost of the +same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen dorsal vertebræ, +somewhat laterally compressed: this compression is greater than in +man and in the gorilla. The four lumbar vertebræ of the chimpanzee are +furnished with long, thin, riblike transverse processes. The so-called +mammillary processes of the final vertebra are strongly developed in +the male. The intervertebral foramina are small, as they are also in +the gorilla and orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of the chimpanzee remind +us of the human structure. The collar-bone is slightly curved, as in +the gorilla. There is a marked difference between the sexes in the +structure of the scapula which is broad and three-sided in the male, +small and leaf-shaped in the female. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 20.--Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African + bam-chimpanzee. _a_, Ulna. _b_, Radius. _c_, Scaphoid bone. + _d_, Semi-lunar bone. _e_, Cuneiform bone. _f_, Pisiform bone. + _g_, Trapezium. _h_, Os magnum. _j_, Trapezoid. _k_, Unciform + bone. _l_, Phalanges of thumb. _m_, Metacarpal bones. _n_, + Phalanges. +] + +The humeri have slender shafts, with well-developed condyles and +ridges. The bones of the forearm are much curved, so that the interval +between them is, as in the gorilla, somewhat wide. From the wrist to +the final phalanges the hand is more slender than in the gorilla. + +The pelvis in this species of ape has high, narrow ilia, spreading +in their upper parts, and projecting forwards, so as to form the +cavity of the abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior +spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than in the gorilla +and orang-utan. The ischiatic tuberosities are of a spreading form, +and diverge considerably from each other. The pubic arch is deeply +hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated. As in the gorilla, the +os sacrum resembles the basis of a tail, but it is less developed and +less conical in form. + +In the chimpanzee, as well as in other anthropoids, the coccyx gives +altogether the impression of a laterally compressed and rudimentary +tail. This is especially the case in young animals, in which the coccyx +always appears to be very narrow and prolonged. In older animals +this part gradually widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a +rudimentary tail. + +The head of the femur resembles a section of a sphere, of which the +upper part is sometimes wanting. Its shaft, which is curved in front, +is much slenderer in the female than the male. The patella is oval. In +the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally compressed, and bent inwards. +The bones on the inner side of the foot take a backward direction, +while those on the outer side, attached to the fibula, turn outwards. + +In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is much arched, and +turned inwards. The scaphoid bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The +metatarsal bones and phalanges have a considerable upward convexity +(Fig. 21). + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Skeleton of foot of the Central African +bam-chimpanzee. _a_, Astragalus. _b_, Os calcis. _c_, Scaphoid bone. +_d_, _e_, _f_, Cuneiform bones. _g_, Cuboid bone. _h_, First metatarsal +bone. _j_, Second to fifth metatarsal bones. _k_, Phalanges.] + +The skeleton of the orang has also its special characteristics. We have +already remarked, in describing the external form of the heads of these +animals, that the skull is high and projecting, and retreating in its +hinder part. In the old male orang this part of the bony structure is +of smaller size than in the old male gorilla. The arch of the cranium +is shorter and rounder than in that animal and in the chimpanzee. The +central longitudinal crest of the vertex is present, but in accordance +with the more spherical shape of the coronal part of the cranium, this +crest is more arched above than in the gorilla, in which it slopes +gently upward to the transverse occipital crest, which rises high +and peaked from the back of the head. This latter crest is indeed +developed in the orang, but it is not so high, and is more retreating. +In consequence of this formation, the upper posterior part of the +gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more abrupt and peaked +than that of the orang. In the latter, also, the orbital arches are +not so high and abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of the +skull. In the orang the squamous occipital portion declines abruptly in +front and below, yet it is generally more arched than in the gorilla. +The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes rounded, sometimes more +square, are divided from each other by a narrow partition. The space +between them and the anterior nares is not so great as in the gorilla. +While in the last-named animal the space between the root of the nose +and the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the chimpanzee it +is generally vertical, and in the orang it is depressed (Fig. 22). +The maxillary parts, furnished with strong canine teeth, are very +prognathous, yet hardly to the same extent as in the chimpanzee. The +body of the lower jaw is high, and its rami are high and wide. The +bony crests of which we have spoken are absent in the female. The +coronal part and the squamous occipital parts are arched; the upper jaw +is smaller, and the lower jaw is also less massive, than in the male +animal. In very young animals the predominance of the strongly arched +cranium over the countenance is apparent, and the increase of size in +the latter occurs gradually (Fig. 23). + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Skull of middle-aged female orang.] + +The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and wide at their base. They +are more decidedly pear-shaped (_Apertura pyriformis_) than those of +the gorilla and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these apertures are +generally wider and more uniformly rounded. Bischoff justly observes +that the bony part below the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide +above, tapering away in the lower part of the face, is narrower and +more vertical in the orang. The nasal bones of the orang are high and +of moderate width. Brühl mentions the styloid process of the orang’s +skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive when we compare it with +that of the human skull. It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove. +On the other hand, Brühl, as we have already observed, can find no +trace of the styloid process in the skulls of the gorilla and the +chimpanzee![19] + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 23.--Skeleton of young orang-utan. _a_, Sternum. _b_, + Radius. _c_, Ulna. _d_, Tibia. _e_, Metacarpus. _f_, Phalanges. + _g_, Great toe. _h_, Fibula. _j_, Hip-bones. _k_, Coccyx. _l_, + Vertebral column. _m_, Scapula. _n_, Femur. +] + +There are many large-celled bony cavities in the orang’s skull. These +may be observed in the greater wings and pterygoid processes of the +sphenoid bone, in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal +bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in the condyles of +the occipital bone, and in the zygomatic arch. The larger fore-cells +on the squamous part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide +aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and pterygoid processes +of the sphenoid bone. A sinus which may be observed on the greater wing +generally communicates by a large round hole with the temporal cells. +There is generally, but not always, a communication between the sinuses +of the greater wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity. These +cavities sometimes communicate with each other through a wide aperture +at the base of the nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones has +a cellular sinus, which communicates with the cells of the mastoid +process, in its lower part with the tympanum, and in its fore-part with +the ossicles of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary sinuses +are in connection with the cells of the lachrymal bone. There is +nothing in the orang’s skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the +sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla and the chimpanzee. + +The vertebral column of the orang has not the same colossal spinous +processes which distinguish that of the gorilla. It differs also +in many other, though less striking, particulars both from the +gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there are generally twelve +dorsal vertebræ, tapering in their lower parts; while their long, +thick, transverse processes, which are full of knots, take an upward +direction. The upper articular processes of the four lumbar vertebræ +present short and rather insignificant mammillary processes. The +sternum of the young orang is generally formed of one large upper +bone, with six smaller bones below. In older animals the body of the +sternum appears to consist of a tier of three bones connected together. +The ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the clavicle is long +and straight, and the scapula also resembles that of a man in form. +The flat pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the ischiatic +bones are short, with spatula-shaped tuberosities; the pubic arch is +high, and the obturator foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and +coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much as in the case of the +anthropoids we have already described. We are reminded of the human +structure in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved behind, +and on its outer side. The ulna is very slender, and provided with a +protracted, jagged styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering, +while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and the anterior +border and oblique line are sharp. The wrist, metacarpus, and fingers +are long and narrow. + +The femur of the orang is remarkable for its large head, shaped like +a section of a sphere, and its slender shaft. The latter is less +bent than in the gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should +be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in this case of an +irregular form. The shank and foot-bones are remarkably slender. The +scaphoid is tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn inward +so much as in the gorilla. The hinder surfaces of the metatarsal bones +and of the phalanges turn decidedly outwards. + +We have now to consider the bony structure of gibbons, in which there +are many specific variations which our space will not allow us to +consider in detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system must +be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s skull is of an oval shape, +without the crests so characteristic of other anthropoids, and even +in the aged males of this species their development is so slight as +to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital bone of male animals is, +indeed, generally rounded, and the whole occipital portion is somewhat +compressed in a downward direction, while the coronal region is at the +same time flattened. The cranium gradually widens behind, so that, +when seen from above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged males +the orbits project from the low, retreating frontal bone, and are +surrounded by a bony, circular rim. + +The face is not very prognathous, and the short wide nasal-bones form +a wide, depressed partition between the orbits. The edges of the +jaw-bones describe a parabolic curve and are considerably elongated. +The palate is consequently long and narrow. The rami of the lower +jaw are wide and low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly +developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially the canine teeth, +are long and projecting; yet, comparatively speaking, they never attain +to the great development of those of other anthropoids. + +The number of vertebræ seems to be subject to considerable variation +even in the same species, and various estimates are given by different +naturalists. Müller, for example, has said that in several species +(_Hylobates syndactylus_, _H. leuciscus_, _H. variagatus_, and _H. +concolor_) there are thirteen dorsal, five lumbar, six sacral, and four +coccygeal vertebræ. Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal, +five lumbar, four sacral, and three coccygeal vertebræ. In _Hylobates +agilis_ I counted thirteen dorsal, six lumbar, five sacral, and four +coccygeal vertebræ. _Hylobates syndactylus_ has long coccygeal bones, +and an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression of serving for +the application of a short tail, or, indeed, of being in itself a +rudimentary tail. In other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar +vertebræ differ little in structure from those of man. + +The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly outwards, are strongly +arched. The lowest of these project, owing to the width of the shaft. +In the sternum there is a want of proportion between the smallness +of its body and the size and width of its extremity. The ensiform +appendix of this bone is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower +extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are very slender, and +much arched. The scapulæ, on the other hand, are high and narrow, +spatula-shaped, and provided with a steeply projecting acromion +process, a strongly developed coracoid process, and deep glenoid +cavities. The upper limbs are, in conformity with the general structure +of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones of the upper and +forearm are elongated, with small extremities. The condyles are small, +especially those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the metacarpus, +and the fingers are also long and slender. + +In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow below, and expand in the +form of a spatula above, and that their position is almost vertical. +Their inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are directed +somewhat forwards. The ischiatic bones are low, with wide, flattened, +rugged tuberosities, and rounded _foramina obturatoria_. The ischiatic +rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direction. There are +large prominences on the pubic arch of the siamang. + +The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the arm. The heads of the +femurs stand out plainly from their short necks and large trochanters, +as segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in that of other +anthropoids, the third trochanter (_trochanteres tertii_), often so +apparent in the human femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are +arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed, so that its transverse +section forms a scalene triangle. The malleoli are compressed from +before backwards. The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally +compressed. The canal between the astragalus and the os calcis (_Sinus +tarsi_) is very wide. The metatarsal bones and phalanges have large +bases, long slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under side. +Even the final phalanges are long and slender. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24.--The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, +with two of his men.] + +We shall now find it profitable to compare the external characters of +anthropoids with those of man. We are sometimes disposed to see the +true likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked savages. +These savages are often insufficiently fed, the skin is wrinkled, +the face, even at an early age, is deeply furrowed, and their general +appearance is neglected. The dark silhouette of such people stands +out so distinctly against a clear background, their habit of life +is so rude, their attitudes impress us so disagreeably, that we +are involuntarily led to make such a comparison. This tendency +unfortunately gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti +naturalists, and such as are zealous to establish a preconceived +theory. A conscientious inquirer must, however, be cautious, and avoid +too great generalization in such comparisons. For instance, much has +been said of the pithecoid structure of all African negroes, yet this +only applies to some peculiarly hideous races, in a state of physical +degradation. There are many negro tribes in different parts of Africa +which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies, and for a not +ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour of the natives of Ashanti, +Dahomey, and Ibos is well known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed +and thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform, as we see +in the photographs of Captain Glover’s force, their military bearing +is very apparent. The tribes of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam, +and A-Bantu present examples of distinguished warriors, however rude +and savage. Dabulamanzi, commander of the Zulus at the butcheries of +Isandlhwana and Ulundi, and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my +possession, the impression of gallant warriors, however uncivilized. +In all these cases it is difficult to establish the resemblance to +anthropoid apes (see also Fig. 24). + +The Papuans, especially on the Australian continent, are generally +classed with the African negroes in such comparisons. We admit that a +horde of Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue, emaciated +and dirty, may, as they roam through the shadeless woods, the steppes +and thick scrub of their native country, present a strange and +brute-like appearance. And if the foreign intruder takes a coarse +pleasure in giving drink to these savages, their immodest gestures +may afford a revolting impression of their bestial nature. Yet the +habits even of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different +under more favourable conditions. Although of small stature, they are +not badly proportioned, and their manners and bearing are capable of +improvement, so that they can act as native police, messengers, etc. +This was the case also with the natives of Queensland, Australia, whom +I saw in the Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomerang. Even +in these tamed savages, however, we must note the projecting orbits, +the deep depression between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of +the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bushmen, negroes, Papuans, +Malays, Japanese, and Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are +altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may even be found in +Europe. + +Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in British India, asserted +that he had found the missing link between man and apes in the +mountainous district of the Western Ghauts. And indeed, the race he +describes seems to have a strong resemblance to apes. “The forehead is +low and retreating. The lower part of the face projects like the muzzle +of an ape; the legs are short and bent outwards. The trunk and arms are +comparatively long. The hands and fingers are contracted so that the +latter cannot be freely extended; a thick skin covers the hollow of +the hand and the fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small +and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered both on their backs and +soles with a thick skin. This tribe seems to worship nature. They have +no fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and honey, and exchange +the latter, together with wax and other productions of their forests, +for tobacco, clothes, and rice.”[20] + +Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been published concerning +this race. The description given above leaves much to be desired. The +assertion respecting the contracted fingers is obscure, and such a +condition is directly opposed to any resemblance with the flexible hand +of apes. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 25. Aidanill, hairless Australian. + + Fig. 26. The same in profile. +] + +Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence is still dubious, to +consider the portraits we subjoin of a man and woman, aborigines of +Queensland, in a district watered by the Ballone. These are Aidanill, +the brother, and Dewan, the sister, members of a hairless family. The +indefatigable Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles from Tulba, +in order to examine them, and took the photographs from which our +illustrations are taken.[21] + +A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of its hair, may be traced +in the keel or roof-shaped form of the skull; in the prominence of the +supra-orbital arches; in the deep depression between the forehead and +nose, of which only the centre of the bridge has a slight vertical +elevation; in the broad, flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows; +in the wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally projecting ears. +Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in their treatise on _Troglodytes +Aubryi_ (Figs. 25, 26, 27). When we add to this the dark brown skin, +the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark brown eyes, as they are +described by Miklucho-Maclay, the external resemblance between many of +the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more marked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Dewan, Aidanill’s sister.] + +Projecting ears are common among men of different races, and I have +observed them in Europeans who are otherwise well formed. Even in +this latter case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of the +resemblance which may often be observed between the human ear and that +of apes. It is admitted that hardly any part of the organism varies +so much in its characteristics as the external ear. This is the case +with anthropoids, and almost more frequently with men. Individuals +of all nations are found with defective development of this or that +characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha, and fossa, with +lobules imperfectly formed or altogether absent. I have frequently +observed such misshapen ears, which vary from the perfect type, and +bear a certain resemblance to the ear of apes, among the hard-featured +peasantry of Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, and Poland, who +cannot be said to count beauty as part of their inheritance. In Africa +I found this defective formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks, +and Turks who were living in the country, than among the fellaheen, +Berbers, and negroes. The latter have been unjustly charged with the +possession of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas, among the African +races, these organs are, in the majority of cases, of a pleasing form. +With respect to the Australian blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and +Indian races, I cannot rely on my personal observation. According to my +very limited experience, there is much individual variation among these +races, and ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be sought +for with success. The specific resemblance to apes can, indeed, only +be ascertained by one who is accurately acquainted with the organism +of these animals. These and similar ideas are often expressed by the +unlearned, who do not really understand the characteristics in question. + +Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the ear in the chimpanzee and +orang.[22] “The ears of the chimpanzee and orang are curiously like +those of man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological Gardens +that these animals never move or erect them, so that they are in an +equally rudimentary condition, as far as that function is concerned, as +man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors of man, should have +lost the power of erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be, though +I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing to their arboreal +habits and great strength they were but little exposed to danger, and +so during a lengthened period moved their ears but little, and thus +gradually lost the power of moving them. This would be a parallel case +with that of those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting oceanic +islands have not been exposed to the attacks of beasts of prey, and +have consequently lost the power of using their wings for flight. + +“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of one little +peculiarity in the external ear which he has often observed both in +men and women, and of which he perceived the full signification. His +attention was first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure +of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was thus led to examine +the ears of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully those of +man. The peculiarity consists in a little blunt point, projecting from +the inwardly folded margin, or helix. These points not only project +inwards, but often a little outwards, so that they are visible when +the head is viewed from directly in front or behind. They are variable +in size and somewhat in position, standing either a little higher or +lower; and they sometimes occur on one ear and not on the other. Now +the meaning of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but it may +be thought that they offer too trifling a character to be worth notice. +This thought, however, is as false as it is natural. Every character, +however slight, must be the result of some definite cause; and if it +occurs in many individuals deserves consideration. The helix obviously +consists of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards; and this +folding appears to be in some manner connected with the whole external +ear being permanently pressed backwards. In many monkeys, which do not +stand high in the order, as baboons and some species of macacus, the +upper portion of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin is not +at all folded inwards; but if the margin were to be thus folded, a +slight point would necessarily project inwards and probably a little +outwards. This could actually be observed in a specimen of the _Ateles +beelzebuth_ in the Zoological Gardens; and we may safely conclude that +it is a similar structure--a vestige of formerly pointed ears--which +occasionally reappears in man.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Human ear.] + +I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in which the pointed tip +mentioned by Darwin may be easily discovered. This point may also be +perceived in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of the +orang-utan. Meyer has attempted to show that this Darwinian pointed tip +is only due to the abortive development of part of the helix, and in +this case we should not regard the occurrence as an ape-like pointing +of the helix, but rather as its partial interruption owing to the +pathological condition of that organ.[23] In a later edition of his +work, Darwin admits, in reply to Meyer, that this explanation may apply +to many cases in which there are several very small points, or when the +whole of the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by Darwin, +the prominence was so large that, if we were to assume with Meyer that +the ear would have been normal if the cartilage had been uniformly +developed along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must have +occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases were mentioned to Darwin in +which the upper edge of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed +that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal. The ear of the fœtus +of an orang given in Darwin’s illustration appears to be pointed, +although in the adult animal that organ is very like the human ear. The +Darwinian tip may also be seen in the fœtus of an orang described and +illustrated by Salvatore Trinchese in the _Annali del Museo civico di +Storia Naturale di Genova_ (1870). The tip of the helix is pointed in +very young individuals of the gibbon species, especially in _Hylobates +Lar_. Among the lower apes the pointed ear is very common (see Fig. 29). + +[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Magot (_Innuus ecaudatus_).] + +The eyelids of anthropoids greatly resemble those of man in their +structure. In adult gorillas and chimpanzees there is always a +semilunar fold (_plica semilunaris_) corresponding to the _membrana +nictitans_, or third eyelid of birds. In man there exists, instead of +this, only a rudimentary apparatus, the _caruncula lachrymalis_. In +some individuals it attains to a considerable size, as I have observed +in the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes. On the other +hand, the conversion of the caruncula into a true, although only +rudimentary, _plica semilunaris_ has not been observed by me in the +human eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula in Melanesians (the +Papuans of New Guinea), in the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula), +and in the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the Palau +archipelago), as two or three times as wide as that of the average +European.[24] + +The eye of the young male gorilla which was kept alive in the Berlin +Aquarium from 1876–77 was carefully examined by me in June, 1877. +I found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball was whitish, +surrounded by a dark brown ring. A second darker ring, sharply defined, +surrounded the cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The sclerotic +membrane, however, gradually deepens in colour so as to give the effect +of a uniform dark brown. The iris retains a light brown colour for a +longer period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal there is no +brightness in the eye, except from reflected light. In the chimpanzee +the iris is light brown, verging on yellow; and this is also the case +in the orang. + +The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids has often been +observed, and undoubtedly chimpanzees and orangs generally gaze +placidly before them. I have, however, observed an animated expression +in the eyes of the former species, and W. L. Martin has also observed +a flash and brightening of their eyes. I shall never forget the +expression of malicious anger in the eyes of the female animal Mafuca, +at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The expression of the eyes of +the gorilla in the Berlin Aquarium also changed frequently, especially +when he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or when he was +provoked to anger. The expression of this animal was very human, but +necessarily it could only recall the darkly coloured eyes of negroes +and other black races. In 1876 there were two very young orangs in the +Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and the other hairless. These animals clung +together in a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes became +bright and restless, and they again sought to embrace each other while +uttering plaintive cries. On tickling one of the animals under the +chin, it made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened, as Martin +has observed in similar cases. The eyes of the gibbons which I have +observed had a thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely animated +by any fire. + +The instance we have mentioned of hairless Australians is the more +remarkable since these aborigines are for the most part distinguished +for their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian blacks and the Ainos +of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps the most hairy races in the world. It +is known, however, that in all countries and climates exceptional cases +are found of individuals whose bodies are wholly or partially covered +with hair, and these conditions sometimes affect whole families. +Interesting historical and morphological researches respecting these +hairy men have recently been made by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow, +Bartels, and Ornstein. In many of these cases we are presented with +decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican woman Julia Pastrana +displays the strongest resemblance to apes. Other hairy men remind us +at the first glance of some of the canine species. In all races the +women are less hairy than the men. Darwin states that in the females of +some species of apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in +the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids, especially with +the chimpanzee. + +The beard is, as we know, common to man and apes. Among apes it is +more strongly developed in the male than in the female, and this is +also the case in the human species. Darwin points out that the growth +of the beard both of men and apes occurs at the period of their sexual +maturity, and also that there is a remarkable parallel between men and +apes in its colour. For when the human beard varies in colour from +the hair of the head, which is frequently the case, it is, without +exception, of a lighter, and generally of a reddish hue. Darwin +observed this in England, and Hooker found no exception to the rule +in Russia. J. Scott carefully observed the numerous races which are +to be found in Calcutta, as in other parts of India, namely, the two +Sikh races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese. Although most of +these races have very little hair on the face, Scott found that in all +cases without exception, in which there was any difference in colour +between the hair of the head and the beard, the latter was of a lighter +shade. In apes the colour of the beard often differs widely from that +of the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always of a lighter +shade, often white, sometimes yellow or reddish. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Capucin ape (_Cebus capucinus_).] + +“It is well known,” says Darwin, “that the hair on our arms tends to +converge from above and below to a point at the elbow. This curious +arrangement, so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is common to +the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to +some few American monkeys. But in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the +forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist in the ordinary +manner; and in _Hylobates lar_ it is nearly erect, with only a very +slight forward inclination; so that in this latter species it is in a +transitional state. It can hardly be doubted that with most mammals the +thickness of the hair and its direction on the back is adapted to throw +off the rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of a dog may +serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks +that the convergence of the hair towards the elbow on the arms of the +orang (whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to throw off +the rain, when, as is the custom of this animal, the arms are bent, +with the hands clasped round a branch or over its own head. We should, +however, bear in mind that the attitude of an animal may perhaps be in +part determined by the direction of the hair; and not the direction of +the hair by the attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the +case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers a curious record +of our former state; for no one supposes that it is now of any use +in throwing off the rain, nor in our present erect condition is it +properly directed for this purpose.”[25] + +Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny that apes have +eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eyebrows are present in all +anthropoids--not growing thickly together like those of men, but +scattered among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which clothes +the parts above the orbits; nor do they maintain any definite +direction. In the white-handed gibbon, these eyebrows are remarkable +for their length and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to +eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper eyelids of all +mammals, including seals and pachydermata. On the upper lip of +gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs we may also observe a number of +somewhat longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart from the +otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give the impression of a cat’s +“whiskers.” In _Hylobates albimanus_ I observed that these _vibrissæ_ +attain to a considerable length (Fig. 10). + +The external form of the trunk of anthropoids, taken as a whole, +does not greatly differ from that of man. We have not, indeed, the +well-formed human torso, with its graceful lines; and the formation +of the posteriors, together with a want of expansion about the hips, +displeases us in its departure from the human type (see Figs. 1 and 6). +We shall not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo Belvedere, +or of the Olympian Hermes with that of a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the +torso of a powerful male gorilla, from which the hair has been removed, +may be favourably compared with that of one of the large-bellied, +lean-armed weaklings who are everywhere to be found as living +caricatures of the human species. + +The neck of anthropoids is generally short and thick. In the gorilla +that part of the body has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have +said, to the great development of the spinous processes of the cervical +vertebræ, and of the muscles attached to them. A short, thick throat, +and considerable development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it is called, +is also not unfrequent in man. This peculiarity is sometimes supposed +to be one of the national characteristics of the African blacks. +Burmeister says that “the negro’s thick neck is the more striking, +since it is generally allied with a short throat. In measuring negroes +from the crown of the head to the shoulder I found the interval to +be from nine and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In +Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom less than ten +inches, and it is more commonly eleven inches in women, and twelve in +men. The shortness of the neck, as well as the relatively small size +of the brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more readily +be taken as an approximation to the simian type, since all apes are +short-necked, and the relative distance of these animals is somewhat +further from the negro than that of the negro from the European. This +shortness of the neck in the negro explains his greater carrying power, +and his preference for carrying burdens on his head, which is much more +fatiguing to the European on account of his longer and weaker neck.”[26] + +Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, however, much too general. +It does not apply to many of the negro races--at any rate, not to those +of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is the characteristic of +the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas, Baris, and other large tribes of those +regions. Among these people the interval between the top of the head +and the shoulder is from ten to eleven, and even from eleven to twelve +inches (240 to 260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.). Burmeister has been +thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks. Yet I am unable to trace +the typical short neck, either in the well-known portraits of slaves by +Maurice Rugendas,[27] or in the collection of photographs of Brazilian +negroes which is in my possession. This characteristic is also absent, +even in many portraits of West African and Mozambique blacks, tribes +from which the slave population of Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many +Mongolians, Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick necks, +but this characteristic is more rare among the American aborigines and +among Europeans. If we are to recognize an approximation to the simian +type in this formation, it is one common to several nations, and it is +not confined only, nor even chiefly, to the negro races. + +The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of anthropoid apes cannot +be compared with the length of the corresponding limbs in men. For +although among negroes and the members of other primitive peoples we +may occasionally observe unusually long arms, yet these are individual +peculiarities which are also found among Europeans, and cannot be +counted among racial characteristics. + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Hand of a very aged male gorilla.] + +The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long and narrow to be +directly compared with the human hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla, +especially the latter, have hands more like those of man. In the case +of an adult male gorilla the first glance at this member reminds us of +the knotty fist of a black dock labourer or lighterman, like those who, +at Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags of coffee +and place them on their heads or on their herculean shoulders. Much has +been said of the enlargement of the connective skin between the bases +of the fingers of a negro hand, and of the pointed extremities of the +fingers. Van der Hoeven, in his well-known treatise, _De Natuurlijke +Geschiedenis van den Negerstam_, has described and drawn the hand of +an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner. Hence there is a disposition +to recognize in this peculiarity an important characteristic of +the negro race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective web +between the bases of the fingers is also extensive, and the ungual +phalanges taper at their extremities, there is also an inclination to +ascribe an expressly anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this +structure of the fingers is by no means universal among the negroes. +An enlargement of the connective web is not indeed uncommon, but its +extent varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers of other +races. An attentive observer will be able to trace it in the labouring +population of country districts in Europe. I have myself frequently +observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in the Lombard and +Genoese provinces, through which I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871, +when I devoted special attention to this point. In Fig. 32 I give a +negro hand of a type which seems to be common among the blacks in the +inland districts of North-eastern Africa. It can hardly be denied that +the form of this hand, which is certainly not flattered, possesses the +characteristics of a thoroughly human organization. + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue +Nile.] + +With respect to other primitive peoples besides negroes, we have not +at present sufficient information, and we ought therefore to beware of +premature generalization. The thin shanks, with imperfectly developed +calves, found among many primitive races, and especially among the +African and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly adduced as an +instance of their ape-like formation. In fact, the general uncomeliness +of these parts in the races in question is one of their significant +characteristics. + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Satan’s ape (_Pithecia Satanas_). Shows the +formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World.] + +The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those of other apes, +including those of the New World, and as a rule it differs from the +human foot in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, however, been +justly observed that many individuals of different races have been able +to use the great toe almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be +found everywhere. Men who have been born without arms, or who have been +deprived of them during life, have been able to use their feet like +hands, as some compensation for this privation. The most surprising +instance of our time has occurred in the violinist without arms, whose +performances are heard in various continental capitals. Another, +mentioned by Bär, was able to write with his feet. But even people who +have the full use of their upper limbs can often grasp with the great +toe as if it were a thumb, so as to pick up small objects from the +ground, or draw them towards them. Constant practice in such feats +produces a certain dexterity. Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians +make use of their outstretched great toes in climbing with as skilful a +gripe as our schoolboys and sailors are also able to do in gymnastics, +or in climbing up the masts. Among such people the distinction between +the foot of man and apes is less marked, since, even when at rest, the +great toe is apt to be somewhat detached from the others. This may be +seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of individuals of the Central +African tribe, the Makraka. Haeckel justly observes that there is no +marked physiological distinction between the hand and foot which can be +established on a scientific basis. In order to make such a distinction +it is necessary to consider their morphological characteristics.[28] + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 34.--Human skull. _a_, Nasal bone. _b_, Upper jaw. _c_, + Lower jaw. _d_, Occipital bone. _e_, Temporal bone. _f_, + Parietal bone. _g_, Frontal bone. _h_, Malar bone. +] + +_Structure of the skeleton._--In comparing the skulls of anthropoids +with those of men, we should, in the case of the gorilla, chimpanzee, +and orang-utan, content ourselves with young specimens rather than +with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these species, the colossal +development of the bony crests of the skull, as well as that of the +jaws, the prominence of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the +occipital bone, present distinctions of such a searching character that +we are greatly hindered in the pursuit of the comparative method. But +during the process of development the anthropoid skeleton admits of a +direct comparison with that of man. In a young animal the rounded skull +suggests a parallel between it and the human head. It must be admitted +that we find, especially in primitive peoples, many human skulls which +in their whole plastic form differ little from the skulls of young +gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the way the occipital bone +is rounded off, young anthropoids and men are often found in a similar +stage of development. The squamous occipital portion in a young negro, +Papuan and Malay, is indeed often flatter and more bevelled than it is +in a young gorilla or chimpanzee. + +We must not, however, assume that the two individuals brought into +comparison are of precisely the same age, since such a point cannot +easily be ascertained, even when subjects for examination are afforded +by one of our larger museums. Savages are seldom able to give their +precise age, and the attempt to do so often relies on insufficient +data. The direct examination of the skull will afford some information +on this point; but the conditions of growth in anthropoids are not so +well known as to admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on the +state of the teeth, on the stage at which the development of the bony +crests has arrived, etc., in order to form an approximate estimate of +the age of the skull. + +On the squamous occipital portion the arrangement of the curved lines +which are the boundaries to the attachments of the cervical muscles, +is common to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only indications +of these lines are to be found in the lower order of mammals. In the +human skull there is sometimes a formation belonging to the squamous +occipital portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like +character. This is the occipital swelling we have already described +(_Torus occipitalis transversus_), which may be either enclosed by the +two upper curved lines, or lie between these and the central curved +lines, or may be altogether in the region of the latter. This swelling +extends in a gradual manner above and below its bony support. Its +edge may be more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its +development, wider or narrower, with or without a central eminence, but +its appearance is always striking. In young male and female gorillas, +orangs, and chimpanzees this formation represents the completely formed +transverse occipital crests, which are found for the most part in aged +male animals of these species. These swellings may also be observed +on the skulls of adult men of all times and all nations. They are by +no means rare in the skulls which are in ordinary use at the Berlin +School of Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in many groups of +skulls. They are frequent among the skulls, for the most part without +their lower jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in a Mohammedan +burial-ground of the thirteenth century, near Cairo. These are the +remains of Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most part, of +the peasantry or fellaheen. Ecker was able to trace the sagittal crest +in the skulls of Australian males, while it is absent in the females. +Similar indications of the bony crest have been observed by me in the +roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of many negroes, but in these +cases I am not aware whether there is a corresponding distinction of +sex. It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence is a human +characteristic. + +Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped connection formed by +the sutures between the parietal bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid +bone, the squamous portion of the temporal bone, and the frontal bone. +One of the most common disturbances in the symmetry of the connecting +suture, as we have already briefly mentioned, arises from the insertion +of a frontal process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone +between the lower angle of the parietal bone, the fore-part of the +frontal bone, and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This process +of the temporal bone varies in size, and may occur on one or both +sides. A similar formation is common among gorillas, chimpanzees, +macacas, magots (_Inuus_), and baboons.