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+ text-indent: -1.5em; +} +.x-ebookmaker .hang {margin: .5em 3% 2em 3%;} + +.transnote { + border: .3em double gray; + font-family: sans-serif, serif; + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 5%; + margin-top: 8em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + padding: 1em; +} +.x-ebookmaker .transnote { + page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; + margin-left: 2%; + margin-right: 2%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + padding: .5em; +} + +.covernote {visibility: hidden; display: none;} +.x-ebookmaker .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: justify} + +.gesperrt { + letter-spacing: 0.2em; + margin-right: -0.2em; +} +.wspace {word-spacing: .3em;} + +span.locked {white-space:nowrap;} +.pagenum br {display: none; visibility: hidden;} +.subnum {font-size: smaller;} +p.hidden {visibility: hidden;} +.bt {border-top: thin solid black; padding-top: .3em;} +.ilb {display: inline-block;} +.ilb.lm1 {margin-left: -3em;} +.ilb.lm2 {margin-left: 3em;} +.ilb.lm3 {margin-left: 3em;} +.width30 {margin-top: .5em;} +.width30 .ilb {max-width: 30%;} +.width30 .ilb p {margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;} +.width30 .ilb .blockquot.hang p {text-align: left; text-indent: -.5em;} +.x-ebookmaker-2 .ilb {display: block;} +.x-ebookmaker-2 .lm2 {margin-left: 8em;} +.x-ebookmaker-2 .lm3 {margin-left: 16em;} +.taxonomy, .anatomy {font-style: italic;} + + /* ]]> */ </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***</div> + +<div class="transnote section"> +<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p> + +<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them +and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or +stretching them.</p> + +<p class="covernote">New original cover art included with this eBook is granted +to the public domain. It uses the original cover with the title and author +added by the Transcriber.</p> + +<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="section p4 center vspace wspace"> +<p class="larger"> +<span class="smcap">The<br> +International Scientific Series.</span></p> + +<p>VOL. LIII.</p> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="section center vspace wspace"> + +<h1>ANTHROPOID APES</h1> + +<p class="p4"><span class="small">BY</span><br> +<span class="large">ROBERT HARTMANN</span><br> + +<span class="xsmall">PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN</span></p> + +<p class="p4 smaller">WITH SIXTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS</p> + +<p class="p4"><span class="larger gesperrt">LONDON</span><br> +KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE<br> +<span class="smaller">1885</span> +</p> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="section p4 center"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> +<p class="smaller">(<i>The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved</i>)</p> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + +<table id="toc"> +<tr class="xsmall"> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">I.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Development of our Acquaintance with Anthropoid Apes</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">II.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The External Form of Anthropoid Apes</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">III.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The External and Anatomical Structure of Anthropoid Apes, compared with the Human Structure</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">On Varieties in the Form of Anthropoids</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">V.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution, Habits in a State of Nature, and Native Names of Anthropoids</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life in Captivity</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_257">257</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Position of Anthropoids in the Zoological System</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_285">285</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Summary, together with some Further Considerations of the Anthropomorphism of the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orang, and Gibbon</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_290">290</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_309">309</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr"></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_321">321</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> +</div> + +<table id="loi"> +<tr class="xsmall"> + <td class="tdr">FIG.</td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">1.</td> + <td class="tdl">Aged male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_1">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">2.</td> + <td class="tdl">Ear of a male adult gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_2">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">3.</td> + <td class="tdl">The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of 1876–77</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">4.</td> + <td class="tdl">The same animal at a still earlier age</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_4">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">5.</td> + <td class="tdl">Ear of chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_5">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">6.</td> + <td class="tdl">Young chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_6">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">7.</td> + <td class="tdl">Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_7">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">8.</td> + <td class="tdl">Ear of the orang-utan</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_8">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">9.</td> + <td class="tdl">Adult male orang-utan</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_9">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">10.</td> + <td class="tdl">Head of the white-handed gibbon</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_10">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">11.</td> + <td class="tdl">Ear of the white-handed gibbon</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_11">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">12.</td> + <td class="tdl">Left hand of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_12">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">13.</td> + <td class="tdl">Left foot of the same animal</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_13">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">14.</td> + <td class="tdl">A wauwau in the left foreground (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>); in the background to the right, two slender apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus entellus</i>)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_14">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">15.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_15">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">16.</td> + <td class="tdl">Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_16">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">17.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of an aged male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_17">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">18.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skull of an aged male chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_18">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">19.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skull of a very young female chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_19">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">20.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of the forearm and hand of the Central African bam-chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_20">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">21.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of foot of the Central African bam-chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_21">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">22.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skull of middle-aged female orang</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_22">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">23.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of young orang-utan</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_23">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">24.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, in fighting array, with two of his men</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_24">85</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">25.</td> + <td class="tdl">Aidanill, hairless Australian</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">26.</td> + <td class="tdl">The same in profile</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">27.</td> + <td class="tdl">Dewan, Aidanill’s sister</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_27">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">28.</td> + <td class="tdl">Human ear</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_28">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">29.</td> + <td class="tdl">Magot (<i class="taxonomy">Innuus ecaudatus</i>)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_29">94</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">30.</td> + <td class="tdl">Capucin ape (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus capucinus</i>)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_30">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">31.</td> + <td class="tdl">Hand of a very aged male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_31">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">32.</td> + <td class="tdl">Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_32">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">33.</td> + <td class="tdl">Satan’s ape (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecia Satanas</i>). Shows the formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_33">106</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">34.</td> + <td class="tdl">Human skull</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_34">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">35.</td> + <td class="tdl">The Neanderthal skull</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_35">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">36.</td> + <td class="tdl">Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_36">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">37.</td> + <td class="tdl">Naulette lower jaw</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_37">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">38.</td> + <td class="tdl">Lower jaw of chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_38">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">39.</td> + <td class="tdl">Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_39">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">40.</td> + <td class="tdl">Human skeleton</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_40">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">41.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of an aged male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_41">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">42.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of human hand, back view</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_42">136</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">43.</td> + <td class="tdl">Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">44.</td> + <td class="tdl">Section through the tibia of a male gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">45.</td> + <td class="tdl">Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_43">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">46.</td> + <td class="tdl">Skeleton of the human foot, seen from above</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_46">140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">47.</td> + <td class="tdl">Coaita (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles paniscus</i>)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_47">142</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">48.</td> + <td class="tdl">Muscles of the head and face of a European</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_48">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">49.</td> + <td class="tdl">Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_49">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">50.</td> + <td class="tdl">Head-muscles of gorilla presented in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_50">153</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">51.</td> + <td class="tdl">Palmar muscles of man</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_51">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">52.</td> + <td class="tdl">Palmar muscles of gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_52">169</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">53.</td> + <td class="tdl">Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_53">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">54.</td> + <td class="tdl">Muscular system of the human foot</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_54">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">55.</td> + <td class="tdl">Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_55">178</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">56.</td> + <td class="tdl">The brain of an orang, seen from the side</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_56">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">57.</td> + <td class="tdl">Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_57">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">58.</td> + <td class="tdl">Brain of gorilla, side view</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_58">193</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">59.</td> + <td class="tdl">Brain of orang, seen from above</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_59">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">60.</td> + <td class="tdl">Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_60">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">61.</td> + <td class="tdl">Mafuca</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_61">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">62.</td> + <td class="tdl">The home of the gorilla</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_62">230</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">63.</td> + <td class="tdl">Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_63">244</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="ANTHROPOID_APES"><span id="toclink_1"></span><span class="larger">ANTHROPOID APES.</span></h2> + +<hr class="narrow"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ACQUAINTANCE WITH +ANTHROPOID APES.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Our</span> first acquaintance with the great anthropoid +apes dates from the times of remote antiquity. The +West Coast of Africa, which is the abode of +these animals, was known to the Carthaginians as +early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 470 Hanno set out with +sixty fifty-oared galleys, laden with colonists and +merchandise, on a grand expedition across Morocco +to Upper Guinea. The object in view was partly +mercantile, partly undertaken with the purpose of +establishing a colony. It seems that at that time +pioneering expeditions had previously taught them +how far the coast was adapted for colonization. +The Carthaginians met with “<i>gorillai</i>” on the +lower range of the mountains of the Isle of Sherboro,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> +and in the mountainous district of Sierra Leone(<a id="AUTH1" href="#auth1">1</a>). +These are described as hairy sylvan creatures who +replied to the attacks of the seafarers by throwing +stones at them. Three of these monsters, of the +female sex, were captured, but they bit and scratched +so furiously that it was necessary to kill them on +the spot. Pliny relates that at the time of the +Roman invasion, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, two of the skins obtained +on this occasion were still preserved at Carthage, in +the temple of Astarte(<a id="AUTH2" href="#auth2">2</a>). It was subsequently +shown that chimpanzees, not true gorillas, were +described in these “gorillai.” The latter animals +are not now found so far north.</p> + +<div class="footnoteinline"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> A list of the numerous authorities for the substance of this +chapter is placed at the end of the volume.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>An old representation of the chimpanzee, in mosaic, +was found on the pavement of the temple of Fortuna +at Præneste (now Palestrina). This mosaic is now +in a museum at Rome, and has been described by +several authors. It represents a scene in tropical +Africa, probably on the Upper Nile. I find it +difficult to recognize the chimpanzee on the mosaic +amid the giraffes, hippopotami, crocodiles, and the +other representatives of the animal world of tropical +Africa(<a id="AUTH3" href="#auth3">3</a>). But it is well known that these large +apes are found on some of the streams of the Upper +Nile, as in Niam-Niam and Uganda. Pliny writes +of these animals: “On the Indian mountains to the +south, in the land of the Catharcludi, there are +satyrs. These are the swiftest of creatures, sometimes +going on all fours, sometimes upright like +men, and they are so active that they can only be +captured when old or sick”(<a id="AUTH4" href="#auth4">4</a>). These satyrs have +been identified with the orang-utan, but the gibbon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> +may also be intended, which is swifter and more +agile, when in an upright position, than the orang-utan.</p> + +<p>Subsequent to the remote period which we have +cited, there is a long silence respecting these remarkable +animals. Only at the time when +Portugal became subject to the power of Spain, we +hear something about them from Congo and Angola. +The sailor Eduardo Lopez gave an account of the +chimpanzee, which was published by Pigafetta in +1598 (<a id="AUTH5" href="#auth5">5</a>). There are later accounts of very large +apes in the writings of Pedro da Cintra (<a id="AUTH6" href="#auth6">6</a>), Father +Merolla of Sorrento (<a id="AUTH7" href="#auth7">7</a>), Froger (<a id="AUTH8" href="#auth8">8</a>), and William +Smith (<a id="AUTH9" href="#auth9">9</a>).</p> + +<p>Smith gives a representation of the chimpanzee +under the erroneous name of the mandril (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus +Maimon</i>). The illustration is bad, but +it may be recognized by his description. In 1641 +the Dutch anatomist N. van Tulpe (Tulpius) gave +a better illustration of this anthropoid (<a id="AUTH10" href="#auth10">10</a>). This +naturalist observed that the animal in question, +<i class="taxonomy">Homo sylvestris</i> or orang-utan (<i class="taxonomy">Satyrus indicus</i>), is +called quojas morrou by the Africans. An +anatomical description of the chimpanzee, which is +still of great value, was given by Tyson in 1699 (<a id="AUTH11" href="#auth11">11</a>). +The anatomical illustrations included in this +work are remarkably well executed for that time.</p> + +<p>Our biological acquaintance with the West +African anthropoids is considerably increased by +the account given in the sixteenth century by +the adventurer Battel, of Leigh, in Essex. This +man passed through the forests of Lower Guinea, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> +sergeant of the Portuguese troops under the command +of the Governor of Angola, Don Manuel Silveira +Pereira. In 1613 Battel’s account was published by +his neighbour Purchas in his <cite lang="de">Pilgrims</cite> (<a id="AUTH12" href="#auth12">12</a>). Battel +speaks of two kinds of large apes, the engeco and +the pongo, which inhabited the forest on the banks +of the Banna and the Mayombe. The engeco +corresponds to the ndjéko or nschégo (chimpanzee), +the pongo to the n’pungu of Loango, or the gorilla. +Battel’s description of the habits of these animals +affords some characteristic touches which will +concern us presently. We may date our earliest +acquaintance with the largest of all the anthropoids +from this adventurer’s career.</p> + +<p>The Dutch physician Oliver Dapper published +in 1668 a detailed description of Africa (<a id="AUTH13" href="#auth13">13</a>), in +which there is much of value, and he mentions the +large apes, called quojas morrau or morrou, which +inhabit the kingdom of Congo (<a id="AUTH14" href="#auth14">14</a>). By these he +apparently means the chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>Some account, unfortunately rather vague, of the +gorilla has been recently given by Bowdich in his +very interesting work on the “Mission of the Anglo-African +Company to Ashanti” (<a id="AUTH15" href="#auth15">15</a>). He says that +there are several remarkable species of apes in the +territory of the Gaboon, among which the ingenu +(gorilla) is the strangest. The natives asserted that +this animal is much larger than the orang-utan, +generally five feet tall, and four feet broad from +shoulder to shoulder.</p> + +<p>In 1847 Dr. Savage, a Protestant missionary on +the Gaboon, reported to the distinguished anatomist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> +Owen that there was an ape in that country larger +than the chimpanzee. In addition to this information, +he sent some drawings of skulls by the wife of +an English missionary, Prince, in which the supra-orbital +arch is strongly developed. Savage gave +to the animal the name of <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, to +distinguish it from <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>, the chimpanzee. +Owen also described two skulls of gorillas, +sent to him from the Gaboon (<a id="AUTH16" href="#auth16">16</a>). The skull of +a gorilla, sent to Boston by the missionary Wilson, +was drawn and described by Professor Jeffreys +Wyman, and with it the notes of the donor were +also published (<a id="AUTH17" href="#auth17">17</a>). In 1851 the skeleton of a +gorilla reached Philadelphia through the medical +missionary H. A. Ford, who also published the latest +accounts of the new anthropoid (<a id="AUTH18" href="#auth18">18</a>). In 1849 +some remains of a gorilla reached Paris through +Gautier Laboulaye, and this valuable contribution +to natural history was received by de Blainville +and Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1851 and +1852 more perfect remains were presented to the +Museum in Paris by Dr. Franquet and Admiral +Penaud. In the finely illustrated works by de +Blainville (<a id="AUTH19" href="#auth19">19</a>), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (<a id="AUTH20" href="#auth20">20</a>), and +Duvernoy (<a id="AUTH21" href="#auth21">21</a>), they are represented with great care. +A splendid illustration of one of these specimens, +excellently stuffed, consisting of an adult male, +adorns the <cite lang="fr">Photographie zoologique</cite>, by L. Rousseau +and A. Devéria, which has, so far as I am aware, +been published without any text (<a id="AUTH22" href="#auth22">22</a>). This illustration +is so true to nature that I made use of it in +one of my earlier publications (<a id="AUTH23" href="#auth23">23</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> + +<p>Paul Belloni du Chaillu, born in North America +of French parents, and reared in his father’s mercantile +house on the Gaboon, spent the years 1855–65 in +roaming through the lands bordering on the Gaboon, +the Ogōwē, and the Fernāo Vaz; he professed to +have taken part in gorilla-hunts, and he published +several books about his travels (<a id="AUTH24" href="#auth24">24</a>). Critical light +has been thrown upon these works, especially by +A. E. Brehm and Winwood (<a id="AUTH25" href="#auth25">25</a>); the illustrations +are defective, and the text is full of tales of adventure. +Du Chaillu’s information respecting the +African anthropoids was published in the <cite>Proceedings +of the Zoological Society of London</cite> (<a id="AUTH26" href="#auth26">26</a>). His +remarkable collection of the remains of apes has +been described by Jeffreys Wyman (<a id="AUTH27" href="#auth27">27</a>), to whom +we are also indebted for a notice of the materials +collected by Savage (<a id="AUTH17a" href="#auth17">17</a>).</p> + +<p>Owen has published instructive anatomical treatises +on the gorilla and the chimpanzee, in addition to +those already cited. This English professor had +the opportunity of dissecting a young male gorilla, +imperfectly preserved in spirits of wine (<a id="AUTH28" href="#auth28">28</a>). The +travellers Burton (<a id="AUTH29" href="#auth29">29</a>), de Compiègne (<a id="AUTH30" href="#auth30">30</a>), Savongnan +de Brazza (<a id="AUTH31" href="#auth31">31</a>), Lenz (<a id="AUTH32" href="#auth32">32</a>), the members of the +German-African Loango Expedition (<a id="AUTH33" href="#auth33">33</a>), and Von +Koppenfels (<a id="AUTH34" href="#auth34">34</a>) have also contributed some information +respecting the gorilla in a wild state. Other +works on the zoology and anatomy of this animal +have been published by Duvernoy, already cited, +Dahlbom (<a id="AUTH35" href="#auth35">35</a>), Haeckel (<a id="AUTH36" href="#auth36">36</a>), Flower (<a id="AUTH37" href="#auth37">37</a>), Issel (<a id="AUTH38" href="#auth38">38</a>), +Giglioli (<a id="AUTH39" href="#auth39">39</a>), Chapman (<a id="AUTH40" href="#auth40">40</a>), Mivart (<a id="AUTH41" href="#auth41">41</a>), Macalister +(<a id="AUTH41A" href="#auth41A">41<span class="allsmcap">A</span>)</a>, Von Aeby (<a id="AUTH42" href="#auth42">42</a>), Lucae (<a id="AUTH43" href="#auth43">43</a>), Ecker (<a id="AUTH44" href="#auth44">44</a>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> +Bolau (<a id="AUTH45" href="#auth45">45</a>), Pansch (<a id="AUTH46" href="#auth46">46</a>), Lenz (<a id="AUTH47" href="#auth47">47</a>), A. B. Meyer +(<a id="AUTH48" href="#auth48">48</a>), R. Meyer (<a id="AUTH49" href="#auth49">49</a>), Bischoff (<a id="AUTH50" href="#auth50">50</a>), Ehlers (<a id="AUTH51" href="#auth51">51</a>), +Virchow (<a id="AUTH52" href="#auth52">52</a>), Von Bär (<a id="AUTH53" href="#auth53">53</a>), by the author of this +work (<a id="AUTH54" href="#auth54">54</a>), etc. Duvernoy, Chapman, Bischoff, Bolau, +Ehlers, and I have, like Owen, been able to dissect +perfect specimens of the gorilla. Two of the specimens +which came into my hands were unquestionably +in the best condition, since I obtained them immediately +after their deaths in Berlin. A larger +specimen of a female, 1000 mm. tall, was in worse +preservation, yet still quite available for the purposes +of study.</p> + +<p>The list of anatomical treatises on the gorilla is +not yet exhausted. Valuable information may be +found in the anthropological works by C. Vogt (<a id="AUTH55" href="#auth55">55</a>), +in the writings of Pruner-Bey (<a id="AUTH56" href="#auth56">56</a>), and Magitot (<a id="AUTH57" href="#auth57">57</a>), +in Darwin’s works (<a id="AUTH58" href="#auth58">58</a>), in <cite lang="fr">Histoire Naturelle des +Mammifères</cite>, by Gervais (<a id="AUTH59" href="#auth59">59</a>), in Huxley’s <cite>Anatomy +of Vertebrated Animals</cite> (<a id="AUTH60" href="#auth60">60</a>), in Flower’s <cite>Osteology of +the Mammalia</cite> (<a id="AUTH61" href="#auth61">61</a>), in Giebel’s <cite lang="fr">Odontographie</cite> (<a id="AUTH62" href="#auth62">62</a>), +and in many other handbooks and treatises on natural +history, which want of room forbids me to mention.</p> + +<p>In 1860, so far as I am aware, the first living +gorilla reached England. It survived its arrival +seven months, and a good illustration of this +creature, accompanied by a brief description, has +been recently published in the <cite>Proceedings of the +Zoological Society of London</cite> (<a id="AUTH63" href="#auth63">63</a>). In 1876, towards +the end of June, Dr. Falckenstein brought +the second living gorilla from Loango to Berlin. +It had been kept in confinement in that country +at the German station Chinchoxo since 1874, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> +it died on November 13, 1877, at the Berlin +Aquarium. Dr. Hermes obtained a third specimen +in September, 1881, which died soon after its arrival +in Berlin. In 1883 a fourth still survived in the +Berlin Aquarium.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzee became the more general object +of zoological and anatomical study at an earlier +period, since the species occupied a wider area than +the gorilla, and is more easily captured. I have +already mentioned Hanno’s observations on the +subject, and the animal described by von Tulpe. In +1740 Buffon had seen a young specimen of the +chimpanzee, and another was in existence in London +at the same time. In vol. 35, pl. 2, of his Natural +History, Buffon gives an illustration of the chimpanzee, +and pl. 3 represents an orang-utan, not very +true to nature, but still recognizable (<a id="AUTH64" href="#auth64">64</a>). It is +commonly supposed that the Dutch traveller Bosman, +cited by Buffon, was acquainted both with the gorilla +and the chimpanzee. He speaks of an ape about +five feet high, living near Fort Wimba “d’une +couleur fauve” (<a id="AUTH65" href="#auth65">65</a>). Although Buffon was acquainted +with the names chimpanzee and chimpezée, +as well as with Battel’s surmises about the pongo +and the enjeco, yet he regarded the jockos, pongos, +and orangs as animals all belonging to one species. +The young African animals observed by him and +von Tulpe (chimpanses) must have been young +pongos (<a id="AUTH66" href="#auth66">66</a>). The name pongo was afterwards applied +to the old misshapen orang-utan. The skin +and skeleton of the chimpanzee observed by Buffon +when still alive, was preserved in the Zoological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> +Museum in Paris as late as 1842 (<a id="AUTH67" href="#auth67">67</a>). There is a +beautiful illustration of a young female which lived +in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris +in 1838 in the catalogue of this noble institution +(<a id="AUTH68" href="#auth68">68</a>). This illustration, in which the animal is represented +on all fours, has since been frequently +copied. Copies have also been made of the drawings +of the same individual in a walking position, and +swinging by one arm, which originally appeared in +Vélins’ famous catalogue of the Museum of Paris. +Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Dahlbom have given +good illustrations of the head and body of an old +male chimpanzee (<a id="AUTH69" href="#auth69">69</a>). Numerous, and for the most +part correct, pictures of the chimpanzee have been +given in several modern works and illustrated papers +(<a id="AUTH70" href="#auth70">70</a>). Undoubtedly the best representations of the +chimpanzee, corrected from photographs taken from +life, are found in my osteological treatise on the +gorilla which appeared in 1880, and also in the +little book which preceded it (<a id="AUTH71" href="#auth71">71</a>). The form and +mode of life of this species of ape are fairly well +described by Bischoff (<a id="AUTH72" href="#auth72">72</a>), as well as in the books +already mentioned, and especially in those by Temminck +(<a id="AUTH73" href="#auth73">73</a>), Gervais, Reichenbach, and Brehm. +Recently the opportunities of describing the bodies +of chimpanzees have been frequent. Remarks on the +anatomy of this animal may also be found in the +works of Tyson (<a id="AUTH11a" href="#auth11">11</a>), Vrolik (<a id="AUTH74" href="#auth74">74</a>), Champneys (<a id="AUTH75" href="#auth75">75</a>), +Brühl (<a id="AUTH76" href="#auth76">76</a>), and Schroeder van der Kolk and +Vrolik (<a id="AUTH77" href="#auth77">77</a>), as well as in the works we have already +mentioned by Owen, Duvernoy, Bischoff, Issel, Giglioli, +Lenz, etc. Du Chaillu (<a id="AUTH26a" href="#auth26">26</a>), Duvernoy (<a id="AUTH78" href="#auth78">78</a>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> +Bischoff (<a id="AUTH50a" href="#auth50">50</a>), Gratiolet and Alix (<a id="AUTH79" href="#auth79">79</a>), A. B. Meyer +(<a id="AUTH80" href="#auth80">80</a>), and the author of this work (<a id="AUTH81" href="#auth81">81</a>) have treated +of the external form and internal structure of new +species of apes, and varieties of the chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>Much has been written about the orang-utan since +Vosmaer’s (<a id="AUTH82" href="#auth82">82</a>) day, among others by Rademacher +(<a id="AUTH83" href="#auth83">83</a>), Wurmb (<a id="AUTH84" href="#auth84">84</a>), Griffith (<a id="AUTH85" href="#auth85">85</a>), Temminck (<a id="AUTH86" href="#auth86">86</a>), +Schlegel and S. Müller (<a id="AUTH87" href="#auth87">87</a>), Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire +(<a id="AUTH88" href="#auth88">88</a>), Brooke (<a id="AUTH89" href="#auth89">89</a>), Abel (<a id="AUTH90" href="#auth90">90</a>), and Wallace +(<a id="AUTH91" href="#auth91">91</a>). Camper (<a id="AUTH92" href="#auth92">92</a>), Owen (<a id="AUTH93" href="#auth93">93</a>), J. Müller (<a id="AUTH94" href="#auth94">94</a>), +Schlegel and S. Müller (<a id="AUTH95" href="#auth95">95</a>), Heusinger (<a id="AUTH96" href="#auth96">96</a>), Dumortier +(<a id="AUTH97" href="#auth97">97</a>), Brühl (<a id="AUTH98" href="#auth98">98</a>), Bischoff, Langer (<a id="AUTH99" href="#auth99">99</a>), etc., +have studied the anatomy of this animal. Good +illustrations of the orang-utan are found in Vélins’ +catalogue, copied by Chenu (<a id="AUTH100" href="#auth100">100</a>) and Gervais (<a id="AUTH101" href="#auth101">101</a>), +and in Wallace; also in the designs by Mützel (<a id="AUTH102" href="#auth102">102</a>) +and Max (<a id="AUTH103" href="#auth103">103</a>), and in my work on the Gorilla, +already cited.</p> + +<p>It had been already shown by Tilesius (<a id="AUTH104" href="#auth104">104</a>) and +Cuvier (<a id="AUTH105" href="#auth105">105</a>) that Wurmb’s young pongo is identical +with the orang of Linnæus. We now know certainly +that the name pongo (n’pungu in Loango) +should only be applied to the gorilla.</p> + +<p>The fourth and smallest species of anthropoid +apes, the Indian long-armed apes or gibbons, have +been recently described, with reference to their form +and mode of life, by various travellers and naturalists, +especially by Duvaucel (<a id="AUTH106" href="#auth106">106</a>), Bennet (<a id="AUTH107" href="#auth107">107</a>), Martin +(<a id="AUTH108" href="#auth108">108</a>), Lewis (<a id="AUTH109" href="#auth109">109</a>), S. Müller (<a id="AUTH110" href="#auth110">110</a>), Diard (<a id="AUTH111" href="#auth111">111</a>); +also by Buffon (<a id="AUTH112" href="#auth112">112</a>), Is. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (<a id="AUTH113" href="#auth113">113</a>), +and Blyth (<a id="AUTH114" href="#auth114">114</a>), etc. Gulliver (<a id="AUTH115" href="#auth115">115</a>), Bischoff (<a id="AUTH116" href="#auth116">116</a>), +and the author of this work have studied the +anatomy of these creatures.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><span id="toclink_11"></span>CHAPTER II.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE EXTERNAL FORM OF ANTHROPOID APES.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan +the external form is subject to essential modifications, +according to the age and sex. The difference +between the sexes is most strongly marked in the +gorilla, and these differences are least apparent in +the gibbon.</p> + +<p>When a young male gorilla is compared with an +aged animal of the same species, we are almost +tempted to believe that we have to do with two +entirely different creatures. While the young male +still displays an evident approximation to the +human structure, and develops in its bodily habits +the same qualities which generally characterize the +short-tailed apes of the Old World, with the exception +of the baboon, the aged male is otherwise formed. +In the latter case the points of resemblance to the +human type are far fewer; the aged animal has +become a gigantic ape, retaining indeed in the +structure of his hands and feet the characteristics +of the primates, while the protruding head is something +between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> +and the boar. Simultaneously with these remarkable +alterations of the external structure there occurs +a modification of the skeleton. The skull of an +aged male gorilla becomes more prognathous, and +the incisor teeth have almost attained the length of +those of lions and tigers. On the upper part of +the skull, which is rounded in youth, great bony +crests are developed on the crown of the head and on +the occiput, and these are supported by the high, +spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, and thus +supply the starting-point for the powerful muscles +of the neck and jaw. The supra-orbital arches are +covered with wrinkled skin, and the already savage, +and indeed revolting, appearance of the old gorilla +is thereby increased. A comparison of the two +illustrations (Figs. <a href="#i_1">1</a> and <a href="#i_3">3</a>) which accompany the +text, will make this clear.</p> + +<p>These distinctions are not so striking in the +female as in the male gorilla. Although there is +much which is bestial in the appearance of an aged +female, yet the crests, so strongly marked in the +male, the projecting orbits, and strong muscular pads +are absent in the female, as well as the prognathous +form of the skull and the length and thickness of +the canine teeth. The aged female gorilla is not, +in her whole structure, so far removed from the condition +of the same sex in youth as is the aged male. +The structure of the female has on the whole more +in common with the human form. It has been said, +and indeed on good authority, that the female type +should take the foremost place in the study of the +animal structure, since it is the more universal.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> +But H. von Nathusius maintains that we must take +both sexes into consideration in the study of +domestic animals, since both are needed to determine +the breed.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> I accept this condition in the scientific +study and description of wild animals also, of every +kind and species. All that is said of the universal +type of the female animal is and must remain in my +eyes a mere phrase. Only the accurate observation +of males and females, and of young individuals of +both sexes, can throw sufficient light on the history +of the race. The male animal is the larger, and +predominant with respect to the complete development +of certain peculiarities of form in the specific +organism, since these are doubtfully present in the +adult female, and are either altogether absent in the +immature young, or only rudimentary.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider, in the first place, the prototype +of the species, the aged male gorilla in the +full strength of his bodily development (<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a>). +This animal, when standing upright, is more than +six feet in height, or 2000 mm. The head is +300 mm. in length. The occiput appears to be +broader below than above, since the upper part +slopes like a gabled roof towards the high, longitudinal +crest of the vertex. The projecting supra-orbital +arches start prominently from the upper +and central contour of the skull. In this species, +as in other apes, and indeed among mammals +generally, and especially in the case of the carnivora, +ruminants, and multi-ungulates, eyebrows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> +are present. In the gorilla these consist of a rather +scanty growth of coal-black bristles, about 40 mm. +in length. Beneath the projecting supra-orbital +arches are the eyes, opening with somewhat narrow +slits, and with lids which display many and deep +longitudinal folds. The upper lid is set with longer +and thicker eyelashes than the lower. The dark eyes +glow between the lids with a ferocious expression.</p> + +<figure id="i_1" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 19em;"> + <img src="images/i_p014.jpg" width="1188" height="2012" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 1.—Aged male gorilla.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The bridge of the nose rises gradually outwards +from between the inner corners of the eyes, and is +keel-shaped in the centre. This part of the head +is from 70 to 80 mm. in length, longer and narrower +in one individual, shorter and wider in another. +The skin in this region is covered with a network +of wrinkles of varying size. The end of the nose +and the nostrils are high, conical, and very wide at +the base. This part of the nose, attached to the +very projecting forehead, has the effect of an altogether +snout-like muzzle. It is intersected by a +central longitudinal furrow, which divides the whole +tip of the nose into two symmetrical halves. This +furrow is more strongly marked in the case of +adult animals than in the young. The aperture +of the nostrils is large and triangular, with the +cartilaginous point turned upwards, and the edges +applied to the bridge of the nose and to the cheeks +have a somewhat retreating appearance. The lateral +margins of this part of the nostril take an arched +form, first diverging in different directions, then +gradually converging again towards the upper lip. +The lip is short, and this, combined with the large +nose, gives a certain resemblance to the mouth of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> +an ox. This resemblance is the more striking, as +the whole of this region is covered with glandular +skin of a deep black colour, which is either glabrous +or provided with a few scattered hairs, but furnished +with small flattened warts.</p> + +<p>Below the eyes the cheeks are broad and very +round, dwindling away and becoming depressed in +the lower part of the face. They are seamed with +curved wrinkles of varying depth, which tend downwards +in the same direction as the wrinkles on the +lower eyelids. The short upper lip is provided with +oblique folds which converge outwards in the +centre. The points of the strong canine teeth, which +in many individuals are from 38 to 40 mm. long, +and 20 mm. wide, diverge a little from each other, +and stretch the upper lip in an oblique direction, +so that this part of the face takes the form of a +triangular, bevelled surface, with its prominent base-line +between the canine teeth. It may also be observed +that in many individuals of this species the +nose is not very deeply set on the upper lip; that in +others, again, the nose is decidedly raised, and the +lip only presents a small hem below the nose. In +many such cases the prognathism of the face is +strongly marked, so as to give a baboon-like effect. +In other specimens, again, this debased type is not +allied with strongly marked prognathism.