[29] It is less frequent among +orangs,[30] gibbons, marmosets, and American species (howlers, hooded +apes, etc.). + +Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in representing this frontal process +as theromorphological--that is, as a characteristic of the lower +animals, and more especially of apes. Virchow has found this abnormal +formation of the skull to be more common in some races than others. +None of those in whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan races, +and the existence of this process and stenocrotaphy, or temporal +stenosis, seem to be due to a defective development of the greater +wing of the sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones in its +vicinity, by which the whole temporal region is contracted. This is a +characteristic of the lower, but by no means of the lowest, races of +men. + +Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to controvert the fact +that this temporal process is a characteristic of the lower races. +Stieda asserts that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.[31] +He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the existence of this +anomalous pterion on more than 10,000 human skulls, and he has also +received information from others. He considers the frequency of this +frontal process in man to be theromorphological, or indeed pithecoid. +According to Anutschin, this anomalous condition is not equally common +in all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired races (Australians, +Papuans, and negroes) the frontal process is most widely diffused; +it is less frequent among Mongolians and Malays; and among Americans +and white men its occurrence is from five to six times more uncommon +than in the black races. Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the +intercalary bone (_Ossa epipterica_), which is fused into the squamous +portion of the temporal bone; and sometimes the process grows out of +the squamous portion of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes +or intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as pithecoid, since +they are more rare in apes than in men. Schlocker has sought to show +that the frontal process of the squamous portion of the temporal bone, +the less common temporal process of the frontal bone, and the temporal +intercalary bone (_Ossa epipterica_) are of equal value from the +genetic point of view.[32] This author regards the frontal process and +the immediate connection of the frontal and squamous portion of the +temporal bones, as theromorphological characteristics, but he does not +believe the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the lower +races.[33] This is also the opinion of Ten Kate. However this may be, +the establishment of this theromorphological formation is important. +Its immediate value as a contribution to the theory of the origin of +species remains, as we shall presently see, even if we cannot trace it +through intermediate and lower types. + +In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges which has been +observed in some pre-historic human skulls, a likeness to the +corresponding feature in anthropoids has been traced. And indeed +there is such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee, in +the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very dolichocephalic, +with prominent supra-orbital arches, only divided from each other +by a shallow depression. In the same skull the development of the +supra-orbital ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses. In +this pre-historic specimen--which, by the kindness of Professor +Schaafhauser, I was able to examine closely at the congress of +anthropologists at Berlin in 1880--the forehead retreats in a +marked manner towards the flattened region of the crown. De +Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both flattened and long +(dolichoplatycephalic). The temporal ridges are not only very marked, +but they approach each other in the region of the coronal arch (Fig. +35). This also occurs in the adult female chimpanzee, as well as in the +young male gorilla, in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon. + +[Illustration: Fig. 35.--The Neanderthal skull. A. In profile. B. A +front view.] + +It may here be observed that our men of science differ widely in +opinion respecting the origin and ethnological significance of the +Neanderthal skull, of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner +regards it as the skull of an idiot.[34] Virchow considers the +specimen, and the similar one from Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum, +as an altogether individual formation,[35] a typical form modified by +disease,[36] in other words, a pathological skull.[37] King regards the +skull as one belonging to one of the primitive races.[38] Schaaffhauser +has, indeed, endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such a +primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which are “Neanderthaloid” in +form are to be found chiefly in Europe.[39] If Huxley says decidedly +that the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded as the remains +of a human being which was a link between man and apes. At most this +discovery only proves the existence of a man whose skull reverted in +some respects to the simian type, just as a carrier or tumbler pigeon +may sometimes display the plumage of their original ancestor, the +rock-pigeon (_Columbia livia_). And although the Neanderthal skull +is more like that of the ape than any other human skull with which +we are acquainted, yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first +appears, but is rather the ultimate expression of a series which may +be gradually traced back from the highest and most fully developed +type of human skulls. On the one side it approximates to the flattened +Australian skulls, from which other Australian forms gradually lead +to skulls which rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis skull. +On the other side, it is still more closely allied with the skulls of +certain ancient races which were either contemporaries or successors of +those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone Age, people whose kitchen +middens have been discovered in that country.[40] + +Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls drawn by Busk, and taken +from the tumuli of Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially +in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other European skulls may, +within certain limits, be compared with the Neanderthal skull, as, +for instance, those found at Brüx, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth, Clichy, +Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Furfooz, Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul. +These all present interesting peculiarities of structure--strongly +developed supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead, a flattened +crown, etc., although none of them are so remarkable in these +particulars as the Neanderthal skull. It has not, however, yet been +proved that this skull represents a definite racial type, and it seems +more probable that it was simply an individual form. + +The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as Spengel justly +observes, distinguished from the Neanderthal skull, and from others +of like character, by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the other +hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital arches, the retreating +forehead, the skull compressed in the temporal region, the prognathous +countenance, relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all +these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly resemble those +of anthropoids. If, for instance, we turn to the illustration given +by de Quatrefages and Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven, +Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr. Schadenburg’s negro skull, +the most determined sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the +anthropoid skull.[41] + +Similar characteristics to those which we have already mentioned as +distinguishing the structure of the Australian skull, enable us to +determine the anthropoid character of the skulls of many individuals +belonging to the dark-skinned African races. These consist chiefly in +the retreating forehead, the flatness and compression of the coronal +arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse angles of the lower +maxillary bones, which may be noted in so many negro skulls. On the +other hand, the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a rule, +less marked in African races than in anthropoid species. There are +specimens, however, as, for instance, the Congo skull given by de +Quatrefages and Hamy,[42] which give an overwhelming impression of +anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to a surprising +degree in the skulls of intelligent, warlike, and light-skinned races +of Central and Western Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale, +Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all races of men, and +especially among the Papuans and some African negroes. + +A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges in the coronal region may +be observed in the skulls of various nations. This formation is most +frequent in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In these cases +it is generally allied with the shortness of the interval between the +sides of the skull, taken in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism). + +In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones often rise abruptly +towards the sagittal suture, and in its vicinity there arises a +longitudinal bony prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into +the external surface of the parietal bones. The sagittal suture +sometimes remains intact, and is sometimes included by this process. +This produces a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped +skull (_scaphocephalus_). Such a formation may be often observed in +negroes and Papuans, and more rarely in the skulls of other races. The +occurrence of a divided malar bone in human skulls, especially in those +of the Ainos and Japanese, has been considered to be theromorphic, +since it is occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.[43] I have +myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces of such a +formation among anthropoids. + +In 1863 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville half of a human lower jaw +deposited in a black layer of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying +on the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations which are for +the most part imperfect, there was nothing remarkable about it except +its abruptly retreating ramus (Fig. 36), but the specimen aroused +great attention at the time, and it was assigned by many intelligent +observers to the primitive men of the diluvial period. Unfortunately it +was afterwards proved to be a gigantic imposture.[44] + +[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Naulette lower jaw.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.] + +This is not the case with the lower jaws of Naulette, Aurignac, +and Arcy, which are undoubtedly genuine and of great antiquity. +The Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can trace the +construction of the symphysis of the chin, which provokes comparison +with the lower jaws of many anthropoids, especially those of the +gorilla and chimpanzee (Fig. 37). The resemblance consists chiefly in +the uprightness of the anterior surface, and especially of the body of +the maxillary bone. In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats +from the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the lower edge of the +body of the maxillary bone (Fig. 38); and in the Naulette specimen, as +well as in the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of New Hebrides +and elsewhere), there is a certain approximation to the simian type. +A fossil ape (_Dryopithecus Fontanii_) has been found in the Middle +Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the higher anthropoids, +and in this case the jaw is only slightly retreating. Gaudry considers +that the _Dryopithecus_ was about the size of a man. The incisor teeth +were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth were less rounded than in +Europeans, and more like those of Australians. It has been surmised, +although the fact cannot be established, that the last molar teeth were +only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case with the human wisdom +teeth. Gaudry gives the illustration of the lower jaw of a Tasmanian, +from eleven to twelve years old, together with that of _Dryopithecus +Fontanii_. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is larger than in +the _Dryopithecus_, while the canine tooth and the pre-molars are +much weaker. This distinction is important, since the smaller size of +the front teeth is connected with the slight projection of the face, +which is always a sign of human superiority. Although the canine tooth +of the _Dryopithecus_ is broken, we can see that it must have been +considerably higher than the other teeth, and indeed the canine teeth +of the male animal must have been very powerful. There is also a slight +prominence in the teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men. +_Mesopithecus_, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica, was an ape less +closely resembling the anthropoids. In the structure of the head it +resembles the slender ape (_Semnopithecus_), and in the structure +of the limbs it is like a macaca (_Macacus_). Gaudry believes that +Sansan’s _Pliopithecus_ was related to the gibbon. An ape of the size +of the orang-utan, which belongs to the slender apes (_Semnopithecus +sub-himalayanus_),[45] was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of +the Sewalik mountains. + +In the comparative study of the human organization, and that of +anthropoid apes, it is important to examine sections, and especially +longitudinal sections, of characteristic skulls.[46] Virchow has caused +drawings to be made, from specimens in the Berlin Museum, of a gorilla, +a chimpanzee, an orang-utan, and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s +skull, when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow that it looks +as if compression had been applied to it; and yet the Australian skull +is extremely small in comparison with that of men in general, since +its cubic space is only 1150 ccm. In the gorilla[47]--at least in the +old male, from which the drawing is taken--the immense size of the +frontal sinuses, and the swellings which cover them, together with +the strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of size. But, as +Virchow observes, “all which adds to the size of the skull is bestial, +and not human.” It is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the +chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be somewhat more favourably +compared with that of the human skull. It approaches in size to that of +a microcephalic native of the Rhein-Pfalz (of which an illustration is +also given), which ranks a good deal below the Australian skull, and +approximates more closely to the simian type. The internal space of the +skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang may also be more favourably +compared with those of men. + +[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Sagittal section through the skull of a +bam-chimpanzee.] + +We have already mentioned the presence of extensive sinuses and cells +in the skulls of anthropoids, exceeding those of human skulls, and +this is apparent in the accompanying illustration of a longitudinal +section of the skull of a chimpanzee carried through its centre (Fig. +39). The length of this skull between the nasal partition and the most +prominent part of the occipital bone is 128 mm.; that of the internal +space is 108 mm. 10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the +frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thickness of the bony +part of the skull. In an aged male gorilla, the first measurement is +153 mm., the second 115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements +were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. In a still more aged male orang +they were respectively 140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness of +the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to be noted in the aged +gorilla male. In the adult chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous +portion of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and indeed +without interruption into the parietal bone adjoining it. For such +investigations the thin and light bones of individuals which have lived +a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and fat specimens which +have died after prolonged confinement. + +Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans the orbital part of the +nose, or that part which is between the orbits, is longer than the +infra-orbital or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital portion +is considerably the longest, although only in adult animals. There are +stages in the period of development in which these animals display +the characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of a child. The +proportions of the skulls of Malays take a middle place between those +of Europeans and of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the +nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but in many cases it +differs essentially from that of Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful +attempt to establish this statement by statistics. + +The same inquirer makes some interesting remarks on the comparative +height and width of the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult +apes and men differ more in these respects than the young specimens of +these organisms. The orbits both of a child and an adult, especially +in the case of a European, are much more like those of a young ape +than of an aged animal of the same species. In the chimpanzee and the +orang-utan the proportions are the same as in men; that is, the width +of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems to arise from the +exceptionally strong development of the supra-orbital ridge. It is +most probable that in very young anthropoids the width of the orbit +exceeds its height.[48] Zuckerkandl goes on to say that in anthropoids +the height of the orbits is greater than their width, and that this +difference increases with age. But this is not absolutely correct, for +even in aged animals the proportions vary, and the height and width of +the orbits sometimes, although rarely, remains the same. + +In comparing the vertebral column in men and anthropoids, Rosenberg has +sought to show in the embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes +the form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage of development +it is enclosed by the ilia, and anchylosed with the sacrum. The same +author has proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic equivalents +of the vertebræ, which we must now consider. According to this theory, +as Welcker has observed,[49] the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is +homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B, the thirtieth +vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth of another, although in one +case it may be a lumbar vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in +a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar vertebræ of the lower +apes have, in the case of men, their descendants, undergone a threefold +metamorphosis, and, after their modification into sacral vertebræ, +have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal vertebræ. + +Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the lumbo-sacral +vertebræ, _i.e._ those constituents of the vertebral column which form +the transition from the lumbar to the sacral vertebræ, are invested +with fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. According to their +position in the vertebral column, they are to be regarded as lumbar +vertebræ, introduced too early or too late into the structure of the +sacrum. If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the sacrum, +so as to form an upper promontory or outwork, this variety offers a +point of transition to a future formation (?) in which this vertebra +normally becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will +now display twenty-three free vertebræ. If, again, this transition +occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of the series, which thus becomes +the chief sacral vertebra, this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a +characteristic survival of the racial development, an atavism.[50] + +According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral vertebra in one animal +corresponds to the same sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever +their number may be. The cervical vertebræ of one animal, which may +be five, seven, or even eleven in number, correspond to the cervical +vertebræ of another animal. The vertebral column of one animal +corresponds to the vertebral column of another, taken as a whole, but +not to two-thirds or three-fourths of that column. In accordance with +the requirements of a given animal, that part of the bone which belongs +to the sections of the breast and loins is more or less abundant, and +the vertebræ are homologous in accordance with their region, and not +with their number. + +Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close connection with the +ilium, joined with it throughout its extent, and that this vertebra +at the same time always appears to support the pelvis. This vertebra +is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra, and the twenty-fifth +of the series. It may be termed, as Welcker suggests, _vertebra +fulcralis_. Such a main support is found, according to Holl, in every +vertebral column, however anomalous its other conditions may be, and +the only irregularity consists in its number in the series. This bone +serves as a natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral +column. The _vertebra fulcralis_ must always be regarded as the first +sacral vertebra. It begins the series of sacral vertebra, and, on +account of its subsequently important position, it must be regarded as +primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower vertebræ, which +are afterwards included with it in the sacrum. When in its primary +condition the _vertebra fulcralis_ is twenty-fifth in the series, +the twenty-fifth to the twenty-ninth vertebræ are included in the +sacrum. When the _fulcralis_ is the twenty-sixth vertebra, the sacrum +includes the thirtieth. Hence it follows that the sacrum is, from +the first stages of its development, a formation which begins with +the twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes four other +vertebræ. Holl considers that the lumbo-sacral form of the last lumbar +vertebra, which stands between the lumbar and sacral vertebræ, does not +indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra, but rather an +arrest in its development.[51] + +When we examine a human sacrum we see that its first vertebra, the +twenty-fifth of the series, is formed like the lumbar vertebræ in its +upper part, setting aside those portions of it which form part of +the lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses, which serve +as a support to the ilia, owe most of their substance to the first +sacral vertebra. Thus, since it has to support the whole weight of the +pre-sacral vertebræ, it is in fact a true _vertebra fulcralis_. + +Holl justly says that there are few instances in which the human _os +sacrum_ consists of less than five vertebræ, and in no case are there +less than four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines the +pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral column. + +In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar vertebral column is +deeply sunk between the high, wide, and flattened ilia, which converge +closely towards the vertebral column. In man these bones are not so +much higher than the base of the sacrum, and their crests diverge more +widely from the vertebral column. In the large apes the lateral masses +of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below their anchylosis with +the pelvic bones. In an aged male gorilla, for instance, the transverse +processes of the two lower lumbar vertebræ often extend to the hinder +borders of the ilia, although the second of the lower lumbar vertebræ +is somewhat higher than the top of the crest of the ilium. This is +still more remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in which the +lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged in between the two ilia. In a +young male chimpanzee, and in the adult female, both the lower lumbar +vertebræ are almost compressed between the upper segments of the ilia. +In the orang the lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia. Out +of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second are articulated with +these bones. + +In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the +series, is the _fulcralis_. In this animal the first to the third +sacral vertebræ form part of the connection with the crests of the +ilia. In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the _vertebra +fulcralis_, and from the first to the third are likewise connected +with the ilia, but the third only to a limited extent; and in young +males and in old females the connection is generally confined to the +first and second sacral vertebræ. In the orang-utan the twenty-fourth +vertebra is generally the _fulcralis_. + +In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually the _fulcralis_. +In the siamang I found that the fifth of the five lumbar vertebræ was +between the ilia. Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second +were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In _Hylobates agilis_ the +fifth and sixth of the six lumbar vertebræ were between the ilia, and +the first and second of the five sacral bones were articulated with +these. + +In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the +orang we may observe an inconsiderable forward projection between the +penultimate cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebræ. In the +region below the second lumbar vertebra a similar forward projection +may sometimes be observed. The so-called promontory at the entrance of +the pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the lumbar and +sacral vertebræ, which is remarkable in man, is only faintly apparent +in anthropoids. The vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a +dorsal curvature (see Figs. 17 and 23). + +Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebræ are tapering in the +gorilla, and this is, in fact, the case. In climbing, or when he goes +on all fours, the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its +position. This curvature is still more apparent when the animal, in +climbing, withdraws his body from the tree, mast, or whatever it may +be, and bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature of the +vertebral column may be observed in men who stiffen their hands and +feet to climb up a tree or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so +erect as to be able to place his hands behind his head, the dorsal +curvature of his spine is necessarily straightened, and indeed it +becomes rather a ventral curvature. + +The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high, narrow, and projecting +ilia, and the lowest lumbar vertebræ deeply embedded between them, +together with the sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, which directly remind +us of the vertebræ of a rudimentary tail, present the points of +unlikeness with the human skeleton in this part of the skeleton of +these animals in the strongest light (comp. Figs. 40 and 41). + +The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished from the human thorax +in normal cases by the abrupt way in which it widens outwards. The +thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging pelvic bones, which +enclose the belly and give it a tun-shaped form, contrast with the +graceful moulding of the corresponding parts of the human form. + +Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones of the +shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of anthropoids, in which they +differ from corresponding parts in the human structure, have been +already mentioned. + +With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby asserts that the +head of the bone forms a cycloid, placed transversely, while in man its +shape is that of the segment of a sphere. But I have pointed out in my +treatise on the gorilla that there is a not inconsiderable variation +in the form of the head of the humerus in these animals, and it is +sometimes cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a segment of +a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon this part of the +humerus is always a segment of a sphere, while in man its form is not +equally invariable. Aeby further observes that the transverse-cycloidal +form of the head of the humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference +that this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accustomed to turn +them transversely on their axis. But the direct observation of a living +anthropoid, as well as the examination of its dead body, make it +clear that the action of the ball and socket is remarkably free, and +this theoretical surmise is contradicted by the perfection of the +natural mechanism. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 40.--Human skeleton.--_a_, Parietal bone. _b_, Frontal bone. + _c_, Cervical vertebræ. _d_, Sternum. _e_, Lumbar vertebra. + _f_, Ulna. _g_, Radius. _h_, Carpus. _i_, Metacarpus. + _k_, Phalanges. _l_, Tibia. _m_, Fibula. _n_, Tarsus. + _o_, Metatarsal bones. _p_, Phalanges. _q_, Patella. _r_, Femur. + _s_, Os innominatum. _t_, Humerus. _u_, Clavicle. +] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.] + +The excessive curvature of the forearm which we notice in the gorilla +and the chimpanzee in their natural condition is rare in man, and when +it does occur it must be regarded as an abnormal and pathological +phenomenon. + +The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal bone, corresponding to +de Blainville’s _os intermedium_ and Gegenbaur’s _os centrale carpi_. +In a very young animal I found that this small bone was furnished with +a peculiar point of ossification. The bony structure of the wrist +is developed in the following succession:--First, the _os magnum_ +and unciform bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the trapezium; +fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the cuneiform bone; sixth, _os +centrale carpi_; seventh, the trapezoid bone. The pisiform bone and the +sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the scaphoid bone, of which we +shall speak presently in their relation to the muscular system, are at +first simply cartilaginous. + +Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal bone in the gorilla +and the chimpanzee has been fruitless, since its occurrence is only +exceptional. In the gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid, +semi-lunar, trapezoid, and _os magnum_. Gegenbaur considers the _os +centrale_ to be a true constituent of the wrist, dating from an +earlier condition, but he has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent +survival. Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable proof of the +presence of this bone in the human embryo. It is generally absorbed +again, but sometimes it persists, and may be found in an adult as a +well-formed ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence of the _os +centrale_ in man have been chiefly collected and published by the +diligence of the Russian anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that +there may also be indications of _os centrale_ in the carpus of embryos +of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up to this time materials for such +researches have been wanting. + +I cannot accept the theory that _os centrale carpi_ is merely a +detached portion of the scaphoid bone. In a very young chimpanzee this +bone is undoubtedly superficially indented with two transverse furrows, +but the three segments display only one uniform development of bone. +The distinct formation of _os centrale_, and its occasional appearance +in man, testify that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg +holds that this bone is not merely the _os centrale_ of mammals, but +that it is homologous with the two _ossa centralia_ of the fossil +_Enaliosauria_. It has become abortive in proportion to the reduction +in size which has taken place.[52] There would be no great difficulty +in tracing back this bone to remote types of vertebrate animals, +even as far as the _Urodela_ (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.[53] The +persistence of this bone in man must be regarded as a reversion, not as +an arrest, of development. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 42.--Skeleton of human hand, back view. _a_, Scaphoid bone. + _b_, Semi-lunar bone. _c_, Cuneiform bone. _d_, Pisiform bone. + _e_, Trapezium. _f_, Trapezoid bone. _g_, Os magnum. _h_, + Unciform bone. _l-l′_, Metacarpal bones. _m-m′_ and _nn_, + Phalanges. +] + +On the femur of several mammals, especially in the horse, ass, +rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly indicated in the carnivora +and other families, there is, in addition to the two great and small +trochanters, a third, termed by Waldeyer _trochanter tertius_.[54] +Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed at the top of the +outer ridge of the superior bifurcation of the _linea aspera_, may +be observed in human skeletons of all races, but is either absent in +anthropoids or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly regards its +presence as theromorphic, but not as a characteristic of savage or +lower races.[55] + +The human tibia displays in some instances a compression or lateral +flattening of its shaft or centre-piece, so that its transverse +diameter is quite out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is +termed sword-bladed, or platycnemic. Bones of this form have been +chiefly discovered in ancient deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar, +at Perthi-Chwareu, in Wiltshire, in Lozère, at Clichy, at Saint-Suzanne +(Sarthe), and especially at Cro-Magnon (Fig. 43), Janischwek, etc. + +A similar formation has also been observed among men belonging to +cultured races, both of ancient and modern times. Virchow, for example, +discovered such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third and fourth century +of the Christian era) and at Hanai-Tepe in Troas. All the large +schools of anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibiæ, which are to +some extent platycnemic. These are also observed in the skeletons of +primitive peoples of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas, +and other African races. While some scientific men regard these bones +as the result of an unhealthy condition, and the effect of rachitis, +others more justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the muscles +in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed by Busk and others, that +the platycnemic tibiæ discovered in ancient sites of Europe have +belonged to a degraded race diffused over the whole continent, is +contradicted by the wide diffusion of this characteristic, even in +modern times. And it is doubtful whether platycnemy is absolutely +restricted to the lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an +extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kujawish grave of the Stone +Age, which belonged to a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and +size, so that, taken by itself, the impression which it gave to an +anatomist was that of a highly organized race.[56] + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 43. Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon. + + Fig. 44. Section through the tibia of a male gorilla. + + Fig. 45. Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee. +] + +It is important to remark that platycnemy has been regarded as a +pithecoid structure, and for this reason the attempt has been made +to establish the degraded position of those peoples which are most +remarkable for platycnemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins has already observed, +although the tibiæ of the gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some +extent platycnemic, they are much less so than the platycnemic bones +of the human skeleton. The tibia of a male gorilla in the College of +Surgeons Museum has an index width of 68·1, that of a female of 65·0, +while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61·1, which is about the +average of the tibias of Perthichwareu. It is unnecessary to indicate +the other marked distinctions between the tibiæ of men and apes; if +platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it must be admitted that man +has in this particular far exceeded apes.[57] Neither the gorilla, +the chimpanzee, the orang-utan, nor even the baboon possesses a tibia +which is flattened in its upper or middle part. In all these apes the +middle of the bone is more or less rounded, almost as if it had been +rounded by a turning-lathe. According to my experience, the degree of +platycnemy in anthropoids is subject to certain variations. It appears +to me to be least marked in the aged male gorilla (Fig. 41), and in +the gibbon (_Hylobates agilis_, _syndactylus_), in which latter animal +the transverse section of the tibia represents an almost equilateral +triangle. The platycnemy was more marked in an almost adult female +gorilla, still more decided in an aged male chimpanzee, which came +from the river Kiulu, and again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the +other hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another aged male +chimpanzee which came from Loango, was rounded, and not platycnemic. In +the tibia of an adult orang-utan which I examined, the platycnemy was +very marked. But I agree with Boyd-Dawkins in never having met with an +anthropoid in which the platycnemy is so considerable as it is, for +instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another found at Troy. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 46.--Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above. _a_, + Astragalus. _b_, Os calcis. _c_, Scaphoid bone. _d_, _e_, _f_, + Cuneiform bones. _g_, Cuboid bone. _h_, Metatarsal bones. _ii_, + Phalanges. +] + +If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of apes, we see that all +the same characteristics are present in their tarsus that we find in +the human tarsus. In each case there is an astragalus, an _os calcis_, +a scaphoid bone, three cuneiform bones, and a cuboid bone. There are +undoubtedly several peculiarities in which the tarsus differs from +the corresponding part of the human foot. The first metatarsal bone +is joined to the first cuneiform bone by an articular facet which +extends from the back to the sole of the foot. This joint plays a part +resembling that of the thumb of the human hand (see Figs. 20 and 46). + +In Huxley’s opinion, the hinder limbs of the gorilla terminate in +a true foot, with a very movable great toe. It is undoubtedly a +prehensile foot, but in no sense a hand. It is a foot which does not +differ from the human foot in any essential characteristics, but only +in relative circumstances, in the degree of flexibility, and in the +subordinate arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it must not +be supposed that he wishes to undervalue differences which, however, +he does not regard as fundamental. They are important enough of +their kind, since in any case the structure of the foot is in close +correlation with the other parts of the organism. Although it cannot be +doubted that the increased division of labour in man, which relegates +the function of support entirely to the legs and feet, is a significant +advance in structure; yet, regarded as a whole from the anatomical +point of view, the points of agreement between the human foot and +that of the gorilla are much more striking and significant than their +differences. + +The differences in the foot of the orang are still greater; in the very +long toes and short tarsus, the short great toe and the removal of +the heel from the ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which +connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the absence of a long +flexor muscle to move the great toe, the orang’s foot differs still +more from that of the gorilla than the latter differs from the human +foot. In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still further +removed from those of the gorilla than in the case of the orang. In the +American apes the thumb can no longer be opposed; in the ateles it is +reduced to a mere rudiment, covered with skin; in the sahius it is bent +forwards and provided with a curved claw like the other fingers. In all +these cases there is no doubt that the hand differs more from that of +the gorilla than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.[58] + +Flower remarks that the chief distinction between the foot of a man +and an ape consists in the fact that the latter is transformed into a +prehensile organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the phalanges +are of the same number in both orders, and in the same relative +position, only in the foot of the ape the facet for articulation of +the first cuneiform bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, and +obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side of the foot. Thus, +the great toe is separated from the others, and so placed, that when +it is bent, it is directed downwards towards the sole, and is opposed +to the other toes, much more opposed to them than is the case with the +thumb of the human hand.[59] Owen also speaks of the characteristic +transformation of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed +to the other toes, and adapted for grasping.[60] + +[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Coaita (_Ateles paniscus_).] + +K. E. von Bär does not agree with Huxley in considering that there is +less difference between man and the gorilla than that which exists +between different species of apes. “There are,” Von Bär remarks, +“differences of various kinds among apes. In some the thumb is only +a stump; in others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the hinder +extremities are so long and curved that they cannot be extended on flat +ground; in many of the smaller apes this member is still more like a +hand than in the larger species, and the fingers can be easily spread +out on the ground. In this case the foot is of a much blunter form, and +is more flexible, so that the sole, which is properly turned inward, +can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of the animal, the +more sharply cut the structure of the foot must be, so that it does +not admit of the free movements which are possible in the hand. But +all these are only modifications of a climbing foot, or prehensile +member--that is, of a hand, not modifications of a foot resting firmly +on the ground and supporting the whole weight of the body. + +“It must not be forgotten that the structure of the skeleton is subject +to mechanical laws, which may be traced through the whole series of +the animal world. This is readily apparent when we turn to the human +structure. + +“The human foot rests for the greater part of its length on the +ground, that is to say, with the heel and centre of the foot, which +form together a firm arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and +also of the _os calcis_, which in man form a very prominent part, +taking a backward and downward direction, and of five other bones. +The metatarsus consists of five bones, on which the five toes are +inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are considerably longer than +the separate phalanges. Thus, the arch on which man is supported in +an erect position extends from the heel to the extremities of the +metatarsal bones. The several bones are slightly movable, but they are +so firmly connected that they can diverge but little from each other, +unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press the toes upon the +ground, it is again necessary to exert the muscles. The arched instep +has this advantage, that the foot can take a better hold of the slight +inequalities of the ground. In a profile view of the skeleton of a +human foot, the shortness of the toes, in comparison with the length of +the arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural position, even when +man is not walking or standing, the sole of the foot is not turned +inwards, but downwards.... The toes of the gorilla take the form of +a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a thumb, while the +other toes are turned outwards. In the gorilla the tarsus is short, +and the heel is bent inwards. The several bones of the human foot are +undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla, but the organ is +changed into a prehensile organ or hand. The conditions are the same as +in the parts of the mouth in insects which in some cases form movable +mandibles, while in others they are attenuated into a proboscis. When +it is asserted that apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to +say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated mandibles.”[61] + +All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally make use of their hinder +extremities in order to snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in +climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to secure the fruit they +have seized from the voracity of their fellows, they take it between +the toes of one hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away more +quickly by means of the other, and by the use of both hands. + +From what we have said, it will be seen how difficult it is to +reconcile the views of different observers with respect to the fitting +term to be given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against those who +uphold the designation of _hind hands_ we must oppose the anatomical +structure, and also the fact that a true hand ought to possess the +power of rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but not in the +hind, extremities of apes. On this account I have already adopted, as +more suitable and equally distinctive, the term of _prehensile foot_ +for this member.[62] I agree with Haeckel in rejecting the common +designation of apes as four-handed or quadrumanous. + +The bands or ligaments which connect the different parts of the +anthropoid skeleton together, and convert the detached elements into +a movable machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the same +structure in man. A detailed account of these ligaments would, for +several reasons, be out of place in this work, and I shall only mention +a few special and more interesting distinctions. Such, for example, +is the uncommon strength of the _ligamentum nuchæ_ in the gorilla, +which is quite in harmony with the great development of the spinous +processes of the upper cervical vertebræ, and with the flattening of +the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral vertebræ are deeply +inserted between the high ilia, the ilio-lumbar ligaments (_ligamenta +iliolumbalia_) and the sacro-iliac ligaments (_ligamenta iliosacralia_) +are of considerable size. In agreement with the projection in a +downward direction of the high, narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic +ligaments which extend between these and the sacrum are very long +in the chimpanzee. Although in this case the ischial spine is only +represented by a roughness of the bone, yet there is on either side +between this and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic ligament +(_ligamentum spinoso-sacrum_). + +The well-known anatomist, J. F. Meckel, has asserted that the +depression in the head of the femur (_fovea capitis_), which serves for +the insertion of the round ligament (_ligamentum teres_), is absent in +the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that it is also absent in the +gibbon. In a skeleton of a young chimpanzee which had not shed its +milk-teeth, and of which the ligaments were also preserved, Welcker +found a fully developed round ligament inserted almost in the centre of +the head of the femur. This agrees in every particular with the same +formation in man. On the other hand, no trace of a round ligament was +to be found in the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartilaginous +envelope of the head of the femur was smooth throughout, without any +indication of a place for inserting the ligament. Welcker again found +no such depression in the femur of an aged male orang-utan, nor was +there any trace of it in another aged male orang, designated as _Simia +Morio_. Welcker believes that he has established the fact that the +round ligament is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present in +the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same naturalist remarks that, +although we may certainly assume that the round ligament is absent +wherever there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet the +existence of such a depression in the acetabulum (_fovea acetabuli_) +is not enough to prove that a round ligament was inserted in it. The +innominate bones of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker, and +displayed a small, but well-defined depression, as if destined for +a receptacle for this ligament,[63] running from the cotyloid notch +down to the bottom of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the +semilunar-shaped articular cartilage. + +In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the absence of the round +ligament in the orang-utan, and its presence in the chimpanzee, had +been previously established by Camper and Owen.[64] In three specimens +of orangs which he had obtained immediately after death, Owen found +that the round ligament was imperfectly developed on both sides. The +chimpanzee differs from the orang in possessing a depression on the +head of the femur. In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression +has almost the same depth and relative position as in man. At Welcker’s +request, Professor Dippel ascertained the presence of the depression +in the femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved in the natural +history collection at Darmstadt. St. George Mivart saw the skeleton +of an orang in which the femur was marked with a slight but plainly +indicated depression, just where the round ligament is usually +attached. Welcker thinks it probable that in some specimens of the +gorilla the round ligament is only slightly developed, and that in +others it is altogether wanting. On several femurs of gorillas, this +naturalist observed only doubtful traces of the depression in question. +Duvernoy found the round ligament fully developed in the gorilla and +chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find it in the orang-utan, but ascertained +its presence in the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was +fully developed in _Troglodytes Aubryi_. + +In addition to these somewhat conflicting assertions, I have myself +observed, in the gorilla innominate and femur bones examined by me, +more or less distinct indications of the depression which receives +the round ligament. The ligament itself has been preserved with the +body of a gorilla. The same remark applies to the skeletons and +bodies of chimpanzees. In the case of the skeleton of an orang, +slight indications of a depression were observed on the head of the +left femur, and these indications were absent in the femurs of other +specimens. In a large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium, +only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were apparent in the +right acetabulum, and these were intermingled singly or in groups +with the cartilaginous cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous +corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these facts we may conclude +that the round ligament is generally but not invariably present in +the gorilla and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in the +orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the majority of cases. +I have myself observed it in _Hylobates agilis_, _leuciscus_, and +_syndactylus_. Owen asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is +partly due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth of this +surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that the ligament is not +unfrequently absent in other anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all +these arboreal and climbing animals is extremely ungainly. + +The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very interesting. I must +necessarily refrain from giving a detailed account of it, and will only +mention some points in connection with this organic system, and their +relation to corresponding points in the muscular system of man. I rely +partly on the researches of others, and partly on my own. The amount of +material which has been collected up to this time is, unfortunately, +too scanty to enable us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases. +We are often unable to decide whether the conditions presented to us +in the case of anthropoids are normal or exceptional. Nor are the +statistics of muscular variations in the human subject by any means +firmly established. My own labours in this direction are not yet +concluded. The assertions on the subject which have been published to +the world and accepted as authoritative have already been shown to be +to some extent untrustworthy. Even the little which I am now able to +produce may not altogether stand the test of subsequent research. Brühl +justly remarks that in no department of anatomy more than in that which +treats of the muscles, is it more essential that we should not decide +whether a form is normal or exceptional until it has been repeatedly +examined.[65] + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 48.--Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1, + 1′, Occipito-frontalis. 2, 3, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, + Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 6, + Compressor naris. 7, Levator labii superioris. 7′, Zygomaticus + minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 8′, Zygomaticus major. 9, + Orbicularis oris. 9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii + inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 12, + 13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered. 15, + Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Retrahens + aurem. 21, Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous + aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the parotis is removed). F. Skin of + neck. +] + +The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed like those of men, +except in a few unimportant particulars (comp. Figs. 48 and 50). I have +not observed in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man branch +out from the orbicular muscle of the eye, and overlap the cheeks and +temples, and which are considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo +negro which was dissected by me (Fig. 49, ~3~, ~3′~). In apes that +portion of the orbicular muscle which covers the supra-orbital ridge +is very marked. There is generally a considerable layer of muscle on +the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in detail in anthropoid and +other apes, including those of America; _i.e._ the zygomatic muscles, +the levator labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris alæque +nasi. This has also been done by Duvernoy, Alix, and Gratiolet, in the +case of anthropoids dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and +Bischoff. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 49.--Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2, + Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, + Pyramidalis nasi. 4′, Levator labii superioris. 6, Levator + labii superioris alæque nasi. 6′, Compressor naris. 7′, Levator + anguli oris. 8, 8′, Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis + oris. 9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 9‴, + Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13, Buccinator. 14, + Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens + aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, + Sterno-mastoid. 22, Deeply set muscles of neck. A, Tendinous + aponeurosis. C, Zygoma. E, Parotis. *, Stensonian duct. +] + +Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygomatic muscle in the +orang with the small zygomatic in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and +the baboon, as well as in _Innus sinicus_ and _Ateles_, I myself was +quite able to trace a division into a large and small zygomatic. In the +gorilla dissected by me the levator labii superioris alæque nasi was +very wide (Fig. 50, ~6~). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dissected +the small zygomatic muscle, together with the levator labii superioris +alæque nasi, in the manner introduced by Henle as a single square +muscle of the upper lip (_Musculus quadratus labii superioris_). In the +gorilla I observed a levator alæque nasi, together with the already +mentioned levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any separate +levator labii superioris. The very wide cartilage of the nose is +occupied by a considerable amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles +are present in the orang, but they are of small size and separated +into detached bundles. The pyramidalis nasi may be traced in every +instance, especially in the gorilla (Fig. 50, ~4~) and in the orang. It +is not so strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon, but is not +absent in these apes, nor in those which are not anthropoid, such as +the baboon, and ateles, or climbing ape. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 50.--Head-muscles of gorilla presented in Fig. 3. 1, + 2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, + Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator alæ nasi. 6, Levator labii + superioris alæque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7′, Levator + anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9′, Orbicularis oris. + 10, Risorius. 11, 16, Masseter. 1′, Buccinator. 12, Depressor + anguli oris. 13, Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, + Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens, and retrahens + aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. B, + Cartilage of nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonian + duct. +] + +I myself follow the original division of the muscles into those which +belong to the nostril and upper lip, in accordance with the principles +of Duchenne, Darwin, Gamba,[66] and others, and I do so the more +readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the manifold and lively +mimetic action which takes place in this particular region of an ape’s +head. The distinct action of the levator labii superioris alæque nasi, +the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a strongly developed +levator anguli oris, are especially characteristic of the gorilla; but +they are also perceptible in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s +face is the least mobile. I observed that in the gorilla the risorius +was very long, branching slightly in the fore-part of the corner of the +mouth, and behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest bundle +covered the platysma myoides, but could not be regarded as part of +the latter. In one chimpanzee I found that the risorius was slightly +developed, and in other animals of that species I failed to trace it +at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix. +Fig. 1, ~15~) with the risorius strongly developed. I have not observed +this formation either in the orang or the gibbon, but it was apparent +in one of the ateles (_Ateles leucophthalmos_). In this case the muscle +covered the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, _i.e._ the duct +leading out of the parotid gland (Fig. 50, *). + +For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius of this ape as only +a radiation of the platysma myoides, but my opinion upon this point is +again shaken. + +In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an equally faint +depressor labii inferioris may be observed, the latter partly covered +by the large and predominant orbicularis oris (Fig. 50). In the +chimpanzee the two depressors are plainly apparent, and in the gibbon +the one first named was at any rate developed. The platysma myoides, +the depressors just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares +are in this animal in close connection with each other. Froriep’s +suggestion becomes ever more probable, that these muscles of the lower +lip owe their origin to the intersection of the opposite portions of +the skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The buccinator +muscle in anthropoids resembles on the whole that of man, and in +both cases is pierced by Stenson’s duct (Fig. 50). The form of the +masseter muscle is common to both (see Fig. 50, ~11, 16~). In the +external ear of anthropoids there is an attrahens, attollens, retrahens +(Fig. 50). Compared with that of a white man, and still more with +that of a negro (see Figs. 48, ~19~, and 49, ~17~), the attollens +is only slightly developed. The muscles attached to the cartilages +of the ear are extremely scanty or partially wanting, which is also +sometimes the case with man. The muscles of the helix are most strongly +marked in the gorilla (see, for example, Fig. 50, ~21~). Tiedemann, +Bischoff’s brother-in-law, carefully observed two living chimpanzees +in Philadelphia for six months without detecting any movement of the +ears. My own observation confirms his assertion and the remarks of +Darwin, which I have already quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are +incapable of moving their ears. I know of no individual exceptions. +This is the more remarkable since some men have retained the power of +voluntarily moving their ears, and the same power is also found in some +species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons, macacas, and magots. + +It will not here be out of place to say something of the +characteristics, previously mentioned, of the physiognomical expression +of anthropoid apes. Thus, for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he +can move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which covers this +region. The chimpanzee can also move the skin of the head, but with no +very apparent bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which was in +the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his hair and the skin of his head +when he was much enraged. It is known that in some instances man also +possesses this power. + +I have already spoken of the expression of the eyes of these animals. I +will only add that when anthropoids of every species are in great pain +or seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often most affecting. + +The forehead of these animals is frequently marked by transverse +furrows, and especially, as Darwin justly observes, when they raise +their eyebrows. The same great observer considers that the countenances +of anthropoids are, in comparison with those of men, generally +inexpressive, and indeed, chiefly in consequence of the fact that they +do not wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. The wrinkling of +the forehead, which is one of the most significant forms of expression +in man, is due to the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which +the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each other, so as to form +vertical folds on the forehead. It has been asserted that the orang +and chimpanzee possess these muscles, but they seem to be rarely +exercised--at any rate, to any remarkable extent.[67] When Darwin +brought a chimpanzee out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine, he +only once observed a slight wrinkling of the forehead. When the same +observer tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was +slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared between the +eyebrows.[68] Darwin never observed any wrinkling of the forehead in +an orang. I myself have observed a contraction of that region of the +brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a wrinkling of the skin +which covers the bridge of the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee, +and have illustrated this expression by a drawing. + +Darwin goes on to say that when a young chimpanzee is tickled, to +which, as in the case of children, their armpits are peculiarly +sensitive, he generally utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although +sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the mouth are then drawn +back, and this sometimes causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. +This wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human laugh, is still +more apparent in some of the other apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of +the upper jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing sound, and +in this respect he differs from man. Darwin further observes that when +the tickled young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes over his +face, which, according to Wallace, may be called a smile. Darwin has +observed something similar in the chimpanzee.[69] + +My own observation confirms what has been said of the chuckling +of a tickled chimpanzee. When Dr. Hermes, the director of the +Berlin Aquarium, played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that +establishment, a contortion of the corner of the mouth, resembling +a somewhat sardonic smile, at once appeared. No specimen displayed +this smile with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who delighted +visitors by his inexhaustible humour in 1879. The gorilla, of which +an illustration is given in Fig. 3, also drew down the corner of his +mouth when he was pleased, by means of the muscular system which we +have just described. + +When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both rows of teeth, and opens +his mouth to utter sounds of fury, while making ready to fight. It is +well known that anthropoids are able to pout and project their lips; +and Darwin says that they do this, not only when they are slightly +teased, and are sullen or disappointed, but also when anything occurs +to make them uneasy. + +I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight wrinkling of the region +of the nasal cartilage, and even a vibration in a lateral and upward +direction. In any case, the muscles which we have described as acting +on the nose and upper lip are exercised. + +The platysma myoides, which extends in man from the lower row of teeth +to just below the clavicle, occupies about the same area in the gibbon +and in other apes (Fig. 50). In the chimpanzee, however, this muscle +extends as high as the zygomatic arch, or even higher. In the gorilla +also I observed that this part extends comparatively high on the face. +In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper fibres of this muscle +seem to form the risorius. In one case the platysma myoides sent forth +a fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the beginning of the lower +temporal ridges. In the gorilla I saw that the uppermost fibres of the +platysma myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig. 50, ~10~). + +From the corresponding muscle in the orang the lower fibres tend far +backward, and are in connection with the deltoid muscle covering a +segment of the capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin of +the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw. In cases in which it +extends far in an upward direction, as in those we have cited, it +affects the lateral extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces +of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion of the corner of +the mouth. It may also have to do with the grumbling sound issuing from +the throat-pouch, which is uttered by the animal when agitated, as he +rapidly opens and closes his mouth. + +The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in these animals, and +especially in the orang and gibbon, can be divided without difficulty +into a sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions diverge from +each other in a downward direction. As Bischoff justly states, a +muscle not hitherto observed in man may be traced in all four species +of anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the external part of the +clavicle to the transverse process of the first cervical vertebra. +Bischoff has called it the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other +apes, although the site of its origin varies, sometimes occurring on +the spine of the scapula. Our Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in +regarding this muscle as “a brilliant proof of the relation of all apes +with each other.” I give this assertion without further comment. + +The muscles which extend between the head, sternum, and clavicle, +together with the muscles of the acromion process of the scapula, make +an external covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall describe +presently. The pectoralis major of the gorilla, as well as that of man, +divides into two portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other +to the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided from the +deltoid by a wide interval, filled with connective tissue and fat. But +both portions of the pectoralis major are divided by a tolerably wide +space, into which, in Bischoff’s opinion, the throat-pouch is inserted. +This, however, I do not believe, since that organ would be compressed +and strangulated between the two portions of muscle whenever they were +exercised. It may, however, be supposed that room for an enlargement +of the throat-pouch when the animal is bellowing is afforded by the +existence of these spaces. Bischoff is right in the assertion that +the clavicular portion of the pectoralis major is wanting in the +orang-utan. The upper part of this muscle springs directly from the +sternum. The lower sternal ribs give origin to the pectoralis minor. +The chimpanzee and gibbon display clearly in this muscle the separation +we have mentioned into a clavicular and a sternal portion. + +The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes is full of +interest. In the gorilla it divides into an upper portion of firmer +tissue, less easily separable into digitations, which arises from the +third to the fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three +digitations, of which the upper segment laps considerably over the +lower segment of the upper portion. In the chimpanzee an upper portion +of less firm texture extends from the second to the fourth, and a +lower with three digitations from the fourth to the seventh ribs. This +second lower portion is sometimes absent. I have seen the upper portion +attached to the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower portion +to the ridge of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. In the orang +an upper portion, separable into three digitations, extends from the +second to the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process. A +lower portion, also separable into three digitations, extends from the +fifth to the seventh ribs, and is also attached either to the greater +tuberosity of the humerus or to its edge; this latter portion projects +below over the pectoralis major. In the gibbon (_Hylobates albimanus_), +the upper portion starts from the second, the lower from the third to +the fifth ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoralis minor is in +man also sometimes separable into digitations, which may be connected +both with the coracoid process and with the capsular ligament of the +shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of insertion of this muscle +is remarkably slender. + +According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous, hood-like fascia +covers the whole region of the occiput and neck. In adult males +this fascia is 20 mm. in thickness. In a female dissected by me +the rudiments of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were present. +Duvernoy is justified in supposing that this is not yet developed in +the young gorilla, and that a layer of connective tissue and fat is +substituted for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius divided +into distinct bundles of flesh by layers of fat (Fig. 50, ~15~). The +fascia corresponds to the great development of the trapezius, and the +same characteristic development exists in other anthropoids. The adult +male gorilla displays a powerful _ligamentum nuchæ_ in connection +with the long spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, as well as +powerful inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi-spinales +colli and dorsi. The great development of the spinous processes of +the dorsal vertebræ of gorillas (Fig. 17), and also chimpanzees and +orangs, involve the development of powerful semi-spinales, as well +as of strong, fourfold spinales and inter-spinales muscles. The +whole of the fleshy formation of the neck of an adult male gorilla +which is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and especially +the splenius capitis and colli, the long cervical muscle (_Musculus +longissimus cervicis_), and the long head-muscle (_Musculus longissimus +capitis_), which have also been regarded by me as parts of the long +spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and vertical muscles at the +back of the head. With Chappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as +modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales. + +The levator anguli scapulæ is divided in anthropoids as in man. The +subclavius is slender, except in the gorilla, and in the latter animal +it sends a tendon obliquely to the coracoid process. + +In all anthropoids the deltoid is strongly developed. In the gorilla +it projects forwards and outwards in order to attach itself to the +humerus, almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the brachialis +anticus in a manner with which we are only imperfectly acquainted. It +extends nearly as far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee +its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and it was previously +suggested by Vrolik, that in the chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis +muscle possesses at its origin a moderately large second portion, which +tends downwards over the lesser tuberosity of the humerus, and adheres +to its edge. But I have seen both portions of the muscle in question +attached to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of this +species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the position of this muscle +corresponds to that in man. + +Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common to all apes which starts +from the tendinous attachment of the _latissimus dorsi_ on the edge +of the lesser tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on the +inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle they give the name +_latissimo-condyloideus_. Bischoff goes on to say that this muscle goes +in some cases into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in others, +as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner inter-muscular septum and +to the internal condyle of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends +as far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it reaches to the +condyle, where it is pierced by the ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that +this formation is wanting in man. + +This structure is indeed remarkable in anthropoids. The muscle starts +in a lateral direction from the insertion point of the _latissimus +dorsi_. In the gorilla alone I observed that it started from the +coracoid process of the scapula, together with the two portions +of the pectoralis minor; it was connected for a space with the +coraco-brachialis, and finally it was attached, in the upper part of +the lower third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum which +is found between the brachialis anticus and the triceps. In the +chimpanzee, on the other hand, it has its origin in the _latissimus +dorsi_, and divides into an anterior and posterior portion; the former +is attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while the latter is +connected either with the middle or inner head of the triceps. In the +orang the same division of this muscle may occur. In one of these +animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and semi-membranous, +attached by an extremely slight tendon to the coracoid process of the +shoulder-blade, while the hind portion issued from the _latissimus +dorsi_. They were both in connection with the triceps and brachialis +anticus. In other instances the muscle consisted only of the posterior +portion, issuing from the _latissimus dorsi_. In the white-handed +gibbon, the muscle issued from the region in which the tendons of the +_latissimus dorsi_ and of the teres major are united, and was inserted +into the fascia which is found between the bicipital and the brachialis +anterior. This attachment may also occur in the centre of the shaft of +the humerus. Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous instances +of this formation in coloured races.[70] + +It is well known that in man the biceps is inserted into the tuberosity +of the radius by means of a flattened round tendon. This tendon, +however, opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad expansion, +which passes into the fascia of the forearm, and is termed _Aponeurosis +bicipitis_. In the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong +fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into the palmar fascia. In +the gibbon the short head of the muscle does not always start from the +lesser tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of the pectoralis +major (Huxley), but sometimes from the edge of the lesser tuberosity, +which is here connected with the _latissimus dorsi_, as well as with +the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is more to the side, +and with the triceps. In the gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the +supinator longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius, +instead of extending to the styloid process of that bone, as it does in +other anthropoids, and in man. + +The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla, but not in other +anthropoids. The long flexor muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales +resemble those of man (Figs. 51, 52). The flexor longus pollicis is +absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy considers that it is replaced by a +tendon of the long flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable +to verify the existence of this tendon. The same muscle is also absent +in the chimpanzee and the orang, but it may be traced in _Hylobates +albimanus_. Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator radii teres +only sends forth one head,[71] but I have found it to be bicipital +in animals of this species. The lower or hinder head issues, as in +man, from the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the gorilla and in +the chimpanzee it extends far in a downwards direction on the radius +(Fig. 52). The flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with one +head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and with the other from +the radius. Bischoff describes the structure of the long abductor of +the thumb in the orang, the baboon, the _pithecia_, and the _hapale_ +as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and +the macaca the tendon divides into two parts. Nor does one tendon +belong, as in man, to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is +wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only implies a continued +division of the attachment to the trapezium, as well as to the +metacarpal bones of the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs +in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short extensor of the thumb. +In this point, again, apes display a greater likeness to one another +than to man. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 51.--Palmar muscles of man. _a_, Ligaments of wrist, + especially the anterior ligament. _c_, _c′_, Sheathing + ligaments. _d_, _e_, _f_, Oblique fibres of the ligaments + of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor + sublimis, and of the flexor profundus muscles of the fingers. + 3, The reciprocal perforation of these tendons. 4, Continuation + of the tendons of the flexor profundus of the fingers. 5, + Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 7, + 8, 9, Flexor brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11, + 12, Flexor brevis, abductor, and opponens minimi digiti. 13, + Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. +] + +According to my own researches, the long abductor of the thumb in +anthropoids forms a muscle not more considerable than one in proximity +with it, of which the origin and more central direction recall the +short extensor of the human thumb. In all four species I found that +the abductor had two tendons, and was attached to the trapezium. +The muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of the first +metacarpal bone. I have not been able to discover an extra extensor of +the thumb in the gorilla. The question now arises what we should think +of the second muscle, which is found in these animals in the vicinity +of the abductor. In my opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a +short extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an extension of +the metacarpal bone of that member, and in this act of extension it +is supported by the long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It +must be remembered that the comparatively short thumbs of anthropoids +have not to be employed in so many different ways as the human thumb, +and that we cannot therefore be surprised that the development of the +short extensor is less complete. A special extensor muscle of the index +finger is either altogether absent in the gorilla or very slightly +developed, while it is very apparent in _Hylobates albimanus_ (~6~, +Fig. 53). In the chimpanzee this muscle sends a tendon to the middle +finger. In the orang there is one extensor common to the four fingers. +In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as the other extensor and flexor +muscles, is remarkable for its excessive slenderness. The manifold +connections of the extensor tendons with each other are an interesting +peculiarity (Fig. 53). + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 52.--Palmar muscles of gorilla. _a_, Anterior ligament. + _b_, Remains of the skin of palm, here covered with a very + sinewy skin. _c_, _f_, Oblique fibres of the ligaments of the + sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, Flexor tendons. + 3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis, + whence in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues + (comp. Fig. 51, ~5~). 4, 3, 3′, 5, Abductor, flexor brevis, + abductor pollicis. 6, 7, 8, Opponens, flexor brevis, abductor, + minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12, Flexor + sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi + ulnaris. +] + +In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor, common to the +fingers, and enlarged in the region of the third and little fingers. +A superficial flexor, belonging to the index finger, started from the +inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of the inter-muscular +septum. The deep finger-flexor was attached to the four fingers. In +the orang the first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly for +the index finger, as well as one for the other three fingers. The deep +flexor only displayed two bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand, +the superficial flexor displays four bellies. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 53.--Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand. 1, The + extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus + pollicis. 3, Extensor primi internodii pollicis. 4, Extensor + secundi internodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis digitorum. 6, + Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi + ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation + of the same to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous + muscles of this region. A, The posterior annular ligament. +] + +In the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at least as my +experience goes, a so-called sesamoid bone. It is in this instance in +connection with the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the fibres +of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the wrist pass into each +other. In the chimpanzee the tendon of the long abductor muscle of the +thumb sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the other fibres +of the tendon of this muscle, which divides into several strips, are +inserted in the trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the first +metacarpal bone. + +The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which Bischoff has denied the +existence, is certainly present in these animals. In the chimpanzee +the lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the thumb have their +origin in the sesamoid bone. The middle fibres, of the same muscle +issue from the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid bone. On the +other hand, the upper part of the muscle has its origin in the anterior +annular ligament. In the orang, the lower fibres of the short abductor +of the thumb likewise have their origin in the sesamoid bone, while +the central fibres again start from the anterior annular ligament. +The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into the base of the +first metacarpal bone. In a dissection of the orang the flexor longus +pollicis sent a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This sesamoid +bone is also found in the gorilla, although Duvernoy and Rosenberg do +not appear to be aware of its existence.[72] + +In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short abductor, a short +bicipital flexor, an opponens, and an abductor of the thumb. The +longer belly of the short flexor extending in a more radial direction, +and in connection with the opponens, is only slightly developed. In +the muscular system of a gorilla’s little finger we may observe an +abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the chimpanzee +displays a short abductor, an opponens, a short bicipital flexor, +and an adductor of the thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and +an opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed a short +abductor, a short flexor with two bellies, an opponens, and an adductor +of the thumb. In addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer and +Bischoff describe another short, independent muscle, representing the +long flexor, and attached to the second phalanx, but I have not myself +ascertained the existence of this muscle. The same anatomists mention +an adductor between the third metacarpal bone and the first joint of +the thumb, and another between the second metacarpal bone and the +second joint of the thumb, passing on into the extensor tendon. I am +myself convinced of the existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the +fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed by Langer the second +opponens) passes on into the extensor tendon. In the little finger of +the orang there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In +the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly indicated opponens, a +short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the thumb. In _Hylobates +albimanus_ this adductor divides into four or five portions, which +are attached to the whole of the first metacarpal bone. In the little +finger there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the +same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached by one portion +to the second metacarpal bone, by the other to the base of the second +phalanx of the index finger (Fig. 53, ~9~, ~10~). + +Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford terms _Contrahentes +digitorum_ (contractors of the digits), which lie deep in the palm of +the hands and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril, baboon, +and other apes.[73] They rest upon the inter-osseous muscles, and are +covered by the tendons of the long flexors of the digits, as well as +by the lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace these _Musculi +contrahentes_ in the gorilla. In a female chimpanzee I observed a +_Musculus contrahens_ for the fourth, and another for the fifth finger, +and the same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I observed a +_Musculus contrahens_ for the fourth, and one for the fifth fingers, +and two faintly indicated _Contrahentes_ for the fourth and fifth toes. +Similar muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and of the +fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in the white-handed gibbon. + +In correspondence with the height of the pelvic bones, the gluteus +maximus of these animals only displays a moderate width in comparison +with its length. The tendon which attaches it to the femur extends +low down, almost as far as the knee-joint. The gluteus medius and +minimus are also long, in correspondence with this structure of the +pelvis, although they are attached to the large trochanter, and to +the posterior inter-trochanteric line. The climbing muscle (_Musculus +scansorius_), which extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of +the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chimpanzee, and by Bischoff +in the orang, and is described by them as strongly made; it appears +to be absent in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis generally +forms portions of the neighbouring muscles. The tensor vaginæ femoris, +which is strong and wide in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced +or altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is not, as in man, +attached to the inner surface of the tibia, just below the internal +tuberosity, but it is inserted much lower down on this surface. In +the gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the deep fascia of +the thigh, and two others to the internal border of the tibia. In the +chimpanzee and the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down. In the +orang it does not go so far, but the _gracilis_ and _semi-tendinosus_ +are in the same relative position. The biceps of the femur is very +apparent in the orang; its long head divides in two parts, of which the +lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united with the short head. + +Bischoff at first denied the existence of the plantaris in the +chimpanzee, and Brühl had previously done the same, but it is as +normally present in that animal as in man, in whom also it is sometimes +absent. I, however, as well as other observers, have failed to discover +it in the gorilla, orang, and gibbon. The popliteus is developed in +every instance. The tibio-fibular muscle (_Musculus peroneotibialis_), +covered by the popliteus, of which the existence was ascertained by +Gruber, has not been observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the +exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very apparent in a red sea-cat +monkey (_Cercopithecus ruber_). + +The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into two heads, and the +peroneal muscles have not the same relative width in anthropoids and +man, since in the former case the calf of the lower limb is small, and +it lacks the pleasing roundness which characterizes this part of the +human structure. These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon, +appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo Achillis is present, +but it has not the prominent development in height and width which +we observe in man. The long extensor, flexor, and tibial muscles are +in all cases fully developed. The peroneus tertius, as it is termed, +although it should only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus +digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.[74] I myself am not disposed, with +Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to regard this muscle as an abductor. +Brühl perceived in a chimpanzee a fourth rudimentary peroneal muscle +(_Musculus peroneus intermedius_), extending between the peroneus and +the little toe, a muscle sometimes found in man, and which I have +myself only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the gorilla and the +chimpanzee the extensor longus digitorum passes through a remarkably +strong transverse ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which covers +the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes (Fig. 55). Brühl has +described the characteristic contraction and extension of the tendons +of the long and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee, but I +have myself found some difficulty in producing this action. In Fig. 55 +I have endeavoured to represent this condition in the most natural way. +The extensor proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The extensor +brevis digitorum produces a large, oblique belly for the great toe +(Fig. 55). In the gorilla there is for the great toe an abductor, a +bicipital flexor, an adductor, and an opponens (comp. Fig. 54). + +From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for the great toe rises +with a certain independence. On the right foot of a chimpanzee I +observed a fifth belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (Fig. +55). As my illustration is taken from this specimen, I have represented +the foot with, or in spite of, this interesting anomaly, which, as we +know, sometimes occurs in man. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 54.--Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus + and extensor proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum. + 3, Tendon of peroneus tertius. 4, 5, Peroneus longus and + peroneus brevis. 4′, 5′, Tendons of the same. 6, 7, Tendons of + the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum. +] + +The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated tendons, belonging +to the second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum displays +perforated tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor longus +pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which goes into the toe +itself, while the other is connected with the flexor longus digitorum, +and displays perforated tendons for the third and fourth toes, while +the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes have their origin +in the other flexor. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 55.--Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1. + Tibialis anticus muscle. 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3, + Extensor communis digitorum. 4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus + longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor brevis digitorum. 8, + Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous + muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti. +] + +In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the foot are powerful. The +first inter-osseous muscle is likewise well developed and bicipital. +There is a short flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have not +yet been able to assure myself of the existence of an opponens for that +toe. In the chimpanzee the muscular system of the great and little +toe does not essentially differ from that which we have described in +the gorilla. The flexor brevis digitorum forms the perforated tendons +of the second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum provides +the fourth and fifth toes with perforated, and the second and fifth +toes with perforating, tendons, while those which belong to the third +and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor longus pollicis. As +in the gorilla, the latter muscle produces a fibrous investment for +the tendons of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there is an +abductor of the great toe, a very slightly developed opponens, a short +bicipital flexor, and an adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes +appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in man. It provides +the second and fifth toes with perforating tendons, while those of the +third and fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus +digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the great toe. The +perforated tendons in this case generally belong to the short flexor +muscle. In addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe, there +is the long flexor already described. + +In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor, a short bicipital +flexor, and a slightly developed opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped +adductor is attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle is, as in +the same animal’s hand (Fig. 53), attached to the first phalanx of the +second toe. The flexor longus digitorum provides the third and fourth +toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off a tendon for the +great toe. On the little toe there is a remarkably slender perforating +tendon. While the first of the two long flexors represents the human +flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus digitorum is in this instance +limited to the little toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the +gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are connected together +by an aponeurosis. It may be here mentioned that in the human foot +the flexor longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the +second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon, as Bischoff justly +observes, a muscle covers the flexor longus digitorum, which is still +undivided, but already enlarged. From this muscle perforated tendons +issue for the third and fourth toes. The second toe is provided with +such a tendon from the flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have +mentioned seems to represent the Quadratus plantæ, which is often +developed in the other anthropoids, although only to a slight extent. +With respect to the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon, +I need only say that in the latter species the opponens seems to be +absent (Fig. 55). + +It will be seen from the foregoing account that, in spite of several +apparently important peculiarities, in spite of great and manifold +variations which are established, even although our authorities do +not always agree together, the muscular system of anthropoids is on +the whole very like that of man. It displays, especially in the lower +limbs, peculiarities of structure which render them capable of walking +in an upright position, and others again which they have in common with +the lower animals, but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of +the muscular system of these animals are predominant. + +The digestive system of anthropoids likewise affords interesting points +of comparison. The cavity of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered +by large and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the mouth and the +gums are flesh-coloured; they assume a darker colour in older animals, +and are then sometimes marked with spots of a bluish or brownish grey. +Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity in the mucous membrane of the mouths +of the gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls buccal +folds, which pass on both sides from the fore surface of the upper and +lower jaw into the mucous membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height +of the canine teeth.[75] I have myself only observed these folds in the +gorilla, of which an illustration is given in Fig. 3, and not in any +other specimen. I have observed scarcely any indications of these folds +in other anthropoids, and then only of such a doubtful nature that I am +not disposed to regard the circumstance as of any special significance. +A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes only slightly +developed, but always perceptible, is present in all anthropoids. + +The tongue is small, and not provided at its base with several +great concave follicles as in man; these are at least only faintly +represented, and not easy to observe. Around them there rise pock-like, +tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged gorilla are apt to +become hard and horny. These are also prominent between the follicles +of the tonsils. The circumvallate papillæ of the tongue are less +numerous than in man, and often, especially in the chimpanzee, they +take the form of a cross, or of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V. + +The uvula and palate present no special variation from the human +type. On the hard palate there are a number of folds, or rather +swellings, which extend laterally from the central suture of the +palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw; these are sometimes +simple, sometimes complex, and vary in their details in individual +cases. They are particularly marked in the adult chimpanzee, and +are also very apparent in the gibbon, and they are arranged with a +somewhat ornamental regularity. These inequalities are not altogether +insignificant in the human palate, but this subject has not been much +studied since Gegenbaur directed the attention of scientific men to +them, and special light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and Ehlers, +as far as anthropoids are concerned. + +The teeth afford us important material for comparison. In the case of +anthropoids the formula for the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World +apes (_Catarrhina_) will generally apply: _i_ 2/2 _c_ 1/1 _p_ 2/2 _m_ +3/3. The following is the formula for the milk-teeth: _i_ 2/2 _c_ 1/1 +_m_ 2/2. Magitot and Giglioli[76] have shown that the milk-teeth are +cut in the same order as those of man--first, the lower; second, the +upper incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth, the back +pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. According to the same authors, the +permanent teeth are cut in the following order:--first, the first molar +teeth; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor teeth; third, the +pre-molars; fourth, the canine teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth; +sixth, the third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla, Giglioli +found that the permanent canine teeth were cut almost simultaneously +with the third molar teeth, and after the appearance of the second +molar teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to be a longer +process than that of the other teeth. + +In anthropoids the structure of the permanent teeth varies with the +species, and even with the sex. In the gorilla the two upper central +incisor teeth are wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair of +lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth are of about the size +of the upper lateral incisors, and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but +not so wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged male are curved +in their lower part, both outwards and inwards. Their form is that of +a three-sided, cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded, and +near its inner edge a deep furrow may be observed, extending from the +neck of the tooth almost to its point. The outer and inner sides of +the tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in front, and level +or slightly concave behind. The inner side is concave, and furnished, +nearly in the centre, with a deep longitudinal farrow. The lower canine +teeth of an aged male are shorter than the upper, curved on their +upper and outer surface, and somewhat behind. Their form is also that +of a three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longitudinal furrow +which traverses their inner segment is much shorter than that on the +upper tooth. The outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time +somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior segment with +two longitudinal furrows, or more rarely with one, reaching from the +neck to about the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that of +the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower canine teeth project +like pillars over the upper ones (Figs. 15, 16). The canine teeth of +a young male gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although they +already present the form of a three-sided pyramid. The canine teeth of +the adult female gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult male, +and are laterally more compressed. The three-sided pyramidal form is +only slightly marked. The outer surface is convex and furnished with +a scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On the inner surface, +or that which is turned to the cavity of the mouth, there are from two +to three longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the centre +of the tooth. The lower teeth are of a three-sided, pyramidal form, +presenting an interior, posterior, and inner superficies. + +The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide, and are furnished +with a large outer, and a smaller inner, cusp. The three four-cusped +upper molars display a more regular and symmetrical arrangement of +their cusps than is the case with the female, in which the position of +the cusps is rather variable. Except for the difference of size, the +relative conditions of these teeth are the same in male and female. +The first pointed lower pre-molars are in the male of the form of a +four-sided pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface, flat on +the side directed to the cavity of the mouth, and marked with furrows +on the posterior surface. The small second and lower pre-molars have +two anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is generally worn away +at an early age. Each molar tooth has two outer and two inner cusps, +opposite to each other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail to +notice the likeness to the conditions of the human teeth, a likeness +which is still more striking in the female. + +In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central incisor teeth are broadly +chisel-shaped, while the upper and lower lateral incisors are +smaller. In the male there is often a considerable gap between these +and the canine teeth. The latter present the form of a three-sided +pyramid, of which the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards, +while the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its upper third, +and terminating at the base of the crown in a posterior cusp. The +pre-molars have an external and an inner cusp; the molars have two +external and two inner cusps, connected with each other by their +enamel. The lower canine teeth of these animals are likewise of +the shape of a three-sided pyramid, of which the anterior angle is +very blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are sharply cut. +The anterior surface is not grooved like the upper canine teeth. +The lateral angle is much rounded. The back teeth plainly display +the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed in man. In the +orang-utan the characteristics of the upper incisors are such as we +have described in the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine +teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and are furnished with a +longitudinal furrow on the anterior side. A similar furrow is found on +the posterior superficies of the lower canine teeth. The back teeth +display no special characteristics when compared with those of other +anthropoids. + +The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much worn down by age +on their posterior surface. Deep transverse grooves of varying +size characterize the teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal +distribution of the coating of enamel. These are developed with their +advancing growth. In addition to these incised furrows, longitudinal +marks, with raised edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior +surface of the incisor teeth. + +In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor teeth is smooth; in +this animal the upper central incisor teeth are the largest, while the +lower central incisors are the smallest. The long and strong upper +canine teeth, which are laterally compressed, display a sharp posterior +angle, and an anterior and inner longitudinal furrow. + +It has sometimes been said that the grooves found on the external +contour of the back teeth of anthropoids, extending to their roots, +constitute a not unimportant distinction between their structure and +that of the human teeth, in which the grooves do not extend to the +roots. But the corresponding human teeth do sometimes exhibit very +deep and extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any peculiar +significance to this assumed distinction. The development of the canine +teeth, like those of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important. A +supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be observed both in man and in +anthropoids, including also the gibbon.[77] + +The stomach and intestines of these animals present only a few striking +differences from the same organs in man. The length of the intestines +varies in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only observed the +_valvulæ conniventes_ to be somewhat clearly developed in the gorilla +and the orang. The cæcum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the +power of free movement in the peritoneum, and furnished, especially in +the case of the orang, with a large, very long, and spirally coiled +vermiform appendix. + +The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but in the orang +this division is not very clearly marked. I have not myself observed +a subdivision of these lobes, occurring on their edges, which is +mentioned by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla. Bischoff +notices in the gorilla the absence of the H-shaped arrangement of the +fissures on the under surface of the liver, so noticeable in man; and +the same remark applies to other species of anthropoids. Moreover, the +fissures on this part of the liver are not incised on the substance +with the same uniform depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the +orang is not remarkable for its size; in the chimpanzee I found that +this organ is large and twisted, and it is also large in the gibbon. + +The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon, shorter +and wider in the orang. On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled +off. There is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark. + +The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole a structure resembling +that of man. This is especially the case at the entrance to that organ. +The anterior and specially vocal portion of the glottis is short, about +as long as the respiratory portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep +cavity in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and +orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs correspond to Morgagni’s sacs. +These are the thin-skinned elastic sacs, closely united with their +surroundings by connective tissue. The right laryngeal sac appears +to be of larger diameter than the left. According to Duvernoy’s and +Ehlers’ accurate account only the upper portion of this organ occurs +in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang, a lower projection is +displayed, extending behind the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder, +and another extending to the pectoralis major muscle. In the chimpanzee +only the posterior segment is developed. It has been asserted that +in several cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal sac, +communicating with the two Morgagni sacs, but I agree with Ehlers in +thinking this improbable. In such instances it seems likely that, owing +to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one of the sacs has been +overlooked. In an aged orang the throat-pouches, fastened together by +connective tissue, and covered by the external skin of the throat, +hang down slackly and heavily over the middle of the breast (see Fig. +9). According to Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons +which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca asserts that it +has two detached sacs, placed close to the larynx.[78] The halves of +the thyroid cartilage are generally connected with each other by an +intermediate piece. + +The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from sixteen to eighteen +cartilaginous rings, but in the siamang there are twenty-one. They +ramify into branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than on +the left side.[79] There is a further lateral ramification on the +right side, situated above the artery. Huxley and Ehlers hold that the +lungs of a gorilla are cleft like those of the human organism, the +right divided into three, and the left into two lobes. I have myself +observed this type, and in one instance I found three lobes on the +left. In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was divided into +three, and the left into two lobes. Bischoff observed an instance of +a chimpanzee which had four lobes on the right and two on the left +side. In an orang dissected by me I found only one lobe on each side, +with thin, slightly indented notches on the anterior edges of the +right lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same time a +strongly marked indentation between the lobes. The lungs of a gibbon +are described as having four lobes on the right, and only one or two +on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in which there were three +lobes on the right, and two on the left. It appears that there are not +unimportant individual variations of this structure in every species of +anthropoids; and indeed, human lungs are by no means exempt from them. + +The male sexual organs correspond on the whole with the form and +arrangement of these organs in man. I must not omit to mention that the +penis of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog-headed apes, is +much more like the penis in man than is the case with anthropoids, with +the exception of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the scrotum is +short and tightly stretched. The right testicle is a little higher than +the left, and is divided from it by a wide raphé. The internal female +organs are also like those of the human organism, with only slight +variations. Bischoff is correct in the assertion that the external lips +of the pudendum and the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau, +Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is a menstruation which +occurs periodically, at any rate in the case of the chimpanzee, and the +other species cannot be exempt from the process. At such times there +is a blush and enlargement of the external parts, and a profusion of +the external lips of the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely +apparent. The nymphæ and the clitoris are of considerable size and +importance. There is often an excessive enlargement and reddening +of these parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the +chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca, during the period of +sexual excitement. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 56.--The brain of an orang, seen from the side (Vogt, from + Gratiolet). F, Frontal lobe. P, Parietal lobe. O, Occipital + lobe. R, Fissure of Rolando. S, Fissure of Sylvius. C, + Cerebellum. +] + +_Nervous system._--In this part of the organism we are especially +interested in the structure of the brain. Bastian justly remarks, +with reference to the brain of apes, that this family possesses many +cerebral characteristics in common, by which their close connection +with each other may be verified. Distinct stages of development have +been observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a consecutive +series. Starting from the brains of lemurs, which do not greatly +differ from those of rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct +transition forms to the more highly developed cerebral hemispheres +of the large anthropoid apes, the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and +orang-utan.[80] + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 57.--Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper + part of the right hemisphere is removed so as to lay bare + the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from Marshall). L, Longitudinal + fissure (other indications the same as in Fig. 56). _c s_, The + corpus striatum in anterior cornu of the ventricle. _c a_, + Hippocampus major in descending cornu. _h m_, Hippocampus minor + in posterior cornu. +] + +Very opposite views prevail among anatomists with regard to the +question which species of anthropoids possesses the most highly +developed brain. Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest, +and that of the orang as the most highly developed. In all these apes +the lateral halves of the cerebrum, always divided from each other +by a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum as far as a +minute posterior segment. In this respect I find the brain of the +gorilla a little behind the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have +only observed the projection of the cerebellum through the cerebrum +in the case of an orang[81] (see also Fig. 56). Retzius asserts that +the cerebellum of Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering +is generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar races. In German +and Latin races the cerebrum overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian, +Indian, and Negro races the covering appears to be generally imperfect. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 58.--Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau and Pansch). + I., Frontal lobe. II., Fissure of Rolando. III., Parietal lobe. + IV., Temporal lobe. C, Cerebellum. _f s_, Fissure of Sylvius. + _s c_, External fissure parieto-occipital. +] + +While the ground form of the gorilla brain approximates to a long +oval, and in this respect resembles the human brain, the brain of +chimpanzees and orangs is of a round-oval form. This is especially the +case with the chimpanzee (Fig. 57). In my opinion, the gorilla brain +is distinguished from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that of the +orang, by its very complex convolutions (Fig. 56). + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 59.--Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a + specimen in the Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F, + frontal lobe. O, Occipital lobe. +] + +In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island of Reil in +the fissure of Sylvius is generally--at least, according to my +experience--overlapped by the operculum, although there are instances +in which this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as Bastian +justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is much less horizontal than +in man, and occupies a position more like that which it takes in the +black sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas. In the gorilla +its direction is more horizontal than in the two other species of +anthropoids. The central fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very +marked, especially in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57 R); but it may also be +easily traced in other species of anthropoids (Fig. 58, II., 56, R). +The so-called simian fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes +of the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occipital fissure), +presented in Fig. 58 _s c_, is very marked in the chimpanzee (Fig. 57, +_d_). The frontal lobes of the gorilla brain are high, while those of +the chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those of the orang, +which are high and short, terminate in a beak-shaped curvature, but +this is not invariably the case. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 60.--Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain (Bola and + Pansch). _s.cm_, Colloso marginal fissure. _f, p_, Internal + parieto-occipital fissure. _f, c_, Calcarine fissure, the + posterior part of the hippocampal fissure. +] + +In the anthropoids we have been considering, and also in several of +the lower species of apes, there are three other fissures of less +importance in addition to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure +parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind it, the _corpus +callosum_ fissure, placed immediately above the _corpus callosum_ on +the inner side of the hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine +fissure (_Fissura calcarina_) (Fig. 60). The latter ends near the point +of junction of the inner and lower surfaces of the posterior division +of the hemisphere. The upper temporal convolution, termed by several +anatomists _Gyrus supramarginalis_, is said by Gratiolet to be absent +in anthropoids; but Rolleston, Bastian, and myself have all found it +well developed[82] (Fig. 56, orang, and Fig. 58, gorilla). + +Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution (Broca’s +convolution) is very slightly developed in the chimpanzee, orang, +and gibbon. “Its great development in men,” Gewährsmann writes, +“constitutes one of the most marked distinctions between the brains +of apes and of men.”[83] In most of the other species of apes this +convolution is altogether absent, but Pansch is justified in the +assertion that it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly +agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must accept his statement +on this point (see the orang, Fig. 59). Gratiolet remarks that the +so-called annectant gyri (_plis de passage_) which serve as a covering +or _operculum_ for the posterior lobes in apes, are only superficially +apparent in man. In the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions +is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise large and +undulated in man. In the orang the second annectant gyrus is covered, +but this covering is absent in man.[84] + +In considering the inner structure of the brain of these animals, we +are first struck by the shortness of the _corpus callosum_. The soft +and thick anterior commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the +thin posterior commissure have also been justly noted. In the lateral +ventricles more of the characteristics described in the human brain are +absent. The four eminences resemble those of man; nor does the fourth +cerebral ventricle present any remarkable differences of form. Neither +does the base or lower surface of the brain display any important +deviation from the human type. The transverse section of the nerves at +their intersection appears to me, however, to be somewhat more oval +than is the case in man. + +There has recently been an attempt to recognize a pithecoid character, +or atavism, in microcephalic men, the smallness of whose heads is +allied with a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid structure +of the brain has also been traced in several individuals who are not +microcephalous, but subject to pathological affections. We will first +consider those who belong to the latter category. Krause examined +the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven years and a half, which, as +the author remarks, approximated in structure to the pithecoid type, +although without displaying microcephalic characteristics. The two +cerebral hemispheres were wanting in symmetry; they diverged from each +other in the region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the +left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge which curved outward +and backward so that the cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower +surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly marked ethmoidal +prominence. Neither of the fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left +less so than the right; the operculum was only slightly developed; +and the island of Reil and its fissures were almost uncovered. This +formation is almost the same as that of the brain of anthropoids. +The two central fissures of Rolando were close together, or less +deeply impressed on the edge of the hemispheres than is normally the +case, and forming no joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central +fissures seemed to represent the central fissures. The intra-parietal +fissures, diverging outwardly further than in man, received the +parieto-occipital fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical +brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure became in this case a +deep fissure like the simian fissure, crossing the occipital lobes, +and almost completely dividing them from the parietal lobes. The +so-called _Fissura calcarina_, to which we have referred above, had +its origin on the upper surface of the occipital lobe, then joined +the parieto-occipital fissure, and went directly into the hippocampal +fissure (_Fissura hippocampi_) on its right side. This abnormal +structure is also in conformity with the typical brain of apes. The +first occipital convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes by +the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts that this formation +occurs in many species of apes. The upper temporal convolution was +remarkably reduced on both sides, possessing only an average width of 5 +mm. This characteristic reminded Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee. +In that animal the upper temporal convolution is always reduced. +Krause therefore asks whether some human brains may not possess the +typical structure of apes without being microcephalic. The brain we +have described scarcely differed from the normal weight; it possessed +all the convolutions and fissures, and indeed, the convolutions +were perhaps more numerous than in the normal structure, yet it was +different in every respect, and approximated in its whole structure to +the simian rather than to the human type. Krause adds that if the brain +had been placed before him without any intimation of its origin, he +should have been quite justified in concluding that it belonged to an +anthropoid ape, which stood somewhat nearer to man than the chimpanzee. + +It is an unquestionable fact that some human beings, whether children +or adults, who are endowed with a defective bodily structure, and who +are affected with more or less pronounced physical incapacity and +mental weakness, by their appearance, ungainly tricks, and helpless +and aimless motions, impress us in the most forcible way with their +resemblance to apes. Different degrees of idiocy affect individuals of +limited intellect, and remind us of an absolutely brutish condition. +Krause describes the “ape-like” boy of seven and a half years old, +whom he had examined, as cheerful and inclined to play and dance, but +as passionate when he was teased. The child was very supple, fond of +climbing, and with great strength in his arms and hands, of which +the latter had a horny appearance, reminding him of the hands of a +chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his legs wide apart. His +gait was uncertain, and he was apt to tumble, falling with his knees +bent forward and his legs doubled under him; he was fond of hopping, +and at such times looked still more like an ape. The great toes of +both feet were at an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression +of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that this deviation was +produced by the child’s endeavour to supply a broader basis of support +for his uncertain gait; but he subsequently changed his opinion, since +he did not find the same peculiarity in other children of diseased +brain, as, for instance, in those suffering from water on the brain. +The boy could say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was long +before he could pronounce these words in two syllables; for the most +part, he only uttered a sound resembling a grunt. He imitated the +barking of a dog, with the sound of rolling _r_’s. He often stamped +his feet and clapped his hands together, making a grunting noise as +Krause had observed in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy +was smaller than other children of his age, and had weak eyes; his head +was sore, and his forehead narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly +marked, and his whole nature and all his movements strikingly resembled +those of apes. He had been much neglected by his parents.[85] + +When I was a student at Berlin I had the opportunity of observing +a similar being of twelve years old, in what was at that time the +Weinbergswege, near the Rosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with a large +head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes, a morose expression, a +thin neck, prominent belly, crooked legs, large hands and feet. The +boy was of a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady: saliva +often dribbled from his wide mouth; and as he walked he held on to the +furniture, walls, etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and +so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to give him peculiar +pleasure to creep on his hands and knees, and at such times he would +stamp with the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon the +ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait, and the gurgling sound +which was all that the boy could utter, constituted the points of his +resemblance to apes. All the other conditions of life were those of a +being whose mental and physical growth was arrested, and who, although +not epileptic, was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant what +afterwards became of him. + +In the course of a discussion on the instance adduced by Krause, +Virchow asks whether the psychological conditions of such a brain +are indeed simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied the +microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of Bürgel, Hanau) will find that +psychologically she had nothing in common with an ape. In her case +all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape were wanting; +the simian psychology was altogether absent, and there was only the +psychology of an imperfectly developed and deficient young child. Every +characteristic was human. Virchoff had the child in his room for hours +together during a period of two months, and was constantly occupied +about her, without observing anything in her nature which reminded +him even remotely of the psychological conditions of apes. She was a +degraded specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from the human +type.[86] + +I also examined Margaret Becker, as well as another microcephalic +girl, who was in the Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With +respect to the former and more animated being, I have nothing essential +to add to the information published by Virchow. Ida X----, the other +individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the time of my researches +aged thirteen years and five months. Her figure was slightly made and +well proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a modified extent +of that of the microcephalic Aztec, and also of the heads represented +in ancient sculpture of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit +to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy hair. She was +altogether impassive; could only utter the syllables _da-da_; and +once betrayed a slight sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the +measuring-rod was placed against the inner side of her thigh, for the +sake of obtaining the dimensions of the different parts of her body. + +Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacobwitz, of Waschahel, is +also extremely interesting. She was a microcephalic girl of the age of +fourteen, and a Hungarian Jew by race.[87] Virchow remarks that, in +his opinion, all Esther’s most striking characteristics presented the +strongest contrast to those of apes, since only negative traits have +hitherto been established, while all which characterizes the positive +development of the psychical life of apes was absent in this case. The +same remark applies to Ida X----. Virchow goes on to say that there +was undoubtedly something brute-like in the defects in question, but +that in order to reproduce the animal in its actual form and nature, so +as to show that the microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the +positive side of animal life must to some extent be presented to us, +and this was absolutely wanting. + +Virchow also had the opportunity of examining a pair of twin children, +one of whom was quite normally developed, while the other (Karl +R----) was microcephalic. This was a very significant case, since two +individuals of the same birth were under consideration, so that the +question could be asked with greater confidence--Is this atavism, or a +morbid condition? From this point of view, it was of special interest +to establish the fact that the microcephalic child had, in fact, +displayed positive signs of a morbid condition.[88] + +When I go through the accounts collected by C. Vogt of the lives +of well-known microcephalic beings,[89] I can find nothing which +specifically reminds me of the actions and habits of apes, although +we have an intimate acquaintance with their ways. These individuals +give the general impression of human beings whose bodily and mental +development has been arrested. According to Virchow’s experience, +all the cerebral disturbances are concentrated in the cerebrum in +these microcephalous cases. The anterior portions of the cerebrum are +affected to the greatest, and the posterior to the least, extent. Those +parts which are developed latest suffer the most, while those which are +the first to be developed generally escape disturbance.[90] + +Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to show that the mothers +of microcephalic children have suffered from severe pains of the uterus +during pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms of the uterus +distinctly affect the development of the brain of the offspring. Flesch +thinks it possible that these spasms of the uterus may have something +to do with the origin of microcephaly.[91] But he also asks whether +this morbid condition of the uterus may not have been produced by a +previously diseased condition of the offspring. This observer is, +moreover, still more inclined to make the influence of the father +responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly. In view of the fact +that there is much reason to suppose there has been a compression of +the uterus, and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels +justified in looking for a compression which has perhaps resulted +from some growth on the ovary. Hence ensues a disturbance, probably +inflammatory, of the organ of nutrition.[92] + +Aeby also regards microcephaly, not as an expression of atavism, but +as the result of a morbid degeneration. “Microcephalic subjects do +not point back to the milestone which man left behind him in hoar +antiquity, and it is not through them that the chasm between man and +animals can be bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.” + +Virchow’s researches led to the following conclusions, which we must +here subjoin:--1. There is no species of apes which presents that +precise configuration which is found in a microcephalic brain. 2. +Psychology offers the strongest arguments against men-apes. 3. The +instinctive side of psychical activity, which is almost wholly absent +in microcephalic subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids as well as +in other animals.[93] + +In addition to these remarks, it may also be observed that among savage +races the medicine-men, shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often +assume ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances, and other +gestures which are inseparable from their trade. Owing to their state +of excitement, in which they are not always mentally responsible for +their acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly unconscious. +It is very common among the inspired Arabs termed Haschasch, who, +sometimes as dervishes, sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam +through the country and extend their wanderings from the interior +of Africa to the latticed gates of Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong +also the dancing mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape-like +gesture in the market-places and streets of Bokhara, as well as in the +other chief cities of Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures +are conventional, and even adopted as the means of stimulating the +proposed effects, but at the same time they impress us with the idea +that a man under such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts +the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr, an Islamite rite of +worship, accompanied by obligatory howls and contortions of body, we +are tempted to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild apes. +And the illusion is still stronger if the performers in the Zikr are +black fakirs, dressed as warriors. + +The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids has not, up to this +time, been analyzed with the completeness we could wish. As far as +the observations of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with my +personal experience in this department, no marked distinction can be +established between the structure of these organs in anthropoids and +those of the nervous system in man. + +H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the nervous lumbo-sacral +plexus to the vertebral column of men and animals, and has come to +the conclusion that there is the most complete agreement between men +and animals with respect to the relations of the vertebral column to +the peripheral nervous system. According to this author, man, from +the anatomical point of view, stands so completely within the class +of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign to him any other place in +zoology is open to the charge of being biassed by considerations which +have nothing to do with facts.[94] + +The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not present any noteworthy +points of difference from these organs in man. I have written, but not +yet published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals, showing their +general agreement with the conditions of the human eye. On the skin +of the fingers and toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be +detected which are connected with the sense of touch. + +The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to this time been studied +in any exhaustive manner. The heart strongly resembles that organ in +man. In the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great arterial +branches have the same relative conditions as in the human organism. +A common origin from one branch of the subclavian artery, and of the +right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the orang and with +a certain constancy in the gibbon, so far as we can judge from the +researches which have been made up to this time. But we know that this +form of deviation from the common type is not altogether rare in man. +Bischoff and others have justly maintained that the resemblance to man +which is found in these animals in the arrangement of the heart and +larger blood-vessels appears to be connected with their mode of life. +For although their habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that +they are for the most part in an upright position. + +The division of the femoral arteries displays a somewhat interesting +deviation from the normal human type. High up near the femoral arch +an artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve, diverges from the +femoral artery, which extends, together with its accompanying parts, +as far as the back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces the +sartorius. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS. + + +Up to recent times it was generally supposed that there was only +one species of gorilla, and the differences in the structure of the +skeleton and of the external body which were observed in the several +specimens under examination, were either regarded as the expression of +a purely individual variation or as due to differences in age and sex. +Not long ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the Congo the +skeleton and skin of an aged female gorilla, which had been killed by +Lucan and Petit in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the Kuilu +river in 4° 35′ south latitude. This specimen was of less bulk than +the common gorilla (_Gorilla Gina_), and its head was comparatively +small. The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the occiput, +was much more strongly developed in this animal and the temporal +fossæ were deeper. That part of the skull which extends behind the +supra-orbital arches was narrower, and so also was the space between +the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the centre of this +space is more marked, the nasal bones are arched and not flattened, the +orbital aperture is larger in comparison with the general size of the +skull, and the frontal processes of the malar bones are wider and more +arched. One interesting characteristic consists in a small, vertical, +styloid prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital process. On +the vertebral column the spinous processes of the first, second, and +third cervical vertebræ are only slightly developed in height, while +the spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebræ are as high +and large as those of _Gorilla Gina_. The transverse processes of the +first lumbar vertebræ are remarkable for their length, and in their +transverse extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib. + +In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac crest is more convex, +the tuberosity of the ischium is somewhat more everted, the neck of +the femur is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and its lower +surface is more arched. The clavicle appears to be shorter and less +curved: the scapula is more arched near its inner border; its outer +border is distinctly concave, while in _Gorilla Gina_ it is prominently +convex. The base of the acromion process is larger, and the olecranon +fossa of the humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm and +hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more slender, and their +prominences and inequalities are less marked. The smaller bulk of the +fore and hind limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of the +head. + +The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk, black on the limbs, with +red patches on the head, and reddish in the pubic region, does not +essentially differ from that which has been described by different +authors in the case of other skins which have indeed been artificially +restored. But the hide essentially differs from that of other specimens +in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the belly from the +grey of the back, by the reddish tint of the hair which clothes the +pubic region, and also in the abundant growth of hair which so closely +encircles the cheeks and chin. But, according to our authorities, the +most remarkable difference consists in the fact that the whole of the +back is covered with long, thick hair, while in _Gorilla Gina_ this +part is either bare or only covered with short hair, partly worn away. +Hence these authors conclude that this species, which they assert to +be new, and have named _Gorilla Mayema_, from the negro chief of that +name, does not rest its back against a tree so often as the _Gorilla +Gina_, but leads a more arboreal life, climbing from tree to tree.