</p> + +<p>If we take a front view of the skull of an aged +male gorilla we see that the upper edges of the +great supra-orbital arches are bevelled off below and +at the sides. This bevelled form is repeated in the +broad cheek-bones, as we see them in front. The front<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> +view of the head, and indeed of the whole animal, +presents a strongly projecting contour, an impression +which is strengthened by the puffed cheeks, +with their lateral pads of fat. The lower jaw, with +its scarcely indicated chin, retreats in the centre and +dwindles into a triangular form. This contour is +characteristic of the species. The whole skin of the +face is glossy, set with few hairs, and of a deep +black colour.</p> + +<figure id="i_2" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 11em;"> + <img src="images/i_p017.jpg" width="645" height="795" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 2.—Ear of a male adult gorilla.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The ear (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>) averages 60 mm. in length, and +from 36 to 40 mm. in width. It seems to be fastened +to the head by the back and upper part, is generally +of an oval shape, and furnished with a strongly +marked helix. The helix varies in width in different +individuals, and often terminates on its inner edge +in the projecting peaked excrescence described by +Darwin, of which I shall have more to say presently. +The anti-helix, tragus, and anti-tragus, and the cleft<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> +which lies between these two latter parts (<i lang="la">incisura +inter tragica</i>) are generally fully developed; the +lobule is more rarely present. Individual variations +in the special structure of these parts may frequently +be observed.</p> + +<p>The strong trapezoid muscles are prominent on +the neck, and when the head is stretched they +stand out like pillars on the sides of the neck. +Owing to the great development of the spinous processes +of the cervical vertebræ and of the muscles +attached to them, and to the occipital bones of the +skull, the neck is very powerful, almost like that of +a bull. The shoulders are remarkable for their +breadth, and the pectoral muscles for their large +size. The nipples of the breast, which are not surrounded +by any visible <i lang="la" class="anatomy">areolæ</i>, stand out in youth, +and afterwards assume a horny texture which stiffens +into a kind of bone. When one of these animals is +gorged with food the navel is still apparent on the +tun-shaped, rounded belly, of which the sides fall +in when the stomach is empty.</p> + +<p>On the upper and forearms the plastic form of +the strongly developed flexor and extensor muscles +is very apparent, testifying to the enormous strength +of the upper extremities. The hands are large, and +very wide, with short, thick fingers. The thumb, +of which the extremity takes a conical form, is short, +extending little beyond the middle of the second +metacarpal bone. The extremities of the otherwise +broad fingers are somewhat laterally compressed. +The fore-finger is not materially shorter than the +middle finger. The third finger is sometimes shorter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> +than, sometimes of the same length as, the first, and +the fourth is decidedly shorter. The back of the wrist +is covered with deep oblique folds. A network of +wrinkles, oblique or curved, also covers the skin on +the back of the fingers, on which there are +callosities up to the first joint. The gorilla closes +the fingers when going on all fours, and turns the +back of the hand on the ground, thus producing +this thickening of the upper skin on the joints. +Callosities of the same nature, although not so extensive, +are not rare on the second finger-joints. +The palm of the hand is covered with a hard, horny +skin, generally beset with warts, especially at the +roots of the fingers. In spite of the blackness of +the skin which covers them, these characteristics are +still apparent.</p> + +<p>The fingers are united by a strong web, reminding +us of the membrane found on the otter and other +web-footed animals, and reaching nearly to the first +finger-joint. A thick coat of hair extends to the +root of the fingers, although on the backs of the +fingers there are only a few isolated hairs.</p> + +<p>The trunk of the body of a gorilla, seen from +behind, somewhat resembles a trapezium in form, of +which the longer of the two parallel sides extends +between the shoulders, and the shorter between the +two halves of the pelvis. The longitudinal sides, +which are not parallel, correspond to the sides of the +back. The arrangement of all the lower part of the +trunk, on which the bones of the pelvis stand out +prominently in an oblique direction, somewhat resembles +a four-sided pyramid with its apex reversed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> +The gluteal muscles are not strongly developed. +The tuberosity of the ischium projects in a somewhat +angular form.</p> + +<p>While the external sexual organs of the male are +so covered by the wrinkled skin of the abdomen +that they are not prominent in their passive condition, +those of the female are, on the contrary, very +apparent; the external lips of the vagina, provided +with large nymphæ, and a large clitoris, are only +apparent when the sexual instinct is excited.</p> + +<p>The thighs are covered with strong muscles, which +appear to be smoothed off on the inner side, and +somewhat arched on the outside. The lower part of +the leg is also muscular, and its section is of a long-oval +form; the region of the calf is more strongly +developed than in other anthropoids. The bones of +the foot are not at all prominent, and the same +remark applies to those of the hand. The contour +of the back of the long, broad foot is flat; the sole is +convex, covered with strong muscles, and padded +with layers of fat. When the animal puts the sole +of the foot on the ground, its muscles go back to the +region of the heel, and forward into the inner side +of the foot, thus presenting the primitive formation +of a heel.</p> + +<p>The great toe, as in all apes, is detached like a +thumb from the other toes, and can be used as such. +The metatarsus serves as a base for its projection, in +the same manner as the thumb starts from the fore +part of the contour of the wrist. The great toe +sometimes extends as far as the joint between the +first and second phalanges of the second toe, sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> +nearly as far as the middle of the second +phalanx. This characteristic varies in different +individuals. At the point of union of the first +metatarsal bone with the hinder extremity of the +first phalanx of the great toe, there is a round projection +on the inner side of the foot. The great +toe is very broad at its root, then becomes smaller, +and widens again into a broad final phalanx. With +its strong lateral ridges of skin, which cover the +sinews and cushions of fat, all this part of the foot +appears to be wide and flattened off from the back +to the sole.</p> + +<p>The second, third, fourth, and fifth toes are more +slender than the great toe. The second toe is in +most cases rather shorter than the third. The third +and fourth toes are almost of the same length, and +only a little longer than the second toe.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> The fifth +toe is considerably shorter than the fourth. The +last phalanges of the toes taper in front, and are furnished +on their lower surface with long, laterally +compressed pads. The section of such a phalanx is +almost trapezoidal, with a long upper parallel side. +The upper part of the foot, although generally flat, +rises a little in the neighbourhood of the first metatarsal +bone, and slopes thence to its outer edge.</p> + +<p>The hair grows thickly on the back of the foot as +far as the extremity of the metatarsal bones, more +sparsely on the back of the toes. There are strongly +marked oblique furrows on this part of the foot, +especially on the joints, often combined with horny<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> +callosities, since the animal sometimes doubles up +the toes and runs upon the back of them. The nails +of the hands and feet are black, like the whole of +their skin-covering, distinctly grooved, very much +arched, and generally somewhat wider at the base +than in front.</p> + +<figure id="i_3" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 17em;"> + <img src="images/i_p022.jpg" width="1044" height="1245" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 3.—The young male gorilla, from the specimen in the Berlin Aquarium of + 1876–77. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>On the sole of the foot we find the region of the +heel, the ball of the great toe, in this case resembling +the ball of a thumb, the roots and tips of the +toes, together with pads consisting of muscles, tendons,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> +and skin. The several divisions of these padded +balls are separated from each other by furrows which +are longitudinal, oblique, and transverse, and more +or less distinct from each other. The black skin +which covers the sole of the foot is thick and horny, +but provided with a series of papillæ. The whole +skin of an aged animal is of a deep black colour, +somewhat glossy, and covered with intersecting +wrinkles.</p> + +<figure id="i_4" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 15em;"> + <img src="images/i_p023.jpg" width="933" height="841" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 4.—The same animal at a still earlier age. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The young male gorilla does not essentially differ +from the old male in its general and external appearance. +Its skull is, however, without the crest +which characterizes the latter animal, and is still of +a rounded form in the region of the crown and occiput. +At this age the head is not so high at the +back and on the top as in aged males. The orbits +are less prominent, the general aspect of the face is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> +not so decidedly prognathous, and the bridge of the +nose is shorter. The lines of the body in the young +male are softer and less exaggerated, and the expression +of the face is less ferocious than in an aged +male. The horny callosities on the hands and feet +are altogether wanting or only faintly indicated, and +the hands, fingers, and toes have not arrived at the +powerful development which we observe in the older +animal. (Comp. Figs. <a href="#i_3">3</a> and <a href="#i_4">4</a>.)</p> + +<p>Considerable differences may be observed in the +whole structure of the adult female gorilla. The +animals of this sex are smaller and weaker than +males of the same age. The skull of the female is +smaller and more rounded than that of the male, +and the great bony crests are also absent. The orbits +are less prominent, and a front view of the head +gives the impression of a trapezoidal form. The +coronal arch rises above this trapezoid. In the +male, on the contrary, the crown seems to lengthen +above and behind into a pyramidal form. In +the aged female the bridge of the nose is generally +shorter than in the aged male, but even in +this particular there is great variation in different +individuals. Sometimes the bridge of the nose in a +female is much depressed, and then the interval +between the orbits and the end of the nose is +shorter: I intentionally avoid the term <em>tip</em> of the +nose, on account of the blunted form of this organ. +Even when the bridge of the nose is more prominent, +the interval between its end and the orbits is +sometimes very short.</p> + +<p>The aged female gorilla usually has wider cheeks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> +a smaller nose, and a higher upper lip. This last +peculiarity is shown in the correct and well-stuffed +specimens in the museums at Paris and Lübeck. +Although, in the process of drying, the skin of the +nose may have shrunk a little, yet there is still room +for the upper lip, provided with folds which are either +vertical and parallel or diverge like a fan. Owen +and Mützel<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> have given satisfactory illustrations of +these parts. In the aged female the shape of the +neck is not, as in the aged male, strong and bulging, +so as to resemble a cowl. Yet it is enlarged in +conformity with the not inconsiderable development +of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, +and with that of the powerful cervical muscles. +Even in a young male, of the age of the specimen +which was kept in the Berlin Aquarium, between +July, 1876, and November, 1877, this enlargement +of the neck was present in a marked degree. In +still younger individuals, however, under a year old, +in which the spinous processes of the vertebræ have +not yet been developed, there is no such enlargement, +but, on the contrary, this region of the neck +takes a concave form.</p> + +<p>In conformity with the smaller size of the body, +the shoulders, arms, and thighs of the adult female +are smaller than those of the full-grown male, but +they are still very powerful. While giving suck, +the breasts of the female are swelled in the form of +a half-cone, instead of assuming the convex shape +which is observed in many European women, and +still more frequently in those of the negro, Indian,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> +and South Sea races. The nipple is cylindrical +rather than conical in shape, and covered with +finely wrinkled black skin, which is sometimes hard +and horny. When not giving suck, the breasts hang +slackly down, like short empty pouches. The belly +swells in the neighbourhood of the crest of the ilium, +and increases in thickness at the groin. The external +sexual organs, in the period of excitement, +swell in a manner resembling the lips of a woman’s +pudenda.</p> + +<p>In a young female the cranium is rounded, and +the face is only slightly prominent. In aged +specimens, especially in those of the male sex, there +is a somewhat typical prolongation of that part of +the face which lies between the eyes and the end +of the nose, and this is to a slight extent apparent +in the young female. Variations in form and in the +extent of the prolongation are, however, apparent +even at this early period. The trunk and limbs +are more slenderly built than in a male of the +same age.</p> + +<p>The hairy coat of the gorilla consists of long, +thick, straight or stiffly curved bristles, and also of +shorter, thinner, and curled woolly hair. On the +crown of the head the hair is somewhat stiff, from +12 to 20 mm. in length, and it becomes erect under +the influence of anger. While the sides and fore-part +of the chin are only clothed with short, stiff +hairs, they grow thickly on the back part of the +chin, like a beard or forelock. The hairs which +turn outwards from the sides of the face and on the +neck are 30 or more mm. in length. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> +shoulders the hair is from 130 to 150 mm. long, +hanging down on the upper arms and the back. In +the middle of the upper arm the hair is from 50 to +70 mm. long, growing downwards as far as the bend +of the elbow. At this point it generally begins to +grow in an upward direction. On the back of the +forearm it again grows downwards. In the middle +of the forearm on its inner side, a parting of the +hairs takes place, as one portion goes in front of +the radius, while the other portion turns behind +the ulna. On the back of the wrist a tuft of +curved hair turns upwards; a middle tuft goes +directly back; and the lower tuft, also curved, turns +outwards. On the back of the hand the hairs turn +towards the fingers. On the breast and belly the +hairs are shorter and grow more sparsely. On the +breast their direction is as a rule upwards and outwards. +On the belly they converge from the ribs +towards the centre and the navel. On the thighs +the hairs are about 160 mm. long, and here, as on +the lower part of the leg, they tend outwards, while +on the back of the foot they grow towards the toes. +On the back, shoulders, and on the thigh and +leg, the bristles are slightly curved. This quality +increases the general impression of shagginess and +fleeciness which is produced by the hairy coat of +these creatures. The woolly hair does not grow very +thick, and is not much matted.</p> + +<p>The colour of the hair not only differs on different +parts of the body, but also in different individuals. +On the crown of the head it is of a reddish brown, +or rarely of a decided brown or black. The hairs in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> +this region are sometimes dun-coloured at the root, +greyish white in the centre, and brownish red, +shading into the dark brown tip. The hair on the +lips is sometimes of a blackish brown, sometimes +whitish, or both colours are found together. The +hair growing at the sides of the face is grey below, +dark brown or almost black above. On the neck +and shoulders the hair is of a grey colour at the +root, and gradually becomes lighter towards the tip. +In the centre it is brown, shading into a lighter +colour at either end, but this ringed form of colour +is not universal. The tips of the hair are dark, +sometimes brown or reddish. The hair on the +back, on the upper arms and thighs, is whitish or +light grey for half its length, with a blackish brown +ring towards the tip, which is of a dark grey colour. +Many of these hairs on the back have two brown +rings on them. The forearms, hands, shanks, and +feet are covered with hairs which are grey at the +root, brownish grey, dark brown, or black at the tip. +Round the posteriors there is a circle of white, grey, +or brownish yellow hairs from 10 to 20 mm. in +length. In both sexes variations from the colour of +the coat here described are not rare. It has been +already observed that the brownish red colour of the +hair on the head is sometimes exchanged for another +shade. In many individuals the neck, shoulders, +and back are of a dark grey, brown, or even black +colour. In others the forearms, hands, shanks, and +feet are covered, like the rest of the body, with grey +and brown hair intermingled.</p> + +<p>The second species of anthropoid apes is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> +chimpanzee. In this case also we must consider +successively the aged and young male, and the aged +and young female animals.</p> + +<p>The full-grown chimpanzee is smaller than the +adult gorilla. In this species also the male is larger +than the female. The chimpanzee is, speaking +generally, of a slighter build than the gorilla.</p> + +<p>The head of the aged male chimpanzee fundamentally +differs from that of the aged male gorilla, +since the skull of the former has a depressed crown, +and the transverse occipital ridge is only faintly +indicated. Since the orbits are also less strongly +developed than in the aged male gorilla, and the +spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ do not +assume the same elevated form which is characteristic +of the latter species, the countenance of the chimpanzee +is not of a square shape, and there is not space +for the strong muscular system arching over the neck +like a cowl, which is so characteristic of the gorilla. +The head of the chimpanzee displays, both in aged +and young specimens, the concave neck which is +common among apes, that is to say, a depression +between the head and the throat. In an aged male +the crown of the head presents a rounded, arched +contour, since, as we have already said, the prominent +bony processes are wanting. Although the supra-orbital +arches are not so excessively prominent as in +a gorilla of the same age, they are strongly developed, +covered with wrinkled skin, and in this case also +there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with +shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids +are furnished with thick eyelashes. The inner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> +angle of the eye somewhat resembles that of the +gorilla.</p> + +<p>A general physiognomical distinction between +the gorilla and the chimpanzee consists in the fact +that the bridge of the nose is shorter in the latter +than in the former. In the chimpanzee this part +of the organ is depressed, yet the depression is +of a conical and convex form, and is covered with +a network of wrinkles of varying depth. In the +chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle +of the eye and the upper lateral contour of the +cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter than in the +gorilla. There is also some difference in the form +of the nose: it is on the whole flatter, the tip is less +apparent, the nostrils are not so widely opened nor so +thickly padded. (<a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>.) In the chimpanzee, as +well as in the gorilla, a central and vertical furrow +directly divides the triangular nostrils, and these +are likewise divided from the rest of the face by the +broad pear-shape furrow which surrounds them. The +upper lip is generally high, sometimes as high as +30 mm.; but in some individuals it is much lower. +As in the gorilla, the chin forms a triangle of equal +sides, with its apex reversed.</p> + +<p>The external ear of the chimpanzee has on the +whole less resemblance to the human ear, and its +contour is larger than that of the gorilla. But this +organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult +to lay down any rule for its average size. It ranges +from 59 to 77 mm. in length, and from 42 to 80 mm. +in width. Many individuals have a distinct lobule +to the ear, others not. (<a href="#i_5">Fig. 5</a>.) In this example<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> +the helix and anti-helix are developed, in others +they are wanting. The tragus and anti-tragus are +more or less apparent in different individuals, as +well as the other modifications of the external cartilage +of the ear.</p> + +<figure id="i_5" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 11em;"> + <img src="images/i_p031.jpg" width="681" height="1046" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 5.—Ear of chimpanzee.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>An aged male chimpanzee has broad, rather +rounded shoulders, a powerful chest, long muscular +arms, reaching to the knees, and a long hand, which +seems to be very slender in comparison with that +of the gorilla. The thumbs vary in length, for the +most part reaching as far as the metacarpal phalanges, +but not in all cases. The middle finger +is longer than the other three; the first and third +fingers are shorter by the length of the last phalanx,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> +the third is a little longer than the first, and the +fourth is again shorter. A web, which reaches to +the middle of the first row of phalanges, stretches +between the bases of the four fingers. There are +horny callosities on the back of the hand of the +aged male, since the chimpanzee, like the gorilla, +supports himself on the backs of his closed fingers. +The fingers are laterally compressed, but slightly +arched on the back of the hand, and more decidedly +so on the palm. A network of furrows covers the +back of the hand, and these are more deeply impressed +on its palm. The thumb is separated from +the palm by a distinct furrow; and from four to +six furrows of varying depth cross the centre of the +palm. The finger-nails are short, wide, and arched, +very convex at their free edges.</p> + +<p>In the aged male the sides of the belly are compressed, +the thighs are broad and muscular, and +somewhat flattened both on the inner and outer +sides. The knees are rather prominent, the shanks +are somewhat laterally compressed, and the calf of +the leg is very slightly developed. As in the +gorilla, the long, wide feet have a thumb-like formation +of the great toes, which are of considerable +size. They extend, when drawing anything towards +them, as far as the second phalanx of the second toe. +The four other toes are more slender and only a little +longer than the great toe. The heel is but slightly +developed, and slopes away below. The joint between +the first phalanx of the great toe and the first +metatarsal bone is marked by an angular projection +on the inner edge of the foot. The back of the foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> +is very slightly convex. The last phalanx of the +great toe is very much sloped off on its upper surface, +but this is less apparent in the other parts of this +member. The last phalanges of the other laterally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> +compressed toes are strongly arched on the under +surface. Considerable convexities may also be observed +under the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the +great toe and under its last phalanx. The shape of +the toe-nails resembles that of the fingers. Large +callosities are not unfrequently found on the backs +of the toes, since the animal sometimes supports +himself on these parts. A connective web is found +between all the toes except the great toe and its +neighbour, but it does not extend so far as that +between the roots of the fingers.</p> + +<figure id="i_6" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 19em;"> + <img src="images/i_p033.jpg" width="1166" height="1664" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 6.—Young chimpanzee.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the young male chimpanzee is distinguished +from the aged male of the same species +by differences in the structure of many of its parts, +yet these distinctions are not so characteristic as +those between the young and aged male gorillas. +The skull of the younger animal, which is altogether +devoid of the prominent bony crest and ridges, is +shaped almost like a truncated cone in the region +of the crown; in some individuals of only a few +years old, the bony development of the orbits has +already begun, starting from the principal part of +the frontal bone, and covered with pads of wrinkled +skin. The short and depressed bridge of the nose +becomes longer and higher, the cartilaginous end +of the nose becomes larger, and the prognathism +of the face increases with each successive stage of +growth. The strength of the trunk and limbs is +early developed. The sexual characteristics are +gradually and plainly developed; but the male +gorilla far exceeds the chimpanzee in demoniacal +ferocity.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> + +<p>The adult female is smaller, and has a smaller +head, with an oval crown to the skull. The orbits +are not so strongly developed as in the aged male, +the nasal parts are less prominent, and the teeth are +not nearly so strong. The body of an animal of +this sex is rounder in all its parts; and the belly, +with its wider pelvis, is more tun-shaped than in +the aged male. Neither do the limbs display the +same angular formation of muscles.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The hands +and feet of the female are also smaller and slenderer. +In a young female the characteristics here described +are presented in the mitigated form which corresponds +with its youthful condition. But the female +sometimes becomes a very strong and even violent +creature. This was often proved in the Hamburg +Zoological Garden, where a female specimen, in +splendid condition, survived for several years under +the faithful care of old Siegel.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> + +<p>The skin of the chimpanzee is of a peculiar light, +yet muddy flesh colour, which sometimes verges upon +brown. Spots, varying in size and depth of colour, +sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a +blackish brown, sooty, or bluish black tint, are found +on different parts of the body of many individuals, +especially on the face, neck, breast, belly, arms and +hands, thighs and shanks; more rarely on the back.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> +The face, which is soon after birth of a flesh colour, +merging into a yellowish brown, assumes a darker +shade with the gradual development of the body. +The hairy coat is sleek, or only in rare cases slightly +curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally +stiff and elastic. The parting on the forehead is +often so regular that it might have been arranged +by the hairdresser’s art (see <a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>). Close behind +that part of the head at which the projecting supra-orbital +ridges of the gorilla generally meet, there is +in the chimpanzee an altogether bald place, or only +a few scattered hairs. Round the face the growth +of hair streams downwards like a beard. On the +neck it is from 60 to 80 or 100 mm. in length, and +it falls in the same long locks over the shoulders, +back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is not so +long, and takes a downward direction on the upper +arm, and an opposite direction on the forearm, while +there is often a longitudinal parting on the centre +of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On +the back of the wrist the hair grows in a kind of +whorl; the upper hairs turn upwards and backwards, +the middle ones turn backwards, the lower ones +backwards and downwards. The backs of the hands +and the roots of the fingers are hairy. On the +front of the thigh the hair takes a downward direction, +while behind it grows backwards. On the +shank it grows downwards in the region of the +tibia, and turns back on the inside of the leg. +The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are +likewise hairy. There is a shorter growth of these +scattered hairs on the face, chin, and ears. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> +supra-orbital arches there are from eight to twenty, +or even more, stiff, scattered hairs, after the manner +of eyebrows; and eyelashes are likewise present.</p> + +<p>In most cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of +a black colour. Short whitish hairs may be observed +on the lower part of the face and chin, as well as +round the posteriors. Sometimes the colour of the +hair is shot throughout with reddish or brownish +black.</p> + +<p>The orang-utan, the chief representative of the +anthropoids in Asia, differs from the African forms +of this group, almost at the first glance, in the +height of his skull, of which the fore-part is compressed +and shortened in a backward direction. In +the aged male it is, however, provided with high +and erect bony crests, which give a prognathous appearance +to the countenance. We take an aged +male as the type of our description.</p> + +<p>The forehead is high and erect, not retreating +like that of the chimpanzee; it is open, and has +moderately convex frontal eminences. From the +centre of the forehead a round or bluntly oval +eminence sometimes projects. The supra-orbital +ridges are strongly arched, yet not so prominent as +that of the aged male chimpanzee, setting aside +that of the gorilla. The eyes are not widely opened, +nor are their lids large and furrowed, but on the +lower lids there are deep wrinkles. The small +bridge of the nose is generally much depressed, but +sometimes assumes a slightly conical form as it +issues from the central longitudinal depression of +the face. The end of the nose, further removed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> +from the eyes than is generally the case in the +chimpanzee, is not so broad as it is in the latter +animal and in the gorilla. The wings of the nose +are narrow and highly arched in their upper part, +divided from each other by a vertical furrow, and +the nostrils are small and oval, separated by a thin +partition. The upper lip is high, broad, and projecting, +and seldom much wrinkled. It is divided from +the cheeks and from the upper part of the face by +a deep depression; and behind the cheeks two large +and long-shaped or sometimes triangular pads of fat +often project forwards and downwards.</p> + +<figure id="i_7" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 19em;"> + <img src="images/i_p038.jpg" width="1187" height="990" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 7.—Head and shoulders of an aged male orang-utan. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The very mobile lips are furrowed, and not +remarkably thick. The chin is very retreating, +but somewhat uniformly rounded in front (<a href="#i_7">Fig. 7</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> +The small ear averages 55 mm. in length, and +12 mm. in width, and has a general resemblance in +structure to the human ear (<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>). On the fore-part +of the short, thick neck there are irregular, +and in some places very deep +circular folds of skin. The +throat-pouch distends part of +this slack, wrinkled skin, which +hangs down in front like a great +empty wallet (see Figs. <a href="#i_7">7</a> and <a href="#i_9">9</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_8" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 7em;"> + <img src="images/i_p039.jpg" width="444" height="535" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 8.—Ear of the orang-utan.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The structure of the other +parts of the body lacks even to +some extent the powerful and +symmetrical formation which we +observe in the gorilla, and indeed +in the chimpanzee. The trunk, with broad yet +rather angular and sloping shoulders, with flattened +breast, rounded back, and still more rounded belly, +is tun-shaped, and gives the impression of a want +of proportion. In lean individuals the gluteal +region resembles the projecting rump of a fowl, +and this may also be observed in the young gorilla +and chimpanzee. The long, muscular arms reach +to the ankles when the animal is in an erect position, +and are altogether out of proportion with the +rest of the body. The powerful upper arm is +shorter than the lean forearm. The hand is long +and narrow. The thumb, which reaches as far as +the metacarpo-phalangeal joint, has a displeasing +and almost rudimentary effect. A web unites the +fingers, sometimes extending along a third of the +first phalanx, sometimes along half. The middle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> +finger is somewhat longer than the first and third<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> +fingers, and the third is next to it in length. The +fourth finger is comparatively long. The palm of +the hand is flat, only marked by a few deep furrows. +The long, slender fingers are laterally compressed, +and the nails on their tapering ends are arched.</p> + +<figure id="i_9" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 22em;"> + <img src="images/i_p040.jpg" width="1389" height="1869" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 9.—Adult male orang-utan.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The thighs, somewhat compressed on the inner +side, are, however, very muscular, but become much +smaller on their back side. The calf of the leg is less +developed than in the gorilla, or even than in the +chimpanzee. The feet are, like the hands, long and +slender. The narrow, flat heels project very slightly +behind. The great toes are short, with wide extremities, +rounded above, and provided on the sole +with thick, fatty skin. In old age these animals not +only often lose the nails of their great toes, but sometimes +even the last phalanges themselves. This is +not merely a disease produced by confinement, as is +the case with sea-cat monkeys, hyenas, etc., which in +this condition lose portions of their tails or toes, but +it also occurs among orang-utans in their wild state. +The middle toe is the longest, and the fourth toe +is the shortest. Layers of fat may be observed on +the under side of all but the great toe, where +they rarely occur. The backs of the hands and +feet are covered with very ribbed and wrinkled skin, +and on the hands there are callosities.</p> + +<p>This animal, of a quieter and more phlegmatic +disposition than the gorilla and chimpanzee, has +a very strange appearance, with its projecting head +and short neck; its face widening in the middle and +tapering towards the forehead and chin; its tun-shaped +trunk, long, thin extremities, and shaggy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> +coat. It differs widely from the chimpanzee and +gorilla in these particulars. In the young male the +compression of the forehead is less marked than in +aged animals, and the bony crests which conduce to +raise the coronal arch in its upper and hinder part are +also absent. The supra-orbital arches are less strongly +developed, the jaws are less prominent, and the layers +of fat upon the cheeks are absent. The head is more +detached from the neck, the structure of the whole +body is slenderer, the expression of the countenance +is milder. A small, conical nail, blunted at the end, +may generally be observed on the great toe.</p> + +<p>In the adult female, as I have pointed out elsewhere, +the physical characteristics of the young +male are repeated in an exaggerated form. The skull, +displaying only very small bony crests, is indeed +high, but more rounded than in the aged male; the +face is prominent, but the head is more detached +from the neck than in the latter case. On account +of the greater width of the pelvis, the body is still +more tun-shaped than in the aged male. When +giving suck, the breasts are distended in the form of +a half cone, but when this condition ceases they fall +together and only present two short, wrinkled, +slightly prominent folds of skin; the small, horny +nipples are almost cylindrical; and the areola, of +which the traces are scanty at all times, altogether +disappears. The throat-pouch is less strongly developed +than in the aged male, but the limbs are as +fully developed. The head of the young female is +still more rounded, with a more flattened though +still projecting face, and the limbs are slenderer, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> +thus still more out of proportion with the thick +trunk than is the case with a young male.</p> + +<p>The orang-utan’s skin is of a greyish blue colour, +sometimes mixed with brown, but the greyish blue +shade is predominant. A yellowish or brownish +grey is less common. Round the eyes, nostrils, +upper lips, and chin there is often a ring of a dirty, +yellowish brown colour, forming a strange contrast +with the general bluish grey tone of the face. The +arms, legs, hands, and feet are black or greyish +black, more rarely brown or reddish brown.</p> + +<p>The hairy coat of the orang-utan consists of long, +curved, waving bristles, and some scanty downy +hairs. On the back of the head, on the shoulders, +back, and hips I have measured hairs from 220 to +235 mm. in length. In other individuals they were, +however, much shorter—20, 40, or 60 mm. long. +There is often a natural parting of the hair of the +head, which falls asunder on either side. In some +cases there is no parting, and the hair streams wildly +down; and in others, again, it stands upright, stiffening +from the sides and top of the head in a demoniacal +manner (Figs. <a href="#i_7">7</a> and <a href="#i_9">9</a>). A beard frequently encircles +the cheeks and chin. The hair grows upwards +and outwards on the neck and fore-part of the +throat, on the shoulders, back, breast, belly, upper +arms, and thighs, while it takes the opposite +direction on the forearm. On the wrist the hair +grows in the manner described in the case of the +gorilla. There is only a scanty growth of hair on +the breast and belly, and it is also short and weak +on the face, ears, and backs of the hands and feet.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> +I have not observed eyebrows on the animals I have +seen, but they may occur, and the eyelashes are +fully developed.</p> + +<p>The hair is of a reddish brown colour, something +like burnt sienna, and the hair-tips on the back +parts of the body are generally brown. In some +individuals the hair is darker, of a russet or blackish +brown; in others it is lighter, and in the latter case +the breast and belly are of a yellowish white. The +beard is sometimes dark yellow. Some individuals +almost devoid of hair have been observed.</p> + +<p>The gibbons, or long-armed apes (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>), constitute +the fourth group of anthropoids. Many +kinds of this group are known, and I feel bound to +describe, at any rate, a few of them, in order to be able +to give an idea of their structure. With respect to +these animals, I cannot only rely on the materials +which are accessible to me, but must also make use +of the descriptions given by others.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> + +<p>The gibbons have as a rule very long arms, reaching +to their ankles when they stand upright. The +face is not very prognathous, the crown of the head +is rounded off, and the nails are flat. There are +small callosities on their posteriors, which are absent +in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan.</p> + +<p>The largest species of these animals, which inhabit +part of the continent and of the islands of Asia, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> +the siamang (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>, F. Cuvier).<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> +According to Diard, its arms are not quite so long +as those of the wauwau (<i class="taxonomy">H. agilis</i>, F. Cuvier). This +animal’s head is small, with a somewhat retreating +forehead, a long, moderately arched crown to the +head, and a slightly arched occiput. The base of +the nose is depressed, the region of the jaws is only +slightly prognathous in the aged male. According +to Diard, the eyes are deeply set, the nostrils are +very wide, the cheeks fall in below the zygomatic +arch, the mouth opens widely, the chin is of insignificant +size. It is the only one of the gibbons +which possesses the throat-pouch, already described +as common to the other forms of anthropoids, and in +aged animals it hangs slackly down, almost bare in +front. The second and third toes are connected together +by a thin web, reaching to the last joint in +the male, and to the penultimate joint in the +female. The hairs on the forearm turn their points +upward, and form a kind of whorl on the wrist. The +animal is of a glossy black colour, with a thick and +tolerably long coat of hair on the body and limbs. +According to Bock, the face is encircled by a grey +or white beard. This animal is about a metre in +height, and inhabits the woods of Sumatra.