[95] + +I admit that if I were to take into account all the individual +differences of the gorilla skulls and skeletons of the same sex and of +about the same age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or more +species of gorillas. I have observed such differences in the case both +of male and female individuals of about the same age, and have given +an exact description of them in my osteological work on the gorilla +to which I have so often referred. I cannot, however, refrain from +regarding these differences as of a purely individual character. +Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier--as, for instance, their +remarks on the comparative smallness of the head, on the slenderness +and smoothness of the limb bones--appears to me to point to the +youthfulness of this Landana specimen. The unlearned may be struck +by what is said of the small spinous processes of the upper cervical +vertebræ in this specimen, but in the common gorilla the processes of +the three upper vertebræ are also small (see Fig. 17). Individual and +sexual variations in the general development of the cervical spines may +be observed, not only in this case, but in the chimpanzee, and even in +man. I think it very doubtful whether a characteristic of species can +be founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What is said of the +colouring of the coat of the so-called new species appears to me still +less worthy of consideration. I have spoken above in detail of the many +individual varieties of the colour of the hair in different specimens +of gorillas. I have also observed long, thick hair, not always short, +scanty, and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of different +sexes. The condition described by Alix and Bouvier must refer to the +hides of aged and sickly animals, or to those younger individuals +affected by the kind of mange which is widely diffused in Africa. Every +gorilla delights to rub his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans +against it in a contented mood, and so also does the chimpanzee. This +is the habit of many other mammals, such as cats, lions, boars, deer, +and elephants. Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude. +Without more convincing proofs that _Gorilla Mayema Alix et Bouvier_ +constitutes a distinct species, I should prefer to leave the matter in +suspense. + +I frankly admit that I am more doubtful how to decide the question +whether we can at present assume that there are several or only one +species of chimpanzees. _Troglodytes niger_ has always been regarded +by me as to a certain extent a typical form of this animal, and in +the second chapter of this work I selected it as the subject for my +general description. It is this type of chimpanzee which has usually +reached Europe from the West Coast of Africa. The face of this animal +is moderately prognathous; the head, even in aged males, is round, +the ears are large and of somewhat the form presented in Fig. 6, the +skin is of a dirty flesh-colour, and the hair is black. Reichenbach’s +_Pseudanthropos (Troglodytes) leucoprymnus_[96] is only so specified on +account of the whitish hair which clothes its posterior--a character +observed in all true chimpanzees, and therefore without specific value. +Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has had an illustration +made from a damaged skin of a large (probably male) chimpanzee; but we +can only form an imperfect opinion of its general external appearance +from this figure.[97] There is as little certainty about Gray’s +_Troglodytes vellerosus_ from the Kamarum mountains.[98] Duvernoy’s +remarks on _Troglodytes Tchégo_, which he asserts to be a new species, +relate to an aged male specimen of which the form is also doubtful. + +From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu, Jeffries Wyman has +sought to establish two new species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouvé +(_Troglodytes calvus_) and the Koolo-Kamba (_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_). +I have vainly endeavoured to obtain a satisfactory account of these +two supposed new species from the descriptions which are intended +to establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately rendered more +confused by the illustrations he subjoins. That of the Nschiego Mbouvé +is only taken from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee, that of +the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female gorilla. But we may come to +the general conclusion that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and +perhaps even specific, variations from the ordinary type of chimpanzee. + +[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Mafuca.] + +Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the female ape Mafuca +(often erroneously termed Mafoca), which was brought from the Loango +coast and placed in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was a +wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height, reminding us in many +respects of the gorilla. The face was prognathous; the ears were +comparatively small, placed high on the skull, and projecting outwards; +the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed; the end of the nose was +broad; and there were rolls of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, +moreover, strongly built, and the region of the hips and the belly were +contracted, while the hands and feet were large and powerful. When I +first saw this savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was full +of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I saw a female gorilla, +not quite adult, an opinion shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von +Siebold and others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau and A. B. +Meyer. At that time I made a drawing of its profile, which is given in +Fig. 61, and which was taken at a moment when the animal happened to +be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some slight errors,[99] +the illustration faithfully reproduces its general and quite original +character, and especially the expression of its countenance. From the +structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show that this animal was +simply a chimpanzee. No rational explanation can be attached to this +suggestion. + +If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined the dead body of the +female gorilla of which I have already spoken, and which was of about +the same age, I should have been still more disposed to regard Mafuca +as a true gorilla. The general physiognomical resemblance between these +animals was very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my earlier +works, the female gorilla had a high upper lip, and a somewhat small +nose. Mafuca’s upper lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise +the physical correspondence between the two animals is very great. The +hands of the female gorilla are still broader than those of Mafuca; +and indeed, Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as a new +slender-handed species of anthropoid. The assumption which I have +already contested in the earlier pages of this work, that the female +type should be placed in the foreground in describing the species, is +especially untenable in the case of the gorilla, in which the male +character is extremely predominant. + +To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A cross between the gorilla +and the chimpanzee was often suggested at the time. I was myself +inclined to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt in his +contemporary treatise on the subject, as well as in the magnificent +work which has lately appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its +illustrations and the genius of its style.[100] H. von Koppenfels +heard much of such crossings when he was on the Ogowe, nor is their +occurrence by any means impossible, and indeed they have been directly +observed among other species of apes while in confinement. Koppenfels +also affirmed that he had shot two such cross-bred animals, which were +associating with a troop of gorillas. The traveller sought to kill +others of the troop, but, when creeping on hands and knees through +the thick bushwood, he was constrained to retreat by the attacks of +some stinging ants (_Anomma arcens_). The skins and skeletons of the +supposed cross-breds were brought to the Natural History Institution in +Dresden. A. B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mistaken in these +instances, and that the remains sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly +those of chimpanzees.[101] It must be remembered that Koppenfels was +a clever hunter, and on the whole a good observer of nature, but that +he was no zoologist, and may have been mistaken as to the nature of the +animals he had shot. At the same time the possibility of the existence +of such cross-bred animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer must +be convinced that his assertion cannot be generally accepted: “Any +consideration of the question as to cross-breeding is like fighting +with windmills--that is, making difficulties where none exist.” + +If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are merely chimpanzees, +it is, at any rate, very interesting to learn that these animals +were found in the company of gorillas. We must hope that scientific +travellers will in future feel bound to devote their special attention +to this question. + +In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who was attached to +Güssfeldt’s Loango Expedition, brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a +female chimpanzee, Paulina, which varied a good deal in countenance +from the chimpanzees we have commonly seen. The ears projected widely +in a lateral direction, the supra-orbital arches were prominent, the +nose was wide, the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet. +I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead, which reproduced these +characteristics of Paulina with more or less distinctness. I have +nothing to urge against those who wish to regard such individuals +as the representatives of a special variety. I would only warn them +against the risk of accepting as such the species entitled by Du +Chaillu and Wyman, _Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, which appears to be +ill-established. + +An attempt has been made, chiefly by the unlearned, to regard +Paulina as the image of Mafuca. There is, however, a considerable +physiognomical difference between the two animals. For me and many +other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this time an enigma, which is +slurred over by others with the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on +the other hand, and animals of the same character, display much to +remind us of the illustration given by Gratiolet and Alix of their +_Troglodytes Aubryi_, although the drawing was taken from a specimen +dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its hair through +maceration in an impure preserving fluid. The growth or the lack of +hair involves considerable external differences in specimens of these +animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there is a resemblance between +Paulina and her fellows, and Aubry’s chimpanzee. + +The certain special characters presented by chimpanzee forms here +mentioned (Paulina and _Troglodytes Aubryi_) remind us of the bam +found on the Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably first +discovered by A. de Malzac, and was afterwards more exactly described +by Schweinfurth. + +In _Cassell’s Natural History_ (i. 39) the Nschiego-Mbouvé +(_Troglodytes Tschégo Duvernoy_; _Troglodytes calvus Du Chaillu et +Wyman_), is described and drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from +a stuffed specimen. In this there is much to remind us of the profile +of Mafuca, including the very shrivelled nose. An illustration is +given in the same work of the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as +a distinct species, and identified in the systematic catalogue as +_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, together with _Troglodytes Aubryi_; here we +see a full-grown chimpanzee of the ordinary kind, to which a front view +of the head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published by Gratiolet +and Alix, has been affixed. Honest research should stand aloof from +such confusion. By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the representative +of the species already established by Duvernoy, _Troglodytes Tschégo_ +or _Anthropopithecus_, and this assertion is accepted by Martin.[102] +The latter remarks that this ape cannot be classified either with the +chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons for his assertions. + +In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide whether there are +several or only one species of chimpanzee. As things are at present, +my conviction is strengthened that it is only possible to make a +provisional settlement, and I am able to admit a certain constancy in +the varieties of chimpanzees. First, The original representative of the +species (_Troglodytes niger_, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This animal +has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches are strongly developed +in the male, more slightly in the female; the countenance is not very +prognathous, and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are from 75 to 78 +mm. in height; and the whole height of the body varies between 1100 and +1300 mm. The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh-colour, +or rarely of a blackish brown or speckled general colour. The hair is +either wholly black or black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another +variety, bam or mandjaruma (_Troglodytes niger varietas Schweinfurthii +Giglioli_). The head of this animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital +arches are only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the upper lip +rather low in comparison with the other variety; the ears are somewhat +smaller, and the face is more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees. +The limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly developed. +The skin is of a dark reddish flesh-colour in youth, and with the +increase of physical development it becomes a reddish brown, dark +brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot with reddish or dark +brown, or sometimes of a reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or +yellowish grey, especially on the back. To this variety the mandjaruma +belongs, of which an illustration is given by von Issel, and also the +portrait taken from life of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my +osteological work on the gorilla,[103] as well as _Troglodytes Aubryi_ +(?), and similar animals, of which I have given illustrations in the +_Archiv. für Anatomie_.[104] + +The question might now be raised whether we may assume that there is +any distinct species of anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla +and the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard Du Chaillu’s +_Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_, Duvernoy’s _Troglodytes Tschégo_, the large +stuffed animals in the Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have +given illustrations in the _Archiv für Anatomie_, plate vii. fig. 1 +(1875); and in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps +Mafuca and the ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might also be +included.[105] Duvernoy’s name for the species, _Troglodytes Tschégo_, +seems to me not quite suitable, since the West African chimpanzees in +general are distinguished by that Latinized specific name. However, +this scientific term may be accepted in default of a better, until we +are enabled by the possession of more abundant materials to establish +the existence of such an independent species. + +With respect to the orang the unity of species is also not yet +ascertained. The Malays of the country to which they belong assert that +there are different forms of this animal, which go by the general name +of meias. The descriptions current among that people respecting these +varieties are surprising. We are tempted to believe in the existence of +different species, and some zoologists, Brühl among others, hold that +there are, at any rate, two such species. Wallace, who is intimately +acquainted with the species, says nothing on this point in his work on +the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from his general remarks +that he is disposed to recognize only one species of this animal. There +are, perhaps, constant varieties, limited to different places, and the +future will throw more certain light on this question. It is better, +therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead of indulging in peremptory +and unnecessary negations. With respect to the gibbon, the question of +variety of species has been long decided. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF NATURE, AND NATIVE +NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS. + + +The gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa, between lat. 2° N. +and 5° S., and long. 6° and 16° E. They are most widely diffused in +the northern part of this territory, on the rivers Ogōwē, Gaboon, and +Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly found in the chain +of mountains which extends for about a hundred miles from the coast +of Guinea, between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is known as +the Serra do Cristal. They have also been found at the source of the +Danger (Muni, Mooney). In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a +day’s journey from the mouth of that river. In the years 1851 and 1852 +gorillas were seen in large numbers on the sea-coast, probably driven +thither from the interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four +or five specimens were obtained in the course of a few months. After +this they again completely disappeared from the neighbourhood of the +coast, so that an American merchant captain offered 6000 dollars for +a live specimen without being able to obtain it. According to H. von +Koppenfels, the gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the +mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo. + +According to Pechuël-Lösche, the gorilla is rare on the Loango coast. +In this district it inhabits the mountainous forests or the strip +of country in their immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes +were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down to the mouths of these +rivers, and also in the ravines of the plateau of Buala; but they now +only come to the coast at Banya, where the same authority believes +that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuël-Lösche, Falkenstein, +nor Güssfeldt have ever seen the species in its wild state.[106] The +specimen brought to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained by +Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on the Loango coast, where +it was presented to him by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos +Santos. This animal, which was then extremely young, had been brought +from the Kuilu district by a negro, who had shot its mother.[107] + +In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district most frequented by +gorillas was in the region of the Gaboon, which presents a pleasant +variety of hill and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine, +tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a scattered +growth of underwood. There are a number of trees and shrubs, bearing +fruits which the natives find inedible, but which are greedily +devoured by gorillas. They show a special preference for the following +fruits:--First, those of the oil palm (_Elaeis guineenis_), of which +they also devour the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cabbage; +second, the grey plum tree (_Parinarium excelsum_), which bears a mealy +and insipid stone-fruit; third, the melon tree (_Carica Papaya_); +fourth, the pisang (_Musa paradisiaca_, _Musa sapientum_); fifth, two +sorts of scitamines (_Amomum granum paradisi s. Afzelii_, _Amomum +malaguetta_), the last of which, according to Lindley, produces the +malaguetta pepper; sixth, _Amomum grandiflorum_; seventh, a tree +bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the gorilla cracks the shell +with a stone (this is probably one of the _Sterculiaceæ_, like the +Kola-nut); eighth, another tree with which we are not yet botanically +acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit. Du Chaillu asserts that these +animals are also very fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple. +Although they live in places far from human habitations, yet they +rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of the negroes in the +harvest-time, and this is a fact confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage +reports that gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in +hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not sound improbable. +Like most species of apes, the gorilla preys upon the smaller mammals, +upon birds and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas which have +been kept in confinement at Berlin have been quite omnivorous, and have +displayed a special taste for animal food. + +In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu, Güssfeldt saw a +fetish called Bunsi, constructed of the skulls of animals, and quite +peculiar to Bakunyaland. It consisted of a pile of the skulls of +animals which had been slain in hunting, and which were brought as an +offering to the fetish by the hunter in order that his good luck might +be maintained. The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls of +antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there were also many skulls +of gorillas. Among these Güssfeldt saw two fine specimens with high +bony crests. When he inquired where gorillas were found and killed, the +natives of Ntondo pointed to a neighbouring forest.[108] + +Güssfeldt describes the character of the forest of Mayombe, where +gorillas are also found, somewhat as follows:--This forest does not +correspond to our idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps +perplex a South American traveller, since it is more like the forests +of mountainous districts in Germany. The luxuriant growth of lianas is +characteristic of a tropical primeval forest: they form a second roof +of leaves above the green masses of the closely set trees. But in this +case the parasitic vegetation is scanty, although not wholly absent, +as the kautschukranke (_Landolphia florida_) shows, which was at one +time very abundant, but is now nearly extinct. Its growth no longer +obstructs the view of the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling +beeches. The underwood of our German forests is here chiefly supplied +by the large linear leaves of the scitamines, of which the most common +variety is termed matombe by the natives. Ferns, or rather tree-ferns, +are not wanting, and the ground is covered with dead leaves. The trees +of this forest have been untouched by the axe, except in places cleared +for the construction of a new village. Where a tree falls there it +lies, encumbering, as it may for years, the narrow path which leads +through the thicket. An eternal twilight always prevails here, and +on cloudy days it might be supposed that the sun was eclipsed. The +atmosphere is close and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight +is most depressing to mind and body. The dense stillness is rarely +broken by the wailing cry of a bird, and no wild creature can be seen. +Those who wander in these forests are always going up or down hill, +since there is no level ground, and by paths scarcely wide enough for a +white man, which are covered with smooth and slippery roots, while the +feet and clothes are constantly caught by boughs and lianas, which also +sting the face, so that the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion, +for light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space on which the +village of Bayoma stands, surrounded by palms and bananas.[109] In +the work I have quoted on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour +drawing, by Pechuël-Lösche, of a forest frequented by gorillas is +reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of this interesting illustration (Fig. +62). + +[Illustration: Fig. 62.--The home of the gorilla.] + +The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male and female and their +young of varying ages, and the family group inhabits the recesses of +the forest.[110] According to von Koppenfels, they frequent the same +sleeping-place not more than three or four times consecutively, and +usually spend the night wherever they happen to be when night comes +on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators in the assertion that the +gorilla constructs a bed for his night lair upon the trees. He chooses +for this purpose a full-grown tree, not more than 0·30 m. in thickness, +breaks and bends the branches together at a height of from five to six +metres from the ground, and covers them with the twigs he has torn off, +or with the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of Africa. The +male animal spends the night crouching at the foot of the tree, against +which he places his back, and thus protects the female and their young, +which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal attacks of leopards, +which are always ready to devour all species of apes. + +In the daytime the gorillas roam through the tracts of forest which +surround their temporary sleeping-places, in order to seek for food. +In walking they place the backs of their closed fingers on the ground, +or more rarely support themselves on the flat palm, while the flat +soles of the feet are also in contact with the ground. The toes are +generally extended, and a little separated from each other, but +occasionally they are doubled under. Their gait, as Huxley justly +observes, is tottering; the movement of the body, which is never in +an upright position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some extent +from one side to another. As their arms are longer than those of +the chimpanzee, they do not reach out so much; but the gorilla also +throws his arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then gives a +half-swinging, half-springing motion to his body. When assuming the +position for walking, the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so +balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite of his apparently clumsy +and unwieldy form, the gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily +dexterity. He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels asserts, +when ranging from tree to tree, he will go to their very tops. He first +tries whether the branches will bear his weight, and if one branch is +not strong enough, he makes use of three or four at once. He will also +run along the branches on all fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw +a full-grown animal, as danger approached, spring down from a tree +which was thirty or forty feet high, and then hastily crash through the +brushwood. All Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that there +is only one adult male attached to each group. As soon as the young +male reaches maturity, a conflict for the mastery takes place, and, +after his rival is killed or driven away, the stronger animal becomes +the head of the community. + +I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla. Koppenfels once +observed a male and female with two young ones when they were feeding. +The head of the family remained at his ease, while his wife and +children plucked fruits for him from a small tree which stood by, and +if they were not sufficiently nimble, or if they took too large a share +for themselves, the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted a box +on the ear. + +The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very dangerous animal by the +negroes who inhabit the same country, and who themselves are often +deficient in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror serve to +increase their scanty fame as hunters. And what even the luxuriant +fancy of negroes could not paint as sufficiently terrible has been +exaggerated by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We will not +here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of which Brehm justly says that +they seem to have been devised by an indifferent romance-writer, who +has given his pen free play.[111] In the letters to Bastian, which are +in my hands, Koppenfels has endeavoured to modify the accounts of the +alleged ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the fragment of poetry +given by that esteemed traveller in one of his letters. + +The same author writes in another place: “As long as the gorilla is +unmolested he does not attack men--and indeed, rather avoids the +encounter.” These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds, sometimes +protracted like _kh-eh, kh-eh_, sometimes roaring or growling. When the +animal is scared by man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and +he only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven into a corner. At +such times his size, strength, and dexterity makes him a by no means +despicable enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious yelp, stands +up on his hind legs like an enraged bear, advances with clumsy gait in +this position and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair on his +head and the nape of the neck stands erect, his teeth are displayed, +and his eyes flash with savage fury. He beats his massive breast with +his fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds that if no +further provocation is given, and his opponent gradually retreats +before the animal’s rage has reached its highest point, he does not +return to the attack. In other cases he parries the blows directed +against him with the skill of a practised fighter; as is also done by +the bear, he grasps his opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else +throws the man down and rends him with his terrible canine teeth. + +The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him with his firearm. +Savage states that the hunter awaits the approach of his prey with +levelled gun, and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the animal to +seize the barrel of the gun, and fires when, as is commonly the case, +he tries to carry it to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the +barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed between his teeth. When +hunters of the Ogōwē are attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes +make a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s fury with +the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz told me that he had seen the +skin of a male gorilla which was injured in the region of the arms, +probably in this way. But such a duel generally ends in the death of +the hunter. + +Pechuël-Lösche talked with two Loango hunters who had killed gorillas. +They stated that they had not gone in search of the dreaded animals, +but that they chanced to encounter them in the forest. Only if they +met a solitary animal did they venture to creep close to it and shoot +it, and then they escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe +from the fury of any of its companions which might be lingering near. +After several hours they would return in a larger company to carry off +their prey. In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten; but, +according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked by the negroes, in the +Gaboon territory, and constituted one of their favourite dainties. + +Up to this time Europeans have been rarely successful in killing +gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts that he has been one of the luckiest, but +this assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless attempts were +made by Winwood Reade, de Compiègne, Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In +the letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he mentions that +he had already, up to March, 1874, four gorillas. In the number of the +_Gartenlaube_ shot which we have mentioned above, he describes some +of his hunting adventures, and goes into details scarcely adapted for +the readers of such a publication. On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels, +accompanied by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake Eliva, +observing a gorilla family, consisting of the parents and two young +ones. The female climbed up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down +its fruits. The male went to the water’s edge to drink, and was then +shot by Koppenfels, while the female and her young swiftly escaped. +Another time this traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the +Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka, and is bounded on the +south-east by the mountains of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval +forests. It was here that he observed the troop of chimpanzees and +gorillas of which we have already spoken, feeding on the kola nuts, +of which they are very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen of +the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo mountains he shot a male +gorilla, 1090 mm. in height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and +it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and then crashed down +upon its face. It dragged down in its fall a liana of great strength +with all its dry and green branches. + +Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying between 1500 to 2000 +mm., and very rarely exceed that height. The height of the females +is about 1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by Ford, weighed +170 lb. without the viscera. The gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the +Aschangolo mountains was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the people +of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Galloa, and Bakalay the gorilla is called +Njina, Njeïna, or Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called +Nguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu or M’Pungu. + +As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee occupies a much wider area +than the gorilla. In West Africa it is found in the latitude of the +Portuguese territory, which ranges from Cachêu in the north down to the +Coanza in the south. The species is known to exist in certain districts +of north and south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in East +Africa, to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba territory, and, as +the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts, even in the remote district of +Sofalla in the south-east of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the +truth of this fact. + +The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They subsist on wild +fruits of various kinds, but they will also visit forsaken plantations, +and even those which are still under cultivation, and in some cases it +seems that they do not reject animal food. Pechuël-Lösche says that +on the Loango coast they frequent the mountains and their vicinity. +They are found in the district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of +Tschissambo, and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as the coast. + +The chimpanzee either lives in separate families or in small groups of +families. In many districts, as, for example, in the forest regions of +Central Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those of the +gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the south-west coast, it seems +to live more upon the ground. The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam inhabits +the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia and Schweinfurth; that +is, the forest trees growing one above the other in stages, of which +the growth is so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here +the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The powerful stems, thickly +overgrown with wild pepper, bear branches from which hang long streams +of bearded moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remarkable fern +to which Schweinfurth gave the name of elephant’s ear. The large +tun-shaped structures of the tree-termites are found on the higher +branches. Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports for the +colossal streamers of _Mucuna urens_, and form bowers overhung with +impenetrable festoons, which are as large as houses, in which perpetual +darkness reigns.[112] + +When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he generally supports himself on +the backs of his closed fingers rather than on the palm of the hand, +and he goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes on the closed +toes. His gait also is weak and vacillating, and he can stand upright +on his feet for a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same time +he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them above his head, which is +a little thrown back, in order to maintain his balance. + +These animals send forth loud cries, which echo plaintively through +the great tropical forests. Pechuël-Lösche says that the horrible +wails, the furious shrieks and howls, which may be heard morning and +evening, and often in the night, make these creatures truly hateful to +travellers. “Since they are really accomplished in the art of bringing +forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard at a great distance, +and are reproduced by the echoes, it is impossible to estimate the +number of those who take part in the dreary noise, but often we seemed +to hear more than a hundred. They generally remain upon the ground +among the dense underwood and thickets of scitamine, and only climb +trees for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be plainly +discerned on soft ground: they stop short wherever the _amomum_ grows, +of which they are very fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen +scattered all around.” The same narrator observes that the mischievous +and active sea-cat monkeys, which abound on the Loango, frequently +provoke the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious tricks until +the tormented creatures cause the forest to echo with their discordant +cries. + +These animals wander about, always in search of fresh feeding-grounds. +They also construct nests and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes +the night below the nest of his family, which is placed on a forked +branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the Nschiego-Mbouvé also builds a +pent-house. An illustration of this structure, which is only moderately +successful, and has undoubtedly been embellished in London, is given +by him. Koppenfels believes that the so-called pent-house is only the +family nest, under which the male places himself; while Reichenfels +thinks it possible that some parasitic growth, perhaps a _Loranthus_, +gave rise to the belief that such a pent-house is erected. + +When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the ground with their hands, +but they do not, as the gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist. +They generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if driven to +extremity, or wounded, they defend themselves with their hands and +teeth. The direct conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in +order to obtain the mastery over him, all the strength and presence +of mind of a strong and courageous man. I shall always remember the +large female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand up against a +powerful man. Great daring was required to control the fury of Mafuca. +The Soko also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the west of Lake +Tanganyika, bravely defended itself, when attacked. + +The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with firearms or arrows, and also +kill them with javelins. The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties +of twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the woodland galleries +so closely interwoven by the liana, and when they have thrown nets +over these, they kill the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten +in different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes serve for +fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth +saw the skulls of men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons, +antelopes, wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree. + +In the Gaboon district, as we have already said, the chimpanzee is +called Nschégo, Nschiego, Ndjéko, and the same names serve for the +people of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By the people of Aschira +and Malimba the animal is called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call +the chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders who speak Arabic adopt +the name Bam or M’Bam. + +The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic islands of Borneo and +Sumatra, more frequently in the former island. It is particularly +common a few days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the river +Sampiet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote districts on the southern +and western coasts.[113] The Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock +that the orang was also found further to the north, and at Teweh, as +well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.