</p> + +<p>The lar (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Lar</i>, Illig) is another species of +gibbon. The structure of the body is much more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> +slender than that of the animal just described; the +head is round, the eyes are large, the nose projects +from its depressed surroundings with only a very +slight ridge, and the cartilaginous end is shaped like +a triangle with unequal sides. This triangular end +is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and the small +nostrils converge downwards and inwards, and are +divided from each other by a thin partition. The +structure of the upper lip is peculiar. In the +centre, just below the base of the nasal partition, it +is depressed, and divided into two symmetrical +lateral halves by a vertical furrow. Each of these +halves forms a rounded edge, overhanging the small +lower lip. Above the upper lips, between them and +the zygomatic arch, which slopes away below the +lower eyelids, there are the flat, depressed cheeks. +The small chin presents itself below the central cleft +of the upper lips and their convex rims. The face +of this gibbon, of which the general appearance is +very singular, is surrounded by a circle of thick +hair, which resembles the circular hood of an +Eskimo. This characteristic form of the head, both +generally and in detail, is not confined to the lar, +but applies to other species of gibbons, including +the siamang (see Figs. <a href="#i_11">11</a> and <a href="#i_15">15</a>). It is a feature +which distinguishes the long-armed apes, almost at +the first glance, from the other forms of anthropoids +already described. The colour of the lar’s face is +reddish brown or tawny; the hair which surrounds it +is of a light grey: the body is of a dark grey, with +short, light grey hair on the backs of the hands and +feet. The black ears are almost hairless. The lar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> +has up to this time seldom found a place in our +zoological collections. It is found in Malacca and +Siam.</p> + +<figure id="i_10" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p047.jpg" width="887" height="743" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 10.—Head of the white-handed gibbon. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The white-handed gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>, +Vigors and Horsfield) is often confounded with <i class="taxonomy">H. +Lar</i>. But <i class="taxonomy">H. albimanus</i> has a black face, and the +general colour of the skin is black, including the +inside of the hands and feet. Thick white hair +encircles the face, and the backs of the hands and +feet are covered with short white or light grey +hairs, while the rest of the coat is quite black. The +hair of the forearm grows downwards, towards the +wrist. The ears of these apes are almost of the shape +of an equilateral triangle. The helix of the ear runs +like a flap round its free outer edge. The anti-helix +passes through the centre of the slightly depressed +external surface of the ear, of which the whole +arrangement does not essentially differ from that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> +the ear of other anthropoids. The cartilaginous substance +of the organ is a good deal inflected, broad +behind and in the upper part, dividing into two +limbs in front and below. There are indications +of the tragus and anti-tragus. +The detached +lobule of the ear is +absent (<a href="#i_11">Fig. 11</a>). This +structure of the external +ear is common to other +species of gibbons, although +in many cases +the upper part of the +helix is wrinkled, and +the anti-helix is sometimes +more fully developed, and more like that of +the human ear.</p> + +<figure id="i_11" class="figleft land" style="max-width: 10em;"> + <img src="images/i_p048.jpg" width="608" height="540" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 11.—Ear of the white-handed gibbon. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The face in this species is small. The supra-orbital +arches are strongly developed, and almost join in the +centre. The eyes are large, dark, and have a mild +and placid expression. The cheeks are prominent +in the region of the zygomatic arch, and depressed +below it. The bridge of the nose is imbedded +between the cheeks, which, especially when seen in +profile, take a slightly conical form. The nose is +covered with cross-folds. Its cartilage is of the shape +described in the former species, and so are the +upper lip and chin (<a href="#i_10">Fig. 10</a>). Long, bristly hairs +stand out on the supra-orbital arches and upper lip, +and short, thin hairs cover the end of the nose. The +white hairs which encircle the face grow like a +beard on the chin. The whole face has a melancholy,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> +almost tearful expression. The neck is short, the +trunk drawn out. On the long, narrow hand there +is a short thumb, laterally compressed, which does +not quite reach to the metacarpo-phalangeal joint. +The ball of the last phalanx +forms a thick, rounded +pad, which is repeated in +a lesser degree on the +under side of the first +phalanx of the thumb, +and on its ball. The +thumb-nail is bent back, +as unlike a claw as the +flattened, long, and narrow +nails of the other fingers. +The middle finger is only +a little longer than the +first, and the fourth not +much shorter than the +third finger (<a href="#i_12">Fig. 12</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_12" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 12em;"> + <img src="images/i_p049.jpg" width="557" height="1290" style="max-width: 9em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 12.—Left hand of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The foot is neatly made, +short and narrow, without +a projecting heel. +The great toe is very long, +reaching almost to the last +phalanx of the second toe. +The sole of the foot, and the under side of the great +toe, especially its last joint, are provided with thick, +rounded pads. The middle toe is not much longer +than the second, the fourth is shorter again, and the +fifth is only half as long as the fourth. There is +only a very short web between the roots of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> +fingers, but it extends much further on the toes +(<a href="#i_13">Fig. 13</a>). This species of ape is found in Further +India.</p> + +<figure id="i_13" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 18em;"> + <img src="images/i_p050.jpg" width="1123" height="503" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 13.—Left foot of the same animal.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The wauwau (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, F. Cuvier, <a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>), +an ape of a rare species, may, according to Duvaucel, +be recognized by his prominent supra-orbital arches, +sunken eyes, a moderately flat nose, and large nostrils +with lateral openings. The face of the male is hairless, +and of a bluish black; that of the female is brown. +The face is encircled by thick, whitish hair, through +which the ears are only partly visible. There are a +few black hairs on the chin. In the male the head, +belly, inner surface of the arms and of the thighs +are dark brown. The neck and shoulders are of a +lighter shade, and the hair on the heels is dun or +whitish. The backs of the hands and feet are dark +brown. The sides of the posteriors and the backs of +the thighs are brown, chestnut, or white. In the +female the white hair which encircles the face is +shorter, and verges on dun colour. The young +animals are light yellow or brown. This animal +inhabits the island of Sumatra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> + +<figure id="i_14" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img src="images/i_p051.jpg" width="1579" height="1202" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 14.—A wauwau in the left foreground (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>); in the background to the light, two slender + apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecas entellus</i>). + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The grey gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leuciscus</i>, Kuhl) is +covered with a thick, long, and woolly coat, with +scattered hairs which are curly, and have two or +three rings of dark colour on a light ground. The +upper part of the head is black; light, or sometimes +white, hair encircles the blackish face. The general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> +colour is dun. The front of the throat, the breast, +and belly are of a lighter shade; while the back of +the neck, the shoulders, upper arms, and thighs are +darker. A brown or black stripe runs down the +breast and belly from the armpits. The insides of +the hands and feet are black. The colour of young +specimens is more uniformly grey or dun. This +animal is found in Java and Sumatra.</p> + +<p>The hulock, otherwise called yulock or yoluck +(<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Hoolock</i>, Harlan), has, in its adult condition, +a prognathous face with prominent supra-orbital +arches, a long, low bridge to its nose, with high, +narrow nostrils, and a very small upper lip. In aged +animals there are two oblique folds over the eyes, +of a light grey colour. The rest of the hairy coat, +the face, hands, and feet are black, or, in the younger +animals, brownish black, with grey extremities. A +line of grey extends from the breast downwards over +the belly. This animal inhabits the mountainous +district of Assam.</p> + +<p>The unko (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Rafflesii</i>, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) +is of a black colour, shading into reddish +brown on the back and sides. Hair, of a grey colour +in the male and white in the female, encircles the +face. This ape is a native of Sumatra.</p> + +<p>The dun-coloured gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates entelloides</i>, Is. +Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is so called from its coat, which +is thick and woolly, and furnished with long hairs +of a greyish yellow or dun colour. This coat is +somewhat darker on the inner surface of the arms +and on the neck, where it shades into reddish +yellow. The growth of hair surrounding the face is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> +lighter, verging upon white. The female is generally +more yellow in colour than the male, and the hair +on her face is of a reddish yellow rather than white, +but not without a trace of white hairs. The face +and the bare places on the hands and feet are black. +Between the second and third toes there is a connective +web reaching as far as the first joints. This +animal inhabits the Malacca peninsula. The name +of the species is derived from its assumed likeness +to the Indian hanuman (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus Entellus</i>, F. +Cuvier), of which an illustration is given in the +background to the right of <a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>.</p> + +<p>The white-bearded gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i>, +Ogilby<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>) is remarkable for the long, erect hairs +which grow on the upper and back part of the scalp, +and for the long white beard on the cheeks and +chin, which joins the thick growth above the eyes. +The rest of the body is dark black. Its native place +is doubtful.</p> + +<p>The general colour of the tufted gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates +pileatus</i>, J. E. Gray) is black, shading into grey +on the shoulders, back, and thighs. A white ring +surrounds the hands, feet, face, and scalp; and there +is also a patch of white on the sexual organs, and +often a patch of black on the breast. The whiskers +are black. In other respects the animal varies +according to its sex and age. It is found in Siam +and Kambodja.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span></p> + +<p>The dark grey gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i>, Is. +Geoff. Saint-Hilaire) is of an ashen grey colour on +the upper and outer side of its limbs, verging into +brown; and on the under side it is dark brown. +There is a narrow strip of light grey round the face, +with a darker band round the back of the head. It +is found in the island of Sulu.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p> + +<p>In addition to these species of gibbons of which +we have given a brief account, there are several +others—as, for example, <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates concolor</i> (Harlan), +from Borneo; <i class="taxonomy">H. Muelleri</i> (L. Martin), from the +same place; <i class="taxonomy">H. choromandus</i> (Ogilby), from India, +and many others. But since our space is limited, +the description given above must suffice for a diagnosis +of the species.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><span id="toclink_55"></span>CHAPTER III.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE EXTERNAL AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF +ANTHROPOID APES, COMPARED WITH THE HUMAN STRUCTURE.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> order to complete as far as possible the description +which we propose to give of the general natural +history of these remarkable animals, it is necessary +to examine their anatomical structure. Yet it is +not so much our aim to give a detailed and +exhaustive description of their anatomy, as to +glance rapidly at those peculiarities of their inner +structure which catch the eye. It seems to me +expedient in this case to follow the method of +systematic and descriptive anatomy, and to take +the several natural organs in succession. This +method, which has long prevailed for studying the +structure of the human body, should also be our +guide in our researches in comparative anatomy. +Our readers need scarcely be told that the anatomy +of anthropoids is only a small branch of the comparative +anatomy of vertebrate animals in general.</p> + +<p>I begin by considering the bony structure of +anthropoids, and, in particular, of the gorilla. And<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> +it will be well to note the important differences +between the structure of the skull of a young and +aged male, and of a young and aged female gorilla.</p> + +<figure id="i_15" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 17em;"> + <img src="images/i_p056.jpg" width="1049" height="769" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 15.—Skull of an aged male gorilla in profile. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skull of the aged male animal is large and +heavy. Its average weight is one and a quarter +kilogrammes. The longitudinal diameter, from the +alveolar point of the upper jaw to the occipital +point, may be as much as 294 mm. The overhanging +orbits are high in front, and flattened off +behind, and their upper edges unite to form a ridge +in the middle of the face. To these the back parts +of the orbits are attached, in shape like a truncated +cone, round and prominent in front, and narrowing +into bony capsules in the direction of the +brain-pan. They open directly in front, and the +aperture is generally in the form of a regular square. +The edges are seldom so blunted off as to present a +figure somewhat approaching to a circle (comp.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> +Figs. <a href="#i_15">15</a>, <a href="#i_16">16</a>). The frontal bone, which in the young +of both sexes is high, broad, and arched, becomes +depressed in the centre in the aged male. The +temporal ridges, thickened to a hem, pass over this to +the coronal crest.</p> + +<figure id="i_16" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 13em;"> + <img src="images/i_p057.jpg" width="789" height="1092" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 16.—Front view of the skull of an aged male gorilla. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This crest is highly characteristic. It begins in the +region of the frontal bone, and, rising abruptly, unites +itself with the transverse occipital crest. It is of +varying height,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> but is rarely altogether absent in +an adult male animal. On the top of this coronal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> +crest we may see the two well-developed bony ridges +which almost touch each other, and which indicate +the upper limits of the temporal muscles on either +side. In young animals these ridges tend downwards +over the sides of the head, below the vertex +of the skull. Their position and direction vary +with the growth of the skull, and correspond with +that of the coronal crest. The transverse occipital +crest is of considerable height in the case of aged +and vigorous animals, and is frequently somewhat +concave in front, and convex at the back. The fore +surface of this crest is formed of the two parietal bones, +the hinder surface of the squamose portion of the +occipital bone. The lambdoidal suture is on the +top of this occipital crest, and in this case, as in +that of other mammals, including man, it unites the +parietal bones with those of the occiput. The point +of union between the coronal and occipital crests +divides the latter into two symmetrical lateral halves, +curving outwards and downwards. The high, wide +squamose portion of the occipital bone is somewhat +flattened behind, or more rarely arched, while it is +abrupt at its base and in some degree in front. Six +curved lines, three on either side, opposite each +other, sometimes mark the limits of the attachments +of the cervical muscles on the head. The mastoid +process of the temporal bone is present, but Brühl +could find no trace of a styloid process on the skulls +of gorillas and chimpanzees.</p> + +<p>The squamous portion of the temporal bone is +often connected with the frontal bone by the process +termed Virchow’s frontal process of the temporal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> +bone. The nasal bones are high, very narrow +in their upper part, and widening below. When +they are united in the centre of the nasal bridge, a +sloping, keel-shaped projection may often be observed. +The inferior turbinated bones of the nasal cavity are +remarkable for their size. In the skulls of young +animals the inter-maxillary bones, which are in all +anthropoids early united with those of the same +region, stand up high and peaked between the nasal +bones and those of the upper jaw.</p> + +<p>The crowns or prominent external surfaces of the +enormous canine teeth project in the centre of the face +on either side like pillars, just below the nostrils, and +extend above and below the row of teeth in the two +upper jaws (see <a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>). In this way the crowns of +the canine teeth form a retreating triangular space, +of which the base-line of the equilateral triangle +corresponds with the row of teeth. The chin part +of the lower jaw, in a front view, also takes the +form of an equilateral triangle. In the latter case +the base-line is covered by that section of the row of +teeth containing the incisor teeth. The sides of the +triangle are covered by the converging canine teeth +(see again <a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>). The incisor teeth, enclosed +between the latter, in that part of the lower jaw +already described, are retreating. The rami of the +lower jaw are high and very wide. The angle of +the lower jaw is obtuse (<a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>). The front or +coronoid process and the back or condyloid process of +the ramus of this bone are separated from each +other by a deep, hollow cleft. The condyloid process +projects abruptly above, but is less marked behind.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p> + +<p>When we consider the internal form of the skull +of an aged male gorilla, the first thing that strikes +us is the marked development of the frontal +sinuses, and especially their width in the region of +the nasal portion of the frontal bone. We next +observe the wings of the sphenoid bone, and that +these large concave apophyses are provided with +spaces only slightly separated from each other. +These sinuses are not only plainly connected with +each other, but with the sphenoidal sinuses. There +is a broad sinus in the malar bone, provided with +vestibules, and this has a deep communication with +the maxillary sinus, or antrum of Highmore, embedded +in the body of the upper maxillary bone. +There are, finally, sinuses at the point of junction +between the coronal and occipital crests.</p> + +<p>The maxillary region of the cranium of the young +male gorilla is already somewhat prognathous, and +the keel-shaped elevation of the bridge of the nose +is also very apparent, but the development of these +parts is not nearly so advanced as in the aged male. +The whole contour of the cranium is oval, and without +the high crests so characteristic of the aged +male animal. It is well known that the Swedish +anatomist and anthropologist Anders Retzius has +classified the skulls of different races of men as long-headed +(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">dolichocephali</i>) and short-headed (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">brachycephali</i>). +In the former class, the length is considerably +greater than the height; while in the latter, the +difference is either slight or non-existent. The +skulls of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">dolichocephali</i> are long and oval; those +of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">brachycephali</i> are short, round, or square. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> +addition to this division, which is of great value in +the rapid and superficial, yet sound classification of +racial skulls, Retzius has constituted another. He +has characterized skulls of which the profile is +straight, or nearly straight, as <i lang="la" class="anatomy">orthognathous</i> (<i lang="de">rechtzähnige</i>); +and those of which the maxillary region is +very prominent, as <i lang="la" class="anatomy">prognathous</i> (<i lang="de">schiefzähnige</i>). These +orthognathous and prognathous skulls may be either +dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p> + +<p>In applying this classification by Retzius to anthropoids, +the gorillas and chimpanzees have been +characterized as dolichocephalic and prognathous, +the orang-utans and the gibbons as brachycephalic +and prognathous. Several scientific men have +sought to establish the noteworthy distinction that +dolichocephalic anthropoids are found in Africa, +and brachycephalic anthropoids in Asia. This distinctive +characteristic is held to agree with the +geographical and ethnological conditions of the +continents in question.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Virchow remarks in a later +work that the skull of a gorilla becomes longer with +every year of life, but that this is not so much due +to the cranium as such, as to its bony outworks, such +as the strongly developed supra-orbital arches, the +enlargement of the frontal sinuses, etc. Measurements +rather tend to show that the young gorilla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> +is brachycephalic, but that this characteristic +diminishes with increasing age, at any rate, if the +external excrescences are taken into account. But it +is quite otherwise when the furthest point of measurement +is taken from the frontal arch, not from the +nasal prominence. In such a case the increase of +the brachycephalic condition is established.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> + +<p>In the skulls of such young males as those here +mentioned, the temporal ridges, which in aged animals +are in close proximity in the region of the developed +bony crests, have already in some cases begun to +approach each other, but they are still far apart. In +young specimens we can distinguish, on each side +of the parietal bones, two temporal ridges, opposite +each other, and taking a nearly parallel course. +The upper ridge, which loses itself on the external +surface of the mastoid process, which is already +developed, corresponds to the junction of the fascia +of the cranial muscles (<i lang="la">Galea aponeurotica musculi +epicranii</i>) with the fascia enclosing the large temporal +muscles. The lower ridge, which is gradually +merged in the upper edge of the zygomatic process +of the temporal bone, forms the demarcation of the +fleshy origin of the temporal muscle. This corresponds +to the spot at which the two layers of the +temporal fascia unite. In a very young male these +temporal ridges can be only faintly traced; they become +more strongly marked as his growth advances, +and as they approximate more closely to each other +on the vertex of the cranium. I have examined a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> +skull of which the sutures were still open, and could +already trace the development of the coronal crest +in two divisions, separated from each other by a +longitudinal furrow. The upper edges of these +divisions corresponded to the two temporal ridges, +which were in close proximity to each other. If the +animal had not died at this stage of its development, +it is probable that, with advancing growth, the two +divisions of the crest would have been welded into +one structure. Such a condition only characterizes +a transitory stage of development, repeated in each +individual.</p> + +<p>In the centre of the vertex of the cranium, where +the longitudinal crest of which we have so often +spoken is subsequently developed, we may often +observe on the sagittal suture of the cranium of +a young male a longitudinal swelling, which increases +very gradually. In the region of the two upper +semicircular curved lines (<i lang="la">lineæ semicirculares s. +nuchæ supremæ</i>), on the squamous occipital portion, +or between these and the two central cervical lines, +a transverse swelling is early developed; this swelling +sometimes extends to the lambdoidal suture, +or, at any rate, to its neighbourhood. This bony +excrescence, of which the anatomical term is <i lang="la">Torus +occipitalis transversus</i>, corresponds to the first layer +of the transverse occipital crest so characteristic of +the old male gorilla (see <a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>).</p> + +<p>In several skulls of young gorillas, in the region +of the coronal suture, a small, insulated, intermediate +bone may be observed (Virchow’s <i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>) +between the squamous portion of the temporal bone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> +and the greater wing of the sphenoid, with which it +is sometimes completely welded. In this case there +is, above the <i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>, a direct connection +between the temporal and frontal bones by means +of the frontal process (Virchow’s <i lang="la">processus frontalis +squamæ temporalis</i>), which is not rare in anthropoids.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> +This process often owes its origin to the +<i lang="la">os epiptericum</i>, which is in its early stages attached +to the temporal bone. I shall have to refer again +to this frontal process.</p> + +<p>The orbits are more rounded in young than in +aged skulls; in the latter they are always angular, +although the angles, especially the upper and +external angles, may be more or less blunted. +Virchow remarks that in the skull of a very young +gorilla the height of the orbit exceeds its width, +and that at that age the skull is therefore high. +In the aged male gorilla the height of the orbit, +according to the several measurements I have taken, +varies between 39 to 52 mm., and the width between +37 to 45 mm.</p> + +<p class="hidden"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p> + +<figure id="i_17" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 13em;"> + <img src="images/i_p065.jpg" width="811" height="1899" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>Fig. 17.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The rest of the skeleton of the aged male gorilla +corresponds in its powerful and massive form with +the general structure of the body, which is remarkable +for its height and strength (see <a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>). In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> +the skeleton of the trunk there are seven cervical, +thirteen dorsal, and four lumbar vertebræ, thirteen +ribs, and, even in aged animals, a sternum composed +of several pieces of bone. The cervical vertebræ +display long spinous processes, which are most +strongly developed between the fourth and seventh +vertebræ. The extremities of this colossal structure, +combined with the elevation of the occipital +region, present a convex outline when seen from +behind. This structure provides the point of insertion +and support for the powerful cushion of cervical +muscles. The dorsal vertebræ, which increase in +height, width, and depth as they stand lower on the +column, taper, and are keel-shaped at their junction +with the cervical vertebræ. The central parts of the +widely arched ribs, which are thirteen or sometimes +fourteen in number, are very thick and powerful in +the aged male. Only seven pairs of ribs are attached +by the costal cartilages to the sternum, and two +other costal cartilages are in proximity with them. +The other cartilages are only rudimentary, and the +terminations in the muscular system of the belly +are free. There are, indeed, variations from the type +here established, and from ten to eleven ribs are +sometimes attached to the sternum by thread-like +strips of ligament or cartilage.</p> + +<p>The formation of the pelvic girdle in this animal +is of special interest. The chief parts of this portion +of the skeleton—that is, the hip, pelvic, or +innominate bones—are high, tapering in their lower +part, and broad and flat above, where they terminate +in the crest of the ilium, which describes a quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> +of a circle. There is, for the most part, only one +small superior iliac spine, and the ischii are somewhat +turned outwards, and furnished with broad, +rounded tuberosities, and for the most part with only +a single large sacro-sciatic notch. The horizontal +rami of the pubes are narrow, while the descending +rami are wide. The os sacrum is narrow, and shaped +like a protracted cone, turning abruptly outwards, +and resembling the basal joint of a true tail. The +coccyx appears to be the rudiment of a genuine tail.</p> + +<p>The bones of the shoulder-girdle present interesting +peculiarities. The clavicles are long and slender, +with a leaf-shaped, flattened end articulating with +the scapula, and a thickened end articulating with +the sternum. The scapula is a very large triangular +bone, resembling the human scapula in its general +form, and the supra- and infra-spinous fossæ are not +strongly marked. The long and powerful humerus +has its head inclined at an angle of sixty degrees +towards the axis of the shoulder. Frequently, but +not invariably, the lower, flattened extremity of the +humerus is pierced on one or both sides above its +rounded eminence, and this is termed by Darwin +the intercondyloid foramen.</p> + +<p>The radius has a powerful head, and a shaft considerably +curved outwards, while it is, on the other +hand, curved backwards and inwards at the elbow. +The bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges +are remarkably long, broad, and deep. The development +of the femur corresponds to that of the whole +skeleton. Its middle piece or shaft is curved in +front and flattened behind. The shaft of the tibia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> +is generally rounded off, but is sometimes rather +laterally compressed.</p> + +<p>The os calcis of the foot is slender, curved outwards +in the centre and inwards behind the astragalus. +The head, with its cuneiform extremity, is +of a transverse oval shape, turned inwards. The +scaphoid bone, which is generally in connection with +this projection, takes the same direction towards the +inner side of the foot. This peculiar contortion +causes the tarsus of the gorilla to appear almost as +if it had been subjected to a deviation or fracture +of its longitudinal axis.</p> + +<p>In young and adult males, as well as in young +females, the structure of the bones is generally +less massive than in aged males. In the female +skeleton the strongly developed depressions and +ridges, especially in the bones of the extremities, +are absent. The head of the ulna is, for example, +less deeply set in the case of a female, and its projections +are smaller than in the male animal. In +the female, also, the head of the radius is smaller, +and the triangular shape of its shaft is less strongly +marked. The pelvic bones of a female gorilla are +wider, flatter, and less concave on their very projecting +inner surface. They diverge more widely +from each other, and this is also the case with the +tuberosities of the ischium. The pubic arch is less +depressed than in the male gorilla. Although the +spinous processes of the vertebræ attain to some +length and thickness, their development in the +female is not so great as it is in the male sex.</p> + +<p>The bony structure of the chimpanzee offers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> +many points of resemblance to that of the gorilla, +while it differs in certain particulars from the +structure of other anthropoids. And first, the size +of the skeleton is smaller than that of the gorilla, +which is in agreement with the smaller relative size +of the body of the chimpanzee.</p> + +<figure id="i_18" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_p069.jpg" width="997" height="887" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 18.—Skull of an aged male chimpanzee. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>We must begin with a general view of the skull +of the chimpanzee. In both sexes the frontal +regions are smaller, while the coronal region is more +rounded than in the gorilla. The high bony crests +and prominent supra-orbital arches are wanting in +the chimpanzee; the peculiar character of the bony +ridges, projecting like tubes from the other parts +of the skull, is less marked, and they belong more +directly to the frontal region (see <a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a>). The +bony bridge of the nose is more concave in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> +chimpanzee; the jaw-bones are smaller and less +compressed in the centre than they are in the +gorilla.</p> + +<p>When we undertake to describe the skull of the +chimpanzee in detail, it becomes necessary to consider +separately the skulls of aged and young males, and +of aged and young females; for in this case also +the distinctions of sex and age are very evident. +On the skull of an aged male chimpanzee the +temporal ridges are not much developed on the +coronal arch. They meet on this arch from 60 +to 90 mm. behind the orbits, and form only a +small coronal crest. The transverse occipital crest +is somewhat developed, and at its point of union +with the coronal crest the temporal ridges divide to +form its upper edges. This is the case not only +with the Rio Quillu skull, from which <a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a> is +taken, but with that of the so-called troglodyte +Tschègo given by Duvernoy.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> In some other specimens +belonging to aged male animals the presence +of a coronal crest cannot, however, be detected. In +these the temporal ridges are very small, and more +or less distant from each other. While the transverse +occipital crest maintains an almost uniform +height on the gorilla skull, like a detached ridge, +it is only slightly elevated behind in those chimpanzee +skulls in which the crest is partially developed. +In the gorilla male this ridge divides the +squamous occipital portion, which is sometimes +bevelled, sometimes slightly convex; in the male +chimpanzee this part is more decidedly arched, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> +takes the form of a half-oval. The mastoid processes +are also present in the chimpanzee. The external +occipital crest and the curved lines are generally +apparent. The styloid processes are more plainly +traced than in the gorilla. In the latter, as well as +in the chimpanzee, there is a blunt, tubular process +of the temporal bone, opposite to another bony +process, issuing from the occipital bone. This has +been observed by Virchow, and is termed by him +the carotid process (<i lang="la">Processus caroticus</i>).</p> + +<p>The orbits of the chimpanzee are generally more +rounded, with a distinctly circular rim, while the +nasal bones are as long and narrow as in the gorilla. +The region of the jaws is very prognathous; the +external nasal openings are rounder and smaller than +in the gorilla. The crowns of the canine teeth project +in the same pillar-shaped form (<a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a>). The +triangular space enclosed by these and by the row +of teeth in the upper jaw is often very wide and +projecting, even more so than in the gorilla. But +whereas in the latter the canine teeth are shaped +almost like a three-sided pyramid, in the chimpanzee +they are more rounded and conical. In the +general structure of the teeth of both species there +are certain differences of which we shall speak +presently.</p> + +<p>The brain-pan of a young male chimpanzee is +still more arched than it is in aged animals. The +temporal ridges are still far apart. The transverse +occipital crest displays near the mastoid process +well-defined wing-shaped indentations. In the skulls +of very young males the transverse occipital swelling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> +of which we have spoken (<i lang="la">Torus occipitalis +transversus</i>) is already developed. The orbits are +distinctly detached from the skull; the bridge of +the nose is depressed; the crowns of the canine +teeth are, in conformity with the still slight development +of the teeth themselves, less marked, and the +triangular space enclosed by the teeth is less convex +than in older animals.</p> + +<p>The skull of the adult chimpanzee is, in its +coronal and occipital parts, more uniformly arched, +narrower, and more elongated than in aged males. +The transverse occipital ridge usually develops +itself in the region of the upper curved lines, or +in the bony parts enclosed between these and the +central lines. The nasal and upper maxillary region +is depressed. That section of the upper jaw which +contains the incisor and canine teeth is small. In +the skulls of all chimpanzees, of whatever sex or +age, the body of the lower jaw is comparatively +small, with two low but wide rami, of which the +coronoid and condyloid processes are divided from +each other by a comparatively wide cleft. The +rami of the chimpanzee’s lower jaw are still more +abruptly retreating than is usually the case in the +gorilla.</p> + +<p>The skull of a very young female gorilla is shaped +almost like a half-sphere. The orbits are scarcely +detached from the forehead; the want of elevation +of the orbital arch, and the slighter prognathism of +the jaw, is marked by the deep depression between +it and the nose and forehead (<a href="#i_20">Fig. 20</a>).</p> + +<p>The cancellous texture of the bones of the chimpanzee’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> +skull admits of a whole system of cavities +communicating with each other, which are of the +nature of the so-called sinuses +present in the frontal, sphenoid, +ethmoid, and maxillary bones of +the human skull. In the chimpanzee, +however, the sinuses are +more extensive than in man, or +even than in the gorilla. The +large cavities of the forehead +communicate with those of the nose and jaws. The +sphenoidal sinuses and ethmoidal cells are large +and deep. The greater wings of the sphenoid bone +and its pterygoid processes are provided with considerable +cavities. The mastoid cells of the temporal +bones are in connection with the cells of the +greater wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid +bone, and also extend through the squamous +portions and zygomatic processes of the temporal +bones, losing themselves in their upper part in the +smaller cells of cancellous bone which are found +between the outer and inner walls of the skull. +These are of more uniform shape and size.</p> + +<figure id="i_19" class="figright land clear" style="max-width: 7em;"> + <img src="images/i_p073.jpg" width="392" height="360" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 19.—Skull of a very young female chimpanzee. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skeleton of the chimpanzee, in accordance +with the smaller size of the species, is relatively +of a slenderer build than that of the gorilla. +The spinous processes of the seven cervical vertebræ +are more slightly developed, and have +undivided extremities. The transverse processes of +the fifth and sixth cervical vertebræ are almost of +the same shape as cervical ribs. There are thirteen +dorsal vertebræ, somewhat laterally compressed:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> +this compression is greater than in +man and in the gorilla. The four +lumbar vertebræ of the chimpanzee +are furnished with long, thin, riblike +transverse processes. The so-called +mammillary processes of +the final vertebra are strongly developed +in the male. The intervertebral +foramina are small, as +they are also in the gorilla and +orang-utan. The thirteen ribs of +the chimpanzee remind us of the +human structure. The collar-bone +is slightly curved, as in the gorilla. +There is a marked difference +between the sexes in the structure +of the scapula which is +broad and three-sided in the male, +small and leaf-shaped in the female.</p> + +<figure id="i_20" class="figleft port clear" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 6.5em;"> + <img src="images/i_p074.jpg" width="367" height="1688" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 20.—Skeleton of the + forearm and hand of the + Central African bam-chimpanzee. + <i>a</i>, Ulna. + <i>b</i>, Radius. + <i>c</i>, Scaphoid bone. + <i>d</i>, Semi-lunar bone. + <i>e</i>, Cuneiform bone. + <i>f</i>, Pisiform bone. + <i>g</i>, Trapezium. + <i>h</i>, Os magnum. + <i>j</i>, Trapezoid. + <i>k</i>, Unciform bone. + <i>l</i>, Phalanges of thumb. + <i>m</i>, Metacarpal bones. + <i>n</i>, Phalanges.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The humeri have slender shafts, +with well-developed condyles and +ridges. The bones of the forearm +are much curved, so that the interval +between them is, as in the +gorilla, somewhat wide. From the +wrist to the final phalanges the +hand is more slender than in the +gorilla.</p> + +<p>The pelvis in this species of ape +has high, narrow ilia, spreading +in their upper parts, and projecting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> +forwards, so as to form the cavity of the +abdomen, and, especially in the male sex, the anterior +spines of the ilium are more strongly developed than +in the gorilla and orang-utan. The ischiatic tuberosities +are of a spreading form, and diverge considerably +from each other. The pubic arch is deeply +hollowed, but the point of juncture is elevated. +As in the gorilla, the os sacrum resembles the +basis of a tail, but it is less developed and less +conical in form.