[114] Wallace states that this +animal is widely diffused in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the +south-west, south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that +it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It seems at first +sight inexplicable that this ape should be unknown in Sarawak, while it +abounds in Sambas on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer +acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of the orang enables us +to discern sufficient grounds for the apparent anomaly in the physical +conditions of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed the orang, +he only found it in low marshy districts which were at the same time +covered with primeval forests. Many isolated hills rise from these +marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and have planted them with +fruit trees. These are a great attraction to the orang, which devours +the unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh. He cannot live +on high and dry ground. Thus, for example, he comes in troops into the +low parts of the Sadong valley; but on reaching the limits where the +ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the ground, though flat, +is dry, the orang is no longer found. The lower part of the Sadong +valley is indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout with a growth +of tall trees, only for the most part with the Nipa palm; and near the +town of Sarawak, the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed with +scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with jungle which was formerly +cultivated by the Malays and Dyaks. + +The orang is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo, and in the former +island is chiefly found in the north-eastern districts of Siak and +Atjin. Rosenberg states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy +forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel, living in thick +woods which, on account of their impenetrability, are seldom trodden by +the foot of man. + +The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests which are not too +thickly overgrown, while the gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not +wholly devoid of water. + +Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken and tolerably high +primeval forest is necessary for the well-being of the orang. Such +forests are like open ground to them, since they can move to and fro in +every direction, with the same ease that the Indians cross the prairie +and the Arabs the desert; they go from the top of one tree to the other +without ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country which stand +high and dry, being more frequented by men, and more often traversed +by clearings, and subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle, are +unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this animal. He is, in +these tracts, more exposed to danger, and more frequently constrained +to descend upon the ground. It is also probable that in the district +frequented by orangs there is a greater variety of fruits, since the +low hills, which stand like islands in the marshy plain, serve as +gardens or plantations in which the trees of the hill country flourish. + +Wallace observes that it is strange and interesting to watch an orang +passing at his ease through the forest. He goes with circumspection +along one of the larger branches in a half-upright position, which is +rendered necessary by the great length of his arms and the shortness of +his legs. He seems always to choose such trees as have their branches +interwoven with those which surround them, and when these are within +reach he extends his long arms, seizes the boughs in question with +both hands, as if to try their strength, then swings himself carefully +on to the next branch, and goes on as before. The woodcut we subjoin, +taken from a photograph by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to +explain this ape’s mode of climbing[115] (Fig. 63). + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind.] + +As Wallace further remarks, the orang never leaps or springs, seems +to be in no haste, and yet makes his way through the forest almost as +fast as a man can run on the ground below. His long, powerful arms +are of the greatest use, enabling him to climb the highest trees with +ease, to seize the fruits and young leaves from branches which would +not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves and boughs with +which he forms his nest. This structure, which serves for his nocturnal +refuge, is generally placed on some low, small tree, which stands only +from twenty to fifty feet from the ground, probably because such a +situation is warmer and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the +orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night, but Wallace thinks +this improbable, since, in this case, the deserted nest would be more +frequently found; this author saw some such nests in the neighbourhood +of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since many orangs must have been +there every day, in the course of a year their forsaken layers would +be very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the orang is wet he covers +himself with pandanus-leaves or large ferns, and this has perhaps led +to the belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees. The orang only +leaves his layer when the sun is tolerably high, and the dew has dried +off the leaves. He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but seldom +returns two days running to the same tree. + +These animals seem to be much afraid of man. Wallace never saw two +full-grown specimens together, but both male and female are often +accompanied by their half-grown young, and three or four young animals +may be seen going about together without their parents. The orang +generally lives on fruit, but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and +young shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are particularly +fond of the durian, of which the smell is so offensive and the taste +so good (_Durio zibethinus_). They destroy much more than they +consume, and leave many fragments below the trees on which they have +been feeding. I do not know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and +chimpanzees, display any taste for carnivorous food. Huxley, who has +collected much information about anthropoids which is not accessible to +others, states that it is not known whether the orang destroys living +animals. + +The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all fours laborious and +unsteady. If chased, he runs faster than a man, but is soon overtaken. +The very long arms, which are only slightly bent in running, raise +the body in a remarkable way, so that the orang almost assumes the +position of a very old man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a +stick. When walking, this ape places the closed fingers, or rarely the +open palm, of the hands upon the ground. The toes of the feet are also +curved inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned downwards. +More rarely the toes are completely closed, or the whole of the sole of +the foot serves as the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot +in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to bring the heel +more upon the ground, while the curved toes partly touch the ground +with the upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface of the +outermost toes of each foot rest altogether on the ground. + +Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down upon the ground, and +indeed only when he is driven by hunger to seek for the juicy young +shoots on the banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes +down to the water, of which he generally finds a sufficient supply +in the hollow of leaves. This traveller on only one occasion saw +two half-grown orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of +the Simunjon hills. They were at play together, standing upright +and alternately seizing each other by the arms. This observer also +considers that the orang is only able to stand upright when he has some +support for his hands, or when he is attacked. + +Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when the orang drinks, +he crouches down to the water’s edge and sucks in the liquid with his +lips. Occasionally, also, he draws water in the palm of his hand, and +gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this when in captivity. In +an old number of the _Penny Magazine_ there is a woodcut of an orang +which is very true to nature, in which he is represented as squatting +down by the water, washing his hands, and this is really his habit. + +Müller and Schlegel[116] state that the adult males live alone except +during the pairing season. Aged females and young males are often seen +together in parties of two or three, and the mothers generally keep +their young with them. Pregnant females generally live apart, and +continue to do so for a good while after the birth has taken place. +The young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live long under the +protection of their mother, who, when she is climbing, carries her +little ones in her bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair. +It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang becomes capable of +propagating his species, nor how long the females continue to bring +forth young. + +This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of the agility of the +chimpanzee, nor even of the gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his +actions, and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses into repose. +In sitting, the back is so bent, and the head so depressed, that the +orang’s eyes are directed downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on +with his hands to the higher branches, but generally his arms fall idly +by his sides. In such positions the orang will remain for hours in his +place, almost motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a note of +his deep, gruff voice. By day he is accustomed to go from one tree-top +to another, and he only comes down to the ground at night. When +anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself in the underwood. +When not hunted, he remains long in one place, and indeed, for several +days together on the same tree. He seldom passes the night on a high +tree, which he finds too cold and windy, and when night approaches he +scrambles down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to the top of +some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong palm, the pandanus, or the +parasitic orchids which are characteristic of the primeval forests +of Borneo. He constructs his nest out of small branches and leaves, +laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with the leaves of orchids, +_Pandanus fascicularis_, _Nipa fruticans_, etc. The nests observed by +Müller were some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of from +ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were from two to three feet in +diameter. Some of them had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches +thick. In others the branches intertwined for a foundation were united +in a common centre, forming a uniform surface. + +The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves his lair about nine a.m., +and repairs to it again about five p.m., or a little later, when it is +growing dusk. He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change, on +his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and supporting his head on +his hand. When the night is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body, +and especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves, or with fronds +of fern. + +Although the orang lives in the daytime on the branches of large trees, +he seldom crouches on a thick bough, as other apes, and especially the +gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to the slender, +leafy branches, so that he really reaches the tree-top. He has not the +sessor-callosities found on other apes, including the gibbon, and the +hips are not so wide and prominent as in those species provided with +callosities. + +The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He is particularly careful +about his feet, and seems much more sensitive to any injury to them +than is the case with other apes. In climbing he alternately uses one +hand and one foot, or else, as soon as he has taken a firm hold with +his hands, he draws up both feet together. In his passage from one +tree to another, he always looks out for a place where two branches +come close together, or intertwine. Even when hotly pursued, he +displays wonderful caution, trying the strength of the branches, and +pressing them down by the weight of his body, so as to make a bridge +from tree to tree. On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists +essentially agree with those of Wallace. + +There is an eager search for these apes in their native place. Bock +states the Malays of Samarinda, in the south-east of Borneo, capture +them near the small brooks and streams which flow into the Mahakkam +close to that town. These animals come down to the river-bank in the +early morning and return in the course of the day to the thicket. When +the natives take an orang alive, they sell him for three dollars to the +Chinese, who at first feed the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice, +but are never able to keep him alive for any time in captivity.[117] + +Although, in the ordinary course of his existence, the orang shows +himself to be melancholy, slothful, and indifferent, yet in moments of +danger he becomes angry and able to defend himself. When pursued, he +is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches, and the thick, +thorny outer husks of the durian fruit. This is the more probable since +the Tscheladas (_Cynocephalus Gelada_), the Hamadryas (_Cynocephalus +Hamadryas_), and other baboons are in the habit of hurling branches, +stones, and hardened clods of earth with great adroitness at those +who attack them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the arm +of his opponent, biting and scratching it whenever he can get at it. +Wallace says that no wild animal ventures to fight with these powerful +creatures, and that they can even obtain the mastery over crocodiles +and gigantic snakes. + +The name orang-utan is derived from the words orang, man, and utan +(belonging to woods), and is therefore merely wood-man. It is an error +to write orang-_utang_, which, according to Von Martens, signifies an +_indebted_ man.[118] The Malay name, meias, is often used, and they are +distinguished as meias-pappan or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi. +According to Rosenberg, the orang is called mawas in Sumatra, and Bock +says that the Dyaks of Dusun call it këu. + +The gibbon in all its movements, and especially in those of its long +arms, has a very singular appearance. In the second chapter of this +work I have already described the geographical distribution and +grouping of the species of these remarkable animals. Although they +occasionally come down upon the ground, they are for the most part +arboreal in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of high and +even of mountainous districts to any others. Many find shelter in the +bamboo thickets, especially in those formed by the gigantic stems of +_Bambusa macroculmis_ and _Bambusa gigantea_. + +The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg asserts that the first +syllable is merely the article, lives gregariously in Sumatra, and +possibly in Malacca. Martens saw one of these animals in Sumatra, +swinging himself from tree to tree, right across the path, about fifty +feet in front of him. Diard states that a powerful old male acts as +leader to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sunrise, and keep +quiet during the day, always on the watch, and scampering off at the +slightest noise. They find it easy to get away on trees, but, according +to some accounts, when surprised upon the ground, they show no agility, +and are readily captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the siamang +and unko inhabit mountainous forests 3000 ft. above the sea, keeping +to the trees which grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending +to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger they hasten down the +mountain with speed which rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few +moments to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests which partly +enclose Tobing, as well as on the mountains of Barissa, the siamang +is not rare. Bock says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests, +this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant called _Daun +simantung_. This ape makes a horrible roaring noise.[119] When a young +one is wounded, its mother turns in a threatening manner towards the +aggressor, yet without being able to do him any serious injury. The +mothers seem to act with great tenderness towards their young, taking +them down to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms that +before they are able to run alone the young animals are always carried +by the parent of the same sex, the male by the father, the female by +the mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to tigers and panthers +(_Felis macroscelis_). The species is considered by the natives to be +slothful and unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the Malays are +skilled in the care of animals, they are unable to keep these stupid +and slothful apes alive in captivity for any length of time.[120] + +Harlan states that the hulock is found on the Garrau mountains, near +Gulpara, in Assam. These apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to +the mountains themselves, which are several hundred feet higher, and +exposed to the winds. Their favourite food is a fruit called propul, +which is very abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen +encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to 150 together, near +the Naga and the Abors in the wooded hills to the east of Assam. The +noise they made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen crossed their +path, he was threatened by them, and pursued with angry gestures and +piercing howls. They had also attacked a native of the district. Snakes +of considerable size (_Python reticulatus_) were torn to pieces by them. + +The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa, appears to live +more commonly in pairs than in troops. We learn from Duvaucel that +these animals move through the trees with great swiftness, grasping the +slenderest and most flexible branches. They swing two or three times +to and fro, and then spring with outstretched arms so that the flat +surface of the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this way +they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and go on for hours without +fatigue. + +Gibbons are generally more capable than other anthropoids of walking +upright. Some species, such as the lar, the white-handed, and the +slender gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in maintaining +this position. They press the flat soles of their feet upon the ground, +turn out their knees and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the +shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms by their sides, with +the slender hands hanging slackly down. Others walk with their raised +arms crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking on perfectly flat +ground, he sways his arms to and fro like balancing poles. On irregular +ground they seize any projection in the way with their outstretched +arms, and, holding on to it, swing the body strongly forwards. In this +way they make better progress over wide tracks of country, since every +such effort enables them to pass more readily over difficult ground. +When in great haste, they go upon all fours without closing either +fingers or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting position +upon their posteriors, cross their long arms and stare at whatever is +before them with an air of indifference. When seated on the branches +of trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above them for the +sake of security (Fig. 14). In this position some gibbons (_Hylobates +lar_, _Hulock_, _Albimanus_) have recently been photographed in the +Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for the most part content +with a vegetable diet, gibbons sometimes eat animal food, such as +lizards; and Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these animals +whole. I do not at this moment remember Huxley’s authority for the +statement that gibbons, when they drink, dip the hand in water and +lick it off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive animal. +They sleep in a sitting position without building nests: like other +anthropoids, they digest their food quickly. + +In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally, the length of the +period of gestation is still a matter of uncertainty. The young are +of slow development, and are not fully mature before their fourteenth +or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration of their lives accurately +known, since observations made on captive specimens only lead to vague +conclusions. If we observe the processes of osseous development in the +skeletons of aged specimens of gorillas in order to make an approximate +estimate, we may infer that the duration of the life of anthropoids, +at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls short of the average +length of human life. But up to this time the question remains +undecided. + +These creatures do not appear to be free from morbid conditions in the +wild life which is in conformity with their nature. In addition to +the injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often be observed, and +which have been caused by the weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws +of their own kind, there are often traces, especially on the skulls of +chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and maxillary necrosis, as well as +of curvatures, excrescences, and united fractures of other parts of the +bony structure. + +This brief description is enough to show that anthropoids in their +free life develop an intelligence which sets them high above the other +mammals. They do not, however, display the keenness of scent and +quickness of sight which distinguish some animals of a lower order, +such as canine beasts of prey and ruminants manifest in many different +ways. The structure of their nests is rude in comparison with that of +some other mammals--as, for example, of rodents. But we must not forget +that several of the lower races of men, such as the degraded Bedja, the +Obongo, the Fuegians, many aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the +Australian blacks, scarcely rise above the inartificial structure of an +anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their huts. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +LIFE IN CAPTIVITY. + + +The accounts given by the earliest observers of gorillas would lead +us to expect that the attempt to tame even young apes of this species +must be fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a young male +gorilla, a creature of from two to three years old, which was quite as +furious and unmanageable as any adult specimen could have been. The +negroes of the district between the Rembo and Cape Santa Catharina +had surprised the mother and her young one in the forest, and after +killing the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in capturing +the latter by throwing a cloth over his head. By means of a wooden +slave-fork, fixed upon its neck, the animal was transported to the +village in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time. Young as he was, +the gorilla displayed extraordinary strength, and after he had been +successfully fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack his new +master again, tearing his trousers, and then retreating sullenly into +a corner. He would only eat the wild berries and fruits collected for +him in the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple leaves. He +escaped from his cage, and was only recaptured, after many fruitless +endeavours, by throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that he had +never seen so furious a creature as this gorilla. He flew at every one +who came near him, bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed, +on every possible occasion, that he was of a thoroughly malicious and +unkindly nature. He broke loose a second time, and was again captured, +and at the end of ten days he died suddenly. + +Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young female gorilla, which clung +affectionately to its mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators +were affected by its grief. The creature was too young to be fed on +anything but milk, and since this was unattainable, it died three days +after its capture. + +Reade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate in their experience with +the gorillas captured by them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about +one of these animals:--“On my return to the Gaboon from a journey to +Okanda, I was attacked by a somewhat serious fever which hung about me +for a long while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the German +factory on the Gaboon, was some compensation to me for this involuntary +idleness. The creature came from Kamma (Fernand Vaz), the place from +which Du Chaillu also obtained his specimens, and was captured out of +a troop of eight animals. A small dog, which had been somewhat injured +by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, prevented the young one from +escaping until a negro came up, seized it by the neck, and got another +man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was conveyed to the +basket-factory of the house, and there, as is unfortunately done in +most cases, the two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his +using them to bite his captors. + +“This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably two years old, and +has reconciled himself to captivity and to intercourse with men with +no great difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened round his +neck, which gives him plenty of room to move about; but for the greater +part of the day he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfortable +in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold, wind, and rain, and a +thick sail-cloth is wrapped round the cask at night. He generally +adopts a squatting position, with his arms folded across his breast, +and he is always observant of surrounding objects. He always seats +himself so as to have nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies +before him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full length on his +back or side, using one hand as a kind of pillow; and he never sleeps +like other apes, in a squatting position. He goes upon all-fours with +the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while the forehands are +closed, so that he goes upon the knuckles, and he has the lateral gait +characteristic of the species. At this moment he suffers terribly from +the so-called dissous or sand-fly; both his forehands are full of +blisters, which contain the eggs of this annoying little insect. + +“In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the question of food is +necessarily the most important. We have already offered him rice, +bread, milk, etc., such things as may be obtained on board ship, as +well as in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has occasionally +eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s biscuit more readily, and once +he ate some rice, but for the most part he does not touch it. His +favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of which he eats the +inner kernel; he is likewise fond of bananas and oranges, and above +all, of sugar-cane, which he takes from my hand with evident pleasure, +and chews. He will also take a glass of water from my hand, carry it +steadily to his mouth, and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he +was much excited, I have heard him utter a growling noise; generally he +is quite dumb.” This animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body, +preserved in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by me in some of the +researches of which I have given an account. + +Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the gorilla represented +in Figs. 3, 4, during the first months of his captivity: “When this +animal reached the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first care +to procure all the forest fruits within reach, as well as a she-goat, +in order to restore the young anthropoid’s failing strength. It can +easily be supposed that we watched his attempts to eat with great +interest, and were very much relieved when he not only readily drank +milk, but ate various fruits with evident increase of appetite, and +especially those of _Anona senegalensis_, which are of about the size +of a walnut, with a rough husk, and grow in the savannahs. In spite +of this, however, he remained for a long while so weak that he would +fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of the day crouching +asleep in a corner. He gradually became accustomed to cultivated +fruits, such as bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he became +stronger, and was more often present at our meals, he began to demand +for himself whatever he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually +accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood of transporting him +successfully to Europe was increased.” + +This is perhaps the only way in which other and possibly older +specimens can be rendered fit to endure the passage to Europe. Every +attempt to embark them immediately after their capture, without +previously weaning them from their old modes of life, and adapting them +slowly and systematically to their altered conditions, has invariably +resulted, sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein also +recommends, relying on the experience he has had of apes in a state of +nature, that this species should be supplied with some form of animal +food. He gives this further account of the captive gorilla:-- + +“In the course of a few weeks he became so accustomed to his +surroundings, and to the people whom he knew, that he was allowed to +run about at liberty, without fear that he would make any attempt to +escape. He was never chained, nor confined to a cage, and was watched +only in the way that little children are watched when they are at play. +He was so conscious of his own helplessness that he clung to human +companionship, and displayed in this manner a wonderful dependence +and trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous, malicious, or +savage qualities, but was sometimes self-willed. He expressed the +ideas which occurred to him by different sounds, one of which was the +characteristic tone of importunate petition, while others expressed +fright or horror, and in rare instances a sullen and defiant growl +might be heard. + +“In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and simple pleasure, he might +be seen to rub his breast with both fists, while raising himself on +his hind legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings after quite +a human fashion, by clapping his hands together, an action which +no one had taught him; and he executed such wild dances, sometimes +overbalancing himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling round, that we +were often disposed to think that he must be drunk. Yet he was only +drunk with pleasure, and this impelled him to display his strength in +the wildest gambols. + +“His dexterity in eating was particularly remarkable. If any of the +other apes chanced to enter his chamber nothing was safe from them; +they snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it away with a +certain aversion, or carelessly to let it drop. The gorilla behaved +quite differently: he took up every cup or glass with instinctive +care, clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down again so +softly and carefully that I cannot remember his breaking a single +article of our household goods. Yet we never taught the creature the +use of our vessels and other manufactured articles, since we wished +to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in a state of nature. His +behaviour at meal-times was quiet and mannerly; he only took as much +as he could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger, and looked +on with indifference when any of the different forms of food heaped +up before him were taken away. If, however, nothing was given him, +he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the dishes from his +place at table, and accompanied every plate carried off by the negro +boys with an angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and sometimes +he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by in order to express his +displeasure more plainly by a bite or a blow. In another minute he +would play with the negroes as with his fellows, and this distinguishes +him altogether from other apes, and especially from baboons, who appear +to feel an instinctive hatred against many of the black race, and take +a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity against them. + +“He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel without even putting +his hands into it or upsetting it, and in the case of smaller vessels, +he carried them to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but sometimes +his high spirits made him careless, and he once fell to the ground +from a tree, which was fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was +remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s web, or rubbish of +any kind, he sought to brush it off with absurd horror, or held out his +hands to have it done for him. There was no offensive smell about him. +It was his favourite amusement to play and paddle about in the water, +nor did the fact that he had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing +himself by rolling in the sand with other apes immediately afterwards. +His good-humour and shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special +mention as his strongest characteristic. When he was chastised, as it +was necessary to do at first, he never resented the punishment, but +came up with a beseeching air, clinging to my feet, and looking up with +an expressive air which disarmed all displeasure. When he was anxious +to obtain anything, no child could have expressed its wishes in a more +urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he did not obtain what +he wanted, he had recourse to cunning, and looked anxiously about to +see if he was watched. It was just in these cases, when he obstinately +pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible not to recognize a +deliberate plan and careful calculation. If, for example, he was not +allowed to leave the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he +would, after several attempts to get his own way had been baffled, +apparently submit to his fate and lie down near the door in question +with assumed indifference. But he soon raised his head in order to +ascertain whether fortune was on his side, edging himself gradually +nearer and nearer, and then, looking carefully round, he twisted +himself about until he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered +cautiously round, and with one bound galloped off so quickly that it +was difficult to follow him. + +“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity when he felt a desire for +the sugar or fruit which was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room; he +would suddenly leave off playing and go in an opposite direction, only +altering his course when he believed that he was no longer observed. +He then went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it, and made a +quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar-box or fruit-basket, sometimes +closing the cupboard doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his +plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape with it, and his +whole behaviour made it clear that he was conscious of transgressing +into forbidden paths. He took a special, and what might be called a +childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on hollow articles, and +he seldom omitted an opportunity of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin +trays, whenever he passed by them--a noisy amusement to which he was +much addicted during our homeward voyage on board the steam-vessel, in +which he was at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked strange +noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the skylight, and especially the +long-drawn note of a pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as +to cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and it became +expedient to keep him at a distance. When he was slightly indisposed, +we made use of this kind of music with results as successful as if we +had administered purgative medicine.” + +My personal observations enable me to add but little to this excellent +and exhaustive account. It is well known that this ape throve in the +Berlin Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities, was at first +covered with dry, cracked patches, which the late veterinary surgeon +Gerlach believed to be due to mange; but these gradually disappeared, +and as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a dark black +colour, and there was a fresh growth of hair. The creature generally +slept in the bed of his keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an +orderly manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but nourishing +food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He sometimes ate fruit, and bananas +were occasionally provided for him. When taking his meals, drinking, +etc., I saw that he always behaved with good manners. He often moved +freely about in an office-room of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient +to the Director as to his keeper. He was generally good-tempered, +fond of play, but rather mischievous, and he would snatch roughly, +and occasionally try the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried +to seize from visitors things which attracted his curiosity, such as +the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets, lace falls, and the like. But on the +whole he behaved with propriety, playfulness, and good temper, and +there was much which resembled man in his look and bearing. + +Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape suffered from malaria, +and he subsequently suffered from other complaints, from which he +recovered. He died in November, 1877, of a galloping consumption.[121] +The gorilla now living in the Berlin Aquarium is also very playful and +affectionate. + +The chimpanzees which have up to this time been observed in captivity, +have been, while in good health, lively and amusing animals, and +generally good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a specimen about +two years of age, and this ape always walked upright, even when he +carried heavy loads. It is known that other apes can also be trained to +adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a serious and melancholy +expression, moved slowly, was gentle and patient, and obedient to a +word or sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them in an orderly +manner, sat down to table like a man, opened his napkin and wiped his +lips with it, made use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and +clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in sugar, poured +out tea, let it get cold before drinking it; but, while doing all +this, he did not seem happy. He ate all the ordinary food of men, but +preferred fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea, and +sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one, coming close to them, +and taking pleasure in their caresses. He took such a fancy to one +lady, that when other people approached her he seized a stick and began +to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated his displeasure at such +behaviour. + +Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chimpanzee which likewise +came from the Gaboon, and which, as soon as she came on board, reached +out her hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good terms with +the whole crew, including the cabin-boy. When the sailors were at meals +the ape regularly appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry she +made a baying noise like a dog, and on another occasion she wailed +like a spoiled child, scratching herself vehemently. She was lively +and cheerful in warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to +northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was glad to wrap +herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed uneasy in an upright position, +and when she assumed it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her hands +were very strong, and she could hold on to a cord and swing for a long +while without interruption. She gradually acquired a taste for wine, +and once stole a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was fond +of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank from a glass, and +took pleasure in imitating the behaviour of men. She was attracted by +shining metals, pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on a +hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition. + +According to the account of Captain Grandpré, a female chimpanzee on +board his vessel would heat the oven, taking care that no coals fell +out, and carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of which +she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all the duties of a sailor, +such as drawing up the anchor, furling and making fast the sails. She +patiently endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching out her +hands imploringly to ward off his blows. But after this she refused all +food, and died in five days of grief and hunger. + +A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick, and twice blooded. +When he again fell ill, he held out his arm as if to demand another +venesection. + +In reading these accounts, which have gone the round of various +old-fashioned books on natural history, the question arises what we are +or are not to believe, for many particulars appear to be exaggerated. +Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium, disputes the assertion +made by others that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept for +a long while in that establishment, poured out wine for herself at an +evening party, and clinked glasses with a neighbour.[122] + +There is, however, an account given by Broderip of a male chimpanzee, +which was brought from the Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological +Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and faithful. The creature, +clothed in a little jacket, nestled for the most part in the lap of an +old female keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played with his +toes, just as a child does under like circumstances. He took Broderip’s +hand without fear, and touched the ring on one of his fingers with +his teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial substances +with his teeth. He held fast to his keeper’s gown when she proposed to +leave him, and he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed great +terror when an anaconda was brought into the room in a basket, and did +not dare to take an apple from off the closed lid of the basket; but +as soon as the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the apple +and became cheerful again. He willingly placed himself in a swing, and +held on to the cords with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting +position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or sometimes resting his +face on his hands. But he would also sleep upon his belly, with his +feet drawn up, and his head on his arms. + +A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, was +remarkable for his excessive liveliness. He had contracted a friendship +with a fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their intimacy was +confirmed by their games together, accompanied by many tender embraces. +The small orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed the +chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and the former betrayed +remarkable intelligence. In consequence of a general repair of his +cage, Dr. Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we owe this +account, was obliged to keep the chimpanzee in his office, in company +with himself and other officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed +himself to his new surroundings, and was on particularly friendly +terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy. When the child entered the +room, the chimpanzee ran to meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized +his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might play together. The +child was often rough with his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth, +pinching his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was never known +to lose his temper. He behaved very differently to boys between six +and ten years old. When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he +ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook one of them, bit +the leg of another, seized the jacket of a third with the right hand, +jumped up, and with the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short, +he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he were infected with the +joyous excitement of youth, which induced him to riot with the troop of +schoolboys. + +One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son a slight tap on the +head, on account of some miscalculation in his arithmetic, the +chimpanzee, who was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart box +on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that some one was staring or +mocking at him, and said, “Do not put up with it,” the creature cried, +“Oh! oh!” and rushed at the person in question in order to strike or +bite him, or express his displeasure in some other way. As he made +distinctions in the age of human beings, so also with animals. He was +gentle and considerate in his behaviour to young dogs and apes, while +with older animals he was as boisterous as he was with the schoolboys. +When he saw that Hermes was writing, he often seized a pen, dipped it +in the inkstand, and scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special +talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium. It was amusing to +see him squeezing up the cloth, moistening the pane with his lips, and +then rubbing it hard, passing quickly from one place to another. + +Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in her external habits, but +in her disposition. At one moment she would sit still with a brooding +air, only occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance at the +spectators; at another she took pleasure in feats of strength, or +she roamed to and fro in her spacious enclosure like an angry beast +of prey. She would insert the index finger of her right hand in the +opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds, climb up the pole with +it, and let it fall with a crash and clatter from a height of six feet. +This ape would sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence +which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond of playing with old +hats, which she set upon her head, and if the top was quite torn off, +she drew it down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who entered +the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear their clothes. She hardly +obeyed any one except Schöpf, the director of the Dresden Zoological +Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit on his knee and put +her muscular arms round his neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of +this, Schöpf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish tricks, since her +good-humour was of short duration. She was rather fond of the keeper, +but not always obedient to him, and the whip was often in request, even +at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a spoon, although somewhat +awkwardly; and she could pour from larger vessels into smaller ones +without spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the morning and +evening, and a mixed diet between whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, +red wine and water, and sugar. + +Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the companionship of a pretty +sea-cat monkey, but she teased the creature so much that a special +refuge was set apart for it, into which she could not enter. She was +so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm that she seized her +sleeping playfellow by the tail and dashed it to the ground. She chased +the mice which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She was much afraid +of snakes, which is not usually the case with chimpanzees. If she was +left alone for any time she tried to open the lock of her cage without +having the key, and she once succeeded in doing so. On that occasion +she stole the key, which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her axilla, +and crept quietly back to the cage. With the key she easily opened the +lock, and she also knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off her +keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out of reach with them, and +throw them at his head when he asked for them. She could wring out wet +cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. When her illness began, +she became apathetic, and looked about with a vacant, unobservant +stare. Just before her death, from consumption, she put her arms round +Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit her, looked at him placidly, kissed +him three times, stretched out her hand to him, and died.[123] The last +moments of anthropoids have their tragic side! + +We owe to Wallace an interesting account of young orangs in a state +of captivity. This observer shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large +female ape of this species, which had a young one about a foot long. +As Wallace carried this creature home, it took such a firm hold of his +beard that he had much difficulty in getting free, for the unequal +phalanges of the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At that time +the creature had not a single tooth, but the two lower front teeth were +cut a few days later. Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female +animal to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged to give +it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill inserted in the cork, from +which, after some attempts, it learned to suck very well. Sugar and +cocoa-milk were added, to make the pap more nourishing. When Wallace +put his finger in the creature’s mouth, it sucked at it vigorously, +then pushed it angrily away and began to scream, as a child does in +like circumstances. When it was fondled and caressed, it was quiet and +content, but began to scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for +the first two nights it was very noisy and restless. + +Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s cradle, with a soft +mat which was changed and washed every day. The little ape itself liked +to be washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream, and never +stopped until carried to the spring by its master, when it became quiet +at once, although it struggled when first touched by the cold water, +and made absurd grimaces when water was poured over its head. It was +extremely fond of being dried and rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly +happy when Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with extended +arms and legs while the long hair on its back and arms was brushed +out. At first it clung helplessly by all-fours to whatever it could +get hold of, and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save his +beard. When restless, it worked its hands above in the air, in search +of something to hold, and if it got hold of a stick or piece of cloth +with two or three of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default +of anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while it often +folded its arms, and seized with each hand the long hair which grew +below the opposite shoulder. The strength of the creature’s gripe soon +diminished, however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for giving +it exercise and strengthening its limbs. With this object he made a +short ladder of three or four rounds, to which he suspended the young +orang for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it was pleased, but +finding itself unable to assume a comfortable position when holding on +by all four hands, it let go with one after another and at last fell +to the ground. Often, when only hanging by two hands, it let go with +one, in order to cross it over the opposite shoulder, and get hold of +its own hair, and on finding this much more agreeable than the piece +of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to the ground, where it +lay on its back with folded arms, quite content and apparently none the +worse for its numerous tumbles. + +When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of hair, he endeavoured +to construct an artificial mother by stitching together a piece of +buffalo hide which he suspended about a foot from the ground. At +first this seemed quite successful, since the small orang could +cling round it and always find something hairy to which it held fast +with great persistency. Wallace now hoped that he had made the little +orphan happy, and so it was for a while, until it remembered its lost +mother and tried to suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to +the hide, and hunted about for promising places; but when its mouth +was only filled with wool and hair it was much displeased, cried +vehemently, and gave up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On +one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and Wallace was afraid +it must be choked; but after a good deal of cough it threw it up, and +he destroyed the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt to give +the little creature some occupation. + +At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the ape with a spoon. He +mixed soaked biscuit with egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet +potatoes. It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces in order +to express its satisfaction or displeasure with what was offered. The +little being licked its lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its +eyes with an expression of extreme content when it had a mouthful of +anything it particularly liked. On the other hand, when the food was +not sufficiently sweet and savoury, the orang turned it about in its +mouth for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then spat it out. +If the same food was presented again, it screamed violently and threw +its arms about like a passionate child. + +Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young orang, a macaca (_Macacus +cynomolgus_), likewise young, was brought to him. The two animals +became at once the best of friends, neither showing the least fear of +the other. The small macaca had not the slightest scruple about sitting +on the other’s body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the orang, +the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels which dropped, and when the +meal was over it licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips, +and even tore open its mouth to see if anything remained there; then +it lay down on the poor creature’s body as if it were a comfortable +cushion. The small, helpless orang endured all these insults with the +most unexampled patience, only too glad to have something warm to cling +to and encircle fondly with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when +the other little ape wished to get away, the orang held on as long as +possible to the movable skin of the back or head, or to its tail, so +that it cost the macaca many violent struggles to escape. + +Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour of these two +animals, which were of nearly the same age. All the observations +hitherto made show that very young anthropoids display a helplessness +resembling that of children of about the same age, although other +families of apes, in common with most young mammals, kittens, puppies, +etc., early attain to greater activity and independence. + +When Wallace had kept the orang for about a month, and placed it on +the ground, its legs straggled outwards, or it overbalanced itself and +fell heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would hold on to the +edge, and once or twice it fell out in consequence. If allowed to be +dirty or hungry, or otherwise neglected, it would cry loudly until it +received attention, or sometimes would cough or struggle like an adult +animal. If there was no one in the house, or if no one paid attention +to its cries, it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them when a +step was heard. + +At the end of five weeks the two upper front teeth were cut, but +throughout that period the creature had not grown, and remained of the +same size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the want of milk or +other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk seemed to produce diarrhœa, of which +it was cured by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of what +appeared to be intermittent fever, and died within a week.