</p> + +<p>In the chimpanzee, as well as in other anthropoids, +the coccyx gives altogether the impression of a +laterally compressed and rudimentary tail. This is +especially the case in young animals, in which the +coccyx always appears to be very narrow and prolonged. +In older animals this part gradually +widens, yet without losing its resemblance to a +rudimentary tail.</p> + +<p>The head of the femur resembles a section of a +sphere, of which the upper part is sometimes wanting. +Its shaft, which is curved in front, is much +slenderer in the female than the male. The patella +is oval. In the tibia the narrow shaft is laterally +compressed, and bent inwards. The bones on the +inner side of the foot take a backward direction, +while those on the outer side, attached to the +fibula, turn outwards.</p> + +<p>In the ankle-joint the head of the astragalus is +much arched, and turned inwards. The scaphoid +bone is thick and deeply hollowed. The metatarsal +bones and phalanges have a considerable upward +convexity (<a href="#i_21">Fig. 21</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> + +<figure id="i_21" class="figright port clear" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <img src="images/i_p076.jpg" width="388" height="964" style="max-width: 8em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 21.—Skeleton of foot + of the Central African bam-chimpanzee. <i>a</i>, Astragalus. + <i>b</i>, Os calcis. <i>c</i>, Scaphoid bone. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, + Cuneiform bones. <i>g</i>, Cuboid bone. <i>h</i>, First metatarsal + bone. <i>j</i>, Second to fifth metatarsal bones. <i>k</i>, Phalanges.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The skeleton of the orang has also its special +characteristics. We have already remarked, in +describing the external form of the +heads of these animals, that the +skull is high and projecting, and +retreating in its hinder part. In +the old male orang this part of +the bony structure is of smaller +size than in the old male gorilla. +The arch of the cranium is shorter +and rounder than in that animal +and in the chimpanzee. The central +longitudinal crest of the vertex +is present, but in accordance with +the more spherical shape of the +coronal part of the cranium, this +crest is more arched above than +in the gorilla, in which it slopes +gently upward to the transverse +occipital crest, which rises high +and peaked from the back of the +head. This latter crest is indeed +developed in the orang, but it is +not so high, and is more retreating. In consequence +of this formation, the upper posterior part of the +gorilla-skull appears in profile to be much more +abrupt and peaked than that of the orang. In the +latter, also, the orbital arches are not so high and +abrupt, and not so much detached from the rest of +the skull. In the orang the squamous occipital +portion declines abruptly in front and below, yet +it is generally more arched than in the gorilla.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> +The orbits of the orang, which are sometimes +rounded, sometimes more square, are divided from +each other by a narrow partition. The space between +them and the anterior nares is not so +great as in the gorilla. While in the last-named +animal the space between the root of the nose and +the teeth of the upper jaw-bone is convex, in the +chimpanzee it is generally vertical, and in the orang +it is depressed (<a href="#i_22">Fig. 22</a>). The maxillary parts, +furnished with strong canine teeth, are very prognathous, +yet hardly to the same extent as in the +chimpanzee. The body of the lower jaw is high, +and its rami are high and wide. The bony crests +of which we have spoken are absent in the female.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> +The coronal part and the squamous occipital parts +are arched; the upper jaw is smaller, and the lower +jaw is also less massive, than in the male animal. +In very young animals the predominance of the +strongly arched cranium over the countenance is +apparent, and the increase of size in the latter +occurs gradually (<a href="#i_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_22" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_p077.jpg" width="1000" height="1042" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 22.—Skull of middle-aged female orang. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The anterior nares are narrow at the top, and +wide at their base. They are more decidedly pear-shaped +(<i lang="la">Apertura pyriformis</i>) than those of the gorilla +and chimpanzee. In the latter animals these apertures +are generally wider and more uniformly rounded. +Bischoff justly observes that the bony part below +the orbits, which in the gorilla is wide above, +tapering away in the lower part of the face, is +narrower and more vertical in the orang. The +nasal bones of the orang are high and of moderate +width. Brühl mentions the styloid process of the +orang’s skull, which is, however, somewhat abortive +when we compare it with that of the human skull. +It has its origin in a tolerably deep groove. On the +other hand, Brühl, as we have already observed, can +find no trace of the styloid process in the skulls of +the gorilla and the chimpanzee!<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + +<p class="hidden"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p> + +<figure id="i_23" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 32em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <img src="images/i_p079.jpg" width="1157" height="2059" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 23.—Skeleton of young orang-utan. <i>a</i>, Sternum. <i>b</i>, Radius. <i>c</i>, Ulna. + <i>d</i>, Tibia. <i>e</i>, Metacarpus. <i>f</i>, Phalanges. <i>g</i>, Great toe. <i>h</i>, Fibula. <i>j</i>, Hip-bones. + <i>k</i>, Coccyx. <i>l</i>, Vertebral column. <i>m</i>, Scapula. <i>n</i>, Femur.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are many large-celled bony cavities in the +orang’s skull. These may be observed in the greater +wings and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone, +in the mastoid and squamous parts of the temporal +bones, in the lachrymal bones, in the body, and in +the condyles of the occipital bone, and in the zygomatic +arch. The larger fore-cells on the squamous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> +part of the temporal bones are connected by a wide +aperture with the sinuses of the greater wings and +pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. A sinus +which may be observed on the greater wing generally +communicates by a large round hole with the +temporal cells. There is generally, but not always, +a communication between the sinuses of the greater +wing and pterygoid process and the nasal cavity. +These cavities sometimes communicate with each +other through a wide aperture at the base of the +nose. The squamous part of the temporal bones +has a cellular sinus, which communicates with the +cells of the mastoid process, in its lower part with +the tympanum, and in its fore-part with the ossicles +of the lower wall of the tympanum. The maxillary +sinuses are in connection with the cells of the +lachrymal bone. There is nothing in the orang’s +skull corresponding to the Vidian canal of the +sphenoid bone, but it may be traced in the gorilla +and the chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>The vertebral column of the orang has not the +same colossal spinous processes which distinguish +that of the gorilla. It differs also in many other, +though less striking, particulars both from the +gorilla and the chimpanzee. In the orang there +are generally twelve dorsal vertebræ, tapering in +their lower parts; while their long, thick, transverse +processes, which are full of knots, take an upward +direction. The upper articular processes of the four +lumbar vertebræ present short and rather insignificant +mammillary processes. The sternum of the +young orang is generally formed of one large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> +upper bone, with six smaller bones below. In older +animals the body of the sternum appears to consist +of a tier of three bones connected together. The +ribs resemble those of the human skeleton, the +clavicle is long and straight, and the scapula also +resembles that of a man in form. The flat +pelvic bones of the orang also turn outwards; the +ischiatic bones are short, with spatula-shaped tuberosities; +the pubic arch is high, and the obturator +foramen is narrow and oval. The sacrum and +coccyx do not resemble a rudimentary tail so much +as in the case of the anthropoids we have already +described. We are reminded of the human structure +in the humerus, of which the shaft is much curved +behind, and on its outer side. The ulna is very +slender, and provided with a protracted, jagged +styloid process. The neck of the radius is tapering, +while its shaft is arched like that of the ulna, and +the anterior border and oblique line are sharp. The +wrist, metacarpus, and fingers are long and narrow.</p> + +<p>The femur of the orang is remarkable for its +large head, shaped like a section of a sphere, and +its slender shaft. The latter is less bent than in the +gorilla. The patella, which, in my opinion, should +be classed among the so-called sesamoid bones, is in +this case of an irregular form. The shank and foot-bones +are remarkably slender. The scaphoid is +tapering; the head of the astragalus does not turn +inward so much as in the gorilla. The hinder surfaces +of the metatarsal bones and of the phalanges +turn decidedly outwards.</p> + +<p>We have now to consider the bony structure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> +gibbons, in which there are many specific variations +which our space will not allow us to consider in +detail, but a slight sketch of their organic system +must be given. The brain-pan of this animal’s +skull is of an oval shape, without the crests so +characteristic of other anthropoids, and even in the +aged males of this species their development is so +slight as to be scarcely perceptible. The occipital +bone of male animals is, indeed, generally rounded, +and the whole occipital portion is somewhat compressed +in a downward direction, while the coronal +region is at the same time flattened. The cranium +gradually widens behind, so that, when seen from +above, its form is somewhat pear-shaped. In aged +males the orbits project from the low, retreating +frontal bone, and are surrounded by a bony, circular +rim.</p> + +<p>The face is not very prognathous, and the short +wide nasal-bones form a wide, depressed partition +between the orbits. The edges of the jaw-bones +describe a parabolic curve and are considerably +elongated. The palate is consequently long and +narrow. The rami of the lower jaw are wide and +low, and their coronoid processes are only slightly +developed. In aged males the teeth, and especially +the canine teeth, are long and projecting; yet, comparatively +speaking, they never attain to the great +development of those of other anthropoids.</p> + +<p>The number of vertebræ seems to be subject to +considerable variation even in the same species, and +various estimates are given by different naturalists. +Müller, for example, has said that in several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> +species (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">H. leuciscus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">H. variagatus</i>, +and <i class="taxonomy">H. concolor</i>) there are thirteen dorsal, five +lumbar, six sacral, and four coccygeal vertebræ. +Cuvier counted in the siamang, thirteen dorsal, five +lumbar, four sacral, and three coccygeal vertebræ. +In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> I counted thirteen dorsal, six +lumbar, five sacral, and four coccygeal vertebræ. +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i> has long coccygeal bones, and +an elongated os sacrum, which gives the impression +of serving for the application of a short tail, or, +indeed, of being in itself a rudimentary tail. In +other respects the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar +vertebræ differ little in structure from those of man.</p> + +<p>The ribs on the sternum, which widens abruptly +outwards, are strongly arched. The lowest of these +project, owing to the width of the shaft. In the +sternum there is a want of proportion between the +smallness of its body and the size and width of its +extremity. The ensiform appendix of this bone +is long and wide, and spatula-shaped at its lower +extremity. In the shoulder-girdle the clavicles are +very slender, and much arched. The scapulæ, +on the other hand, are high and narrow, spatula-shaped, +and provided with a steeply projecting +acromion process, a strongly developed coracoid +process, and deep glenoid cavities. The upper +limbs are, in conformity with the general structure +of these apes, very slender; the shafts of the bones +of the upper and forearm are elongated, with small +extremities. The condyles are small, especially +those of the elbow. The bones of the wrist, the +metacarpus, and the fingers are also long and slender.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span></p> + +<p>In the pelvis we note that the ilia are narrow +below, and expand in the form of a spatula above, +and that their position is almost vertical. Their +inner surfaces are only slightly concave, and are +directed somewhat forwards. The ischiatic bones +are low, with wide, flattened, rugged tuberosities, +and rounded <i lang="la">foramina obturatoria</i>. The ischiatic +rami project forwards in an almost horizontal direction. +There are large prominences on the pubic +arch of the siamang.</p> + +<p>The leg-bones are much shorter than those of the +arm. The heads of the femurs stand out plainly +from their short necks and large trochanters, as +segments of perfect spheres. In this case, as in +that of other anthropoids, the third trochanter (<i lang="la">trochanteres +tertii</i>), often so apparent in the human +femur, is barely indicated. The shank-bones are +arched. The tibia is often laterally compressed, +so that its transverse section forms a scalene triangle. +The malleoli are compressed from before backwards. +The elongated heel-bones appear to be laterally +compressed. The canal between the astragalus and +the os calcis (<i lang="la">Sinus tarsi</i>) is very wide. The metatarsal +bones and phalanges have large bases, long +slender shafts, and heads projecting on the under +side. Even the final phalanges are long and +slender.</p> + +<figure id="i_24" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <img src="images/i_p085.jpg" width="1582" height="1129" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 24.—The Zulu king, Ketchwayo, + in fighting array, with two of his men. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>We shall now find it profitable to compare the +external characters of anthropoids with those of +man. We are sometimes disposed to see the true +likenesses of anthropoid apes in dark-skinned, naked +savages. These savages are often insufficiently fed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> +the skin is wrinkled, the face, even at an early age, +is deeply furrowed, and their general appearance is +neglected. The dark silhouette of such people +stands out so distinctly against a clear background, +their habit of life is so rude, their attitudes impress +us so disagreeably, that we are involuntarily led to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> +make such a comparison. This tendency unfortunately +gives a wide field for exaggeration among dilettanti +naturalists, and such as are zealous to establish a preconceived +theory. A conscientious inquirer must, +however, be cautious, and avoid too great generalization +in such comparisons. For instance, much has +been said of the pithecoid structure of all African +negroes, yet this only applies to some peculiarly +hideous races, in a state of physical degradation. +There are many negro tribes in different parts of Africa +which are remarkable for their well-formed bodies, and +for a not ignoble bearing. The warlike demeanour +of the natives of Ashanti, Dahomey, and Ibos is well +known. Although the Hausanese are flat-nosed and +thick-lipped, yet when armed and dressed in uniform, +as we see in the photographs of Captain Glover’s force, +their military bearing is very apparent. The tribes +of Schilluk, Nuehr, Bari, Niam-Niam, and A-Bantu +present examples of distinguished warriors, however +rude and savage. Dabulamanzi, commander of the +Zulus at the butcheries of Isandlhwana and Ulundi, +and his chiefs, give me, in a photograph in my possession, +the impression of gallant warriors, however +uncivilized. In all these cases it is difficult to establish +the resemblance to anthropoid apes (see also <a href="#i_24">Fig. 24</a>).</p> + +<p>The Papuans, especially on the Australian continent, +are generally classed with the African negroes +in such comparisons. We admit that a horde of +Australian blacks, degraded by hunger and fatigue, +emaciated and dirty, may, as they roam through the +shadeless woods, the steppes and thick scrub of their +native country, present a strange and brute-like appearance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> +And if the foreign intruder takes a +coarse pleasure in giving drink to these savages, +their immodest gestures may afford a revolting impression +of their bestial nature. Yet the habits even +of these dark-skinned savages are altogether different +under more favourable conditions. Although of +small stature, they are not badly proportioned, and +their manners and bearing are capable of improvement, +so that they can act as native police, +messengers, etc. This was the case also with the +natives of Queensland, Australia, whom I saw in the +Zoological Gardens, Berlin, throwing the boomerang. +Even in these tamed savages, however, we +must note the projecting orbits, the deep depression +between the forehead and nose, and the flatness of +the latter organ. There are aged, wrinkled bushmen, +negroes, Papuans, Malays, Japanese, and +Mongols of inland Asia whose countenances are +altogether pithecoid. And such a cast of face may +even be found in Europe.</p> + +<p>Some years ago, Mr. Bond, a land-surveyor in +British India, asserted that he had found the +missing link between man and apes in the mountainous +district of the Western Ghauts. And +indeed, the race he describes seems to have a strong +resemblance to apes. “The forehead is low and +retreating. The lower part of the face projects +like the muzzle of an ape; the legs are short and +bent outwards. The trunk and arms are comparatively +long. The hands and fingers are contracted +so that the latter cannot be freely extended; a +thick skin covers the hollow of the hand and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> +fingers, especially their tips; the nails are small +and imperfect; the feet are broad, and covered +both on their backs and soles with a thick skin. +This tribe seems to worship nature. They have no +fixed dwellings; they live chiefly on roots and +honey, and exchange the latter, together with wax +and other productions of their forests, for tobacco, +clothes, and rice.”<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p> + +<p>Nothing more, so far as I am aware, has been +published concerning this race. The description +given above leaves much to be desired. The assertion +respecting the contracted fingers is obscure, +and such a condition is directly opposed to any +resemblance with the flexible hand of apes.</p> + +<figure id="i_25" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img src="images/i_p088.jpg" width="1177" height="574" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="ilb in1"> + <p>Fig. 25.<br> Aidanill, hairless Australian.</p> + </div> + <div class="ilb in4"> + <p>Fig. 26.<br> The same in profile.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Let us turn from a tribe of which the existence +is still dubious, to consider the portraits we subjoin +of a man and woman, aborigines of Queensland, +in a district watered by the Ballone. These are +Aidanill, the brother, and Dewan, the sister,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> +members of a hairless family. The indefatigable +Miklucho-Maclay went to Gulnarber, 140 miles +from Tulba, in order to examine them, and took +the photographs from which our illustrations are +taken.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> + +<p>A likeness to the chimpanzee, when deprived of +its hair, may be traced in the keel or roof-shaped +form of the skull; in the prominence of the supra-orbital +arches; in the deep depression between the +forehead and nose, of which only the centre of the +bridge has a slight vertical elevation; in the broad, +flattened nostrils, bounded by deep furrows; in the +wide, fleshy mouth, and the large, laterally projecting +ears. Gratiolet and Alix give such a head in +their treatise on <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i> (Figs. <a href="#i_25">25</a>, <a href="#i_25">26</a>, +<a href="#i_27">27</a>). When we add to this the dark brown skin, +the deeply furrowed countenance, and the dark +brown eyes, as they are described by Miklucho-Maclay, +the external resemblance between many of +the Australian aborigines and apes becomes more +marked.</p> + +<figure id="i_27" class="figleft land" style="max-width: 11em;"> + <img src="images/i_p090.jpg" width="644" height="591" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 27.—Dewan, Aidanill’s sister.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Projecting ears are common among men of different +races, and I have observed them in Europeans +who are otherwise well formed. Even in this latter +case the effect is ape-like. Much has been said of +the resemblance which may often be observed between +the human ear and that of apes. It is admitted +that hardly any part of the organism varies +so much in its characteristics as the external ear. +This is the case with anthropoids, and almost more +frequently with men. Individuals of all nations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> +are found with defective development of this or +that characteristic helix, angle tragus, notch concha, +and fossa, with lobules imperfectly formed or altogether +absent. I have +frequently observed +such misshapen ears, +which vary from the +perfect type, and bear +a certain resemblance +to the ear of apes, +among the hard-featured +peasantry of +Germany, Switzerland, +France, Italy, and Poland, +who cannot be said to count beauty as part of +their inheritance. In Africa I found this defective +formation more common among the Maltese, Greeks, +and Turks who were living in the country, than +among the fellaheen, Berbers, and negroes. The +latter have been unjustly charged with the possession +of “hideous ape-like ears,” whereas, among the African +races, these organs are, in the majority of cases, +of a pleasing form. With respect to the Australian +blacks, and to the Malay, Mongolian, and Indian +races, I cannot rely on my personal observation. +According to my very limited experience, there is +much individual variation among these races, and +ears of the hideous, ape-like formation might be +sought for with success. The specific resemblance +to apes can, indeed, only be ascertained by one who +is accurately acquainted with the organism of these +animals. These and similar ideas are often expressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> +by the unlearned, who do not really understand the +characteristics in question.</p> + +<p>Darwin speaks of the anthropoid form of the ear +in the chimpanzee and orang.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> “The ears of the +chimpanzee and orang are curiously like those of +man, and I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological +Gardens that these animals never move or +erect them, so that they are in an equally rudimentary +condition, as far as that function is concerned, +as man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors +of man, should have lost the power of +erecting their ears, we cannot say. It may be, +though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that +owing to their arboreal habits and great strength +they were but little exposed to danger, and so +during a lengthened period moved their ears but +little, and thus gradually lost the power of moving +them. This would be a parallel case with that of +those large and heavy birds, which from inhabiting +oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks +of beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the +power of using their wings for flight.</p> + +<p>“The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me +of one little peculiarity in the external ear which he +has often observed both in men and women, and of +which he perceived the full signification. His attention +was first called to the subject whilst at +work on his figure of Puck, to which he had given +pointed ears. He was thus led to examine the ears +of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully +those of man. The peculiarity consists in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> +little blunt point, projecting from the inwardly +folded margin, or helix. These points not only project +inwards, but often a little outwards, so that +they are visible when the head is viewed from +directly in front or behind. They are variable in +size and somewhat in position, standing either a +little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on +one ear and not on the other. Now the meaning +of these projections is not, I think, doubtful; but +it may be thought that they offer too trifling a +character to be worth notice. This thought, however, +is as false as it is natural. Every character, +however slight, must be the result of some definite +cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves +consideration. The helix obviously consists +of the extreme margin of the ear folded inwards; +and this folding appears to be in some manner connected +with the whole external ear being permanently +pressed backwards. In many monkeys, +which do not stand high in the order, as baboons +and some species of macacus, the upper portion +of the ear is slightly pointed, and the margin +is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin +were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily +project inwards and probably a little outwards. +This could actually be observed in a specimen +of the <i class="taxonomy">Ateles beelzebuth</i> in the Zoological Gardens; +and we may safely conclude that it is a similar +structure—a vestige of formerly pointed ears—which +occasionally reappears in man.”</p> + +<figure id="i_28" class="figright port" style="max-width: 7em;"> + <img src="images/i_p093.jpg" width="422" height="763" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 28.—Human ear.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>I subjoin an illustration of the human ear, in +which the pointed tip mentioned by Darwin may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> +easily discovered. This point may also be perceived +in the ears of anthropoids, and especially in those of +the orang-utan. Meyer has attempted +to show that this Darwinian +pointed tip is only due to +the abortive development of part +of the helix, and in this case we +should not regard the occurrence +as an ape-like pointing of the +helix, but rather as its partial +interruption owing to the pathological +condition of that organ.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> +In a later edition of his work, +Darwin admits, in reply to Meyer, +that this explanation may apply +to many cases in which there +are several very small points, or when the whole of +the helix is sinuate. In one case, photographed by +Darwin, the prominence was so large that, if we were +to assume with Meyer that the ear would have been +normal if the cartilage had been uniformly developed +along the whole extent of the helix, the latter must +have occupied a third part of the ear. Two cases +were mentioned to Darwin in which the upper edge +of the ear had no inner fold, and was so pointed +that it was very like that of an ordinary mammal. +The ear of the fœtus of an orang given in Darwin’s +illustration appears to be pointed, although in the +adult animal that organ is very like the human ear. +The Darwinian tip may also be seen in the fœtus of +an orang described and illustrated by Salvatore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> +Trinchese in the <cite lang="it">Annali del Museo civico di Storia +Naturale di Genova</cite> (1870). The tip of the helix is +pointed in very young individuals of the gibbon +species, especially in +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Lar</i>. Among +the lower apes the +pointed ear is very +common (see <a href="#i_29">Fig. 29</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_29" class="figleft port" style="max-width: 12em;"> + <img src="images/i_p094.jpg" width="639" height="870" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 29.—Magot (<i class="taxonomy">Innuus ecaudatus</i>). + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The eyelids of anthropoids +greatly resemble +those of man in +their structure. In adult +gorillas and chimpanzees +there is always a +semilunar fold (<i lang="la">plica +semilunaris</i>) corresponding +to the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">membrana +nictitans</i>, or third eyelid +of birds. In man there +exists, instead of this, only a rudimentary apparatus, +the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">caruncula lachrymalis</i>. In some individuals it +attains to a considerable size, as I have observed in +the fellaheen, Berbers, Shillook, and other tribes. +On the other hand, the conversion of the caruncula +into a true, although only rudimentary, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">plica semilunaris</i> +has not been observed by me in the human +eye. Miklucho-Maclay describes the caruncula +in Melanesians (the Papuans of New Guinea), in +the Orang-Sakay (of the Malay peninsula), and in +the Mikronesians (of the island of Japan and of the +Palau archipelago), as two or three times as wide +as that of the average European.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> + +<p>The eye of the young male gorilla which was +kept alive in the Berlin Aquarium from 1876–77 +was carefully examined by me in June, 1877. I +found that the sclerotic membrane of the eyeball +was whitish, surrounded by a dark brown ring. A +second darker ring, sharply defined, surrounded the +cornea. The iris was of a yellowish brown. The +sclerotic membrane, however, gradually deepens in +colour so as to give the effect of a uniform dark brown. +The iris retains a light brown colour for a longer +period, but it darkens with age. In an aged animal +there is no brightness in the eye, except from reflected +light. In the chimpanzee the iris is light brown, verging +on yellow; and this is also the case in the orang.</p> + +<p>The expressionless, indifferent look of anthropoids +has often been observed, and undoubtedly chimpanzees +and orangs generally gaze placidly before them. +I have, however, observed an animated expression +in the eyes of the former species, and W. L. Martin +has also observed a flash and brightening of their +eyes. I shall never forget the expression of +malicious anger in the eyes of the female animal +Mafuca, at Dresden, as soon as she was teased. The +expression of the eyes of the gorilla in the Berlin +Aquarium also changed frequently, especially when +he was about to perform some mischievous trick, or +when he was provoked to anger. The expression of +this animal was very human, but necessarily it could +only recall the darkly coloured eyes of negroes and +other black races. In 1876 there were two very +young orangs in the Berlin Aquarium, one hairy and +the other hairless. These animals clung together in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> +a close embrace. If they were separated, their eyes +became bright and restless, and they again sought +to embrace each other while uttering plaintive cries. +On tickling one of the animals under the chin, it +made a most absurd grimace, and its eyes brightened, +as Martin has observed in similar cases. The eyes +of the gibbons which I have observed had a +thoroughly mild and placid expression, rarely +animated by any fire.</p> + +<p>The instance we have mentioned of hairless +Australians is the more remarkable since these +aborigines are for the most part distinguished for +their luxuriant growth of hair. The Australian +blacks and the Ainos of Yedo are, as a rule, perhaps +the most hairy races in the world. It is known, +however, that in all countries and climates exceptional +cases are found of individuals whose bodies +are wholly or partially covered with hair, and these +conditions sometimes affect whole families. Interesting +historical and morphological researches +respecting these hairy men have recently been made +by von Siebold, Ecker, Virchow, Bartels, and Ornstein. +In many of these cases we are presented +with decidedly brute-like phenomena. The Mexican +woman Julia Pastrana displays the strongest resemblance +to apes. Other hairy men remind us at the +first glance of some of the canine species. In all +races the women are less hairy than the men. Darwin +states that in the females of some species of +apes the under side of the body is less hairy than in +the males, and this is also the case with anthropoids, +especially with the chimpanzee.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> + +<p>The beard is, as we know, common to man and +apes. Among apes it is more strongly developed in +the male than in the female, and this is also the case +in the human species. Darwin points out that the +growth of the beard both of men and apes occurs at +the period of their sexual maturity, and also that +there is a remarkable parallel between men and apes +in its colour. For when the human beard varies in +colour from the hair of the head, which is frequently +the case, it is, without exception, of a lighter, and +generally of a reddish hue. Darwin observed this +in England, and Hooker found no exception to the +rule in Russia. J. Scott carefully observed the +numerous races which are to be found in Calcutta, +as in other parts of India, namely, the two Sikh +races, the Bhoteas, Hindus, Burmese, and Chinese. +Although most of these races have very little hair +on the face, Scott found that in all cases without +exception, in which there was any difference in +colour between the hair of the head and the beard, +the latter was of a lighter shade. In apes the +colour of the beard often differs widely from that of +the hair of the head, and in such cases it is always +of a lighter shade, often white, sometimes yellow or +reddish.</p> + +<figure id="i_30" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 21em;"> + <img src="images/i_p098.jpg" width="1317" height="1373" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 30.—Capucin ape (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus capucinus</i>). + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“It is well known,” says Darwin, “that the hair +on our arms tends to converge from above and below +to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, +so unlike that in most of the lower mammals, is +common to the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, some +species of Hylobates, and even to some few American +monkeys. But in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> the hair on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> +forearm is directed downwards or towards the wrist +in the ordinary manner; and in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates lar</i> it is +nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclination; +so that in this latter species it is in a transitional +state. It can hardly be doubted that with +most mammals the thickness of the hair and its +direction on the back is adapted to throw off the +rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> +dog may serve for this end when he is coiled up asleep. +Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the +hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang +(whose habits he has so carefully studied) serves to +throw off the rain, when, as is the custom of this +animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped +round a branch or over its own head. We should, however, +bear in mind that the attitude of an animal +may perhaps be in part determined by the direction +of the hair; and not the direction of the hair by the +attitude. If the above explanation is correct in the +case of the orang, the hair on our forearms offers +a curious record of our former state; for no one supposes +that it is now of any use in throwing off the +rain, nor in our present erect condition is it properly +directed for this purpose.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> + +<p>Darwin also remarks that it is erroneous to deny +that apes have eyebrows. In fact, long bristly eyebrows +are present in all anthropoids—not growing +thickly together like those of men, but scattered +among the shorter and thicker growth of hair which +clothes the parts above the orbits; nor do they +maintain any definite direction. In the white-handed +gibbon, these eyebrows are remarkable for their length +and stiffness. A growth of hair corresponding to +eyebrows may, indeed, be observed above the upper +eyelids of all mammals, including seals and pachydermata. +On the upper lip of gorillas, chimpanzees, +and orangs we may also observe a number of somewhat +longer, stiff, and bristly hairs which stand apart +from the otherwise short hairs on the lips, and give<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> +the impression of a cat’s “whiskers.” In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates +albimanus</i> I observed that these <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vibrissæ</i> attain to a +considerable length (<a href="#i_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p> + +<p>The external form of the trunk of anthropoids, +taken as a whole, does not greatly differ from that +of man. We have not, indeed, the well-formed +human torso, with its graceful lines; and the formation +of the posteriors, together with a want of expansion +about the hips, displeases us in its departure +from the human type (see Figs. <a href="#i_1">1</a> and <a href="#i_6">6</a>). We shall +not be disposed to compare the torso of the Apollo +Belvedere, or of the Olympian Hermes with that of +a gorilla or chimpanzee. Yet the torso of a powerful +male gorilla, from which the hair has been +removed, may be favourably compared with that of +one of the large-bellied, lean-armed weaklings who +are everywhere to be found as living caricatures of +the human species.</p> + +<p>The neck of anthropoids is generally short +and thick. In the gorilla that part of the body +has a great backward convexity, owing, as we have +said, to the great development of the spinous processes +of the cervical vertebræ, and of the muscles +attached to them. A short, thick throat, and considerable +development of the neck, a bull-neck, as it +is called, is also not unfrequent in man. This peculiarity +is sometimes supposed to be one of the national +characteristics of the African blacks. Burmeister +says that “the negro’s thick neck is the more striking, +since it is generally allied with a short throat. In +measuring negroes from the crown of the head to +the shoulder I found the interval to be from nine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> +and a quarter to nine and three-quarter inches. In +Europeans of normal height, this interval is seldom +less than ten inches, and it is more commonly eleven +inches in women, and twelve in men. The shortness +of the neck, as well as the relatively small size of the +brain-pan, and the large size of the face may the more +readily be taken as an approximation to the simian +type, since all apes are short-necked, and the relative +distance of these animals is somewhat further from +the negro than that of the negro from the European. +This shortness of the neck in the negro +explains his greater carrying power, and his preference +for carrying burdens on his head, which is +much more fatiguing to the European on account of +his longer and weaker neck.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> + +<p>Burmeister’s assumption on this subject is, however, +much too general. It does not apply to +many of the negro races—at any rate, not to those +of the Upper Nile valley. A long, thin neck is +the characteristic of the Funje, Shillooks, Denkas, +Baris, and other large tribes of those regions. +Among these people the interval between the top +of the head and the shoulder is from ten to +eleven, and even from eleven to twelve inches (240 to +260 mm., and 260 to 286 mm.). Burmeister has +been thinking exclusively of the Brazilian blacks. +Yet I am unable to trace the typical short neck, +either in the well-known portraits of slaves by +Maurice Rugendas,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> or in the collection of photographs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> +of Brazilian negroes which is in my possession. +This characteristic is also absent, even in +many portraits of West African and Mozambique +blacks, tribes from which the slave population of +Brazil has been chiefly drawn. Many Mongolians, +Malays, Papuans, and Polynesians have short, thick +necks, but this characteristic is more rare among +the American aborigines and among Europeans. If +we are to recognize an approximation to the simian +type in this formation, it is one common to several +nations, and it is not confined only, nor even chiefly, +to the negro races.</p> + +<p>The remarkable elongation of the upper limbs of +anthropoid apes cannot be compared with the length +of the corresponding limbs in men. For although +among negroes and the members of other primitive +peoples we may occasionally observe unusually long +arms, yet these are individual peculiarities which +are also found among Europeans, and cannot be +counted among racial characteristics.</p> + +<figure id="i_31" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p103.jpg" width="845" height="1373" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 31.—Hand of a very aged male gorilla. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The hand of the orang and the gibbon is too long +and narrow to be directly compared with the human +hand. The chimpanzee and the gorilla, especially +the latter, have hands more like those of man. In +the case of an adult male gorilla the first glance at +this member reminds us of the knotty fist of a black +dock labourer or lighterman, like those who, at Rio +de Janeiro, Bahia, or La Guayra, lift the heavy bags +of coffee and place them on their heads or on their +herculean shoulders. Much has been said of the +enlargement of the connective skin between the +bases of the fingers of a negro hand, and of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> +pointed extremities of the fingers. Van der Hoeven, +in his well-known treatise, <cite lang="de">De Natuurlijke Geschiedenis +van den Negerstam</cite>, has described and drawn +the hand of an Ashanti boy, formed in this manner. +Hence there is a disposition to recognize in this +peculiarity an important characteristic of the negro +race. As in the hand of the gorilla, the connective +web between the bases of the fingers is also extensive,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> +and the ungual phalanges taper at their extremities, +there is also an inclination to ascribe an expressly +anthropoid character to the negro hand. Yet this +structure of the fingers is by no means universal +among the negroes. An enlargement of the connective +web is not indeed uncommon, but its extent +varies considerably. Nor is it wanting in the fingers +of other races. An attentive observer will be able<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> +to trace it in the labouring population of country +districts in Europe. I have myself frequently +observed this characteristic in Canton Wallis, and in +the Lombard and Genoese provinces, through which +I travelled on foot in 1869 and 1871, when I devoted +special attention to this point. In <a href="#i_32">Fig. 32</a> I give a +negro hand of a type which seems to be common +among the blacks in the inland districts of North-eastern +Africa. It can hardly be denied that the +form of this hand, which is certainly not flattered, +possesses the characteristics of a thoroughly human +organization.</p> + +<figure id="i_32" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <img src="images/i_p104.jpg" width="969" height="1346" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 32.—Hand of a Hammegh from Roseres, on the Blue Nile. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>With respect to other primitive peoples besides +negroes, we have not at present sufficient information, +and we ought therefore to beware of premature +generalization. The thin shanks, with +imperfectly developed calves, found among many +primitive races, and especially among the African +and Australian blacks, are often and not unjustly +adduced as an instance of their ape-like formation. +In fact, the general uncomeliness of these parts in +the races in question is one of their significant +characteristics.</p> + +<figure id="i_33" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 22em;"> + <img src="images/i_p106.jpg" width="1407" height="1274" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 33.—Satan’s ape (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecia Satanas</i>). + Shows the formation and mode of using the feet in apes of the New World.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The anthropoid foot resembles in structure those +of other apes, including those of the New World, +and as a rule it differs from the human foot +in the flexibility of the great toes. It has, however, +been justly observed that many individuals of +different races have been able to use the great toe +almost as if it were a thumb. Such persons may be +found everywhere. Men who have been born without +arms, or who have been deprived of them during life,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> +have been able to use their feet like hands, as some +compensation for this privation. The most surprising +instance of our time has occurred in the violinist +without arms, whose performances are heard in +various continental capitals. Another, mentioned +by Bär, was able to write with his feet. But even +people who have the full use of their upper limbs +can often grasp with the great toe as if it were a +thumb, so as to pick up small objects from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> +ground, or draw them towards them. Constant +practice in such feats produces a certain dexterity. +Negroes, Malays, Polynesians, and Indians make +use of their outstretched great toes in climbing +with as skilful a gripe as our schoolboys and sailors +are also able to do in gymnastics, or in climbing up +the masts. Among such people the distinction +between the foot of man and apes is less marked, +since, even when at rest, the great toe is apt to be +somewhat detached from the others. This may be +seen in A. Buchta’s excellent photographs of individuals +of the Central African tribe, the Makraka. +Haeckel justly observes that there is no marked +physiological distinction between the hand and foot +which can be established on a scientific basis. In +order to make such a distinction it is necessary to +consider their morphological characteristics.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + +<figure id="i_34" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 24em;"> + <img src="images/i_p108.jpg" width="1285" height="1321" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 34.—Human skull. <i>a</i>, Nasal bone. <i>b</i>, Upper jaw. + <i>c</i>, Lower jaw. <i>d</i>, Occipital bone. <i>e</i>, Temporal bone. + <i>f</i>, Parietal bone. <i>g</i>, Frontal bone. <i>h</i>, Malar bone.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><em>Structure of the skeleton.</em>—In comparing the skulls +of anthropoids with those of men, we should, in the +case of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-utan, +content ourselves with young specimens rather than +with the skulls of adults. In aged apes of these +species, the colossal development of the bony crests +of the skull, as well as that of the jaws, the prominence +of the orbital rim, and the flattening of the +occipital bone, present distinctions of such a searching +character that we are greatly hindered in the +pursuit of the comparative method. But during +the process of development the anthropoid skeleton +admits of a direct comparison with that of man. +In a young animal the rounded skull suggests a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> +parallel between it and the human head. It must +be admitted that we find, especially in primitive +peoples, many human skulls which in their whole +plastic form differ little from the skulls of young +gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs. Even in the +way the occipital bone is rounded off, young anthropoids +and men are often found in a similar stage +of development. The squamous occipital portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> +in a young negro, Papuan and Malay, is indeed often +flatter and more bevelled than it is in a young +gorilla or chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>We must not, however, assume that the two +individuals brought into comparison are of precisely +the same age, since such a point cannot easily be +ascertained, even when subjects for examination are +afforded by one of our larger museums. Savages +are seldom able to give their precise age, and the +attempt to do so often relies on insufficient data. +The direct examination of the skull will afford some +information on this point; but the conditions of +growth in anthropoids are not so well known as to +admit of an accurate estimate. We have to rely on +the state of the teeth, on the stage at which the +development of the bony crests has arrived, etc., in +order to form an approximate estimate of the age +of the skull.</p> + +<p>On the squamous occipital portion the arrangement +of the curved lines which are the boundaries to +the attachments of the cervical muscles, is common +to men, to anthropoids, and to other apes. Only indications +of these lines are to be found in the lower +order of mammals. In the human skull there is sometimes +a formation belonging to the squamous occipital +portion which has a distinctly pithecoid or ape-like +character. This is the occipital swelling we have +already described (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Torus occipitalis transversus</i>), which +may be either enclosed by the two upper curved +lines, or lie between these and the central curved +lines, or may be altogether in the region of the +latter. This swelling extends in a gradual manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> +above and below its bony support. Its edge may be +more or less sharp, more or less like a crest in its +development, wider or narrower, with or without a +central eminence, but its appearance is always +striking. In young male and female gorillas, orangs, +and chimpanzees this formation represents the completely +formed transverse occipital crests, which are +found for the most part in aged male animals of +these species. These swellings may also be observed +on the skulls of adult men of all times and all +nations. They are by no means rare in the skulls +which are in ordinary use at the Berlin School of +Anatomy, and they are remarkably common in +many groups of skulls. They are frequent among +the skulls, for the most part without their lower +jaws, which the late Dr. Sachs disinterred in +a Mohammedan burial-ground of the thirteenth +century, near Cairo. These are the remains of +Mohammedans of different ranks, but, for the most +part, of the peasantry or fellaheen. Ecker was able +to trace the sagittal crest in the skulls of Australian +males, while it is absent in the females. Similar +indications of the bony crest have been observed by +me in the roof-shaped or scaphocephalic skulls of +many negroes, but in these cases I am not aware +whether there is a corresponding distinction of sex. +It can hardly be denied that this bony prominence +is a human characteristic.</p> + +<p>Broca has given the term pterion to the H-shaped +connection formed by the sutures between the parietal +bone, the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, the +squamous portion of the temporal bone, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> +frontal bone. One of the most common disturbances +in the symmetry of the connecting suture, as we +have already briefly mentioned, arises from the +insertion of a frontal process of the squamous portion +of the temporal bone between the lower angle of +the parietal bone, the fore-part of the frontal bone, +and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. This +process of the temporal bone varies in size, and may +occur on one or both sides. A similar formation is +common among gorillas, chimpanzees, macacas, +magots (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>), and baboons.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> It is less frequent +among orangs,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> gibbons, marmosets, and American +species (howlers, hooded apes, etc.).</p> + +<p>Virchow and W. Gruber have agreed in representing +this frontal process as theromorphological—that +is, as a characteristic of the lower animals, and +more especially of apes. Virchow has found this +abnormal formation of the skull to be more common +in some races than others. None of those in +whom it occurs appear to belong to the Aryan +races, and the existence of this process and stenocrotaphy, +or temporal stenosis, seem to be due to a +defective development of the greater wing of the +sphenoid bone, and to the compression of the bones +in its vicinity, by which the whole temporal region +is contracted. This is a characteristic of the lower, +but by no means of the lowest, races of men.</p> + +<p>Stieda, Hyrtl, Gruber, and Calori have sought to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> +controvert the fact that this temporal process is a +characteristic of the lower races. Stieda asserts +that it may occur exceptionally in all races of men.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> +He himself, aided by Anutschin, has ascertained the +existence of this anomalous pterion on more than +10,000 human skulls, and he has also received +information from others. He considers the frequency +of this frontal process in man to be theromorphological, +or indeed pithecoid. According to Anutschin, +this anomalous condition is not equally common in +all races. In the dark-skinned and woolly-haired +races (Australians, Papuans, and negroes) the frontal +process is most widely diffused; it is less frequent +among Mongolians and Malays; and among Americans +and white men its occurrence is from five to +six times more uncommon than in the black races. +Sometimes the frontal process occurs on the intercalary +bone (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Ossa epipterica</i>), which is fused into the +squamous portion of the temporal bone; and sometimes +the process grows out of the squamous portion +of the temporal bone. These imperfect processes or +intercalary bones are not regarded by Anutschin as +pithecoid, since they are more rare in apes than in +men. Schlocker has sought to show that the frontal +process of the squamous portion of the temporal +bone, the less common temporal process of the frontal +bone, and the temporal intercalary bone (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Ossa epipterica</i>) +are of equal value from the genetic point of +view.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> This author regards the frontal process and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> +the immediate connection of the frontal and squamous +portion of the temporal bones, as theromorphological +characteristics, but he does not believe +the occurrence of this process to be restricted to the +lower races.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> This is also the opinion of Ten Kate. +However this may be, the establishment of this +theromorphological formation is important. Its immediate +value as a contribution to the theory of the +origin of species remains, as we shall presently see, +even if we cannot trace it through intermediate and +lower types.</p> + +<p>In the great prominence of the supra-orbital ridges +which has been observed in some pre-historic human +skulls, a likeness to the corresponding feature in +anthropoids has been traced. And indeed there is +such a likeness, especially to the female chimpanzee, +in the well-known Neanderthal skull, which is very +dolichocephalic, with prominent supra-orbital arches, +only divided from each other by a shallow depression. +In the same skull the development of the supra-orbital +ridges is related to that of the frontal sinuses. +In this pre-historic specimen—which, by the kindness +of Professor Schaafhauser, I was able to examine +closely at the congress of anthropologists at Berlin +in 1880—the forehead retreats in a marked manner +towards the flattened region of the crown. De +Quatrefages and Hamy say that the skull is both +flattened and long (dolichoplatycephalic). The temporal +ridges are not only very marked, but they +approach each other in the region of the coronal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> +arch (<a href="#i_35">Fig. 35</a>). This also occurs in the adult female +chimpanzee, as well as in the young male gorilla, +in the aged female orang, and in the gibbon.</p> + +<figure id="i_35" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 24em;"> + <img src="images/i_p115.jpg" width="1390" height="1439" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 35.—The Neanderthal skull. A. In profile. + B. A front view. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It may here be observed that our men of science +differ widely in opinion respecting the origin and +ethnological significance of the Neanderthal skull, +of which I will cite only a few instances. Pruner +regards it as the skull of an idiot.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> Virchow +considers the specimen, and the similar one from +Kailykke in the Copenhagen Museum, as an altogether +individual formation,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> a typical form modified +by disease,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> in other words, a pathological skull.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> +King regards the skull as one belonging to one +of the primitive races.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Schaaffhauser has, indeed, +endeavoured to make an artistic portrait of such +a primitive man. Spengel holds that skulls which +are “Neanderthaloid” in form are to be found +chiefly in Europe.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> If Huxley says decidedly that +the Neanderthal skull can by no means be regarded +as the remains of a human being which was a link +between man and apes. At most this discovery +only proves the existence of a man whose skull +reverted in some respects to the simian type, just +as a carrier or tumbler pigeon may sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> +display the plumage of their original ancestor, the +rock-pigeon (<i class="taxonomy">Columbia livia</i>). And although the +Neanderthal skull is more like that of the ape than +any other human skull with which we are acquainted, +yet it is by no means so isolated as it at first appears, +but is rather the ultimate expression of a series +which may be gradually traced back from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> +highest and most fully developed type of human +skulls. On the one side it approximates to the +flattened Australian skulls, from which other +Australian forms gradually lead to skulls which +rather resemble the type afforded by the Engis +skull. On the other side, it is still more closely +allied with the skulls of certain ancient races +which were either contemporaries or successors of +those which dwelt in Denmark during the Stone +Age, people whose kitchen middens have been discovered +in that country.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p> + +<p>Huxley justly observes that some of the skulls +drawn by Busk, and taken from the tumuli of +Borrely, resemble the Neanderthal skull, especially +in the abruptly retreating forehead. Some other +European skulls may, within certain limits, be +compared with the Neanderthal skull, as, for instance, +those found at Brüx, Staengenaes, Olmo, Louth, +Clichy, Bougon, Cro-Magnon, Grenelle, Furfooz, +Engisheim, Cannstadt, and Toul. These all present +interesting peculiarities of structure—strongly developed +supra-orbital arches, a retreating forehead, +a flattened crown, etc., although none of them are so +remarkable in these particulars as the Neanderthal +skull. It has not, however, yet been proved that +this skull represents a definite racial type, and it +seems more probable that it was simply an individual +form.</p> + +<p>The skulls of the Australian aborigines are, as +Spengel justly observes, distinguished from the +Neanderthal skull, and from others of like character,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> +by their pronounced scaphocephalism. On the +other hand, they have the prominent supra-orbital +arches, the retreating forehead, the skull compressed +in the temporal region, the prognathous countenance, +relatively shorter than that of Europeans, and in all +these respects the skulls of the Australians greatly +resemble those of anthropoids. If, for instance, we +turn to the illustration given by de Quatrefages and +Hamy of a skull procured from Camp-in-Heaven, +Arnhem’s Land, North Australia, and also Dr. +Schadenburg’s negro skull, the most determined +sceptic must be struck by their resemblance to the +anthropoid skull.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p> + +<p>Similar characteristics to those which we have +already mentioned as distinguishing the structure +of the Australian skull, enable us to determine the +anthropoid character of the skulls of many individuals +belonging to the dark-skinned African +races. These consist chiefly in the retreating forehead, +the flatness and compression of the coronal +arch, the pronounced prognathism, and the obtuse +angles of the lower maxillary bones, which may be +noted in so many negro skulls. On the other hand, +the prominence of the supra-orbital arches is, as a +rule, less marked in African races than in anthropoid +species. There are specimens, however, as, for +instance, the Congo skull given by de Quatrefages and +Hamy,<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> which give an overwhelming impression of +anthropoid characteristics. And we find the same to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> +a surprising degree in the skulls of intelligent, warlike, +and light-skinned races of Central and Western +Africa, and as the Monbuttre, Haussaua, Bakale, +Fan, etc. This character may be discovered in all +races of men, and especially among the Papuans +and some African negroes.</p> + +<p>A mutual approximation of the temporal ridges +in the coronal region may be observed in the skulls +of various nations. This formation is most frequent +in the long-headed negro and Papuan skulls. In +these cases it is generally allied with the shortness +of the interval between the sides of the skull, taken +in its transverse diameter (stenocephalism).</p> + +<p>In an adult female chimpanzee, the parietal bones +often rise abruptly towards the sagittal suture, and +in its vicinity there arises a longitudinal bony +prominence, of which the sides pass gradually into +the external surface of the parietal bones. The +sagittal suture sometimes remains intact, and is +sometimes included by this process. This produces +a modified development of the so-called keel-shaped +skull (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">scaphocephalus</i>). Such a formation may be +often observed in negroes and Papuans, and more +rarely in the skulls of other races. The occurrence +of a divided malar bone in human skulls, +especially in those of the Ainos and Japanese, has +been considered to be theromorphic, since it is +occasionally observed in the skulls of apes.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> +myself, in a very few instances, found obscure traces +of such a formation among anthropoids.</p> + +<p>In 1863 Boucher de Perthes found at Abbeville +half of a human lower jaw deposited in a black layer +of clay and sand mixed with iron, and lying on +the chalk. As far as we can judge from illustrations +which are for the most part imperfect, there was +nothing remarkable about it except its abruptly retreating +ramus (<a href="#i_36">Fig. 36</a>), but the specimen aroused +great attention at the time, and it was assigned by +many intelligent observers to the primitive men of +the diluvial period. Unfortunately it was afterwards +proved to be a gigantic imposture.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> + +<figure id="i_36" class="figcenter land section" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p119.jpg" width="808" height="527" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 36.—Lower jaw of Moulin-Quignon.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure id="i_37" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p120.jpg" width="850" height="378" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 37.—Naulette lower jaw.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure id="i_38" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p120b.jpg" width="856" height="399" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 38.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This is not the case with the lower jaws of +Naulette, Aurignac, and Arcy, which are undoubtedly +genuine and of great antiquity. The +Naulette jaw is, indeed, very imperfect, yet we can +trace the construction of the symphysis of the chin,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> +which provokes comparison with the lower jaws of +many anthropoids, especially those of the gorilla +and chimpanzee (<a href="#i_37">Fig. 37</a>). The resemblance consists +chiefly in the uprightness of the anterior surface, +and especially of the body of the maxillary bone. +In anthropoids this surface of the bone retreats from +the row of teeth backwards and downwards to the +lower edge of the body of the maxillary bone (Fig. +38); and in the Naulette specimen, as well as in +the lower jaws of some modern Papuan skulls (of +New Hebrides and elsewhere), there is a certain +approximation to the simian type. A fossil ape +(<i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus Fontanii</i>) has been found in the Middle +Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, assumed to be one of the +higher anthropoids, and in this case the jaw is only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> +slightly retreating. Gaudry considers that the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> +was about the size of a man. The incisor +teeth were small. The cusps of the back molar teeth +were less rounded than in Europeans, and more like +those of Australians. It has been surmised, although +the fact cannot be established, that the last molar +teeth were only cut after the canine teeth, as is the case +with the human wisdom teeth. Gaudry gives the illustration +of the lower jaw of a Tasmanian, from eleven to +twelve years old, together with that of <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus +Fontanii</i>. In the human jaw the first molar tooth is +larger than in the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>, while the canine tooth +and the pre-molars are much weaker. This distinction +is important, since the smaller size of the front +teeth is connected with the slight projection of +the face, which is always a sign of human superiority. +Although the canine tooth of the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> is +broken, we can see that it must have been considerably +higher than the other teeth, and indeed the +canine teeth of the male animal must have been very +powerful. There is also a slight prominence in the +teeth of this ape, which is absent in those of men. +<i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus</i>, from the Miocene of Pikermi, Attica, +was an ape less closely resembling the anthropoids. +In the structure of the head it resembles the slender +ape (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>), and in the structure of the limbs +it is like a macaca (<i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>). Gaudry believes that +Sansan’s <i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i> was related to the gibbon. An +ape of the size of the orang-utan, which belongs to +the slender apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus sub-himalayanus</i>),<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> +was found by Baker and Durand in the Miocene of +the Sewalik mountains.</p> + +<p>In the comparative study of the human organization, +and that of anthropoid apes, it is important to +examine sections, and especially longitudinal sections, +of characteristic skulls.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Virchow has caused drawings +to be made, from specimens in the Berlin +Museum, of a gorilla, a chimpanzee, an orang-utan, +and an Australian woman. The gorilla’s skull, +when compared with the Australian’s, is so narrow +that it looks as if compression had been applied to +it; and yet the Australian skull is extremely small +in comparison with that of men in general, since its +cubic space is only 1150 ccm. In the gorilla<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a>—at +least in the old male, from which the drawing is +taken—the immense size of the frontal sinuses, and +the swellings which cover them, together with the +strongly developed jaw, increase the impression of +size. But, as Virchow observes, “all which adds to +the size of the skull is bestial, and not human.” It +is much the same in the orang-utan. Only in the +chimpanzee the cubic space of the skull may be +somewhat more favourably compared with that of +the human skull. It approaches in size to that of a +microcephalic native of the Rhein-Pfalz (of which +an illustration is also given), which ranks a good deal +below the Australian skull, and approximates more +closely to the simian type. The internal space +of the skulls of an adult female gorilla or orang<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> +may also be more favourably compared with those +of men.</p> + +<figure id="i_39" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_p123.jpg" width="938" height="519" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 39.—Sagittal section through the skull of a bam-chimpanzee. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>We have already mentioned the presence of +extensive sinuses and cells in the skulls of anthropoids, +exceeding those of human skulls, and this +is apparent in the accompanying illustration of +a longitudinal section of the skull of a chimpanzee +carried through its centre (<a href="#i_39">Fig. 39</a>). The +length of this skull between the nasal partition and +the most prominent part of the occipital bone is +128 mm.; that of the internal space is 108 mm. +10 mm. of this difference is due to the depth of the +frontal sinuses, and the rest is owing to the thickness +of the bony part of the skull. In an aged male +gorilla, the first measurement is 153 mm., the second +115 mm. In another aged gorilla the measurements +were respectively 183 mm. and 117 mm. In a +still more aged male orang they were respectively +140 mm. and 114 mm. The comparative thinness +of the centre of the squamous occipital portion is to +be noted in the aged gorilla male. In the adult +chimpanzee the large cells of the squamous portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> +of the temporal bone extend into this bone, and +indeed without interruption into the parietal bone +adjoining it. For such investigations the thin +and light bones of individuals which have lived +a wild life are more suitable than the heavy and +fat specimens which have died after prolonged +confinement.</p> + +<p>Zuckerkandl has observed that among Europeans +the orbital part of the nose, or that part which is +between the orbits, is longer than the infra-orbital +or lower part. In anthropoids the infra-orbital portion +is considerably the longest, although only in +adult animals. There are stages in the period of +development in which these animals display the +characteristics of an adult European, or indeed of +a child. The proportions of the skulls of Malays +take a middle place between those of Europeans and +of apes. The growth of the infra-orbital part of the +nose in the Malay does not equal that of apes, but +in many cases it differs essentially from that of +Europeans. Zuckerkandl makes a skilful attempt +to establish this statement by statistics.</p> + +<p>The same inquirer makes some interesting +remarks on the comparative height and width of +the orbits. He observes that the skulls of adult +apes and men differ more in these respects than +the young specimens of these organisms. The +orbits both of a child and an adult, especially in the +case of a European, are much more like those of a +young ape than of an aged animal of the same +species. In the chimpanzee and the orang-utan the +proportions are the same as in men; that is, the width<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> +of the orbit exceeds its height. In man, this seems +to arise from the exceptionally strong development +of the supra-orbital ridge. It is most probable +that in very young anthropoids the width of the +orbit exceeds its height.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> Zuckerkandl goes on to +say that in anthropoids the height of the orbits is +greater than their width, and that this difference +increases with age. But this is not absolutely correct, +for even in aged animals the proportions vary, +and the height and width of the orbits sometimes, +although rarely, remains the same.</p> + +<p>In comparing the vertebral column in men and +anthropoids, Rosenberg has sought to show in the +embryo, that the first sacral vertebra assumes the +form of a lumbar vertebra, and that in a later stage +of development it is enclosed by the ilia, and +anchylosed with the sacrum. The same author has +proposed a theory of the homologous or genetic +equivalents of the vertebræ, which we must now +consider. According to this theory, as Welcker has +observed,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> the twentieth vertebra of an animal A is +homologous to the twentieth vertebra of an animal B, +the thirtieth vertebra of one animal to the thirtieth +of another, although in one case it may be a lumbar +vertebra, in another a pelvic vertebra, and in +a third a coccygeal vertebra. The dorso-lumbar +vertebræ of the lower apes have, in the case of men, +their descendants, undergone a threefold metamorphosis,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> +and, after their modification into sacral vertebræ, +have assumed their fourth form as coccygeal +vertebræ.</p> + +<p>Froriep, a follower of Rosenberg, remarks that the +lumbo-sacral vertebræ, <i>i.e.</i> those constituents of the +vertebral column which form the transition from +the lumbar to the sacral vertebræ, are invested with +fresh interest by Rosenberg’s hypothesis. According +to their position in the vertebral column, they +are to be regarded as lumbar vertebræ, introduced +too early or too late into the structure of the sacrum. +If the twenty-fourth vertebra is assimilated with the +sacrum, so as to form an upper promontory or outwork, +this variety offers a point of transition to a +future formation (?) in which this vertebra normally +becomes the first sacral vertebra, and the column will +now display twenty-three free vertebræ. If, again, +this transition occurs in the twenty-fifth vertebra of +the series, which thus becomes the chief sacral vertebra, +this is, in Rosenberg’s opinion, a characteristic +survival of the racial development, an atavism.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> + +<p>According to Welcker’s theory, the chief sacral +vertebra in one animal corresponds to the same +sacral vertebra in another animal, whatever their +number may be. The cervical vertebræ of one +animal, which may be five, seven, or even eleven in +number, correspond to the cervical vertebræ of +another animal. The vertebral column of one +animal corresponds to the vertebral column of +another, taken as a whole, but not to two-thirds or +three-fourths of that column. In accordance with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> +the requirements of a given animal, that part +of the bone which belongs to the sections of the +breast and loins is more or less abundant, and the +vertebræ are homologous in accordance with their +region, and not with their number.</p> + +<p>Holl has asserted that one vertebra is in close +connection with the ilium, joined with it throughout +its extent, and that this vertebra at the same +time always appears to support the pelvis. This +vertebra is, in normal cases, the first sacral vertebra, +and the twenty-fifth of the series. It may be termed, +as Welcker suggests, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i>. Such a +main support is found, according to Holl, in every +vertebral column, however anomalous its other conditions +may be, and the only irregularity consists +in its number in the series. This bone serves as a +natural starting-point in our division of the vertebral +column. The <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i> must always be +regarded as the first sacral vertebra. It begins the +series of sacral vertebra, and, on account of its subsequently +important position, it must be regarded as +primary. Holl finds that it is followed by four lower +vertebræ, which are afterwards included with it in +the sacrum. When in its primary condition the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra +fulcralis</i> is twenty-fifth in the series, the twenty-fifth +to the twenty-ninth vertebræ are included in +the sacrum. When the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i> is the twenty-sixth +vertebra, the sacrum includes the thirtieth. Hence +it follows that the sacrum is, from the first stages of +its development, a formation which begins with the +twenty-fifth or twenty-sixth vertebra, and includes +four other vertebræ. Holl considers that the lumbo-sacral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> +form of the last lumbar vertebra, which stands +between the lumbar and sacral vertebræ, does not +indicate a gradual transition into a sacral vertebra, +but rather an arrest in its development.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> + +<p>When we examine a human sacrum we see that its +first vertebra, the twenty-fifth of the series, is formed +like the lumbar vertebræ in its upper part, setting +aside those portions of it which form part of the +lateral masses of the sacrum. These lateral masses, +which serve as a support to the ilia, owe most of +their substance to the first sacral vertebra. Thus, +since it has to support the whole weight of the pre-sacral +vertebræ, it is in fact a true <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra fulcralis</i>.</p> + +<p>Holl justly says that there are few instances in +which the human <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os sacrum</i> consists of less than +five vertebræ, and in no case are there less than +four. In such a case the first sacral vertebra defines +the pre- and post-sacral segment of the vertebral +column.</p> + +<p>In anthropoids the lower segment of the lumbar +vertebral column is deeply sunk between the high, +wide, and flattened ilia, which converge closely +towards the vertebral column. In man these bones +are not so much higher than the base of the sacrum, +and their crests diverge more widely from the vertebral +column. In the large apes the lateral masses +of the sacrum are comparatively deeply set below +their anchylosis with the pelvic bones. In an aged +male gorilla, for instance, the transverse processes +of the two lower lumbar vertebræ often extend to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> +hinder borders of the ilia, although the second of +the lower lumbar vertebræ is somewhat higher than +the top of the crest of the ilium. This is still more +remarkably the case in an old male chimpanzee, in +which the lowest lumbar vertebra seems to be wedged +in between the two ilia. In a young male chimpanzee, +and in the adult female, both the lower +lumbar vertebræ are almost compressed between +the upper segments of the ilia. In the orang the +lowest lumbar vertebra is placed between the ilia. +Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second +are articulated with these bones.</p> + +<p>In the gorilla the highest sacral vertebra, the +twenty-fifth of the series, is the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>. In this +animal the first to the third sacral vertebræ form +part of the connection with the crests of the ilia. +In the chimpanzee the twenty-fifth is also the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">vertebra +fulcralis</i>, and from the first to the third are +likewise connected with the ilia, but the third only +to a limited extent; and in young males and in old +females the connection is generally confined to the +first and second sacral vertebræ. In the orang-utan +the twenty-fourth vertebra is generally the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>.</p> + +<p>In the gibbon the twenty-fifth vertebra is usually +the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">fulcralis</i>. In the siamang I found that the fifth of +the five lumbar vertebræ was between the ilia. +Out of the five sacral vertebræ the first and second +were articulated with the said pelvic bones. In +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> the fifth and sixth of the six lumbar +vertebræ were between the ilia, and the first and +second of the five sacral bones were articulated with +these.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span></p> + +<p>In the vertebral columns of the gorilla, the chimpanzee, +and the orang we may observe an inconsiderable +forward projection between the penultimate +cervical and the second and third dorsal vertebræ. +In the region below the second lumbar vertebra a +similar forward projection may sometimes be observed. +The so-called promontory at the entrance of the +pelvis, that is, in the region developed between the +lumbar and sacral vertebræ, which is remarkable in +man, is only faintly apparent in anthropoids. The +vertebral column is arched behind, since there is a +dorsal curvature (see Figs. <a href="#i_17">17</a> and <a href="#i_23">23</a>).</p> + +<p>Aeby observes that the bodies of the vertebræ +are tapering in the gorilla, and this is, in fact, the +case. In climbing, or when he goes on all fours, +the dorsal curvature of an anthropoid maintains its +position. This curvature is still more apparent +when the animal, in climbing, withdraws his body +from the tree, mast, or whatever it may be, and +bends forward his head. A similar dorsal curvature +of the vertebral column may be observed in men +who stiffen their hands and feet to climb up a tree +or mast. If an anthropoid holds himself so erect +as to be able to place his hands behind his head, +the dorsal curvature of his spine is necessarily +straightened, and indeed it becomes rather a ventral +curvature.</p> + +<p>The bony pelvis of anthropoids, with its high, +narrow, and projecting ilia, and the lowest lumbar +vertebræ deeply embedded between them, together +with the sacral and coccygeal vertebræ, which +directly remind us of the vertebræ of a rudimentary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> +tail, present the points of unlikeness with the human +skeleton in this part of the skeleton of these animals +in the strongest light (comp. Figs. <a href="#i_40">40</a> and <a href="#i_41">41</a>).</p> + +<p>The bony thorax of anthropoids is distinguished +from the human thorax in normal cases by the +abrupt way in which it widens outwards. The +thorax of the gorilla, and the widely diverging +pelvic bones, which enclose the belly and give it a +tun-shaped form, contrast with the graceful moulding +of the corresponding parts of the human form.</p> + +<p>Certain peculiarities in the structure of the bones +of the shoulder-girdle and of the extremities of +anthropoids, in which they differ from corresponding +parts in the human structure, have been already +mentioned.</p> + +<p>With reference to the humerus of the gorilla, Aeby +asserts that the head of the bone forms a cycloid, +placed transversely, while in man its shape is that +of the segment of a sphere. But I have pointed +out in my treatise on the gorilla that there is a not +inconsiderable variation in the form of the head of +the humerus in these animals, and it is sometimes +cycloidal or vertically-cycloidal, sometimes a segment +of a true sphere. In the chimpanzee, orang, +and gibbon this part of the humerus is always a +segment of a sphere, while in man its form is +not equally invariable. Aeby further observes that +the transverse-cycloidal form of the head of the +humerus in the gorilla justifies the inference that +this animal, in the use of its fore-limbs, is accustomed +to turn them transversely on their axis. But +the direct observation of a living anthropoid, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> +well as the examination of its dead body, make it +clear that the action of the ball and socket is remarkably +free, and this theoretical surmise is contradicted +by the perfection of the natural mechanism.</p> + +<figure id="i_40" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 11.5em;"> + <img src="images/i_p132.jpg" width="776" height="2150" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 40.—Human skeleton.—<i>a</i>, Parietal bone. + <i>b</i>, Frontal bone. <i>c</i>, Cervical vertebræ. <i>d</i>, Sternum. + <i>e</i>, Lumbar vertebra. <i>f</i>, Ulna. <i>g</i>, Radius. + <i>h</i>, Carpus. <i>i</i>, Metacarpus. <i>k</i>, Phalanges. <i>l</i>, Tibia. + <i>m</i>, Fibula. <i>n</i>, Tarsus. <i>o</i>, Metatarsal bones. + <i>p</i>, Phalanges. <i>q</i>, Patella. <i>r</i>, Femur. + <i>s</i>, Os innominatum. <i>t</i>, Humerus. <i>u</i>, Clavicle.</p> + </div> + <div> </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure id="i_41" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 13em;"> + <img src="images/i_p133.jpg" width="831" height="2048" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 41.—Skeleton of an aged male gorilla. + <div> </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The excessive curvature of the forearm which we +notice in the gorilla and the chimpanzee in their +natural condition is rare in man, and when it does +occur it must be regarded as an abnormal and +pathological phenomenon.</p> + +<p>The orang-utan always displays a ninth carpal +bone, corresponding to de Blainville’s <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os intermedium</i> +and Gegenbaur’s <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i>. In a very young +animal I found that this small bone was furnished +with a peculiar point of ossification. The bony +structure of the wrist is developed in the following +succession:—First, the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os magnum</i> and unciform +bones; second, the scaphoid bone; third, the +trapezium; fourth, the semi-lunar bone; fifth, the +cuneiform bone; sixth, <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i>; seventh, +the trapezoid bone. The pisiform bone and the +sesamoid bone, between the trapezium and the scaphoid +bone, of which we shall speak presently in +their relation to the muscular system, are at first +simply cartilaginous.</p> + +<p>Up to this time my search for this ninth carpal +bone in the gorilla and the chimpanzee has been fruitless, +since its occurrence is only exceptional. In the +gibbon it is plainly inserted between the scaphoid, +semi-lunar, trapezoid, and <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os magnum</i>. Gegenbaur +considers the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> to be a true constituent of +the wrist, dating from an earlier condition, but he +has nothing to suggest as to its subsequent survival.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> +Rosenberg has lately given an incontestable proof +of the presence of this bone in the human embryo. +It is generally absorbed again, but sometimes it +persists, and may be found in an adult as a well-formed +ninth carpal bone. Cases of the persistence +of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> in man have been chiefly collected +and published by the diligence of the Russian +anatomist, Gruber. It is now suggested that there +may also be indications of <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> in the carpus +of embryos of the gorilla and chimpanzee, but up +to this time materials for such researches have been +wanting.</p> + +<p>I cannot accept the theory that <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale carpi</i> +is merely a detached portion of the scaphoid bone. +In a very young chimpanzee this bone is undoubtedly +superficially indented with two transverse furrows, +but the three segments display only one uniform +development of bone. The distinct formation of <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os +centrale</i>, and its occasional appearance in man, testify +that it has an independent existence. Rosenberg +holds that this bone is not merely the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os centrale</i> of +mammals, but that it is homologous with the two +<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ossa centralia</i> of the fossil <i class="taxonomy">Enaliosauria</i>. It has +become abortive in proportion to the reduction in +size which has taken place.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> There would be no +great difficulty in tracing back this bone to remote +types of vertebrate animals, even as far as the +<i class="taxonomy">Urodela</i> (Wiedersheim) of Eastern Asia.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> The persistence +of this bone in man must be regarded as +a reversion, not as an arrest, of development.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> + +<figure id="i_42" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 14em;"> + <img src="images/i_p136.jpg" width="732" height="1073" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 42.—Skeleton of human hand, back view. <i>a</i>, Scaphoid bone. + <i>b</i>, Semi-lunar bone. <i>c</i>, Cuneiform bone. + <i>d</i>, Pisiform bone. <i>e</i>, Trapezium. <i>f</i>, Trapezoid bone. + <i>g</i>, Os magnum. <i>h</i>, Unciform bone. + <i>l-l′</i>, Metacarpal bones. <i>m-m′</i> and <i>nn</i>, Phalanges.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>On the femur of several mammals, especially in +the horse, ass, rhinoceros, and tapir, and more slightly +indicated in the carnivora and other families, there +is, in addition to the two great and small trochanters, +a third, termed by Waldeyer <i lang="la" class="anatomy">trochanter tertius</i>.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> +Such a formation, low, blunt, and generally placed +at the top of the outer ridge of the superior bifurcation +of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, may be observed in human +skeletons of all races, but is either absent in anthropoids +or only faintly indicated. Virchow justly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> +regards its presence as theromorphic, but not as +a characteristic of savage or lower races.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p> + +<p>The human tibia displays in some instances a +compression or lateral flattening of its shaft or +centre-piece, so that its transverse diameter is quite +out of proportion to its depth. Such a tibia is +termed sword-bladed, or platycnemic. Bones of +this form have been chiefly discovered in ancient +deposits, as, for instance, at Gibraltar, at Perthi-Chwareu, +in Wiltshire, in Lozère, at Clichy, at +Saint-Suzanne (Sarthe), and especially at Cro-Magnon +(<a href="#i_43">Fig. 43</a>), Janischwek, etc.</p> + +<p>A similar formation has also been observed among +men belonging to cultured races, both of ancient +and modern times. Virchow, for example, discovered +such bones in Transcaucasia (of the third +and fourth century of the Christian era) and at +Hanai-Tepe in Troas. All the large schools of +anatomy in Europe contain specimens of tibiæ, +which are to some extent platycnemic. These are +also observed in the skeletons of primitive peoples +of our time, as for example in the Negritos, Kanakas, +and other African races. While some scientific men +regard these bones as the result of an unhealthy +condition, and the effect of rachitis, others more +justly ascribe them to a vigorous exercise of the +muscles in a one-sided direction. The idea expressed +by Busk and others, that the platycnemic tibiæ +discovered in ancient sites of Europe have belonged +to a degraded race diffused over the whole continent,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> +is contradicted by the wide diffusion of this characteristic, +even in modern times. And it is doubtful +whether platycnemy is absolutely restricted to the +lower races. At Janischewek, Virchow found an +extremely platycnemic tibia, exhumed from a kujawish +grave of the Stone Age, which belonged to +a skull remarkable for its unusual beauty and size, +so that, taken by itself, the impression which it +gave to an anatomist was that of a highly organized +race.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p> + +<figure id="i_43" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <img src="images/i_p138.jpg" width="1039" height="509" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption width30"> + <div class="ilb lm1"> + <p>Fig. 43.</p> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Section through a platycnemic tibia from Cro-Magnon.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="ilb lm2"> + <p>Fig. 44.</p> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Section through the tibia of a male gorilla.</p> + </div> + </div> + <div class="ilb lm3"> + <p>Fig. 45.</p> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Section through the tibia of a male chimpanzee.</p> + </div> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It is important to remark that platycnemy has +been regarded as a pithecoid structure, and for this +reason the attempt has been made to establish the +degraded position of those peoples which are most +remarkable for platycnemy. But, as Boyd-Dawkins +has already observed, although the tibiæ of the +gorilla and the chimpanzee are to some extent +platycnemic, they are much less so than the platycnemic +bones of the human skeleton. The tibia of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> +a male gorilla in the College of Surgeons Museum +has an index width of 68·1, that of a female of 65·0, +while the index of the chimpanzee’s tibia is 61·1, +which is about the average of the tibias of Perthichwareu. +It is unnecessary to indicate the other +marked distinctions between the tibiæ of men and +apes; if platycnemy is to be regarded as genetic, it +must be admitted that man has in this particular +far exceeded apes.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> Neither the gorilla, the chimpanzee, +the orang-utan, nor even the baboon possesses +a tibia which is flattened in its upper or middle +part. In all these apes the middle of the bone is +more or less rounded, almost as if it had been rounded +by a turning-lathe. According to my experience, +the degree of platycnemy in anthropoids is subject +to certain variations. It appears to me to be least +marked in the aged male gorilla (<a href="#i_41">Fig. 41</a>), and in +the gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">syndactylus</i>), in which +latter animal the transverse section of the tibia +represents an almost equilateral triangle. The +platycnemy was more marked in an almost adult +female gorilla, still more decided in an aged male +chimpanzee, which came from the river Kiulu, and +again in an aged female chimpanzee. On the other +hand, the centre of the shaft of the tibia in another +aged male chimpanzee which came from Loango, +was rounded, and not platycnemic. In the tibia of +an adult orang-utan which I examined, the platycnemy +was very marked. But I agree with Boyd-Dawkins +in never having met with an anthropoid in +which the platycnemy is so considerable as it is,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> +for instance, in the Cro-Magnon tibia, and in another +found at Troy.</p> + +<figure id="i_46" class="figleft port clear" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 10em;"> + <img src="images/i_p140.jpg" width="466" height="1274" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 46.—Skeleton of the human + foot, seen from above. <i>a</i>, Astragalus. + <i>b</i>, Os calcis. <i>c</i>, Scaphoid + bone. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Cuneiform + bones. <i>g</i>, Cuboid bone. <i>h</i>, + Metatarsal bones. <i>ii</i>, Phalanges.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>If we give a cursory glance at the lower limbs of +apes, we see that all the same characteristics are +present in their tarsus that we +find in the human tarsus. In +each case there is an astragalus, +an <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os calcis</i>, a scaphoid +bone, three cuneiform bones, +and a cuboid bone. There are +undoubtedly several peculiarities +in which the tarsus differs +from the corresponding part +of the human foot. The first +metatarsal bone is joined to +the first cuneiform bone by +an articular facet which extends +from the back to the +sole of the foot. This joint +plays a part resembling that +of the thumb of the human +hand (see Figs. <a href="#i_20">20</a> and <a href="#i_46">46</a>).</p> + +<p>In Huxley’s opinion, the +hinder limbs of the gorilla +terminate in a true foot, with +a very movable great toe. It +is undoubtedly a prehensile +foot, but in no sense a hand. +It is a foot which does not +differ from the human foot in any essential characteristics, +but only in relative circumstances, in +the degree of flexibility, and in the subordinate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> +arrangements of its parts. Huxley adds that it +must not be supposed that he wishes to undervalue +differences which, however, he does not regard as +fundamental. They are important enough of their +kind, since in any case the structure of the foot +is in close correlation with the other parts of the +organism. Although it cannot be doubted that the +increased division of labour in man, which relegates +the function of support entirely to the legs and +feet, is a significant advance in structure; yet, regarded +as a whole from the anatomical point of +view, the points of agreement between the human +foot and that of the gorilla are much more striking +and significant than their differences.</p> + +<p>The differences in the foot of the orang are still +greater; in the very long toes and short tarsus, the +short great toe and the removal of the heel from the +ground, in the great obliquity of the joints which +connect the foot with the shank-bones, and in the +absence of a long flexor muscle to move the great +toe, the orang’s foot differs still more from that of the +gorilla than the latter differs from the human foot. +In some of the lower apes the hands and feet are still +further removed from those of the gorilla than in the +case of the orang. In the American apes the thumb +can no longer be opposed; in the ateles it is reduced to +a mere rudiment, covered with skin; in the sahius it +is bent forwards and provided with a curved claw like +the other fingers. In all these cases there is no doubt +that the hand differs more from that of the gorilla +than the gorilla’s hand differs from that of man.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> + +<p>Flower remarks that the chief distinction between +the foot of a man and an ape consists in the fact +that the latter is transformed into a prehensile +organ. The tarsal and metatarsal bones, and the +phalanges are of the same number in both orders, +and in the same relative position, only in the foot +of the ape the facet for articulation of the first cuneiform +bone with the great toe is saddle-shaped, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> +obliquely directed towards the inner or tibial side +of the foot. Thus, the great toe is separated from +the others, and so placed, that when it is bent, it +is directed downwards towards the sole, and is opposed +to the other toes, much more opposed to them +than is the case with the thumb of the human hand.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> +Owen also speaks of the characteristic transformation +of the great toe of an ape’s foot into a thumb, opposed +to the other toes, and adapted for grasping.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a></p> + +<figure id="i_47" class="figcenter port clear" style="max-width: 21em;"> + <img src="images/i_p142.jpg" width="1328" height="1394" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 47.—Coaita (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles paniscus</i>). + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>K. E. von Bär does not agree with Huxley in +considering that there is less difference between +man and the gorilla than that which exists between +different species of apes. “There are,” Von +Bär remarks, “differences of various kinds among +apes. In some the thumb is only a stump; in +others, as in the orang-utan, the fingers of the +hinder extremities are so long and curved that they +cannot be extended on flat ground; in many of the +smaller apes this member is still more like a hand +than in the larger species, and the fingers can be +easily spread out on the ground. In this case the +foot is of a much blunter form, and is more flexible, +so that the sole, which is properly turned inward, +can lie flat on the ground. The heavier the body of +the animal, the more sharply cut the structure of the +foot must be, so that it does not admit of the free +movements which are possible in the hand. But +all these are only modifications of a climbing foot,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> +or prehensile member—that is, of a hand, not modifications +of a foot resting firmly on the ground and +supporting the whole weight of the body.</p> + +<p>“It must not be forgotten that the structure of +the skeleton is subject to mechanical laws, which +may be traced through the whole series of the +animal world. This is readily apparent when we +turn to the human structure.</p> + +<p>“The human foot rests for the greater part of its +length on the ground, that is to say, with the heel +and centre of the foot, which form together a firm +arch. The tarsus consists of the astragalus, and +also of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os calcis</i>, which in man form a very +prominent part, taking a backward and downward +direction, and of five other bones. The metatarsus +consists of five bones, on which the five toes are +inserted. In man these metatarsal bones are considerably +longer than the separate phalanges. Thus, +the arch on which man is supported in an erect +position extends from the heel to the extremities +of the metatarsal bones. The several bones are +slightly movable, but they are so firmly connected +that they can diverge but little from each other, +unless muscular power is exerted. In order to press +the toes upon the ground, it is again necessary to +exert the muscles. The arched instep has this advantage, +that the foot can take a better hold of the +slight inequalities of the ground. In a profile view +of the skeleton of a human foot, the shortness of +the toes, in comparison with the length of the +arched instep, is very apparent. In any natural +position, even when man is not walking or standing,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> +the sole of the foot is not turned inwards, but downwards.... +The toes of the gorilla take the form +of a hand, since the great toe stands separate like a +thumb, while the other toes are turned outwards. In +the gorilla the tarsus is short, and the heel is bent +inwards. The several bones of the human foot are +undoubtedly present in the hind hand of a gorilla, +but the organ is changed into a prehensile organ or +hand. The conditions are the same as in the parts +of the mouth in insects which in some cases form +movable mandibles, while in others they are attenuated +into a proboscis. When it is asserted that +apes are not quadrumanous, it is as if we were to +say that flies have no proboscis, but attenuated +mandibles.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p> + +<p>All apes, including anthropoids, occasionally +make use of their hinder extremities in order to +snatch at objects. They also grasp with them in +climbing. On such occasions, when they wish to +secure the fruit they have seized from the voracity +of their fellows, they take it between the toes of one +hinder extremity, in order to be able to get away +more quickly by means of the other, and by the +use of both hands.</p> + +<p>From what we have said, it will be seen how +difficult it is to reconcile the views of different +observers with respect to the fitting term to be +given to the hinder extremities of apes. Against +those who uphold the designation of <em>hind hands</em> we +must oppose the anatomical structure, and also the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> +fact that a true hand ought to possess the power of +rotation in a degree which exists in the fore, but +not in the hind, extremities of apes. On this account +I have already adopted, as more suitable and equally +distinctive, the term of <em>prehensile foot</em> for this +member.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> I agree with Haeckel in rejecting the +common designation of apes as four-handed or +quadrumanous.</p> + +<p>The bands or ligaments which connect the different +parts of the anthropoid skeleton together, +and convert the detached elements into a movable +machinery, do not on the whole differ much from the +same structure in man. A detailed account of these +ligaments would, for several reasons, be out of place +in this work, and I shall only mention a few special +and more interesting distinctions. Such, for example, +is the uncommon strength of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum +nuchæ</i> in the gorilla, which is quite in harmony with +the great development of the spinous processes of +the upper cervical vertebræ, and with the flattening +of the squamous occipital portion. Since the sacral +vertebræ are deeply inserted between the high ilia, +the ilio-lumbar ligaments (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamenta iliolumbalia</i>) +and the sacro-iliac ligaments (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamenta iliosacralia</i>) +are of considerable size. In agreement with the +projection in a downward direction of the high, +narrow ischial bones, the sacro-sciatic ligaments +which extend between these and the sacrum are +very long in the chimpanzee. Although in this case +the ischial spine is only represented by a roughness +of the bone, yet there is on either side between this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> +and the sacrum a powerful lesser sacro-sciatic ligament +(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum spinoso-sacrum</i>).</p> + +<p>The well-known anatomist, J. F. Meckel, has +asserted that the depression in the head of the +femur (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">fovea capitis</i>), which serves for the insertion +of the round ligament (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum teres</i>), is absent +in the chimpanzee and orang, and he adds that +it is also absent in the gibbon. In a skeleton of +a young chimpanzee which had not shed its milk-teeth, +and of which the ligaments were also preserved, +Welcker found a fully developed round +ligament inserted almost in the centre of the head +of the femur. This agrees in every particular with +the same formation in man. On the other hand, +no trace of a round ligament was to be found in +the hip-joint of a young orang-utan. The cartilaginous +envelope of the head of the femur was smooth +throughout, without any indication of a place for inserting +the ligament. Welcker again found no such +depression in the femur of an aged male orang-utan, nor +was there any trace of it in another aged male orang, +designated as <i class="taxonomy">Simia Morio</i>. Welcker believes that +he has established the fact that the round ligament +is wanting in the orang-utan, but that it is present +in the gorilla, chimpanzee, and gibbon. The same +naturalist remarks that, although we may certainly +assume that the round ligament is absent wherever +there is no depression in the head of the femur, yet +the existence of such a depression in the acetabulum +(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">fovea acetabuli</i>) is not enough to prove that a round +ligament was inserted in it. The innominate bones +of an adult orang-utan were examined by Welcker,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> +and displayed a small, but well-defined depression, +as if destined for a receptacle for this ligament,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> +running from the cotyloid notch down to the bottom +of the acetabulum, between the two horns of the +semilunar-shaped articular cartilage.</p> + +<p>In a subsequent paper, Welcker states that the +absence of the round ligament in the orang-utan, +and its presence in the chimpanzee, had been previously +established by Camper and Owen.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> In +three specimens of orangs which he had obtained +immediately after death, Owen found that the +round ligament was imperfectly developed on both +sides. The chimpanzee differs from the orang in +possessing a depression on the head of the femur. +In the gorilla, as Owen observes, this depression +has almost the same depth and relative position as +in man. At Welcker’s request, Professor Dippel +ascertained the presence of the depression in the +femur of a gorilla skeleton which is preserved +in the natural history collection at Darmstadt. +St. George Mivart saw the skeleton of an orang in +which the femur was marked with a slight but +plainly indicated depression, just where the round +ligament is usually attached. Welcker thinks it probable +that in some specimens of the gorilla the +round ligament is only slightly developed, and that +in others it is altogether wanting. On several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> +femurs of gorillas, this naturalist observed only +doubtful traces of the depression in question. Duvernoy +found the round ligament fully developed in +the gorilla and chimpanzee. Vrolik failed to find +it in the orang-utan, but ascertained its presence in +the chimpanzee. Gratiolet and Alix saw that it was +fully developed in <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i>.</p> + +<p>In addition to these somewhat conflicting assertions, +I have myself observed, in the gorilla innominate +and femur bones examined by me, more or less +distinct indications of the depression which receives +the round ligament. The ligament itself has been +preserved with the body of a gorilla. The same +remark applies to the skeletons and bodies of chimpanzees. +In the case of the skeleton of an orang, +slight indications of a depression were observed on +the head of the left femur, and these indications +were absent in the femurs of other specimens. In a +large orang-utan which died in the Berlin Aquarium, +only short, filamentous tufts of streaky fibres were +apparent in the right acetabulum, and these were +intermingled singly or in groups with the cartilaginous +cells, somewhat resembling the cartilaginous +corpuscles of the synovial membrane. From these +facts we may conclude that the round ligament is +generally but not invariably present in the gorilla +and chimpanzee, and that it is altogether absent in +the orang-utan. In the gibbon it is present in the +majority of cases. I have myself observed it in +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">leuciscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">syndactylus</i>. Owen +asserts that the unsteady gait of the orang is partly +due to the absence of this ligament, but the truth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> +of this surmise is rendered doubtful by the fact that +the ligament is not unfrequently absent in other +anthropoids. Moreover, the gait of all these arboreal +and climbing animals is extremely ungainly.</p> + +<p>The muscular system of anthropoid apes is very +interesting. I must necessarily refrain from giving +a detailed account of it, and will only mention +some points in connection with this organic system, +and their relation to corresponding points in the +muscular system of man. I rely partly on the +researches of others, and partly on my own. The +amount of material which has been collected up +to this time is, unfortunately, too scanty to enable +us to draw satisfactory conclusions in all cases. +We are often unable to decide whether the conditions +presented to us in the case of anthropoids +are normal or exceptional. Nor are the statistics of +muscular variations in the human subject by any +means firmly established. My own labours in this +direction are not yet concluded. The assertions on +the subject which have been published to the world +and accepted as authoritative have already been +shown to be to some extent untrustworthy. Even +the little which I am now able to produce may not +altogether stand the test of subsequent research. +Brühl justly remarks that in no department of +anatomy more than in that which treats of the +muscles, is it more essential that we should not +decide whether a form is normal or exceptional until +it has been repeatedly examined.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p> + +<figure id="i_48" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <img src="images/i_p151.jpg" width="731" height="910" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 48.—Muscles of the head and face of a European. 1, 1′, Occipito-frontalis. + 2, 3, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator labii superioris + alæque nasi. 6, Compressor naris. 7, Levator labii superioris. 7′, Zygomaticus + minor. 8, Levator anguli oris. 8′, Zygomaticus major. 9, Orbicularis oris. + 9′, Levator menti. 9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 10, Depressor anguli oris. + 11, Masseter. 12, 13, Risorius and the buccinator by which it is covered. + 15, Trapezius. 16, Attrahens. 17, 19, Attollens. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, + Sterno-mastoid. 22, Splenius. A. Tendinous aponeurosis. C. Malar bone (the + parotis is removed). F. Skin of neck.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The cranial muscles of anthropoids are formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> +like those of men, except in a few unimportant particulars +(comp. Figs. <a href="#i_48">48</a> and <a href="#i_50">50</a>). I have not observed +in anthropoids the muscular fibres which in man +branch out from the orbicular muscle of the eye, +and overlap the cheeks and temples, and which are +considerably developed in the head of a Monjalo +negro which was dissected by me (<a href="#i_49">Fig. 49</a>, <span class="subnum">3</span>, <span class="subnum">3′</span>). In +apes that portion of the orbicular muscle which +covers the supra-orbital ridge is very marked. +There is generally a considerable layer of muscle +on the nose and upper lip. I have dissected it in +detail in anthropoid and other apes, including those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> +of America; <i>i.e.</i> the zygomatic muscles, the levator +labii superioris, and the levator labii superioris +alæque nasi. This has also been done by Duvernoy, +Alix, and Gratiolet, in the case of anthropoids +dissected by them, as well as by Macalister and +Bischoff.</p> + +<figure id="i_49" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 24em;"> + <img src="images/i_p152.jpg" width="914" height="895" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 49.—Head-muscles of a Monjalese negro. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis. 3, 3′, + Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 4′, Levator labii superioris. 6, + Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 6′, Compressor naris. 7′, Levator anguli + oris. 8, 8′, Zygomatici major et minor. 9, Orbicularis oris. 9′, Levator menti. + 9″, Depressor labii inferioris. 9‴, Depressor anguli oris. 11, Masseter. 13, + Buccinator. 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, 18, Attollens and attrahens + aurem. 19, Embedded temporal muscle. 20, Retrahens aurem. 21, Sterno-mastoid. + 22, Deeply set muscles of neck. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. C, + Zygoma. E, Parotis. *, Stensonian duct.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Bischoff was only able to identify a wide zygomatic +muscle in the orang with the small zygomatic +in man. In the orang, the gibbon, and the baboon, +as well as in <i class="taxonomy">Innus sinicus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Ateles</i>, I myself was +quite able to trace a division into a large and small +zygomatic. In the gorilla dissected by me the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> +levator labii superioris alæque nasi was very wide +(<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">6</span>). In the case of a gorilla, Ehlers dissected +the small zygomatic muscle, together with +the levator labii superioris alæque nasi, in the +manner introduced by Henle as a single square +muscle of the upper lip (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus quadratus labii +superioris</i>). In the gorilla I observed a levator +alæque nasi, together with the already mentioned +levator labii superioris; but I failed to find any +separate levator labii superioris. The very wide +cartilage of the nose is occupied by a considerable +amount of muscular tissue. All these muscles are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> +present in the orang, but they are of small size and +separated into detached bundles. The pyramidalis +nasi may be traced in every instance, especially in +the gorilla (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">4</span>) and in the orang. It is not +so strongly developed in the chimpanzee and gibbon, +but is not absent in these apes, nor in those which +are not anthropoid, such as the baboon, and ateles, +or climbing ape.</p> + +<figure id="i_50" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <img src="images/i_p153.jpg" width="890" height="904" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 50.—Head-muscles of gorilla presented in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>. 1, 2, Occipito-frontalis. + 3, 3′, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 4, Pyramidalis nasi. 5, Levator alæ nasi. 6, + Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 7, Zygomaticus minor. 7′, Levator + anguli oris. 8, Zygomaticus major. 9, 9′, Orbicularis oris. 10, Risorius. + 11, 16, Masseter. 1′, Buccinator. 12, Depressor anguli oris. 13, Buccinator. + 14, Platysma. 15, Trapezius. 17, Temporal. 18, 19, 20, Attrahens, attollens, + and retrahens aurem. 21, Lesser muscle of helix. A, Tendinous aponeurosis. + B, Cartilage of nostril. C, Zygoma. D, External ear. *, Stensonian duct.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>I myself follow the original division of the muscles +into those which belong to the nostril and upper +lip, in accordance with the principles of Duchenne, +Darwin, Gamba,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> and others, and I do so the more +readily, since it is impossible not to perceive the +manifold and lively mimetic action which takes place +in this particular region of an ape’s head. The +distinct action of the levator labii superioris alæque +nasi, the dilation of the nostrils, the function of a +strongly developed levator anguli oris, are especially +characteristic of the gorilla; but they are also perceptible +in the chimpanzee and gibbon. The orang’s +face is the least mobile. I observed that in the +gorilla the risorius was very long, branching slightly +in the fore-part of the corner of the mouth, and +behind into three distinct wide bundles. The lowest +bundle covered the platysma myoides, but could +not be regarded as part of the latter. In one chimpanzee +I found that the risorius was slightly developed, +and in other animals of that species I failed +to trace it at all. Alix and Gratiolet represent the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> +Aubry chimpanzee (Plate ix. Fig. 1, <span class="subnum">15</span>) with the +risorius strongly developed. I have not observed +this formation either in the orang or the gibbon, +but it was apparent in one of the ateles (<i class="taxonomy">Ateles +leucophthalmos</i>). In this case the muscle covered +the platysma myoides and Stenson’s duct, <i>i.e.</i> the +duct leading out of the parotid gland (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, *).</p> + +<p>For some time I was disposed to regard the risorius +of this ape as only a radiation of the platysma +myoides, but my opinion upon this point is again +shaken.</p> + +<p>In the gorilla a faint depressor anguli oris and an +equally faint depressor labii inferioris may be observed, +the latter partly covered by the large and +predominant orbicularis oris (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). In the chimpanzee +the two depressors are plainly apparent, and +in the gibbon the one first named was at any rate +developed. The platysma myoides, the depressors +just mentioned, and the crescent-shaped orbiculares +are in this animal in close connection with each other. +Froriep’s suggestion becomes ever more probable, +that these muscles of the lower lip owe their origin +to the intersection of the opposite portions of the +skin-muscles of the neck which overlap the face. The +buccinator muscle in anthropoids resembles on the +whole that of man, and in both cases is pierced by +Stenson’s duct (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). The form of the masseter +muscle is common to both (see <a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">11, 16</span>). +In the external ear of anthropoids there is an attrahens, +attollens, retrahens (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). Compared with +that of a white man, and still more with that of +a negro (see Figs. <a href="#i_48">48</a>, <span class="subnum">19</span>, and <a href="#i_49">49</a>, <span class="subnum">17</span>), the attollens is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> +only slightly developed. The muscles attached to the +cartilages of the ear are extremely scanty or partially +wanting, which is also sometimes the case with man. +The muscles of the helix are most strongly marked +in the gorilla (see, for example, <a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">21</span>). Tiedemann, +Bischoff’s brother-in-law, carefully observed +two living chimpanzees in Philadelphia for six +months without detecting any movement of the +ears. My own observation confirms his assertion +and the remarks of Darwin, which I have already +quoted, to the effect that anthropoids are incapable +of moving their ears. I know of no individual +exceptions. This is the more remarkable since +some men have retained the power of voluntarily +moving their ears, and the same power is also found +in some species of apes, such as the sea-cats, baboons, +macacas, and magots.</p> + +<p>It will not here be out of place to say something +of the characteristics, previously mentioned, of the +physiognomical expression of anthropoid apes. Thus, +for example, when the gorilla is agitated, he can +move the skin of his head and bristle the hair which +covers this region. The chimpanzee can also move +the skin of the head, but with no very apparent +bristling of the hair. The large male orang, which +was in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, bristled his +hair and the skin of his head when he was much +enraged. It is known that in some instances man +also possesses this power.</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the expression of the +eyes of these animals. I will only add that when +anthropoids of every species are in great pain or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> +seriously ill, the expression of their eyes is often +most affecting.</p> + +<p>The forehead of these animals is frequently +marked by transverse furrows, and especially, as +Darwin justly observes, when they raise their eyebrows. +The same great observer considers that the +countenances of anthropoids are, in comparison with +those of men, generally inexpressive, and indeed, +chiefly in consequence of the fact that they do not +wrinkle the forehead when they are excited. The +wrinkling of the forehead, which is one of the most +significant forms of expression in man, is due to +the action of the corrugatores supercilii, by which +the eyebrows are drawn down and closer to each +other, so as to form vertical folds on the forehead. +It has been asserted that the orang and chimpanzee +possess these muscles, but they seem to be +rarely exercised—at any rate, to any remarkable +extent.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> When Darwin brought a chimpanzee +out of his dark chamber into bright sunshine, +he only once observed a slight wrinkling of the +forehead. When the same observer tickled the +nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, its face was +slightly wrinkled, and faint vertical furrows appeared +between the eyebrows.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> Darwin never observed any +wrinkling of the forehead in an orang. I myself +have observed a contraction of that region of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> +brows which is covered with bristly hairs, and a +wrinkling of the skin which covers the bridge of +the nose in the gorilla and the chimpanzee, and +have illustrated this expression by a drawing.</p> + +<p>Darwin goes on to say that when a young chimpanzee +is tickled, to which, as in the case of children, +their armpits are peculiarly sensitive, he generally +utters a chuckling or laughing sound, although +sometimes the laugh is silent. The corners of the +mouth are then drawn back, and this sometimes +causes the eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. This +wrinkling, which is so characteristic of the human +laugh, is still more apparent in some of the other +apes. In the chimpanzee the teeth of the upper +jaw are not exposed when he utters this laughing +sound, and in this respect he differs from man. +Darwin further observes that when the tickled +young orang ceases to laugh, an expression passes +over his face, which, according to Wallace, may be +called a smile. Darwin has observed something +similar in the chimpanzee.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p> + +<p>My own observation confirms what has been said +of the chuckling of a tickled chimpanzee. When +Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin Aquarium, +played with the chimpanzee which was kept in that +establishment, a contortion of the corner of the +mouth, resembling a somewhat sardonic smile, at +once appeared. No specimen displayed this smile +with so much effect as the lively Augustus, who +delighted visitors by his inexhaustible humour in +1879. The gorilla, of which an illustration is given<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> +in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>, also drew down the corner of his mouth +when he was pleased, by means of the muscular +system which we have just described.</p> + +<p>When the gorilla is provoked, he displays both +rows of teeth, and opens his mouth to utter sounds +of fury, while making ready to fight. It is well +known that anthropoids are able to pout and project +their lips; and Darwin says that they do this, not +only when they are slightly teased, and are sullen +or disappointed, but also when anything occurs to +make them uneasy.</p> + +<p>I have often observed in chimpanzees a slight +wrinkling of the region of the nasal cartilage, and +even a vibration in a lateral and upward direction. +In any case, the muscles which we have described +as acting on the nose and upper lip are exercised.</p> + +<p>The platysma myoides, which extends in man from +the lower row of teeth to just below the clavicle, +occupies about the same area in the gibbon and in +other apes (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>). In the chimpanzee, however, +this muscle extends as high as the zygomatic arch, +or even higher. In the gorilla also I observed that +this part extends comparatively high on the face. +In chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons the upper +fibres of this muscle seem to form the risorius. +In one case the platysma myoides sent forth a +fasciculus, about 18 mm. in width, to the beginning +of the lower temporal ridges. In the gorilla +I saw that the uppermost fibres of the platysma +myoides were partly covered by the risorius (Fig. +50, <span class="subnum">10</span>).