[124] + +In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received an orang of two or +three years old. He was for the most part sluggish and inert, but had +occasional fits of better humour and playfulness. When angry he would +attack strangers, but he generally sat cross-legged on a low stool, +or on the ground before the fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the +giraffes of the establishment inquisitively stretched their long +necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the creature evinced no fear, +but tried to seize the long-legged animals by the muzzle. This orang +answered to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often searching +in his pocket for the dainties concealed there. He was uneasy when +separated by the cage-bars from his master; and when confined in an +enclosure of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire asunder and +squeezed himself through the hole, so that the cage had to be made +stronger. The creature presented an absurd appearance dressed in a +jacket and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he saw, he looked +alternately at it and his keeper, and protruded his lips like a snout. +In drinking, this animal took the vessel in his hand, brought the rim +to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity. I may here observe +that when anthropoids drink in this way, they generally take the vessel +in one hand, and support it with the back of the fingers of the other. + +When the orang we have just described was disappointed in his desire to +obtain anything, he threw himself on the ground, howling and screaming +until he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits of passion, in +one of which he tried to destroy the bars of his cage by hitting them +with the stool. As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent +to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on the return of his +keeper. + +An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in 1827, was less phlegmatic +than animals of this species usually are. He played with those who +carried him when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair, and +so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a cloth, throwing one +end over his shoulder, as he had seen the servants of the house do. +He was particularly fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit. He +was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he could reach, first +with the fingers, then with the lips, and finally with his teeth. He +was fond of biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His absurd +gestures, combined with his air of solemnity, excited laughter even in +the grave natives. He was once drinking tea, when some one filled the +empty mug with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw himself +on his back, screamed, and struck his breast and belly with his hands. +His gait was clumsy and unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When +he went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself on his hands +and swung himself forward with his feet. If he lost his balance in +walking upright, he fell upon his head, and then went on by turning +somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went into the house and +tried to get a portion of his master’s breakfast. In spite of his +usual inquisitiveness, he was not at all excited by the sight of his +melancholy countenance in the glass. + +The large orang which was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876 was a +sullen companion, and looked like an old Bedouin as he crouched down +and peered from under the covering which was thrown over him. His +keeper could only trust him when he brought him an orange, and if he +approached the bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him, +gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he was not excited by +hunger. Then he started from his usually sitting position, and devoured +the food which was cautiously passed through the door. If kept waiting, +he threw himself on his back in a rage. When his hunger was satisfied, +he played with the straw, the cord, or with his blanket. When it was +necessary to change his straw, he was lured away by holding out an +orange at the top of his pole, and the change was effected while the +ape was tearing open the rind and sucking out its contents. In the +evening he never omitted to clear out a hole in the straw, and to roll +himself in his blanket. Gabriel Max has drawn a striking likeness of +the resigned attitude of a sick orang. + +Gibbons have often been observed in a state of captivity. Of the +slothful and inanimate siamang there is nothing of much interest to +report. The other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic, shy, +and timid, but hardly ever averse from human society. Within a month +Harlan was able to make a hulock so tame that he would hold on with +one hand to him, while putting the others on the ground, and so walk +about with his keeper. He came to his master’s call, seating himself +close to him on a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or +chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil the cloth. He was +fond of cooked rice, bread soaked in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee, +tea, chocolate, milk, etc. Generally he only dipped his fingers in the +drinking vessels and licked off the liquid, but he could drink in human +fashion. He searched the house for spiders and other creeping things, +and brushed away flying insects with his right hand. The creature was +very affectionate, and when Harlan came to him in the morning, he +greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which went on for about +a minute. He came to a call even when at a distance, and was pleased +to be combed, brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by Harlan +behaved in the same way. + +The _Hylobates albimanus_ of the Berlin Aquarium, which I have already +mentioned, was, as described by Hermes, and also according to my own +observations, a very peaceable creature, although, if compelled to do +what he did not like, he sometimes tried to bite a little, especially +when just taken from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken by the +hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased. Although much less lively +than the chimpanzee which was his companion, and less inclined to play, +he was pleased with children, and watchfully observed their movements. +His dexterity was wonderful. He was almost always present at dinner +and supper, when the table was covered with dishes, and he ran up and +down it, in order to go from one person to another, without touching, +still less upsetting, the smallest article. His food consisted chiefly +of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and Kiel sprats, of which +he was particularly fond, as well as of sweet grapes. Before taking +any liquid, he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascertain +that it was not too hot; then he drank it up, without taking the cup +or vessel in his hand, as the chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or +moist food, and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing to +eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his favourite dainty, and if +hungry when he saw them, he uttered a gentle noise which resembled +the cry of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise, _Hu_, _Hu_, +to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity, or when the same sound +was uttered by others; and it was in this way that he greeted Hermes +when he came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest when seated on +a woman’s arm, with his long arms wound round her neck, and would sit +quiet in this position as long as he was permitted to do so, and when +taken away would scream like a child. When Frau Hermes left the room, +he would run after her, and try to scramble up as soon as he reached +her; if she took his hand, he went with her quietly. This gibbon may +be compared favourably with other anthropoids, on account of his +extraordinary cleanliness. He always returned to the place first used +for his necessities, and never made his bed or the room unclean. There +was not a trace of smell about him, so that he was quite an agreeable +companion; and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ children without +causing the least disturbance or discomfort. He was fond of swinging to +and fro by a cord, to which he held with one hand. + +A specimen of _Hylobates funereus_ was kept in Paris for about a year. +It was very intelligent, yet less so than other anthropoids. It knew +its keepers and frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled; but +it showed no preference for one person more than another, not even for +its keeper. + +Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live bird was let into the +cage of an _Hylobates agilis_. After watching its flight, the ape swung +himself on to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand and the +bird with the other. Its objects, both the bird and the bough, were +attained with as much certainty as if only one object had arrested its +attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked out the feathers, and +then threw it away. + +Another female specimen of _Hylobates agilis_ suddenly attacked her +keeper, sprang upon him, scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him +on the breast, so that it was fortunate for the man that the creature +had shortly before lost her canine teeth. It was said that the same ape +had killed a man in Macao. + +Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from caries of the teeth +and jaws, from chronic and acute bronchial and intestinal catarrhs, +from inflammation and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of +the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of the skin and +intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn from many sources, these animals +display much resemblance to men. Among others, Bock observed an aged +male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from consumption, which lay +nearly all day wrapped in a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a +violent cough.[125] + +On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees we find traces of caries +of the teeth and jaws, by which, therefore, these animals may be +affected in a state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin and +intestines. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM. + + +The racial history of apes can only be traced with any certainty up +to the Miocene period. The fact of the contemporary existence of apes +and pachydermata has been frequently asserted, but it is still too far +from being established to merit further consideration here. Traces of +the slender ape (_Semnopithecus_) have, however, been found in the +Miocene of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik, and in the +region bordering on the Himalayas. The name given to one of these +fossil species (_Semnopithecus subhimalayanus_) seems to establish its +locality. The numerous remains of _Mesopithecus Pentelici_ in Attica +have, however, given rise to controversy. Gaudry and Beyrich were +disposed to assign these specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but +Gaudry has since declared that, while the structure of the skull and +teeth is that of _Semnopithecus_, the structure of the limbs is that of +a macaca. He regards, therefore, _Mesopithecus_ as an interesting form +of apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.[126] + +The separation of these two species of apes (_Semnopithecus_ +and _Macacus_) must, he considers, have occurred rather late. +_Pliopithecus_, from the fresh-water marl, Sansan, is assigned by +Gaudry and others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe, however, +that it is nearer to the next neighbour on the south, the magot +(_Inuus_), on account of the five fangs of its last tooth. Köllner +thinks the connection with _Semnopithecus_ not improbable. + +_Dryopithecus Fontanii_, of which I have already spoken, seems, as +I judge from a cast taken by Fric in Prague, to be of an expressly +anthropoid character; but the scantiness of the materials do not allow +us to form any precise conclusions as to the zoological position of +this extinct animal. The structure of the back teeth, as we have +already said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always cautious +in his judgments, is of opinion that the ape’s teeth found in the +ironstone of the Suabian Alps in the secondary mammal formation, +are of a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals to which +they belonged must therefore have been of the same type. Fossil +remains of the African stumpy ape (_Colobus_) have also been found at +Steinheim.[127] _Macacus priscus_ of the valley of the Arno seems to +be allied with the African macaca.[128] Owen’s _Macacus pliocenus_ +from Essex is closely related to _Macacus sinicus_. Fossil apes have +also been observed in America. _Protopithecus_ was a very large animal, +related to _Mycetes_. Another fossil species, found in South America +(_Laopithecus_), must have been closely related to man. This latter +fact is the more remarkable, since it has generally been assumed, and +indeed with reason, that there is a marked division between the apes of +the Old and New Worlds. + +The species now found in tropical America of the silky apes (_Hapale_), +the Sahui (_Jacchus_), the leaping apes (_Callithrix_), the bellowing +apes (_Mycetes_), and the rolling apes (_Cebus_), were already +represented in the diluvial period of that continent. It does not +appear that any extensive generic diffusion of apes has taken place +since that period. It is otherwise with the development of species, +which seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have occurred late. +This may be inferred from the physical characteristics of gorillas and +chimpanzees, which, with all their differences, have much in common +with each other. In the fourth chapter we have described forms of apes +lying between the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible +that these are a reversion to one or the other form. The numerous +varieties of form among anthropoids point to a continuance of the +process of severance in this family of apes, and little more than an +isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual conversion of +varieties into constant species. + +On account of their external bodily characteristics, of their +anatomical structure, and their highly developed intelligence, +anthropoids not only stand first among apes, but they take a still +higher place, approximating to the human species. In accordance +with what I have said in the second and third chapters, I set aside +the order of the _Quadrumana_, and accept the Linnæan order of the +_Primates_, both for men and apes. I would include men as _Erecti_ with +anthropoids as _Anthropomorpha_ in a sub-family of the _Primarii_. In +the case of apes (_Simiina_) I should retain the convenient distinction +between those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal aperture +(_Catarrhina_ and _Platyrrhina_). The semi-apes (_Prosimii_) should +constitute a separate order of mammals. The following systematic scheme +shows the classification I suggest:-- + + I. MAMMALS (_Mammalia_). + + A. _Monodelphia_, Blainv. (_Placentalia_, Owen). + + I. Order: _Primates_, Linnæus. + + 1. Family: _Primarii_. + + (1) Sub-family: _Erecti_ (_Homo sapiens_). + + (2) Sub-family: _Anthropomorpha_, Linnæus. + + (_a_) _Dasypoga_, _i.e._ Anthropomorpha, without + the sessor callosities. + + (α) Genus: _Troglodytes_, E. Geoffroy. + + Species: The gorilla (_Troglodytes Gorilla_, Savage + and Wyman). The chimpanzee (_Tr. niger_, + E. Geoffroy). + + The other species are not accurately known. + + (β) Genus: _Pithecus_, E. Geoffroy. + + Species: Orang-utan (_Pithecus Satyrus_, E. Geoffroy). + + (_b_) _Tylopoga_, _i.e._ Anthropomorpha, with + sessor callosities. + + (λ) Genus: _Hylobates_, Illig. + + Species: see p. 45. + + 2. Family: Apes proper (_Simiina_). + + (1) Sub-family: _Catarrhina_. + + Genera: _Semnopithecus_, _Colobus_, _Cercopithecus_, + _Inuus_, _Macacus_, _Cynocephalus_. + + (2) Sub-family: _Platyrrhina_. + + Genera: _Mycetes_, _Lagothrix Ateles_, _Cebus_, _Pithecia_, + _Nyctipithecus_, _Callithrix_, _Chrysothrix_, _Hapale_. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE +ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON. + + +Huxley’s statement, that the lowest apes are further removed from +the highest apes than the latter are from men, is, according to my +experience, still perfectly valid. It cannot be denied that the highest +order of the animal world is closely connected with the highest created +being. + +In the third chapter I have sought to show in what way the pithecoid +characteristics of men may be proved. From the latter chapters, also, +much may be learned with respect to the anthropoid characteristics of +anthropoids. The external form first provokes the comparison. There is +much in the bodily structure which spans the apparent chasm between men +and apes, and this is evident to the simplest understanding. The head, +and the general form of the body, especially in young male and female +gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and even in gibbons, if we exclude +the length of their arms, display many points of resemblance with man. +It is shown even in separate organs of the body--as, for instance, in +the ear. The illustrations given in the second chapter of the ears of +apes, including that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me +from such specimens as had least resemblance to man, and yet even in +these a certain likeness must be recognized. + +I have already observed that the old males of an anthropoid species are +always further removed from man than the young, and this is especially +the case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male gorilla, with its +great cranial crests and powerful jaw, displays striking differences +from the human type. This is an important fact, since in the case of +man we almost without exception regard the fully developed male adult +as the typical form. + +In considering the limbs, the differences between the arms and hands +of man and those of anthropoids are apparent, but less striking than +in the case of the lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in +it something abnormal which distinctly differs from the human foot, +adapted for walking. Nor can the prehensibility of the human toes +in certain cases be directly compared with the prehensibility of an +ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a thumb. Haeckel +remarks that newly born children can also take a strong grip with the +great toe, and if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot as +firmly as with the hand.[129] This power is, however, only partial and +subordinate, compared with the manifold and developed prehensibility +of an anthropoid’s foot. The possibility of walking upright to a +certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent is no exclusive +privilege of anthropoids, since this power may be acquired by training +in the case of other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc. +Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and climbing apes, as +well as some semi-apes, bears, ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals, +can go for some distance in an upright position, quite as readily as +anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.[130] The structure of +anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted for going on all-fours, or for +climbing. The projection of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary +tail has, as is well known, been observed in some isolated cases in the +human species. This peculiarity is supposed to be hereditary in the +case of some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam of Central +Africa, and some of the Southern Malays. But this surmise has not yet +been confirmed. + +It has already been said that when we compare men and anthropoids, +the profile of the coloured man presents a striking likeness to that +of anthropoids. This is believed by the coloured people themselves, +who, especially among negro races, regard the large apes as accursed +individuals of their own species, as dumb and hairy men, and so +on. It should, however, be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an +important part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is +comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place themselves on the +same level as animals, while civilized races reject such ideas with +self-conscious pride. I may add that civilized men are revolted by the +proverbial ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhorrence any +admission of actual relationship with them. We must, however, remember +that men are by no means generally endowed with physical beauty, +and especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations we find +individuals whose ugliness is little inferior to that of anthropoids, +and which sometimes even exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused +physical beauty may be made by the peoples of classical antiquity; by +the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav races; by the Circassians, Armenians, +Tartars, Turks, Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians, +Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but such attractions +are rare among other peoples of the world, such as the Mongols, the +majority of negroes, Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already +shown that among some of the lower races it is impossible not to +recognize a purely external and physical approximation to the simian +type. + +Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds, shrink from admitting +any relationship between men and apes, since the mental organization +of the former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-link +with the anthropoids of which they think so meanly. Yet it should +not be forgotten that the modes of living in degraded races differ +little from those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what I have +said of the Australian aborigines, whose brutal instincts demand +our whole attention when we undertake such comparisons. A horde of +Botocudos, mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince Maximilian +of Neuwied,[131] and a village on the upper Yupurá, inhabited by the +Mirenhas, and described by Martius,[132] left upon the travellers a +grisly impression of their brutal degradation. This impression might +be further strengthened if we could inspect a hutted encampment of the +Obongo or the Doko. + +It has been observed that the rudest savage is in a condition to show +pity and loyalty to his own fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter +of 1881–82, when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe, one of them +fell sick, and was cared for by his savage companions with affection, +and even with a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we have +seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the members of their family +in the same way, and display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has +been especially noticed in the case of several orang-utans which have +tended each other. Love for their young, and not rarely love for their +mates expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking comparatively, +deeply rooted in the animal world. It is well known that both rude +and civilized peoples are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it +is erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each other. These acts +of cruelty, murder, and rapine are often the result of the inexorable +logic of national characteristics, and are unhappily truly human, since +nothing like them can be traced in the animal world. It would, for +instance, be a grave mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty +executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former only satisfies his +natural appetite in preying on other mammals. The atrocities of the +trials for witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed by the +negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice of human victims made +by the Khonds, the dismemberment of living men by the Battas, find no +parallel in the habits of animals in their savage state. And such a +comparison is, above all, impossible in the case of anthropoids, which +display no hostility towards men or other animals unless they are first +attacked. In this respect the anthropoid ape stands on a higher plane +than many men. + +A great chasm between man and anthropoids is constituted, as I believe, +by the fact that the human race is capable of education, and is able +to acquire the highest mental culture, while the most intelligent +anthropoid can only receive a certain mechanical training. And even +to this training a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by +anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting subjects of study +in the menagerie, but they never become, like our ordinary domestic +animals, useful members of the household economy. I myself hold that +all human races are capable of culture, while differing in the degree +to which it is possible for them to attain. I do not, for example, +suppose that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so educated as +to be placed on a level with the highest intellects of our own nation. +But how many ages it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans! +It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages may be constituted +serviceable members of human society, as we may see from the changes +which have taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the Tahitians, +and the Maoris in the course of the last eighty years. In our days the +envoys of the Queen of Madagascar have understood how to move in the +highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour, and we must recognize +this fact as significant, without, however, deluding ourselves by too +wide deductions from it. + +The remark has often been made that the African blacks, Indians, etc., +display great docility when young, and are very receptive of wisdom and +culture, but stop short at a certain point, as if unable to advance +beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like apes in advancing age, relapse +into their originally savage state. It may, however, be inferred that +these attempts to educate young savages are generally wrecked by +mistaken methods of instruction. The young sons of nature are often +too much indulged, their childish performances are over-estimated, +their minds are over-taxed, the due development of mind and body is +checked; they become arrogant, and then people are surprised that, +as self-consciousness increases in their immature brains, a greater +or less amount of conceit is developed. There are cases in which a +savage, who has been with much labour educated and civilized, relapses +into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the enemy of his former +protector, as a robber or a rebel; yet, even to the end of his life, +he has developed qualities and conditions which recall to him better +times. We see an example of this in some of the civilized Maoris who +afterwards joined the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their +countrymen the strength of a firmer organization against the English +supremacy. The bearing of these relapsed savages always has in it +something higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy of a morose +old chimpanzee or orang. + +Nor have the attempts to educate savages been uniformly unsuccessful. +The great Indian chief Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and +Ramon Castilla; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova king, Radama +I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kamehameha I., Pomare II., Georges, and +Kokabau, show what may be made of such materials under favourable +circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca; the steadfast leader Perus, +who belonged to a needy Arriero family; the Haytian who was formerly +driver on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal savages as +the Malagasy and Polynesians educated by European missionaries. + +It is well known that nations, in the earliest periods of their +existence, have to pass through certain rude conditions of their +development, and the most highly civilized nations are not exempt +from this law. The transition period of the Stone Age is necessary +for all, and with the use of metals a higher and more cultivated life +has been gradually developed. Even for those who do not recognize any +sharp line of demarcation between the stone and metal periods, yet, +speaking generally, they will admit that the times in which stone +instruments, and those in which bronze and iron instruments were +chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in historical culture. +As we know, there are also certain phases of development in the Stone +Age. In its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked tool could +not procure for its owner any regular shelter: he lived in caves, +clefts, or under a scanty covering of leaves, and made use of his tool +in killing wild animals; in cutting wood; in preparing skins, tendons, +and gourd-vessels; in dismembering the prey obtained in hunting; and in +extracting marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and sharpening +these stone tools, a progressive improvement in the conditions of human +life went hand in hand. + +We can picture to ourselves the physical and psychical conditions of +the first and earliest men of the Stone Age as those of extremely +rude savages, but who were endowed with the gift of working out for +themselves higher conditions of life. + +In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, +exhibited the lower jaw of a rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at +Billy, Allier, in which there was a notch which must, in the opinion +of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of man. The Abbé +Delaunay found in the Miocene of Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib +of a Halitherium, which was notched, and which likewise appeared to +have been subjected to human manipulation. Garrigou is of opinion +that certain bones found at Sansan were broken by the hand of man, +and Dücker expressed a similar belief about the fossils of Pikermi. +These ideas have been strongly opposed. Many of the marks on these +bones have been represented to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora, +rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in the Miocene of Thenay, +near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-Cher, of which he ascribes the working to +beings of a higher intelligence than the animals of that period. +This opinion is shared by eminent anthropologists, such as Vibraye, +Worsaae, Mortillet, de Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt +the accuracy of the account given of their position at Thenay, by so +experienced a geologist as Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the +quaternary epoch is only concerned with the question whether these +flints at Thenay were artificially worked or not. The stones were found +in a layer of the same kind of rubble. When a number of such flints +are placed together, only a few people can discover an incontestable +distinction between the artificially shaped and the unshaped stones. +The alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age still demands +careful examination. The epoch of the Middle Miocene is very ancient, +and Léberon distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone of +Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper Miocene, of Eppelsheim and +Pikermi. According to this author, the next in succession was the Lower +Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of Perrier, Solilhac, and +Coupet. Next came the fauna of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those +of the boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata, these latter +were of very long duration. Above the fauna of the boulder clay are +those of the diluvium, followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and +of our own time. + +Whatever may be thought of the many changes which have taken place, +whether they are regarded as the result of distinct and independent +creations or as the result of transformations, no geologist can doubt +that an immense tract of time was required for the production of these +forms. In the Middle Miocene there is not a single species of mammal +which corresponds to any of our extant species. If we start from the +standpoint of simple palæontology, it would be difficult to assume that +the being which shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained unaltered +in the midst of all these changes. If, as Gaudry remarks, it can be +shown that the flints collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone +were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist would not hesitate +to recognize in the _Dryopithecus_ the author of this handiwork.[133] + +But, speaking provisionally, the _Dryopithecus_ which is assumed to +have used these flints, and of which we, unfortunately, know only +the little which can be gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must +remain the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his advanced +anthropomorphism is concerned. No anthropoid now in existence has +shown itself capable of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use. +Moreover, the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of descent are +becoming ever more convinced that man cannot be the issue of any extant +form of anthropoids. It is true that a close, and in many respects +a very close, physical connection may be traced between men and +anthropoids, but not the possibility of a direct descent from the one +to the other. This is especially shown from the physical development +of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble men in their youthful +stages, and lose this character more and more as they grow older. The +absolute deficiency of any capacity for the further development of the +intellectual qualities of our modern species of anthropoids is another +proof of this fact; their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of +other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are still far behind +the intelligence of man, which is capable of still further development. + +In the process of physical growth, as I feel myself compelled often +to repeat, anthropoids constantly diverge further from the human +organization. C. Vogt justly observes: “When we consider the principles +of the modern theory of evolution, as it is applied to the history of +development, we are met by the important fact that in every respect +the young ape stands nearer to the human child than the adult ape does +to the adult man. The original differences between the young creatures +of both types are much slighter than in their adult condition: this +assertion, made long since in my lectures on the human race, has +received a striking confirmation from recent autopsies of young +anthropoids which have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In +proportion to the age of the specimen, the characteristic differences +in the form of the jaw, the cranial ridges, etc., become more evident. +Both man and apes are developed from an embryonic condition, and from +the period of childhood in a diverging or almost opposite direction +into the final type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain +in their whole organization features which correspond to those of the +human child.”[134] Quenstedt also says: “However much _Homo sapiens_ is +raised by his intelligence above all other animals, however important +the physical differences are which divide him from apes, yet the +scene of their existence in the world is by no means so wide that, as +time goes on, the narrow limits between them may not approximate more +closely.”[135] + +In these words the opinion I have already expressed is set forth, an +opinion which continues to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have +descended from any of the fossil species which have hitherto come to +our notice, nor yet from any of the species of apes now extant. It +is more probable “that both types have been produced from a common +ground-form, which is still more strongly expressed in the structure of +young specimens, because the age of childhood is less advanced” (Vogt). + +This supposed progenitor of our race is necessarily completely +hypothetical, and all the attempts hitherto made to construct even a +doubtful representation of its characteristics are based upon the +trifling play of fancy. + +Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at any rate, descended from +a highly organized form. He goes on to say: + +“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for +the close similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic +development, as well as in innumerable points of structure and +constitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance, the +rudiments which he retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is +occasionally liable--are facts which cannot be disputed. They have long +been known, but until recently they told us nothing with respect to the +origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of our knowledge of the +whole organic world, their meaning is unmistakable. The great principle +of evolution stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are +considered in connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of +the members of the same group, their geographical distribution in past +and present times, and their geological succession. It is incredible +that all these facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to +look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as disconnected, cannot +any longer believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation. +He will be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of +man to that, for instance, of a dog; the construction of his skull, +limbs, and whole frame, independently of the uses to which the parts +may be put, on the same plan with that of other mammals; the occasional +reappearance of various structures--for instance, of several distinct +muscles, which man does not normally possess, but which are common +to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analogous facts;--all point in the +plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with +the other mammals of a common progenitor.”[136] + +“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the vertebrata,” +observes the same great English naturalist in another place, “at which +we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a +group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians. +These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes as lowly +organized as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes +like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very +small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that +birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the +Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But +no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and +related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived +from either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely, amphibians +and fishes. In the class of mammals, the steps are not difficult +to conceive which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient +Marsupials; and from these to the early progenitors of the placental +mammals. We may thus ascend to the Lemuridæ, and the interval is not +wide from these to the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into +two great stems, the New World and Old World monkeys; and from the +latter, at a remote period, Man, the wonder and glory of the universe, +proceeded.”[137] + +Setting aside for the present this long pedigree of man, let us +consider some of the isolated phases which have been established in +the still incomplete condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes +are concerned, whose near relation to men and apes has of late been +strongly urged, I agree with those who, like Vogt, consider that their +order, with its variety of forms, points to a complex origin, probably +from marsupial animals, with which their organization presents many +common features; hence it appears that some of their forms belong to +the earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well acquainted. “In +conclusion,” he writes, “it appears, from these facts, that any very +close connection between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with man, +cannot be proved. With the exception of the opposing thumb, which is +and was a widely diffused characteristic common to many species, the +semi-apes have not a single anatomical feature in common with apes. +Their jaw, the most permanent characteristic, places them in the +insectivorous class; to enroll them among the ancestors of man is to +set at nought all the principles of scientific research.”[138] + +That purely hypothetical being, the common ancestor of man and apes, +is still to be found, and this is the task assigned to palæontology. +Whether this science, to which a great future belongs, will ever +accomplish the task, is a question which concerns itself. Meanwhile, +considering the great palæontological achievements of our day, the +discovery of the _Odontornithes_, _Ætosauri_, _Rhamphorynchi_, +_Holoptychia_, etc., we need not despair of the possibility of +discovering the true link between the world of man and mammals. +This purely speculative side of research, this purely scientific +mode of treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied with +unproved assertions, but will rather trust to the strenuous labour of +future times, and this need not disturb any religious or political +convictions. Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be +discovered in some geological stratum, yet research will have to +overcome immense difficulties, if it is to explain the development of +the understanding and of speech, and the growth of independent human +intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account, refuse to recognize +the possibility of achieving some new discoveries in this direction. +To do so would be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and +this would be unworthy of our former intellectual achievements. Let us +therefore labour on with courage. + +In matters which concern ethnology we are constantly shown that even +those races of men which are very remote from each other, and of whom +it cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times united in one +nation, have made the same technical discoveries, and have adopted +similar manners and customs and similar religious observances. This +allows us to infer that there is a physical and psychical unity of +human nature which indeed separates into races and varieties, but not +into distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypothetically the +primeval type will predominate even in the progeny which has been +modified by a distinct and separate development, and we need not be +surprised by reversions to the animal structure, even in man, the +ultimate scope of organic development. Nor will the developed culture +of man offer any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic +conditions which we have pointed out in the third chapter of this work, +such as the frontal process of the squamous temporal portion, the +transverse enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed ear, etc., +occur both in the higher and lower races of man; just as, for example, +both in primitive and high-bred races of horses there are reversions to +fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc. + +Not only the physical, but the mental development of man advances +uniformly, and not _per saltum_. Physical qualities and defects may +occur in a given number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent in +an equal number of Europeans, and conversely may occur in the one and +be absent in the other; yet, in their mental condition, negroes and +Papuans must always be regarded as in a lower order than Europeans. And +if physical superiority is more widely diffused in European peoples +than elsewhere, owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better +nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often also to the sexual +selection prompted by æsthetic considerations, yet the reversion to +such animal characteristics as do not exercise any modifying influence +on the bodily development of the individual, occurs both in these and +other races. I conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the fine +passage with which Darwin ends his work on the descent of man. + +“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not +through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and +the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally +placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the +distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears, +only with the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it. +I have given the evidence to the best of my ability: and we must +acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, with all his noble qualities; +with sympathy which feels for the most debased; with benevolence which +extends not only to other men, but to the humblest living creature; +with his god-like intellect, which has penetrated into the movements +and constitution of the solar system;--with all these exalted powers, +man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly +origin.” + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +It was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s _Blicke auf +das Pflanzen- und Thierleben in den indischen Malaienländern_ (Münster, +1883) came into my hands. The author, who was for several years +physician and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has given +an interesting account of the orang-utan. It appears that this animal +is only found in the northern part of Sumatra, and is more common on +the western than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is only +occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are fond of the flesh of +this ape, which they shoot, especially in the interior of the island, +with poisoned darts, projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is +then carefully cut out. + +Mohnike states that in Borneo _Hylobates concolor_ is called Ouo-ouo +by the Malays, and Kalawet by the Dyaks. Dark specimens of _Hylobates +variegatus_ are in the Malay dialect called _itam_, or black Unko, and +light specimens are called _puti_, or white Unko. A good illustration +of _Hylobates leucogenys_ is given in the _Proceedings of the +Zoological Society_, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877. + +It should be added to what I have said in the text, that the uvula +of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff, _Beiträge zur Anatomie +des Gorilla_, p. 37; and Rückart, _Der Pharynx als Sprach- und +Schluck-apparat_, p. 24, plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882). I have, +however, examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite perceptible, +as well as the palate and arched root of the tongue. + +In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which I have spoken +above, the fragment of a lower jaw has lately been found in the Schipka +cave, Moravia, declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like +child. Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and considers that +it belongs to an adult of the mammoth age, who suffered from retention +of the teeth, and that there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same +author subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly examined in +Brussels, to a close analysis, and is somewhat disposed to admit the +pithecoid character of this specimen (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, p. +277: 1882). + +R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the Naulette jaw and +that from the Schipka cave are pithecoid forms. He finds in these two +specimens the actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial +period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower jaw, from +any living specimens. This author is of opinion that in the diluvial +period there must have been races of men far inferior to the lowest +races now in existence (_Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und aus +der Schipkahöhle_, Leipzig, 1883). + +See Hartmann, _Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender +Freunde zu Berlin_, November 19, 1878, for remarks on the tendon, the +blood-vessels of the shoulder and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to +those given in the text. + + + + +AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I. + + +(1) “Hinc (_i.e._ Θεῶν ὄχημα) tridui navigatione torrentes igneos +prætervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti Ceras dicitur (Νότου Κέρας). In +sinus recessu insula erat priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in +quo insula erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant autem +multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas interpretes Gorillas +(Γορίλλας) vocabant. Nos persequentes viros quidem capere non potuimus, +omnes enim effugiebant quum per præcipitia scanderent et saxis se +defenderent; sed feminas cepimus tres, quæ mordentes et lacerantes +ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus eas et pelles detractas +asportavimus Carthaginem. Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona +deficeret” (Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geographi Græci Minores, +ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.). + +(2) Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la cote de Guinée +(Leiden, 1853), p. 3. + +(3) Marc. de Serres first directed the attention of naturalists to this +mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur Natur- und Heilkunde, book 42. It +has been frequently said that the original of this mosaic is in the +Museum of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in question +also consists of a landscape with hippopotami, crocodile, etc., but it +cannot be compared with that of Palestrina, which is to my knowledge +in the Barberini palace at Rome. + +(4) See the Natural History of the younger Pliny, ii. 172; vii. 2. + +(5) Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni Africani quod tam ab +incolis quam Lusitanis Congus appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam, +olim ex Edoardo Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio +sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus et imaginibus rerum +memorabilium quasi vivis, opera et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan. +Israelis de Bry, fratrum exornata (Francofurti, MDXCVIII.). + +(6) Abhandlungen der Königl. Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften +(iii. cl. ix. div. 1). + +(7) A voyage to Congo and several other countries in Southern Africa, +Church collection of voyages and travels (London, 1744), i. 651. + +(8) Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695–97 aux côtes d’Afrique, etc. +(Paris, 1699). + +(9) Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74. + +(10) Observationes Medicæ (Amsterdam), § 56. I have recently had +occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s representation of an ape is not +founded on that of an orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head +of the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more of an orang than +of a chimpanzee. + +(11) The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, +and a Man. With an Essay concerning the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients +(edit. i., London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751). + +(12) Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of the edition published in +London in 1625 (vol. ii. 982). + +(13) Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van Egypten, Barbaryen, +Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland, Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc. +(Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii. 1679). I have made use of the German +version of 1760. + +(14) The name Quojas Morrou is also used by Tulpe. A living specimen of +these animals was given by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, +and is perhaps the one described by Tulpe. + +(15) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti (London, 1819: trans. +Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826). I have made use of the latter translation. + +(16) Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: On a new species of +Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen. + +(17) A description of the external characters and habits of Troglodytes +Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and of the osteology of the same, by +Jeffreys Wyman (Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.). + +(18) Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a new species of Orang +on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847). Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston +Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1850, 1852. + +(19) Ostéographie (Paris, 1839–64). Atlas, vol. iv., Mammifères, plate +i. + +(20) Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris, vol. x. + +(21) Ibid., vol. viii. + +(22) An impression on steel: A mode of photographic illustration used +by Nièpce de St. Victor, which has since been materially improved. + +(23) Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by G. Mützel, plate i. + +(24) Adventures and explorations in Equatorial Africa (London, 1861). +A journey to Ashango Land (London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs +(London, 1872). + +(25) Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a tour in Equatorial, +South-Western, and North-Western Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm, +Thierleben, edit. i., i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4. + +(26) Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the new species of mammals +discovered by him in Equatorial Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc., +London. 1861. + +(27) Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860. See also Du +Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations, chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s +Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196. + +(28) Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla from the River +Danger, indicative of a variety of the great chimpanzee (Troglod. +Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog. Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on +the Gorilla (London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography (London, +1840–45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of +Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative +anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866–68, vol. iii.). + +(29) Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and the cataracts of the +Nile (London, 1876). + +(30) Compiègne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris, 1875; Gabonais, p. 260). + +(31) De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878, No. 936. + +(32) Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878), p. 171. + +(33) Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein, p. 149. + +(34) Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25. + +(35) Zoologiska Studier, Andra Häftet. (Lund, 1857). + +(36) Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, etc. + +(37) The Medical Times, 1872. + +(38) Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa proveniente dall’ Africa +centrale, in den Annali del Museo Civico di Genova, i. 53. + +(39) Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3. + +(40) Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences (Philadelphia, 1879), +pt. iii. p. 385. + +(41) On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates: Philosophical +Transactions (1867), 299. + +(41A) Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla: Proceedings of the +Royal Irish Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. i. + +(42) Ueber die Schädelform des Menschen und der Affen, Leipzig, 1867. + +(43) Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen +Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol. v. + +(44) Archiv. für Anthropologie, viii. 67. + +(45) Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften, herausgeg. vom +Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-Altona (Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74–83. + +(46) Ibid., p. 84, etc. + +(47) Die anthropomorphen Affen des lübecker Museums (Lübeck, 1876). + +(48) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoolog. Museum zu Dresden (1877), +No. 2, p. 225. + +(49) Der Gorilla, mit Berücksichtigung des Unterschiedes zwischen +Menschen und Affen, etc. Denkschrift des Offenbacher Vereins für +Naturkunde (Offenbach, 1863). + +(50) Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schädelbildung des Gorilla, +Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (München, 1867). Vergleichende +anatomische Untersuchungen über die äussern weiblichen Geschlechts- +und Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Abhandl. der königl. +bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beiträge +zur Anatomie des Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii. + +(51) Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse. Abhandl. der K. +Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Göttingen, vol. 28. + +(52) Ueber den Schädel des jungen Gorilla. Monatsberichte der königl. +Akademie der Wissensch. zu Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516. + +(53) Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch., plate ii. +(Petersburg, 1876), v. 235. + +(54) Various works on the gorilla under the following titles:--Beiträge +zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthropomorphen Affen, Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie, series iv. 198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hüftgelenk +der anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber. der Gesellsch. Naturforsch. +Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den Torus occipitalis +transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26, 1880. Die +menschenähnlichen Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverständlicher +wissensch. Vorträge, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11. + +(55) Vogt’s Vorlesungen über den Menschen (Giessen, 1863). + +(56) L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie, +vol. iv. series ii., 1870. + +(57) Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de Paris, 1872. + +(58) Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl. von J. V. Carus, v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart, +1875). + +(59) Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), vol. i. p. 27. + +(60) Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals (London, +1871). + +(61) Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia (London, +1870). + +(62) Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung des Zahnsystems +der lebenden und fossilen Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855). + +(63) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. (London, 1876). + +(64) Hist. Nat. générale et particulière, vol. 35 (Paris). + +(65) I quote here the passage which Bosman has taken from the foregoing +work by Buffon: “Les singes que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en +flamand, sont de couleur fauve, et deviennent extrêmement grands: j’en +ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cinq pieds de haut et de bien +moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont méchants et très forts; un marchand +m’a conté, que dans le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé +par un très-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force à attaquer +l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.” Bosman goes on to speak of +another species of ape in the same district, which is as hideous as +those of the larger kind (Beschrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34; Voyage +de Guinée, p. 258). + +(66) Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid remarks in his work on the +position of man in nature. + +(67) Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac, Gervais and Lemaout +(Paris, 1842), i. 82. + +(68) Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration. + +(69) Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quadrumanes (Paris, 1851), +plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais, Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), +i. 16, 22. By A. B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des Menschen +und der Säugethiere (New edit., Leipzig), plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L. +Reichenbach, Die Vollständigste Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and +Leipzig), plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc. + +(70) J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i. 46, 68. + +(71) Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos. vi., vii., viii., xiii. + +(72) Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by H. Tiedemann, +Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mittheilungen bearbeitet by L. Bischoff +(Bonn, 1879). + +(73) Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc. + +(74) Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le Chimpanse +(Amsterdam, 1841). + +(75) On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee, etc. (Journal of +Anatomy and Physiology, series ii. 1871, p. 176). + +(76) Brühl, Myologisches über die Extremitäten des Chimpanse (Wiener +Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. 1817). + +(77) Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen van den Chimpanse +(Amsterdam, 1849). + +(78) Des caractères anatomiques des grands singes +pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii. Vergleichung +der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen des Chimpanse: very well +illustrated. + +(79) Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes Aubryi (Nouvelles +Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.). + +(80) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoologischen Museum zu Dresden, No. +2 (Dresden, 1877). + +(81) Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hartmann, Beiträge zur +Zoologischen und Zootomischen Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen +Affen. Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert and Du +Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872–76, with many plates, some of +them chromo-lithographs. + +(82) Description de l’espèce de singe aussi singulier que très rare, +nommé Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo. Apporté vivant dans la +ménagerie de M. le Prince d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis +d’animaux rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, representing the +orang, which accompany this work are not badly done. + +(83) Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap. Tweede Deel. +(Derde Druk, 1826). + +(84) Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-outang of de +Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn +Baron v. Wollzogen (Gotha, 1794). + +(85) General and particular descriptions of the vertebrated animals; +order quadrumana (London, 1831): with coloured plates. + +(86) Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii. + +(87) Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche +overzeesche besittingen (1839–45). Zoologie, p. 1. + +(88) Description des mammifères nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus de la +collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum, +etc., ii. 485. + +(89) Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842), ix. 54. + +(90) Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853. Asiatic Researches, +xv. 489, 491. + +(91) Wallace’s Malay Archipelago. + +(92) Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger anderer Affenarten. +Herbell (Düsseldorf, 1791). + +(93) On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-utan and Chimpanzee: +London and Edinburgh Philosoph. Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of +the Zoolog. Soc. of London, i. pt. iv. + +(94) Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836, p. 46; 1839, p. 209. + +(95) L. s. cit. + +(96) Vier Abbildungen des Schädels der Simia Satyrus von verschiedenem +Alter zur Aufklärung der Fabel vom Orañ-Utañ (Marburg, 1838). + +(97) Note sur les métamorphoses du crâne de l’Orang-Outang, Bulletins +de l’Académie de Bruxelles (1838). Annales des Sciences Naturelles +(1839), p. 56. + +(98) Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Orangarten (Wien, 1856). + +(99) Die Muskulatur der Extremitäten als Grundlage einer +vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung. + +(100) L. s. c., Fig. 42, plate vii. + +(101) L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure). + +(102) Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1876), vol. 15. Brehm’s Thierleben, +i. 83. + +(103) Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52), with the +erroneous title, “Sick Chimpanzee.” + +(104) Naturhistorische Früchte der ersten kais. russischen +Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130. + +(105) Le règne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88. + +(106) Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. des mammifères +(Paris, 1819–35), plate iii. fig. 4. + +(107) Wanderings in New South Wales (London, 1834), vol. ii. chap. viii. + +(108) Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423. + +(109) Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i. + +(110) See work cited in note 83. + +(111) See work cited in note 63, p. 140. + +(112) Hist. Nat. des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154. + +(113) Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529. + +(114) Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv. 172; Ibid., 1847, +xvi. 730. + +(115) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11. + +(116) Beiträge zur Anatomie des _Hylobates leuciscus_. From the +Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of Science, 2nd series, vol. x. +plate iii. + + + + +FOOTNOTES. + + +[2] _Vorträge über Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss_, i. 61: Berlin, 1872. + +[3] Comp. Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, _Der +Gorilla_, p. 14, Anm. 4. + +[4] Owen, _Memoir_, etc., plate ii.; Brehm, _Thierleben_, i. 56. + +[5] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly one +of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its habits, +expression, and disposition. + +[6] Comp. Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, fig. 27, representing the Hamburg +animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of the German +Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of the press, states +that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee. + +[7] While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, _Hylobates +lenciscus_ (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large +_Hylobates_ of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another +_Hylobates albimanus_ (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the +same way; and the skeletons of _Hylobates syndactylus_ (F. Cuvier), and +of _Hylobates agilis_. + +[8] A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed. +Poeppig’s _Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs_, vol. i. fig. +24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with which +I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in Bock’s _Unter +den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 342: Jena, 1882. + +[9] A specimen of _Hylobates leucogenys_ (Ogilby) may be seen in the +British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys, lemurs, etc.: +London, 1870. + +[10] A good woodcut of _Hylobates pileatus_ (J. E. Gray) appears in +Huxley’s work, _Man’s Place in Nature_. + +[11] A very good coloured illustration of _Hylobates funereus_, +probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff. +Saint-Hilaire’s _Description des mammifères nouveaux, ou imparfaitement +connus de la collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle_. _Archives du +Muséum_, v. 26. + +[12] The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in the +fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in the +Natural History Museum in Paris. + +[13] _Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt +von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius_, p. 33: Stockholm, 1864. + +[14] _Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes_, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes +(_Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, March +18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan, is +brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.” + +[15] Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, June 7, +1880. + +[16] Virchow, _Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am +Schädel_, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xii. 23: +1880. _Monatsbericht der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu +Berlin_, p. 523: 1880. The _os epiptericum_ may be observed in cranium +No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly seen in Fig. 4, p. 127, +in _Darwinismus und Thierproduction_ (Munich, 1876), in which I refer +to this skull. See also Bischoff, _Schädelwerk_. + +[17] This illustration is from Duvernoy’s _Des caractères anatomiques +des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes_, plate ii. It is an +excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the +vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs. + +[18] Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B. + +[19] Brühl, _Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes_, pp. 2, 3. + +[20] “The Missing Link,” _Engineering and Mining Journal_, xx. 3: New +York. + +[21] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, April 16, 1881. + +[22] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, p. 21. + +[23] Virchow’s _Archiv. für Pathologische Anatomie_, liii. 485: 1871. + +[24] _Report of Anthropological Society_, Berlin, March 9, 1878. + +[25] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, vol. i. p. 192. + +[26] _Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner_, +ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851–53. + +[27] _Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil_: Paris, 1839. + +[28] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874. + +[29] It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (_Inuus +speciosus_). + +[30] Brühl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection +between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal bone. + +[31] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 121: 1878. + +[32] Schlocker, _Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion_. Inaugural +dissertation. Dorpat, 1879. + +[33] _Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobachtungen und Messungen_, p. +56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882. + +[34] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie_, iv. fig. 305. + +[35] _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p. +164: 1872. + +[36] _Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie_, p. 49. + +[37] _Die Urbevölkerung Europas_, p. 46. + +[38] _Quarterly Journal of Science_, January, 1864. Comp, also +Fuhlrott, _Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal_: Duisburg, 1865. + +[39] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, viii. fig. 63. + +[40] _Zeugnisse_, etc., 157. + +[41] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxvi.; _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, +series 12, plate viii. fig. 2. + +[42] _Crania Ethnica_, plate xxxvi. + +[43] Ten Kate, _loc. cit._ pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that the +facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far this +formation affects men (_Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaft +zu Berlin_, p. 258: 1881). The detachment of the malar bone from the +spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up to this time been too +rarely observed in anthropoids to merit serious consideration in this +work. + +[44] Joly, _Man before Metals_: London. + +[45] Gaudry, _Les enchainements du monde animal_, p. 232: Paris, 1878. + +[46] Hartmann, _Der Gorilla_, pp. 68, 109. + +[47] _Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, +p. 148, with illustration: 1878. + +[48] _Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschädel_, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart, +1877. + +[49] Welcker on His und Braune, _Archiv. für Anatomie_, 1881. +Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, i. 172. + +[50] _Beiträge zur Geburtshülfe_, p. 161. + +[51] _Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien_, lxxxv. +fig. 1: 1882. + +[52] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., by Reichert and Du +Bois-Reymond, pp. 639–643: 1876. + +[53] Wiedersheim, _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, ii. 421. + +[54] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 463: 1880. + +[55] _Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel. Aus der Abhandlungen der +Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, p. 47: 1882. + +[56] _Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_: +April 17, 1880. + +[57] See Spengel’s _Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe_. + +[58] _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, p. 481: London, +1871. + +[59] _An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia_, p. 310: +London, 1870. + +[60] _On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates_, ii. 551. Also see my own +works in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, p. 648: 1876. + +[61] _Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften_, ii. 316: St. +Petersburg, 1876. + +[62] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, etc., p. 653: 1876. + +[63] Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, i. p. 71. + +[64] Camper, _Œuvres_, i. 152; _Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan_, etc.; +Owen, _Transactions of the Zoological Society of London_, i. 365–368; +Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s _Archiv. Jahrg._, ii. p. 106. + +[65] _Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift_, p. 4: 1871. + +[66] Duchenne’s _Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine_. Darwin’s +_Expression of the Emotions_. Gamba’s _Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia +applicata alle arti belle_. + +[67] Macalister, in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_, vii. +342 (1871), asserts that he was unable to distinguish the corrugator +from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally unsuccessful. + +[68] Darwin’s _Expression of the Emotions_. + +[69] Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions_. + +[70] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_, +1879. _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 1873, 1874. + +[71] _Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_, +1879. + +[72] Hartmann in _Archiv. für Anatomie_, by Reichart and Du +Bois-Reymond, p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876). + +[73] Halford, _Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quadrumanous, +but cheiropodus_: Melbourne, 1863. _Lines of demarcation between Man, +the Gorilla, and the Macaca_: Melbourne, 1863. I only know these two +treatises from Bischoff’s quotation. _Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates +leuciscus_, pp. 23, 24. + +[74] Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor longus +digitorum. + +[75] _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse_, p. 32, plate +ii. fig. 3. + +[76] _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_ (1869), pp. 83, +113. + +[77] As, for example, in _Hylobates syndactylus_. Comp. Giobel, +_Odontographia_, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855. + +[78] _Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan. +Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche +Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840. _Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de +Paris_, iv. pp. 368–371: 1869. + +[79] Comp. Aeby, _Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des Menschen_, +p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880. + +[80] _The Brain as an Organ of Mind._ International Scientific Series. + +[81] Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought, in a +horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cerebrum.” I do +not understand what he means by the expression _ought_. + +[82] _Natural History Review_, p. 201: 1861. + +[83] _Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der königl. +bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871. + +[84] Gratiolet, _Mém. sur les plis cérébraux de l’homme et des +primates_. + +[85] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, +p. 133: 1878. + +[86] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, 1877. + +[87] Ibid., p. 25: 1878. + +[88] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p. +28: 1878. + +[89] _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, p. 129: 1867. + +[90] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p. +283: 1877. + +[91] _Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, +p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, _Ueber die Ursachen der Microcephalie_. +Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874. + +[92] _Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben._ Reprint of +a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth year of the +University of Wurzburg, p. 27. + +[93] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, p. +248: 1877. + +[94] _Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere_, p. 219: +Leipzig, 1878. + +[95] _Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France_, p. 1: 1877. + +[96] _Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen_, p. 191: Leipzig +and Dresden. + +[97] See Chenu, _Encyclopédie d’Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes_, p. 34. + +[98] Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the British +Museum. Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870. + +[99] For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too small. +Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head makes them look +larger, the want of proportion must be admitted. It might easily have +been altered, but I preferred to reproduce the original sketch as it +stood. + +[100] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild._, by C. Vogt and Specht, p. +11: Munich, 1882. + +[101] _Mafoca Betreffendes._ Reprinted from the reports of the +_Gesellschaft für Natur und Heilkunde zu Dresden_, Sitzung, xxvii. p. +9: 1876. + +[102] _Thierleben_, ii. 80, 81. _Illustrirte Naturgeschichte des +Thierreichs_, i. 11: Leipzig, 1880. + +[103] _Der Gorilla_, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut +erroneously gives this as a male instead of a female specimen. + +[104] Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4. + +[105] _Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his +death_, ii. 52–55: London, 1874. + +[106] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882. + +[107] Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150. + +[108] _Die Loango Expedition_, Abth. i. p. 123. + +[109] _Die Loango Expedition_, p. 103. + +[110] The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death we must +all deplore, is taken from his article in the _Gartenlaube_ (1877, No. +25); from his correspondence with his family, which I have been allowed +to see; and from a long paper addressed to Professor Bastian from +Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874. + +[111] _Illustrirtes Thierleben_, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864. + +[112] Schweinfurth, _Im Herzen von Afrika_, p. 335: New edition, +Leipzig, 1878. + +[113] Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and birds kept +in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published in the Dutch language +about 1862. + +[114] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, etc., p. 31. + +[115] This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the +posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in +structure. + +[116] _Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der +Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen_: Leiden, 1840–45. + +[117] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31. + +[118] _Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische +Abtheilung_, vol. i. p. 249: Berlin, 1876. + +[119] _Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 327. + +[120] Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this +species (_Transactions of the Linnæan Society_, xiii. 241). + +[121] G. Broesike, _Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender +Freunde zu Berlin_: December 18, 1877. + +[122] _Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft_, +March 18, 1876, p. 93. + +[123] See also Nissle, _Die Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, pp. 56, 57: +1876. + +[124] Wallace’s _Malay Archipelago_, vol. i. + +[125] _Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo_, p. 31. + +[126] _Enchainements_, p. 235. + +[127] Fraas, _Wurtembergische Jahresheft_, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870. + +[128] Forsyth, _Atti della Societá Italiana di Scienze Naturali_, xiv.: +1872. + +[129] _Anthropogenie_, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874. + +[130] We do not here include the leaping and running mice. + +[131] _Reise nach Brasilien_, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821. + +[132] _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, etc., i. +534: Leipzig, 1867. + +[133] _Les Enchainements du monde animal_, p. 240. + +[134] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 49. + +[135] _Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde_, 3rd edit., i. 38: Tübingen, 1882. + +[136] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385. + +[137] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, i. p. 212. + +[138] _Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild_, p. 67. + + + + +INDEX. + + + A + + A-Bantu, 86 + + Abel, 10 + + Abors, 253 + + Aeby, 6, 130, 131, 206 + + Africa, 90 + + African negroes, pithecoid structure of, 86 + + Aidanill, 88 + + Ainos, 96 + + Alix, 9, 149, 207, 213 + + Angola, 225 + + Anthropoid apes, development of acquaintance with, 1; + external form of, 11; + external and anatomical structure of, compared with the human, 55; + ears of, and men, 89; + neck of, 100; + trunk of, 100; + carpus of, 102; + hand of, 102; + upper limbs of, 102; + skull of, 107; + vertebral column of, and men, 125; + humerus of, 131; + tibia of, 137; + hinder extremities of, 145; + muscular system of, 150; + skin of head of, 156; + clavicle of, 160; + digestive system of, 181; + teeth of, 182; + tongue of, 182; + vertebral column of, 182; + liver of, 187; + stomach and intestines of, 187; + spleen of, 188; + sexual organs of, 190; + brain of, 192; + nervous system of, 192; + peripheral, 207; + vascular system of, 208; + structure of, 210; + varieties in the form of, 210; + geographical distribution, habits in a state of nature, and native + names of, 225; + life in captivity of, 257; + position of, in the zoological system, 285. + + Anthropomorphism of gorilla, orang, chimpanzee, and gibbon, 290 + + Aschangolo, 236 + + Aschira, 240 + + Ashanti, 86 + + Astarte, temple of, 2 + + Authorities for Chapter I., 311 + + Australian blacks, 86, 96 + + + B + + Baboon, 11, 92 + + Baker, 122 + + Ballone, river, 88 + + Bam (_Troglodytes niger_), 222, 237 + + Banya, 237 + + Bär, K. E. von, 6, 143 + + Bari, 86 + + Bartels, 96 + + Bastian, Ch., 192, 197 + + Battel, 3, 8 + + Bennet, 10 + + Beyrich, 285 + + Biceps of anthropoids, 165 + + Bischoff, 6, 78, 152, 167, 188 + + Blainville, D. de, 4, 134 + + Blyth, 10 + + Bock, 45, 241, 284 + + Bolau, 7, 188, 260 + + Bond, 87 + + Borneo, 241 + + Bosman, 8 + + Boucher de Perthes, 119 + + Bourgeois, 299 + + Bouvier, 210 + + Bowdich, E., 4 + + Brain of apes, 192 + + Brazza, De, 6, 235 + + Brehm, A. E., 6, 9, 217 + + Brooke, 10 + + Brosse, 269 + + Brühl, 10, 58, 78, 150, 176 + + Broca, 110 + + Broderip, 269 + + Buala, plateau of, 226 + + Buchholz, 235, 258 + + Buchta, 107 + + Buffon, 8, 267 + + Burmeister, 101 + + Burton, R., 6 + + Bushmen, 87 + + Busu, Bakalaya, 236 + + + C + + Cachêu, 237 + + Camaroon river, 225 + + Carpus of anthropoid apes, 102 + + Catharcludi, land of, 2 + + Champneys, 9 + + Chapman, 6, 164 + + Chenu, 10 + + Chimpanzee, 2, 8, 29, 33, 58, 91, 219, 237, 267; + anthropomorphism of, 290 + + Chimpezée, 8 + + Chinchoxo, 7 + + Chudzinsky, 165 + + Clavicle of anthropoids, 160 + + Colobus, 286 + + Compiègne, A. de, 6, 235 + + Congo, 226 + + Cuvier, G., 10, 45, 50 + + + D + + Dabulamanzi, 86 + + Dahlbom, 6, 9 + + Dahomey, 86 + + Danger, river, 225 + + Dapper, O., 4 + + Darwin, 7, 91, 97, 157, 303, 308 + + Delaunay, 298 + + Devéria, A., 5 + + Diard, 10, 45, 252 + + Digestive system of anthropoids, 181 + + Dippel, 148 + + _Dryopithecus_, 286 + + Du Chaillu, 6, 215, 227, 257 + + Duchenne, 154 + + Dücker, Von, 299 + + Dumortier, 10 + + Duncan, P. M., 220 + + Durand, 122 + + Duvaucel, 10, 50, 254 + + Duvernoy, 6, 149, 172, 215 + + Dyaks, 245; + of Dusun, 251 + + + E + + Ears of anthropoids and men, 89 + + Ecker, 6, 96 + + Ehlers, 6, 7, 153, 188 + + Eliva, lake, 236 + + Engeco, 4 + + Eyelids of anthropoids and of man, 94 + + + F + + Fan, 236 + + Falkenstein, 7, 219, 260 + + Femur of mammals, 136 + + Flower, 6, 142 + + Foot of anthropoids, 22 + + Ford, 5, 225 + + Fortuna, temple of, 2 + + Four-handed, rejection of the term, 146 + + Franquet, 5 + + Froger, 3 + + Froriep, 126 + + + G + + Gaboon district, 5, 226, 240 + + Galloa, 240 + + Gamba, 154 + + Garrau mountains, 253 + + Garrigou, 298 + + Gaudry, 285, 299 + + Gautier Laboulaye, 5 + + Gegenbaur, 134 + + Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 5, 9 + + Geographical distribution of anthropoids, 225 + + Gervais, 7, 9 + + Ghauts, 87 + + Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, 290 + + Gibbon, skeleton of, 81 + + Gibbon (_Hylobates_), 11, 45, 251, 281 + + ---- _H. albimanus_, 49, 282 + + ---- _H. entelloides_, 52 + + ---- _H. funereus_, 54, 283 + + ---- _H. Hoolock_, 52, 282 + + ---- _H. Lar agilis_, 45, 50, 283 + + ---- _H. leuciscus_, 51 + + ---- _H. leucogenys_, 53 + + ---- _H. pileatus_, 53 + + ---- _H. Rafflesii_, 52 + + Giebel, 7 + + Giglioli, 6, 9 + + Glover, 86 + + Gorilla, 12, 26, 55, 60, 210, 225, 257; + skull of an aged male, 56; + skull of young male, 60; + skeleton of aged male, 65; + skeleton of female, 68 + + Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, 290 + + Grandpré, 268 + + Gratiolet, 9, 152, 199, 209 + + Gray, 214 + + Griffith, E., 10 + + Gruber, 111, 135, 175 + + Gulliver, 10 + + Gulnarber, 89 + + Güssfeldt, 228 + + + H + + Habit of anthropoids in a state of nature, 225 + + Haeckel, 6, 107, 146, 291 + + Hair, growth of, in man and anthropoids, 96 + + Hamadryas (_Cynocephalus_), 251 + + Hand of anthropoids, 102; + muscles of, 166 + + Hanno, 1 + + Harlan, 253, 281 + + Hausanese, 86 + + Head, skin of, 156; + muscles of, 151 + + Henle, 153 + + Hermes, 7, 243, 269, 283 + + Heusinger, 10 + + Hoeven, Van der, 103 + + Holl, 128 + + Hooker, 97 + + Human foot, skeleton of, 140 + + Human structure compared with that of anthropoid apes, 55 + + Humerus of gorilla, 131 + + Huxley, 114, 143, 176, 190 + + Hyrtl, 111 + + + I + + Ibos, natives of, 86 + + Ihering, H. von, 207 + + Issel, 222 + + + J + + Japanese, the, 87 + + Jeffreys Wyman, 5, 215 + + Jockos, 8 + + + K + + Kamma, 240 + + Klebs, 205 + + Kolk, Van der, 9 + + Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, 221 + + Koppenfels, H. von, 6, 219, 231 + + Kotaringin, 241 + + Krause, R., 192, 202 + + Kuilu, 226, 237 + + + L + + Lainier, 214 + + Lambdoidal suture, 58 + + Langer, 10, 173 + + _Laopithecus_, 287 + + Lartet, 286 + + Larynx, 188 + + Laussedat, 298 + + Lewis, 10 + + Lenz, H., 6, 9, 235, 258 + + Life in captivity of anthropoid apes, 257 + + Ligaments of anthropoids, 146 + + Ligaments, 187 + + Limbs of anthropoids, 102 + + Liver of anthropoid apes, 187 + + Livingstone, 223, 240 + + Loango, 7, 226, 237 + + Lopez, Ed., 3 + + Lucae, 6 + + Lucan, 210 + + Luemme, 226, 237 + + + M + + Macacu, 92 + + Macalister, 152 + + Mafuca, 95, 215, 240 + + Magitot, 7 + + Mahakkam, 250 + + Malays, 87, 250 + + Malacca peninsula, 53 + + Malimba, people of, 240 + + Malzac, A. de, 220 + + Mammals, femur of, 136 + + Mammals, systematic scheme of, 288 + + Mandril, 3 + + Mandjaruma, 222 + + Martens, Von, 251 + + Martin, W. L., 221 + + Martius, Von, 294 + + Max, G., 10, 281 + + Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, 294 + + Mayombe, 228 + + Meckel, J. F., 147 + + Meias, 251 + + Merolla, 3 + + Meyer, A. B., 6, 216 + + Meyer, B., 93 + + Meyer, R, 6 + + Miklucho-Maclay, 89, 94 + + Mivart, F., 6 + + Mpongwe, 236, 240 + + Müller, 10, 247 + + Muni (Mooney), 225 + + Mirenhas, 294 + + Muscular system of anthropoid apes, 150 + + Mützel, 10, 25 + + + N + + Naga, 253 + + Nathusius, H. von, 13 + + Native names of anthropoids, 225 + + Ndjéko (nschégo), 4, 215, 220, 239 + + Niam-Niam, 86, 240 + + Nervous system of anthropoids, 192 + + Neck of anthropoids, 100 + + Ntondo, village of, 227 + + Nuehr, 86 + + + O + + Obongo, 294 + + Ogōwē, 6, 225 + + Orang-utan, anthropomorphism of, 290 + + Orang-utan, 8, 11, 41, 43, 91, 223, 242, 273; + skull of, 76; + skeleton of, 76, 79 + + Ornstein, 96 + + Orungu, 240 + + Owen, R., 7, 25, 143, 226, 286 + + + P + + Pansch, 6, 197, 260 + + Pechuël-Lösche, 226, 229 + + Papuans, 87 + + Pedro da Cintra, 3 + + Pelvis of anthropoids, 130 + + Penaud, 5 + + Petit, 210 + + Pigafetta, P., 3 + + Platysma myoides, 159 + + Plinius, 2 + + _Pliopithecus_, 286 + + Pongo, 4 + + Ponta-Negra, 226 + + _Primarii_, 288 + + Prince, Mrs., 5 + + _Protopithecus_, 287 + + Pruner-Bey, 7, 114 + + + Q + + Quatrefages, 117 + + Quenstedt, 286, 302 + + Quojas morrau, 4 + + + R + + Rademacher, 10 + + Reade, W., 235, 258 + + Reichenbach, 9 + + Retzius, 60, 194 + + Rolleston, 197 + + Rosenberg, 126, 135, 172, 242 + + Rousseau, 5 + + + S + + Sachs, Dr., 110 + + Sadong, 241 + + Sambas, 241 + + Sarawak, 241 + + Satyrs, 2 + + Savage, Dr., 4, 227 + + Schaaffhausen, 205 + + Schilluk, 86 + + Schlegel, 10, 247 + + Schweinfurth, 220, 238 + + Scott, J., 97 + + _Semnopithecus_, 285 + + Sexual organs of anthropoids, 190 + + Siam, 53 + + Siamang, 252 + + Siebold, 96 + + Simiina, 28 + + Skeleton of human foot, 140 + + Skeleton of aged male gorilla, 65; + of female gorilla, 68; + structure of, 107 + + Skeleton of chimpanzee, 73 + + Skin of head of anthropoids, 156 + + Skull of adult chimpanzee, 72 + + Skull of aged male gorilla, 56; + of young male gorilla, 60 + + Skull of orang-utan, 77; + of anthropoids, 107 + + Smith, W., 3 + + Soko, 240 + + Spengel, 114 + + Spleen of anthropoids, 188 + + Stieda, 111 + + Structure of anthropoid apes, 210 + + Stomach of anthropoid apes, 187 + + Sumatra, 241, 252 + + Sungi-Kapajan, 241 + + + T + + Tapanoli, 242 + + Teeth of anthropoids, 182 + + Temminck, 10 + + Teweh, 241 + + Throat pouch, 161 + + Thorax of anthropoids, 131 + + Tibia of anthropoids, 137 + + Tiedemann, 156 + + Tilesius, 10 + + Tongue of anthropoids, 182 + + Traill, Dr., 267 + + Trinchese, Salvatore, 92 + + _Troglodytes Gorilla_, 5 + + Trunk of anthropoids, 100 + + Tscheladas (_Cynocephalus Geleda_), 250 + + Tschissambo, 237 + + Tulpe, N. von, 3, 8 + + Tyson, E., 3, 9 + + + U + + Unko, (_Hylobates Rafflesii_), 52, 252 + + + V + + Vascular system of anthropoids, 208 + + Vélins, 10 + + Vertebræ, cervical, of chimpanzee, 73 + + Vertebral column of anthropoids and men, 182 + + Virchow, R., 6, 58, 96, 111, 114, 138, 202 + + Vogt, C., 7, 204, 218, 301 + + Vosmaer, 10 + + Vrolik, 9, 207 + + + W + + Waldeyer, 136 + + Wallace, 10, 99, 158, 223, 244, 273 + + Wau-wau (_Hylobates agilis_), 45, 50, 253 + + Welcker, 126, 147 + + Wilson, 5 + + Wimba, Fort, 8 + + Woolner, 91 + + Wurmb, 10 + + + Z + + Zuckerkandl, 124 + + +PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. + + + + +Transcriber’s Notes + + +Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a +predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they +were not changed. + +Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation +marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left +unbalanced. + +Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs +and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support +hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to +the corresponding illustrations. + +Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them, +have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of +the book, just before the Index. + +The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page +references. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 *** |