</p> + +<p>From the corresponding muscle in the orang the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> +lower fibres tend far backward, and are in connection +with the deltoid muscle covering a segment of the +capsular ligament. This muscle wrinkles the skin +of the neck, and helps to draw down the lower jaw. +In cases in which it extends far in an upward direction, +as in those we have cited, it affects the lateral +extension of the middle and lower skin on the faces +of these animals, as well as the grinning contortion +of the corner of the mouth. It may also have to do +with the grumbling sound issuing from the throat-pouch, +which is uttered by the animal when agitated, +as he rapidly opens and closes his mouth.</p> + +<p>The strong sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle found in +these animals, and especially in the orang and +gibbon, can be divided without difficulty into a +sternal and clavicular portion. The two portions +diverge from each other in a downward direction. +As Bischoff justly states, a muscle not hitherto observed +in man may be traced in all four species of +anthropoids, a muscle which extends from the external +part of the clavicle to the transverse process +of the first cervical vertebra. Bischoff has called it +the musculus omocervicalis. It is found in other +apes, although the site of its origin varies, sometimes +occurring on the spine of the scapula. Our +Munich anatomist differs from Huxley in regarding +this muscle as “a brilliant proof of the relation of +all apes with each other.” I give this assertion +without further comment.</p> + +<p>The muscles which extend between the head, +sternum, and clavicle, together with the muscles of +the acromion process of the scapula, make an external<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> +covering to the throat-pouch, which I shall +describe presently. The pectoralis major of the +gorilla, as well as that of man, divides into two +portions, one attached to the clavicle, the other to +the cartilages of the true ribs. The former is divided +from the deltoid by a wide interval, filled with +connective tissue and fat. But both portions of +the pectoralis major are divided by a tolerably +wide space, into which, in Bischoff’s opinion, the +throat-pouch is inserted. This, however, I do not +believe, since that organ would be compressed and +strangulated between the two portions of muscle +whenever they were exercised. It may, however, +be supposed that room for an enlargement of the +throat-pouch when the animal is bellowing is +afforded by the existence of these spaces. Bischoff +is right in the assertion that the clavicular portion +of the pectoralis major is wanting in the orang-utan. +The upper part of this muscle springs +directly from the sternum. The lower sternal ribs +give origin to the pectoralis minor. The chimpanzee +and gibbon display clearly in this muscle +the separation we have mentioned into a clavicular +and a sternal portion.</p> + +<p>The structure of the pectoralis minor in these apes +is full of interest. In the gorilla it divides into an +upper portion of firmer tissue, less easily separable +into digitations, which arises from the third to the +fifth ribs, and a lower portion, separable into three +digitations, of which the upper segment laps considerably +over the lower segment of the upper portion. +In the chimpanzee an upper portion of less firm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> +texture extends from the second to the fourth, and +a lower with three digitations from the fourth to the +seventh ribs. This second lower portion is sometimes +absent. I have seen the upper portion attached to +the coracoid process of the scapula, and the lower +portion to the ridge of the greater tuberosity of the +humerus. In the orang an upper portion, separable +into three digitations, extends from the second to +the fifth ribs, and is attached to the coracoid process. +A lower portion, also separable into three digitations, +extends from the fifth to the seventh ribs, and is +also attached either to the greater tuberosity of the +humerus or to its edge; this latter portion projects +below over the pectoralis major. In the gibbon +(<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>), the upper portion starts from +the second, the lower from the third to the fifth +ribs. It may here be remarked that the pectoralis +minor is in man also sometimes separable into digitations, +which may be connected both with the coracoid +process and with the capsular ligament of the +shoulder-joint. In anthropoids the tendon of insertion +of this muscle is remarkably slender.</p> + +<p>According to Duvernoy, in the gorilla a fibrous, +hood-like fascia covers the whole region of the occiput +and neck. In adult males this fascia is 20 mm. +in thickness. In a female dissected by me the rudiments +of a similar hood-like cervical fascia were +present. Duvernoy is justified in supposing that +this is not yet developed in the young gorilla, and +that a layer of connective tissue and fat is substituted +for it. In a young gorilla I saw the trapezius +divided into distinct bundles of flesh by layers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> +fat (<a href="#i_50">Fig. 50</a>, <span class="subnum">15</span>). The fascia corresponds to the +great development of the trapezius, and the same +characteristic development exists in other anthropoids. +The adult male gorilla displays a powerful +<i lang="la" class="anatomy">ligamentum nuchæ</i> in connection with the long spinous +processes of the cervical vertebræ, as well as powerful +inter-spinales muscles, spinales colli, and semi-spinales +colli and dorsi. The great development +of the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ of +gorillas (<a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>), and also chimpanzees and orangs, +involve the development of powerful semi-spinales, +as well as of strong, fourfold spinales and inter-spinales +muscles. The whole of the fleshy formation +of the neck of an adult male gorilla which +is covered by the trapezius is very voluminous, and +especially the splenius capitis and colli, the long +cervical muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus longissimus cervicis</i>), and +the long head-muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus longissimus capitis</i>), +which have also been regarded by me as parts of +the long spinal extensor, and finally the oblique and +vertical muscles at the back of the head. With +Chappuy, I am disposed to regard the latter as +modifications of the spinales and inter-spinales.</p> + +<p>The levator anguli scapulæ is divided in anthropoids +as in man. The subclavius is slender, except +in the gorilla, and in the latter animal it sends a +tendon obliquely to the coracoid process.</p> + +<p>In all anthropoids the deltoid is strongly developed. +In the gorilla it projects forwards and +outwards in order to attach itself to the humerus, +almost in its centre. Here it is separated from the +brachialis anticus in a manner with which we are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> +only imperfectly acquainted. It extends nearly as +far in the gibbon and orang, while in the chimpanzee +its attachment is higher up. Bischoff observes, and +it was previously suggested by Vrolik, that in the +chimpanzee the coraco-brachialis muscle possesses +at its origin a moderately large second portion, +which tends downwards over the lesser tuberosity of +the humerus, and adheres to its edge. But I have +seen both portions of the muscle in question attached +to the coracoid process of the scapula in apes of +this species. In the gorilla, orang, and gibbon the +position of this muscle corresponds to that in man.</p> + +<p>Chapman and Bischoff speak of a muscle common +to all apes which starts from the tendinous attachment +of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i> on the edge of the lesser +tuberosity of the humerus, and tends downwards on +the inner side of the humerus, and to this muscle +they give the name <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimo-condyloideus</i>. Bischoff +goes on to say that this muscle goes in some cases +into the fascia which covers the biceps; and in +others, as in the baboon, it is attached to the inner +inter-muscular septum and to the internal condyle +of the humerus. In the gibbon it only extends as +far as the centre of the humerus, but in the orang it +reaches to the condyle, where it is pierced by the +ulnar nerve. Bischoff adds that this formation is +wanting in man.</p> + +<p>This structure is indeed remarkable in anthropoids. +The muscle starts in a lateral direction from +the insertion point of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>. In the +gorilla alone I observed that it started from the +coracoid process of the scapula, together with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> +two portions of the pectoralis minor; it was connected +for a space with the coraco-brachialis, and +finally it was attached, in the upper part of the lower +third of the humerus, to the inter-muscular septum +which is found between the brachialis anticus and +the triceps. In the chimpanzee, on the other hand, +it has its origin in the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>, and divides +into an anterior and posterior portion; the former is +attached to the inner condyle of the humerus, while +the latter is connected either with the middle or +inner head of the triceps. In the orang the same +division of this muscle may occur. In one of these +animals I observed an anterior portion, very thin and +semi-membranous, attached by an extremely slight +tendon to the coracoid process of the shoulder-blade, +while the hind portion issued from the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus +dorsi</i>. They were both in connection with the triceps +and brachialis anticus. In other instances the +muscle consisted only of the posterior portion, +issuing from the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>. In the white-handed +gibbon, the muscle issued from the region +in which the tendons of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i> and of +the teres major are united, and was inserted into +the fascia which is found between the bicipital and +the brachialis anterior. This attachment may also +occur in the centre of the shaft of the humerus. +Chapman and Chudzinsky have observed anomalous +instances of this formation in coloured races.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p> + +<p>It is well known that in man the biceps is inserted +into the tuberosity of the radius by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> +a flattened round tendon. This tendon, however, +opposite the bend of the elbow, gives off a broad +expansion, which passes into the fascia of the +forearm, and is termed <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Aponeurosis bicipitis</i>. In +the gorilla this aponeurosis is carried on as strong +fibrous bundles of the fascia of the forearm into +the palmar fascia. In the gibbon the short head +of the muscle does not always start from the lesser +tuberosity of the humerus, nor from the tendon of +the pectoralis major (Huxley), but sometimes from +the edge of the lesser tuberosity, which is here +connected with the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">latissimus dorsi</i>, as well as with +the sub-scapularis, the brachialis anticus, which is +more to the side, and with the triceps. In the +gibbon, as Bischoff justly observes, the supinator +longus only reaches as far as the centre of the radius, +instead of extending to the styloid process of that +bone, as it does in other anthropoids, and in man.</p> + +<p>The palmaris longus is wanting in the gorilla, +but not in other anthropoids. The long flexor +muscles of the fingers and the lumbricales resemble +those of man (Figs. <a href="#i_51">51</a>, <a href="#i_52">52</a>). The flexor longus +pollicis is absent in the gorilla. Duvernoy considers +that it is replaced by a tendon of the long +flexor of the fore-finger, but I have been unable to +verify the existence of this tendon. The same +muscle is also absent in the chimpanzee and the +orang, but it may be traced in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i>. +Chapman states that in the gorilla the pronator +radii teres only sends forth one head,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> but I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> +found it to be bicipital in animals of this species. +The lower or hinder head issues, as in man, from +the coronoid process of the ulna. Both in the +gorilla and in the chimpanzee it extends far in a +downwards direction on the radius (<a href="#i_52">Fig. 52</a>). The +flexor carpi radialis starts in the chimpanzee with +one head from the inner condyle of the humerus, and +with the other from the radius. Bischoff describes +the structure of the long abductor of the thumb in +the orang, the baboon, the <i class="taxonomy">pithecia</i>, and the <i class="taxonomy">hapale</i> +as resembling that of man. But in the gorilla, the +chimpanzee, and the macaca the tendon divides into +two parts. Nor does one tendon belong, as in man, +to a short extensor of the thumb, but the latter is +wholly absent, and the division of the tendon only +implies a continued division of the attachment to +the trapezium, as well as to the metacarpal bones of +the thumb. This division of the tendon also occurs +in the gorilla, which likewise possesses a short extensor +of the thumb. In this point, again, apes +display a greater likeness to one another than to man.</p> + +<figure id="i_51" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <img src="images/i_p168.jpg" width="744" height="1339" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 51.—Palmar muscles of man. <i>a</i>, Ligaments of wrist, especially the anterior + ligament. <i>c</i>, <i>c′</i>, Sheathing ligaments. <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, Oblique fibres of the ligaments + of the sheath of the flexor tendons. 1, 2, Tendons flexor sublimis, and of the + flexor profundus muscles of the fingers. 3, The reciprocal perforation of these + tendons. 4, Continuation of the tendons of the flexor profundus of the fingers. + 5, Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 6, Abductor pollicis. 7, 8, 9, Flexor + brevis, adductor, and opponens pollicis. 10, 11, 12, Flexor brevis, abductor, + and opponens minimi digiti. 13, Lumbricales. 14, First dorsal inter-osseous + muscle.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>According to my own researches, the long abductor +of the thumb in anthropoids forms a muscle not +more considerable than one in proximity with it, of +which the origin and more central direction recall +the short extensor of the human thumb. In all +four species I found that the abductor had two +tendons, and was attached to the trapezium. The +muscle in its vicinity is inserted above the base of +the first metacarpal bone. I have not been able to +discover an extra extensor of the thumb in the +gorilla. The question now arises what we should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> +think of the second muscle, which is found in these +animals in the vicinity of the abductor. In my +opinion, it may be confidently accepted as a short +extensor of the thumb, since it always effects an +extension of the metacarpal bone of that member,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> +and in this act of extension it is supported by the +long extensor which acts upon the phalanges. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> +must be remembered that the comparatively short +thumbs of anthropoids have not to be employed in +so many different ways as the human thumb, and +that we cannot therefore be surprised that the development +of the short extensor is less complete. +A special extensor muscle of the index finger is +either altogether absent in the gorilla or very +slightly developed, while it is very apparent in +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> (<span class="subnum">6</span>, <a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>). In the chimpanzee +this muscle sends a tendon to the middle finger. +In the orang there is one extensor common to the +four fingers. In the gibbon’s hand, this, as well as +the other extensor and flexor muscles, is remarkable +for its excessive slenderness. The manifold +connections of the extensor tendons with each other +are an interesting peculiarity (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_52" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 16em;"> + <img src="images/i_p169.jpg" width="845" height="1535" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 52.—Palmar muscles of gorilla. <i>a</i>, Anterior ligament. <i>b</i>, Remains of the + skin of palm, here covered with a very sinewy skin. <i>c</i>, <i>f</i>, Oblique fibres of + the ligaments of the sheath of the flexor tendons of fingers. 1, 2, Flexor + tendons. 3, Spaces between the heads of the flexor brevis pollicis, whence + in man the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis issues (comp. <a href="#i_51">Fig. 51</a>, <span class="subnum">5</span>). + 4, 3, 3′, 5, Abductor, flexor brevis, abductor pollicis. 6, 7, 8, Opponens, flexor + brevis, abductor, minimi digiti. 9, Dumbricales. 10, Supinator longus. 12, + Flexor sublimis digitorum. 13, Flexor minimi digiti. 14, Flexor carpi ulnaris.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the chimpanzee I observed a superficial flexor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> +common to the fingers, and enlarged in the region +of the third and little fingers. A superficial flexor, +belonging to the index finger, started from the +inner condyle of the humerus, and from the back of +the inter-muscular septum. The deep finger-flexor +was attached to the four fingers. In the orang the +first of these flexors forms a two-tendoned belly +for the index finger, as well as one for the other +three fingers. The deep flexor only displayed two +bellies. In the gibbon, on the other hand, the +superficial flexor displays four bellies.</p> + +<figure id="i_53" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_p170.jpg" width="996" height="602" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 53.—Muscular system of the back of a gibbon’s hand. 1, The extensor carpi + radialis longior and brevior. 2, Abductor longus pollicis. 3, Extensor primi internodii + pollicis. 4, Extensor secundi internodii pollicis. 5, Extensor communis + digitorum. 6, Extensor indicis. 7, Extensor minimi digiti. 8, Extensor carpi + ulnaris. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous muscle. 10, Continuation of the same + to index finger. 11, 12, The other inter-osseous muscles of this region. A, The + posterior annular ligament.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the carpus of the chimpanzee there is, so far at +least as my experience goes, a so-called sesamoid +bone. It is in this instance in connection with +the scaphoid and trapezium bones, just where the +fibres of the anterior and posterior ligaments of the +wrist pass into each other. In the chimpanzee the +tendon of the long abductor muscle of the thumb +sends some fibres into this sesamoid bone, while the +other fibres of the tendon of this muscle, which +divides into several strips, are inserted in the +trapezium bone, and a few also in the base of the +first metacarpal bone.</p> + +<p>The short flexor muscle of the thumb, of which +Bischoff has denied the existence, is certainly +present in these animals. In the chimpanzee the +lower fibres of the short abductor muscle of the +thumb have their origin in the sesamoid bone. +The middle fibres, of the same muscle issue from +the strips of ligament attached to the sesamoid +bone. On the other hand, the upper part of the +muscle has its origin in the anterior annular ligament.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> +In the orang, the lower fibres of the short +abductor of the thumb likewise have their origin +in the sesamoid bone, while the central fibres +again start from the anterior annular ligament. +The upper fibres are strong, and are inserted into +the base of the first metacarpal bone. In a dissection +of the orang the flexor longus pollicis sent +a thin, tendinous expansion on to the bone. This +sesamoid bone is also found in the gorilla, although +Duvernoy and Rosenberg do not appear to be aware +of its existence.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p> + +<p>In the palm of the gorilla’s hand there is a short +abductor, a short bicipital flexor, an opponens, and +an abductor of the thumb. The longer belly +of the short flexor extending in a more radial direction, +and in connection with the opponens, is only +slightly developed. In the muscular system of a +gorilla’s little finger we may observe an abductor, +a short flexor, and an opponens. The palm of the +chimpanzee displays a short abductor, an opponens, +a short bicipital flexor, and an adductor of the +thumb; also an abductor, a short flexor, and an +opponens of the little finger. In the orang I observed +a short abductor, a short flexor with two bellies, +an opponens, and an adductor of the thumb. In +addition to the short flexor of the thumb, Langer +and Bischoff describe another short, independent +muscle, representing the long flexor, and attached +to the second phalanx, but I have not myself ascertained +the existence of this muscle. The same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> +anatomists mention an adductor between the third +metacarpal bone and the first joint of the thumb, +and another between the second metacarpal bone +and the second joint of the thumb, passing on into +the extensor tendon. I am myself convinced of the +existence of a twofold adductor, but not of the +fact that the tendon of one of the muscles (termed +by Langer the second opponens) passes on into the +extensor tendon. In the little finger of the orang +there is an abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. +In the gibbon there is a short abductor, a faintly +indicated opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an +adductor of the thumb. In <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> +this adductor divides into four or five portions, +which are attached to the whole of the first metacarpal +bone. In the little finger there is an +abductor, a short flexor, and an opponens. In the +same animal the first inter-osseous muscle is attached +by one portion to the second metacarpal bone, by +the other to the base of the second phalanx of the +index finger (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>, <span class="subnum">9</span>, <span class="subnum">10</span>).</p> + +<p>Bischoff has described the muscles which Halford +terms <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Contrahentes digitorum</i> (contractors of the +digits), which lie deep in the palm of the hands +and feet of the chimpanzee and gibbon, the mandril, +baboon, and other apes.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> They rest upon the inter-osseous +muscles, and are covered by the tendons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> +of the long flexors of the digits, as well as by the +lumbricales muscles. I have been unable to trace +these <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculi contrahentes</i> in the gorilla. In a female +chimpanzee I observed a <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus contrahens</i> for +the fourth, and another for the fifth finger, and the +same for the fourth and fifth toes. In the orang I +observed a <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus contrahens</i> for the fourth, and +one for the fifth fingers, and two faintly indicated +<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Contrahentes</i> for the fourth and fifth toes. Similar +muscles of the second, fourth, and fifth fingers, and +of the fourth and fifth toes, may be observed in +the white-handed gibbon.</p> + +<p>In correspondence with the height of the pelvic +bones, the gluteus maximus of these animals only +displays a moderate width in comparison with its +length. The tendon which attaches it to the +femur extends low down, almost as far as the knee-joint. +The gluteus medius and minimus are also +long, in correspondence with this structure of the +pelvis, although they are attached to the large trochanter, +and to the posterior inter-trochanteric line. +The climbing muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus scansorius</i>), which +extends between the hip-bone and the condyles of +the femur, was discovered by Troill in the chimpanzee, +and by Bischoff in the orang, and is described +by them as strongly made; it appears to be absent +in the gorilla and the gibbon. The pyriformis +generally forms portions of the neighbouring muscles. +The tensor vaginæ femoris, which is strong and wide +in most anthropoids, is either greatly reduced or +altogether absent in the orang. The sartorius is +not, as in man, attached to the inner surface of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> +tibia, just below the internal tuberosity, but it is +inserted much lower down on this surface. In the +gorilla it has a tricipital attachment, one to the +deep fascia of the thigh, and two others to the internal +border of the tibia. In the chimpanzee and +the gibbon the muscle extends equally low down. +In the orang it does not go so far, but the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">gracilis</i> +and <i lang="la" class="anatomy">semi-tendinosus</i> are in the same relative position. +The biceps of the femur is very apparent in the +orang; its long head divides in two parts, of which +the lower is inserted in the fibula, and is here united +with the short head.</p> + +<p>Bischoff at first denied the existence of the +plantaris in the chimpanzee, and Brühl had previously +done the same, but it is as normally present +in that animal as in man, in whom also it is sometimes +absent. I, however, as well as other observers, +have failed to discover it in the gorilla, orang, and +gibbon. The popliteus is developed in every instance. +The tibio-fibular muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus peroneotibialis</i>), +covered by the popliteus, of which the +existence was ascertained by Gruber, has not been +observed by me in any of the anthropoids, with the +exception of the chimpanzee. But it was very +apparent in a red sea-cat monkey (<i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus ruber</i>).</p> + +<p>The gastrocnemius, which is easily separable into +two heads, and the peroneal muscles have not +the same relative width in anthropoids and man, +since in the former case the calf of the lower limb +is small, and it lacks the pleasing roundness which +characterizes this part of the human structure. +These muscles, especially in the orang and gibbon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> +appear to take a lateral direction. The Tendo +Achillis is present, but it has not the prominent +development in height and width which we observe +in man. The long extensor, flexor, and tibial +muscles are in all cases fully developed. The +peroneus tertius, as it is termed, although it should +only be regarded as a part of the extensor longus +digitorum, is absent in anthropoids.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> I myself am +not disposed, with Huxley, Bischoff, and others, to +regard this muscle as an abductor. Brühl perceived +in a chimpanzee a fourth rudimentary peroneal +muscle (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Musculus peroneus intermedius</i>), extending +between the peroneus and the little toe, a muscle +sometimes found in man, and which I have myself +only observed in one adult chimpanzee. In the +gorilla and the chimpanzee the extensor longus +digitorum passes through a remarkably strong transverse +ligament, formed of fibrous cartilage, which +covers the tarsus. It acts upon the four outer toes +(<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>). Brühl has described the characteristic +contraction and extension of the tendons of the long +and short extensors of the toes in the chimpanzee, +but I have myself found some difficulty in producing +this action. In <a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a> I have endeavoured to represent +this condition in the most natural way. The extensor +proprius pollicis is in all cases developed. The +extensor brevis digitorum produces a large, oblique +belly for the great toe (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>). In the gorilla there +is for the great toe an abductor, a bicipital flexor, an +adductor, and an opponens (comp. <a href="#i_54">Fig. 54</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p> + +<p>From the extensor brevis digitorum the belly for +the great toe rises with a certain independence. +On the right foot of a chimpanzee I observed a fifth +belly of this muscle, going to the little toe (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>). +As my illustration is taken from this specimen, +I have represented the foot with, or in spite of, this +interesting anomaly, which, as we know, sometimes +occurs in man.</p> + +<figure id="i_54" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <img src="images/i_p177.jpg" width="1192" height="1208" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 54.—Muscular system of the human foot. 1, Tibialis anticus and extensor + proprius pollicis. 2, Extensor longus digitorum. 3, Tendon of peroneus tertius. + 4, 5, Peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. 4′, 5′, Tendons of the same. + 6, 7, Tendons of the extensor longus and extensor brevis digitorum.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The flexor brevis digitorum displays perforated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> +tendons, belonging to the second and third toes. +The flexor longus digitorum displays perforated +tendons for the fourth and fifth toes. The flexor +longus pollicis divides into two tendons, one of which +goes into the toe itself, while the other is connected +with the flexor longus digitorum, and displays perforated +tendons for the third and fourth toes, while +the perforated tendons of the second and fifth toes +have their origin in the other flexor.</p> + +<figure id="i_55" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 35em;"> + <div class="ibox" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_p178.jpg" width="790" height="1137" alt=""> + </div> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 55.—Muscles on the upper side of chimpanzee’s foot. 1. Tibialis anticus + muscle. 2, Extensor proprius pollicis. 3, Extensor communis digitorum. + 4, 5, Peroneus brevis and peroneus longus. 6, Tendon Achilles. 7, Extensor + brevis digitorum. 8, Slip of the same for great toe. 9, First dorsal inter-osseous + muscle. 10, Adductor pollicis. 11, Abductor minimi digiti.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the gorilla the lumbricales muscles of the foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> +are powerful. The first inter-osseous muscle is likewise +well developed and bicipital. There is a short +flexor and an abductor for the little toe. I have +not yet been able to assure myself of the existence +of an opponens for that toe. In the chimpanzee +the muscular system of the great and little toe +does not essentially differ from that which we +have described in the gorilla. The flexor brevis +digitorum forms the perforated tendons of the +second and third toes. The flexor longus digitorum +provides the fourth and fifth toes with perforated, +and the second and fifth toes with perforating, +tendons, while those which belong to the third +and fourth toes have their origin in the flexor +longus pollicis. As in the gorilla, the latter +muscle produces a fibrous investment for the tendons +of the flexor longus digitorum. In the orang there +is an abductor of the great toe, a very slightly +developed opponens, a short bicipital flexor, and an +adductor. One of the long flexors of the toes +appears to represent the flexor longus pollicis in +man. It provides the second and fifth toes with +perforating tendons, while those of the third and +fourth toes have their origin in the other flexor longus +digitorum. There is no long flexor tendon on the +great toe. The perforated tendons in this case +generally belong to the short flexor muscle. In +addition to the perforated tendons of the fourth toe, +there is the long flexor already described.</p> + +<p>In a gibbon’s great toe I observed an abductor, +a short bicipital flexor, and a slightly developed +opponens, to which a wide fan-shaped adductor is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> +attached. The first dorsal inter-osseous muscle +is, as in the same animal’s hand (<a href="#i_53">Fig. 53</a>), attached +to the first phalanx of the second toe. The flexor +longus digitorum provides the third and fourth +toes with perforating tendons, and also gives off +a tendon for the great toe. On the little toe +there is a remarkably slender perforating tendon. +While the first of the two long flexors represents +the human flexor longus pollicis, the flexor longus +digitorum is in this instance limited to the little +toe. In the gibbon, as well as in the orang, the +gorilla, and the chimpanzee, the two muscles are +connected together by an aponeurosis. It may be +here mentioned that in the human foot the flexor +longus pollicis occasionally gives off a flexor for the +second and even for the third toes. In the gibbon, +as Bischoff justly observes, a muscle covers the +flexor longus digitorum, which is still undivided, but +already enlarged. From this muscle perforated +tendons issue for the third and fourth toes. The +second toe is provided with such a tendon from the +flexor brevis digitorum. The muscle we have mentioned +seems to represent the Quadratus plantæ, +which is often developed in the other anthropoids, +although only to a slight extent. With respect to +the muscles of the small toe of the orang and gibbon, +I need only say that in the latter species the opponens +seems to be absent (<a href="#i_55">Fig. 55</a>).</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the foregoing account that, +in spite of several apparently important peculiarities, +in spite of great and manifold variations +which are established, even although our authorities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> +do not always agree together, the muscular system +of anthropoids is on the whole very like that of +man. It displays, especially in the lower limbs, +peculiarities of structure which render them capable +of walking in an upright position, and others again +which they have in common with the lower animals, +but on the whole the anthropoid characteristics of +the muscular system of these animals are predominant.</p> + +<p>The digestive system of anthropoids likewise +affords interesting points of comparison. The cavity +of the mouth is, as we have seen, bordered by large +and flexible lips. The mucous membrane of the +mouth and the gums are flesh-coloured; they +assume a darker colour in older animals, and are +then sometimes marked with spots of a bluish or +brownish grey. Ehlers describes, as a peculiarity +in the mucous membrane of the mouths of the +gorilla and chimpanzee, that there are what he calls +buccal folds, which pass on both sides from the fore +surface of the upper and lower jaw into the mucous +membrane of the cheeks, and are of the height of +the canine teeth.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> I have myself only observed +these folds in the gorilla, of which an illustration is +given in <a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>, and not in any other specimen. I +have observed scarcely any indications of these +folds in other anthropoids, and then only of such a +doubtful nature that I am not disposed to regard +the circumstance as of any special significance. +A small band on the upper and lower lips, sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> +only slightly developed, but always perceptible, is +present in all anthropoids.</p> + +<p>The tongue is small, and not provided at its base +with several great concave follicles as in man; these +are at least only faintly represented, and not easy +to observe. Around them there rise pock-like, +tufted warts, very close together, which in an aged +gorilla are apt to become hard and horny. These +are also prominent between the follicles of the +tonsils. The circumvallate papillæ of the tongue +are less numerous than in man, and often, especially +in the chimpanzee, they take the form of a cross, or +of the letter T, or in the gorilla of a V.</p> + +<p>The uvula and palate present no special variation +from the human type. On the hard palate there +are a number of folds, or rather swellings, which +extend laterally from the central suture of the +palate, towards the row of teeth in the upper jaw; +these are sometimes simple, sometimes complex, +and vary in their details in individual cases. +They are particularly marked in the adult chimpanzee, +and are also very apparent in the gibbon, +and they are arranged with a somewhat ornamental +regularity. These inequalities are not altogether +insignificant in the human palate, but this subject +has not been much studied since Gegenbaur directed +the attention of scientific men to them, and special +light has been thrown upon it by Bischoff and +Ehlers, as far as anthropoids are concerned.</p> + +<p>The teeth afford us important material for comparison. +In the case of anthropoids the formula for +the teeth of the slender-nosed or Old-World apes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> +(<i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i>) will generally apply: <i>i</i> 2/2 <i>c</i> 1/1 <i>p</i> 2/2 <i>m</i> 3/3. +The following is the formula for the milk-teeth: +<i>i</i> 2/2 <i>c</i> 1/1 <i>m</i> 2/2. Magitot and Giglioli<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> have shown +that the milk-teeth are cut in the same order as +those of man—first, the lower; second, the upper +incisor teeth; third, the front pre-molars; fourth, +the back pre-molars; fifth, the canine teeth. According +to the same authors, the permanent teeth are +cut in the following order:—first, the first molar +teeth; second, the lower, and then the upper incisor +teeth; third, the pre-molars; fourth, the canine +teeth; fifth, the second molar teeth; sixth, the +third molar teeth. In the skull of a male gorilla, +Giglioli found that the permanent canine teeth were +cut almost simultaneously with the third molar +teeth, and after the appearance of the second molar +teeth. The cutting of the canine teeth appears to +be a longer process than that of the other teeth.</p> + +<p>In anthropoids the structure of the permanent +teeth varies with the species, and even with the sex. +In the gorilla the two upper central incisor teeth are +wide, chisel-shaped, and much larger than the pair +of lateral incisors. The four lower incisor teeth +are of about the size of the upper lateral incisors, +and, like these, are chisel-shaped, but not so +wide. The powerful upper canine teeth of an aged +male are curved in their lower part, both outwards +and inwards. Their form is that of a three-sided, +cuneiform pyramid. The anterior surface is rounded, +and near its inner edge a deep furrow may be observed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> +extending from the neck of the tooth almost +to its point. The outer and inner sides of the +tooth meet in a sharp angle, somewhat convex in +front, and level or slightly concave behind. The +inner side is concave, and furnished, nearly in the +centre, with a deep longitudinal farrow. The lower +canine teeth of an aged male are shorter than the +upper, curved on their upper and outer surface, and +somewhat behind. Their form is also that of a +three-sided pyramid, rounded in front. The longitudinal +furrow which traverses their inner segment +is much shorter than that on the upper tooth. The +outer side is somewhat convex, and at the same time +somewhat retreating, and is provided on its posterior +segment with two longitudinal furrows, or more +rarely with one, reaching from the neck to about +the centre of the tooth. The inner side, like that +of the upper teeth, is somewhat concave. The lower +canine teeth project like pillars over the upper ones +(Figs. <a href="#i_15">15</a>, <a href="#i_16">16</a>). The canine teeth of a young male +gorilla are less sharp in their angles, although +they already present the form of a three-sided +pyramid. The canine teeth of the adult female +gorilla are much smaller than those of the adult +male, and are laterally more compressed. The +three-sided pyramidal form is only slightly marked. +The outer surface is convex and furnished with a +scarcely apparent central longitudinal ridge. On +the inner surface, or that which is turned to the +cavity of the mouth, there are from two to three +longitudinal furrows reaching from the neck to the +centre of the tooth. The lower teeth are of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> +three-sided, pyramidal form, presenting an interior, +posterior, and inner superficies.</p> + +<p>The pre-molars of an aged male gorilla are wide, +and are furnished with a large outer, and a smaller +inner, cusp. The three four-cusped upper molars +display a more regular and symmetrical arrangement +of their cusps than is the case with the +female, in which the position of the cusps is rather +variable. Except for the difference of size, the +relative conditions of these teeth are the same in +male and female. The first pointed lower pre-molars +are in the male of the form of a four-sided +pyramid, convex on the anterior and outer surface, +flat on the side directed to the cavity of the mouth, +and marked with furrows on the posterior surface. +The small second and lower pre-molars have two +anterior and one posterior cusp. The last is generally +worn away at an early age. Each molar tooth +has two outer and two inner cusps, opposite to each +other, and one posterior cusp. We cannot here fail +to notice the likeness to the conditions of the human +teeth, a likeness which is still more striking in the +female.</p> + +<p>In the chimpanzee, also, the upper central +incisor teeth are broadly chisel-shaped, while the +upper and lower lateral incisors are smaller. In +the male there is often a considerable gap between +these and the canine teeth. The latter +present the form of a three-sided pyramid, of which +the anterior edge is blunt and tends outwards, while +the posterior angle is sharp, scooped out in its +upper third, and terminating at the base of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> +crown in a posterior cusp. The pre-molars have an +external and an inner cusp; the molars have two +external and two inner cusps, connected with each +other by their enamel. The lower canine teeth of +these animals are likewise of the shape of a three-sided +pyramid, of which the anterior angle is very +blunt, while the inner and posterior angles are +sharply cut. The anterior surface is not grooved +like the upper canine teeth. The lateral angle is +much rounded. The back teeth plainly display +the posterior fifth cusp, which may also be observed +in man. In the orang-utan the characteristics of +the upper incisors are such as we have described in +the case of other anthropoids. The upper canine +teeth are shaped like a three-sided pyramid, and +are furnished with a longitudinal furrow on the +anterior side. A similar furrow is found on the posterior +superficies of the lower canine teeth. The +back teeth display no special characteristics when +compared with those of other anthropoids.</p> + +<p>The canine teeth of these anthropoids are much +worn down by age on their posterior surface. Deep +transverse grooves of varying size characterize the +teeth of anthropoids, owing to the unequal distribution +of the coating of enamel. These are developed +with their advancing growth. In addition to these +incised furrows, longitudinal marks, with raised +edges, also appear, and especially on the anterior +surface of the incisor teeth.</p> + +<p>In the gibbon the anterior surface of the incisor +teeth is smooth; in this animal the upper central +incisor teeth are the largest, while the lower central<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> +incisors are the smallest. The long and strong +upper canine teeth, which are laterally compressed, +display a sharp posterior angle, and an anterior and +inner longitudinal furrow.</p> + +<p>It has sometimes been said that the grooves +found on the external contour of the back teeth of +anthropoids, extending to their roots, constitute a +not unimportant distinction between their structure +and that of the human teeth, in which the grooves +do not extend to the roots. But the corresponding +human teeth do sometimes exhibit very deep and +extensive furrows. I cannot, therefore, ascribe any +peculiar significance to this assumed distinction. +The development of the canine teeth, like those +of beasts of prey, seems to me much more important. +A supernumerary back tooth may sometimes be +observed both in man and in anthropoids, including +also the gibbon.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> + +<p>The stomach and intestines of these animals present +only a few striking differences from the same +organs in man. The length of the intestines varies +in man as well as in anthropoids. I have only +observed the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">valvulæ conniventes</i> to be somewhat +clearly developed in the gorilla and the orang. The +cæcum of these apes is long, broad, placed with the +power of free movement in the peritoneum, and +furnished, especially in the case of the orang, with +a large, very long, and spirally coiled vermiform +appendix.</p> + +<p>The liver is divided into two principal lobes, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> +in the orang this division is not very clearly marked. +I have not myself observed a subdivision of these +lobes, occurring on their edges, which is mentioned +by Bolau and Auzoux in the case of the gorilla. +Bischoff notices in the gorilla the absence of the +H-shaped arrangement of the fissures on the under +surface of the liver, so noticeable in man; and the +same remark applies to other species of anthropoids. +Moreover, the fissures on this part of the liver are +not incised on the substance with the same uniform +depth. The gall-bladder of the gorilla and the +orang is not remarkable for its size; in the chimpanzee +I found that this organ is large and twisted, +and it is also large in the gibbon.</p> + +<p>The spleen is elongated in the gorilla, chimpanzee, +and gibbon, shorter and wider in the orang. +On its left contour it is uniformly bevelled off. There +is nothing in the pancreas which calls for remark.</p> + +<p>The larynx of anthropoids possesses on the whole +a structure resembling that of man. This is especially +the case at the entrance to that organ. +The anterior and specially vocal portion of the +glottis is short, about as long as the respiratory +portion. In the chimpanzee there is a deep cavity +in the body of the hyoid bone. In the gorilla, chimpanzee, +and orang the throat-pouches or air-sacs +correspond to Morgagni’s sacs. These are the thin-skinned +elastic sacs, closely united with their surroundings +by connective tissue. The right laryngeal +sac appears to be of larger diameter than the left. +According to Duvernoy’s and Ehlers’ accurate account +only the upper portion of this organ occurs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> +in the gorilla. In that animal, and in the orang, +a lower projection is displayed, extending behind +the sterno-mastoid as far as the shoulder, and +another extending to the pectoralis major muscle. +In the chimpanzee only the posterior segment is +developed. It has been asserted that in several +cases there is found a single, irregular laryngeal +sac, communicating with the two Morgagni sacs, +but I agree with Ehlers in thinking this improbable. +In such instances it seems likely that, owing +to the great want of symmetry in this organ, one +of the sacs has been overlooked. In an aged orang +the throat-pouches, fastened together by connective +tissue, and covered by the external skin of the +throat, hang down slackly and heavily over the +middle of the breast (see <a href="#i_9">Fig. 9</a>). According to +Sandifort, the siamang is the only one of the gibbons +which displays a single throat-pouch; while Broca +asserts that it has two detached sacs, placed close +to the larynx.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> The halves of the thyroid cartilage +are generally connected with each other by an +intermediate piece.</p> + +<p>The trachea of anthropoids generally includes from +sixteen to eighteen cartilaginous rings, but in the +siamang there are twenty-one. They ramify into +branches which are, as a rule, wider on the right than +on the left side.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> There is a further lateral ramification<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> +on the right side, situated above the artery. +Huxley and Ehlers hold that the lungs of a gorilla +are cleft like those of the human organism, the +right divided into three, and the left into two +lobes. I have myself observed this type, and +in one instance I found three lobes on the left. +In the chimpanzee I saw that the right lung was +divided into three, and the left into two lobes. +Bischoff observed an instance of a chimpanzee +which had four lobes on the right and two on the +left side. In an orang dissected by me I found +only one lobe on each side, with thin, slightly +indented notches on the anterior edges of the right +lobe, and two on the left, and there was at the same +time a strongly marked indentation between the +lobes. The lungs of a gibbon are described as +having four lobes on the right, and only one or two +on the left. I myself have examined a gibbon in +which there were three lobes on the right, and two +on the left. It appears that there are not unimportant +individual variations of this structure in +every species of anthropoids; and indeed, human +lungs are by no means exempt from them.</p> + +<p>The male sexual organs correspond on the whole +with the form and arrangement of these organs in +man. I must not omit to mention that the penis +of the swine-snouted baboon, and of other dog-headed +apes, is much more like the penis in man +than is the case with anthropoids, with the exception +of the gorilla. In the last-named animal the +scrotum is short and tightly stretched. The right +testicle is a little higher than the left, and is divided<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> +from it by a wide raphé. The internal female organs +are also like those of the human organism, with +only slight variations. Bischoff is correct in the +assertion that the external lips of the pudendum and +the mons veneris are almost wholly absent. Bolau, +Ehlers, and Hermes have ascertained that there is +a menstruation which occurs periodically, at any +rate in the case of the chimpanzee, and the other +species cannot be exempt from the process. At such +times there is a blush and enlargement of the +external parts, and a profusion of the external lips of +the pudendum, which are at other times scarcely +apparent. The nymphæ and the clitoris are of +considerable size and importance. There is often +an excessive enlargement and reddening of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> +parts, as well as of the posterior callosities in the +chimpanzee, and also in the baboon and macaca, +during the period of sexual excitement.</p> + +<figure id="i_56" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <img src="images/i_p191.jpg" width="1074" height="844" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 56.—The brain of an orang, seen from the side (Vogt, from Gratiolet). + F, Frontal lobe. P, Parietal lobe. O, Occipital lobe. R, Fissure of Rolando. + S, Fissure of Sylvius. C, Cerebellum.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><em>Nervous system.</em>—In this part of the organism we +are especially interested in the structure of the +brain. Bastian justly remarks, with reference +to the brain of apes, that this family possesses +many cerebral characteristics in common, by which +their close connection with each other may be +verified. Distinct stages of development have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> +observed, which, however, cannot be classified in a +consecutive series. Starting from the brains of +lemurs, which do not greatly differ from those of +rodents, we can advance by means of very distinct +transition forms to the more highly developed cerebral +hemispheres of the large anthropoid apes, the +chimpanzee, the gorilla, and orang-utan.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p> + +<figure id="i_57" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <img src="images/i_p192.jpg" width="1069" height="1073" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 57.—Brain of the chimpanzee, seen from above. The upper part of the + right hemisphere is removed so as to lay bare the lateral ventricle (Vogt, from + Marshall). L, Longitudinal fissure (other indications the same as in <a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>). + <i>c s</i>, The corpus striatum in anterior cornu of the ventricle. <i>c a</i>, Hippocampus + major in descending cornu. <i>h m</i>, Hippocampus minor in posterior + cornu.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Very opposite views prevail among anatomists +with regard to the question which species of anthropoids +possesses the most highly developed brain. +Some regard the chimpanzee’s brain as the simplest, +and that of the orang as the most highly developed. +In all these apes the lateral halves of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> +the cerebrum, always divided from each other by +a deep longitudinal fissure, overlap the cerebellum +as far as a minute posterior segment. In this +respect I find the brain of the gorilla a little behind +the other anthropoids. Up to this time, I have only +observed the projection of the cerebellum through +the cerebrum in the case of an orang<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> (see also +<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>). Retzius asserts that the cerebellum of +Lapps is incompletely covered, while the covering is +generally complete in the case of Slav and Tartar +races. In German and Latin races the cerebrum +overlaps the cerebellum. In Mongolian, Indian,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> +and Negro races the covering appears to be generally +imperfect.</p> + +<figure id="i_58" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <img src="images/i_p193.jpg" width="1073" height="847" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 58.—Brain of gorilla, side view (from Bolau and Pansch). I., Frontal lobe. + II., Fissure of Rolando. III., Parietal lobe. IV., Temporal lobe. C, Cerebellum. + <i>f s</i>, Fissure of Sylvius. <i>s c</i>, External fissure parieto-occipital.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>While the ground form of the gorilla brain +approximates to a long oval, and in this respect +resembles the human brain, the brain of chimpanzees +and orangs is of a round-oval form. This +is especially the case with the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a>). +In my opinion, the gorilla brain is distinguished +from that of the chimpanzee, but not from that +of the orang, by its very complex convolutions +(<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_59" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <img src="images/i_p194.jpg" width="754" height="827" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 59.—Brain of orang, seen from above (Duncan, from a specimen in the + Museum of Royal College of Surgeons). F, frontal lobe. O, Occipital lobe.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang, the island +of Reil in the fissure of Sylvius is generally—at least, +according to my experience—overlapped by the +operculum, although there are instances in which +this is not the case. In these three anthropoids, as +Bastian justly observes, the fissure of Sylvius is +much less horizontal than in man, and occupies a +position more like that which it takes in the black +sea-cat monkey, the wanderers, and other macacas. +In the gorilla its direction is more horizontal than +in the two other species of anthropoids. The central +fissure, termed fissure of Rolando, is very marked, +especially in the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a> R); but it +may also be easily traced in other species of anthropoids +(<a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a>, II., <a href="#i_56">56</a>, R). The so-called simian +fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes of +the cerebrum (Meynart’s elongated external occipital +fissure), presented in <a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a> <i>s c</i>, is very marked +in the chimpanzee (<a href="#i_57">Fig. 57</a>, <i>d</i>). The frontal lobes +of the gorilla brain are high, while those of the +chimpanzee are short and low. It is said that those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> +of the orang, which are high and short, terminate +in a beak-shaped curvature, but this is not invariably +the case.</p> + +<figure id="i_60" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 30em;"> + <img src="images/i_p196.jpg" width="1101" height="721" style="max-width: 24em;" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <div class="blockquot hang"> + <p>Fig. 60.—Longitudinal section of a gorilla’s brain (Bola and Pansch). <i>s.cm</i>, + Colloso marginal fissure. <i>f, p</i>, Internal parieto-occipital fissure. <i>f, c</i>, Calcarine + fissure, the posterior part of the hippocampal fissure.</p> + </div> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the anthropoids we have been considering, and +also in several of the lower species of apes, there +are three other fissures of less importance in addition +to those we have mentioned, namely, the fissure +parallel to the fissure of Sylvius, and placed behind +it, the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i> fissure, placed immediately +above the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i> on the inner side of the +hemisphere of the cerebrum, and the calcarine fissure +(<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura calcarina</i>) (<a href="#i_60">Fig. 60</a>). The latter ends near +the point of junction of the inner and lower surfaces +of the posterior division of the hemisphere. +The upper temporal convolution, termed by several +anatomists <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Gyrus supramarginalis</i>, is said by Gratiolet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> +to be absent in anthropoids; but Rolleston, +Bastian, and myself have all found it well developed<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> +(<a href="#i_56">Fig. 56</a>, orang, and <a href="#i_58">Fig. 58</a>, gorilla).</p> + +<p>Bischoff asserts that the third frontal convolution +(Broca’s convolution) is very slightly developed in +the chimpanzee, orang, and gibbon. “Its great +development in men,” Gewährsmann writes, “constitutes +one of the most marked distinctions between +the brains of apes and of men.”<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> In most of the +other species of apes this convolution is altogether +absent, but Pansch is justified in the assertion that +it is fully developed in anthropoids. I cannot wholly +agree with Pansch in his analysis; but I must +accept his statement on this point (see the orang, +<a href="#i_59">Fig. 59</a>). Gratiolet remarks that the so-called +annectant gyri (<i lang="fr" class="anatomy">plis de passage</i>) which serve +as a covering or <i lang="la" class="anatomy">operculum</i> for the posterior lobes +in apes, are only superficially apparent in man. In +the chimpanzee the upper of those convolutions +is absent, while it is large in the orang, and likewise +large and undulated in man. In the orang the +second annectant gyrus is covered, but this covering +is absent in man.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></p> + +<p>In considering the inner structure of the brain +of these animals, we are first struck by the shortness +of the <i lang="la" class="anatomy">corpus callosum</i>. The soft and thick anterior +commissure of the third cerebral ventricle and the +thin posterior commissure have also been justly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> +noted. In the lateral ventricles more of the characteristics +described in the human brain are absent. +The four eminences resemble those of man; nor does +the fourth cerebral ventricle present any remarkable +differences of form. Neither does the base or lower +surface of the brain display any important deviation +from the human type. The transverse section of +the nerves at their intersection appears to me, however, +to be somewhat more oval than is the case in +man.</p> + +<p>There has recently been an attempt to recognize +a pithecoid character, or atavism, in microcephalic +men, the smallness of whose heads is allied with +a greater or less degree of idiocy. A pithecoid +structure of the brain has also been traced in several +individuals who are not microcephalous, but subject +to pathological affections. We will first consider +those who belong to the latter category. Krause +examined the brain of an ape-like boy aged seven +years and a half, which, as the author remarks, +approximated in structure to the pithecoid type, +although without displaying microcephalic characteristics. +The two cerebral hemispheres were wanting +in symmetry; they diverged from each other in the +region where the parieto-occipital fissure occurs on the +left cerebral hemisphere, and they formed an edge +which curved outward and backward so that the +cerebellum remained uncovered. On the lower +surface of the frontal lobes there was a strongly +marked ethmoidal prominence. Neither of the +fissures of Sylvius were closed, the left less so +than the right; the operculum was only slightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> +developed; and the island of Reil and its fissures were +almost uncovered. This formation is almost the +same as that of the brain of anthropoids. The two +central fissures of Rolando were close together, or +less deeply impressed on the edge of the hemispheres +than is normally the case, and forming no +joint angle. Large and deeply marked pre-central +fissures seemed to represent the central fissures. +The intra-parietal fissures, diverging outwardly +further than in man, received the parieto-occipital +fissure, a structure in conformity with the typical +brain of apes. The transverse occipital fissure +became in this case a deep fissure like the simian +fissure, crossing the occipital lobes, and almost +completely dividing them from the parietal lobes. +The so-called <i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura calcarina</i>, to which we have +referred above, had its origin on the upper surface +of the occipital lobe, then joined the parieto-occipital +fissure, and went directly into the hippocampal +fissure (<i lang="la" class="anatomy">Fissura hippocampi</i>) on its right +side. This abnormal structure is also in conformity +with the typical brain of apes. The first occipital +convolution is divided from the upper parietal lobes +by the parieto-occipital fissure. Gratiolet asserts +that this formation occurs in many species of apes. +The upper temporal convolution was remarkably +reduced on both sides, possessing only an average +width of 5 mm. This characteristic reminded +Krause of the brain of the chimpanzee. In that +animal the upper temporal convolution is always +reduced. Krause therefore asks whether some human +brains may not possess the typical structure of apes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> +without being microcephalic. The brain we have +described scarcely differed from the normal weight; +it possessed all the convolutions and fissures, and +indeed, the convolutions were perhaps more numerous +than in the normal structure, yet it was different +in every respect, and approximated in its whole +structure to the simian rather than to the human +type. Krause adds that if the brain had been +placed before him without any intimation of its +origin, he should have been quite justified in concluding +that it belonged to an anthropoid ape, +which stood somewhat nearer to man than the +chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>It is an unquestionable fact that some human +beings, whether children or adults, who are endowed +with a defective bodily structure, and who are +affected with more or less pronounced physical +incapacity and mental weakness, by their appearance, +ungainly tricks, and helpless and aimless +motions, impress us in the most forcible way with +their resemblance to apes. Different degrees of +idiocy affect individuals of limited intellect, and +remind us of an absolutely brutish condition. +Krause describes the “ape-like” boy of seven and +a half years old, whom he had examined, as cheerful +and inclined to play and dance, but as passionate +when he was teased. The child was very supple, +fond of climbing, and with great strength in his +arms and hands, of which the latter had a horny +appearance, reminding him of the hands of a +chimpanzee. He could sit on the ground with his +legs wide apart. His gait was uncertain, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> +was apt to tumble, falling with his knees bent +forward and his legs doubled under him; he was +fond of hopping, and at such times looked still more +like an ape. The great toes of both feet were at +an angle to the foot, and thus gave the impression +of a prehensile foot. At first Krause supposed that +this deviation was produced by the child’s endeavour +to supply a broader basis of support for his uncertain +gait; but he subsequently changed his opinion, +since he did not find the same peculiarity in other +children of diseased brain, as, for instance, in those +suffering from water on the brain. The boy could +say very little, only papa and mamma, and it was +long before he could pronounce these words in two +syllables; for the most part, he only uttered a sound +resembling a grunt. He imitated the barking of +a dog, with the sound of rolling <em>r</em>’s. He often +stamped his feet and clapped his hands together, +making a grunting noise as Krause had observed +in the case of gorillas and chimpanzees. The boy +was smaller than other children of his age, and had +weak eyes; his head was sore, and his forehead +narrow. His imitative tendency was strongly +marked, and his whole nature and all his movements +strikingly resembled those of apes. He had +been much neglected by his parents.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> + +<p>When I was a student at Berlin I had the opportunity +of observing a similar being of twelve years +old, in what was at that time the Weinbergswege, +near the Rosenthaler Gate. This was a boy with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> +a large head, a low retreating forehead, glazed eyes, +a morose expression, a thin neck, prominent belly, +crooked legs, large hands and feet. The boy was of +a slouching appearance, and his gait was unsteady: +saliva often dribbled from his wide mouth; and +as he walked he held on to the furniture, walls, +etc., and often he fell powerless on his side, and +so remained in a crouching position. It seemed to +give him peculiar pleasure to creep on his hands +and knees, and at such times he would stamp with +the closed fingers of one or the other hand upon +the ground, as if in triumph. This habit, his gait, +and the gurgling sound which was all that the boy +could utter, constituted the points of his resemblance +to apes. All the other conditions of life +were those of a being whose mental and physical +growth was arrested, and who, although not epileptic, +was to a certain extent idiotic. I am ignorant +what afterwards became of him.</p> + +<p>In the course of a discussion on the instance +adduced by Krause, Virchow asks whether the +psychological conditions of such a brain are indeed +simian. He is convinced that whoever has studied +the microcephalic child Margaret Becker (of +Bürgel, Hanau) will find that psychologically she +had nothing in common with an ape. In her case +all the positive faculties and qualities of the ape +were wanting; the simian psychology was altogether +absent, and there was only the psychology of an +imperfectly developed and deficient young child. +Every characteristic was human. Virchoff had the +child in his room for hours together during a period<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> +of two months, and was constantly occupied about +her, without observing anything in her nature +which reminded him even remotely of the psychological +conditions of apes. She was a degraded +specimen of humanity, differing in no respect from +the human type.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p> + +<p>I also examined Margaret Becker, as well +as another microcephalic girl, who was in the +Berlin Asylum in the years 1868 and 1869. With +respect to the former and more animated being, I +have nothing essential to add to the information +published by Virchow. Ida X——, the other +individual whom I examined at Berlin, was at the +time of my researches aged thirteen years and five +months. Her figure was slightly made and well +proportioned, while her profile reminded me to a +modified extent of that of the microcephalic Aztec, +and also of the heads represented in ancient sculpture +of Mayapan, Palenque, and Copan. I must not omit +to say that Ida had light blue eyes and fair, glossy +hair. She was altogether impassive; could only +utter the syllables <em>da-da</em>; and once betrayed a slight +sign of displeasure when the cold metal of the +measuring-rod was placed against the inner side +of her thigh, for the sake of obtaining the dimensions +of the different parts of her body.</p> + +<p>Virchow’s information respecting Esther Jacobwitz, +of Waschahel, is also extremely interesting. +She was a microcephalic girl of the age of fourteen, +and a Hungarian Jew by race.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Virchow remarks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> +that, in his opinion, all Esther’s most striking characteristics +presented the strongest contrast to those of +apes, since only negative traits have hitherto been +established, while all which characterizes the positive +development of the psychical life of apes was absent +in this case. The same remark applies to Ida X——. +Virchow goes on to say that there was undoubtedly +something brute-like in the defects in question, +but that in order to reproduce the animal in its +actual form and nature, so as to show that the +microcephalic child was really theromorphic, the +positive side of animal life must to some extent be +presented to us, and this was absolutely wanting.</p> + +<p>Virchow also had the opportunity of examining +a pair of twin children, one of whom was quite +normally developed, while the other (Karl R——) +was microcephalic. This was a very significant +case, since two individuals of the same birth were +under consideration, so that the question could be +asked with greater confidence—Is this atavism, or +a morbid condition? From this point of view, it +was of special interest to establish the fact that the +microcephalic child had, in fact, displayed positive +signs of a morbid condition.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p> + +<p>When I go through the accounts collected by +C. Vogt of the lives of well-known microcephalic +beings,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> I can find nothing which specifically +reminds me of the actions and habits of apes, +although we have an intimate acquaintance with +their ways. These individuals give the general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> +impression of human beings whose bodily and +mental development has been arrested. According +to Virchow’s experience, all the cerebral disturbances +are concentrated in the cerebrum in these microcephalous +cases. The anterior portions of the +cerebrum are affected to the greatest, and the +posterior to the least, extent. Those parts which +are developed latest suffer the most, while those +which are the first to be developed generally escape +disturbance.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> + +<p>Klebs, Schaaffhausen, and others have sought to +show that the mothers of microcephalic children +have suffered from severe pains of the uterus during +pregnancy. All scientific men consider that spasms +of the uterus distinctly affect the development of the +brain of the offspring. Flesch thinks it possible that +these spasms of the uterus may have something to do +with the origin of microcephaly.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> But he also asks +whether this morbid condition of the uterus may not +have been produced by a previously diseased condition +of the offspring. This observer is, moreover, +still more inclined to make the influence of the +father responsible for the occurrence of microcephaly. +In view of the fact that there is much reason to +suppose there has been a compression of the uterus, +and in default of any better suggestion, Flesch feels +justified in looking for a compression which has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> +perhaps resulted from some growth on the ovary. +Hence ensues a disturbance, probably inflammatory, +of the organ of nutrition.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a></p> + +<p>Aeby also regards microcephaly, not as an expression +of atavism, but as the result of a morbid +degeneration. “Microcephalic subjects do not +point back to the milestone which man left behind +him in hoar antiquity, and it is not through them +that the chasm between man and animals can be +bridged over, nor even rendered less wide.”</p> + +<p>Virchow’s researches led to the following conclusions, +which we must here subjoin:—1. There is +no species of apes which presents that precise configuration +which is found in a microcephalic brain. +2. Psychology offers the strongest arguments against +men-apes. 3. The instinctive side of psychical +activity, which is almost wholly absent in microcephalic +subjects, is very prominent in anthropoids +as well as in other animals.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> + +<p>In addition to these remarks, it may also be observed +that among savage races the medicine-men, +shamans, sorcerers, rain-doctors, etc., often assume +ape-like attitudes in the contortions, leaps, dances, +and other gestures which are inseparable from their +trade. Owing to their state of excitement, in which +they are not always mentally responsible for their +acts, this imitation may be often partly or wholly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> +unconscious. It is very common among the inspired +Arabs termed Haschasch, who, sometimes as dervishes, +sometimes as poets or beast-tamers, roam +through the country and extend their wanderings +from the interior of Africa to the latticed gates of +Dolma Bakhtsche. To them belong also the dancing +mendicant monks of Islam, who display their ape-like +gesture in the market-places and streets of +Bokhara, as well as in the other chief cities of +Central Asia. In this case, indeed, many gestures +are conventional, and even adopted as the means of +stimulating the proposed effects, but at the same +time they impress us with the idea that a man under +such conditions of life and work involuntarily adopts +the gestures of anthropoids. When we see a Zikr, +an Islamite rite of worship, accompanied by obligatory +howls and contortions of body, we are tempted +to imagine ourselves in the midst of a troop of wild +apes. And the illusion is still stronger if the performers +in the Zikr are black fakirs, dressed as +warriors.</p> + +<p>The peripheral nervous system of anthropoids +has not, up to this time, been analyzed with the +completeness we could wish. As far as the observations +of Vrolik, Gratiolet, and Alix go, together with +my personal experience in this department, no +marked distinction can be established between the +structure of these organs in anthropoids and those of +the nervous system in man.</p> + +<p>H. von Ihering has studied the relation of the +nervous lumbo-sacral plexus to the vertebral column +of men and animals, and has come to the conclusion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> +that there is the most complete agreement between +men and animals with respect to the relations +of the vertebral column to the peripheral nervous +system. According to this author, man, from the +anatomical point of view, stands so completely within +the class of anthropoids, that the attempt to assign +to him any other place in zoology is open to the +charge of being biassed by considerations which +have nothing to do with facts.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p> + +<p>The organs of the senses in anthropoids do not +present any noteworthy points of difference from +these organs in man. I have written, but not yet +published, a treatise on the eyes of these animals, +showing their general agreement with the conditions +of the human eye. On the skin of the fingers and +toes of anthropoids developed corpuscles may be +detected which are connected with the sense of +touch.</p> + +<p>The vascular system of anthropoids has not up to +this time been studied in any exhaustive manner. +The heart strongly resembles that organ in man. In +the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang the great +arterial branches have the same relative conditions +as in the human organism. A common origin from +one branch of the subclavian artery, and of the +right and left carotid arteries, often occurs in the +orang and with a certain constancy in the gibbon, so +far as we can judge from the researches which have +been made up to this time. But we know that this +form of deviation from the common type is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> +altogether rare in man. Bischoff and others have +justly maintained that the resemblance to man which +is found in these animals in the arrangement of the +heart and larger blood-vessels appears to be connected +with their mode of life. For although their +habits are arboreal, this very fact implies that they +are for the most part in an upright position.</p> + +<p>The division of the femoral arteries displays a +somewhat interesting deviation from the normal +human type. High up near the femoral arch an +artery, accompanied by veins and a large nerve, +diverges from the femoral artery, which extends, +together with its accompanying parts, as far as the +back of the foot. In the gorilla this branch pierces +the sartorius.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><span id="toclink_210"></span>CHAPTER IV.<br> + +<span class="subhead">ON VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF ANTHROPOIDS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Up</span> to recent times it was generally supposed that +there was only one species of gorilla, and the differences +in the structure of the skeleton and of the +external body which were observed in the several +specimens under examination, were either regarded +as the expression of a purely individual variation +or as due to differences in age and sex. Not long +ago Alix and Bouvier obtained from Landana on the +Congo the skeleton and skin of an aged female +gorilla, which had been killed by Lucan and Petit +in the village of the negro chief Mayema, on the +Kuilu river in 4° 35′ south latitude. This specimen +was of less bulk than the common gorilla +(<i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>), and its head was comparatively small. +The occipito-temporal crest, or transverse crest of the +occiput, was much more strongly developed in this +animal and the temporal fossæ were deeper. That part +of the skull which extends behind the supra-orbital +arches was narrower, and so also was the space between +the eyes. The keel-shaped prominence rising in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> +centre of this space is more marked, the nasal bones +are arched and not flattened, the orbital aperture +is larger in comparison with the general size of +the skull, and the frontal processes of the malar +bones are wider and more arched. One interesting +characteristic consists in a small, vertical, styloid +prominence on the posterior surface of the orbital +process. On the vertebral column the spinous processes +of the first, second, and third cervical vertebræ +are only slightly developed in height, while the +spinous processes of the three lower cervical vertebræ +are as high and large as those of <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>. The +transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebræ are +remarkable for their length, and in their transverse +extension reach almost to the angle of the last rib.</p> + +<p>In this supposed variety of the gorilla the iliac +crest is more convex, the tuberosity of the ischium +is somewhat more everted, the neck of the femur +is more oblique, the os calcis is slenderer, and +its lower surface is more arched. The clavicle +appears to be shorter and less curved: the scapula +is more arched near its inner border; its outer +border is distinctly concave, while in <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i> +it is prominently convex. The base of the acromion +process is larger, and the olecranon fossa of the +humerus is perforated. The bones of the forearm +and hand, as well as of the shank and foot, are more +slender, and their prominences and inequalities are +less marked. The smaller bulk of the fore and hind +limbs corresponds with the comparative smallness of +the head.</p> + +<p>The colouring, grey and brown on the trunk,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> +black on the limbs, with red patches on the head, +and reddish in the pubic region, does not essentially +differ from that which has been described +by different authors in the case of other skins which +have indeed been artificially restored. But the +hide essentially differs from that of other specimens +in the sharp division of the brown colouring of the +belly from the grey of the back, by the reddish tint +of the hair which clothes the pubic region, and also +in the abundant growth of hair which so closely encircles +the cheeks and chin. But, according to our +authorities, the most remarkable difference consists +in the fact that the whole of the back is covered +with long, thick hair, while in <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i> this +part is either bare or only covered with short hair, +partly worn away. Hence these authors conclude +that this species, which they assert to be new, and +have named <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Mayema</i>, from the negro chief of +that name, does not rest its back against a tree so +often as the <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Gina</i>, but leads a more arboreal +life, climbing from tree to tree.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></p> + +<p>I admit that if I were to take into account all +the individual differences of the gorilla skulls and +skeletons of the same sex and of about the same +age, I should be able to produce a half-dozen or +more species of gorillas. I have observed such +differences in the case both of male and female +individuals of about the same age, and have given +an exact description of them in my osteological +work on the gorilla to which I have so often referred. +I cannot, however, refrain from regarding these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> +differences as of a purely individual character. +Much in the description by Alix and Bouvier—as, +for instance, their remarks on the comparative +smallness of the head, on the slenderness and +smoothness of the limb bones—appears to me to +point to the youthfulness of this Landana specimen. +The unlearned may be struck by what is said of +the small spinous processes of the upper cervical +vertebræ in this specimen, but in the common gorilla +the processes of the three upper vertebræ are also +small (see <a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>). Individual and sexual variations +in the general development of the cervical +spines may be observed, not only in this case, but in +the chimpanzee, and even in man. I think it very +doubtful whether a characteristic of species can be +founded only or chiefly on this distinction. What +is said of the colouring of the coat of the so-called +new species appears to me still less worthy of consideration. +I have spoken above in detail of the +many individual varieties of the colour of the hair +in different specimens of gorillas. I have also +observed long, thick hair, not always short, scanty, +and worn away, on the backs of many gorillas of +different sexes. The condition described by Alix +and Bouvier must refer to the hides of aged and +sickly animals, or to those younger individuals +affected by the kind of mange which is widely +diffused in Africa. Every gorilla delights to rub +his back against the trunk of a tree, and leans +against it in a contented mood, and so also does the +chimpanzee. This is the habit of many other mammals, +such as cats, lions, boars, deer, and elephants.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> +Man himself will sometimes adopt such an attitude. +Without more convincing proofs that <i class="taxonomy">Gorilla Mayema +Alix et Bouvier</i> constitutes a distinct species, I should +prefer to leave the matter in suspense.</p> + +<p>I frankly admit that I am more doubtful how to +decide the question whether we can at present +assume that there are several or only one species of +chimpanzees. <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i> has always been +regarded by me as to a certain extent a typical form +of this animal, and in the second chapter of this +work I selected it as the subject for my general +description. It is this type of chimpanzee which +has usually reached Europe from the West Coast +of Africa. The face of this animal is moderately +prognathous; the head, even in aged males, is round, +the ears are large and of somewhat the form presented +in <a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>, the skin is of a dirty flesh-colour, +and the hair is black. Reichenbach’s <i class="taxonomy">Pseudanthropos +(Troglodytes) leucoprymnus</i><a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> is only so specified +on account of the whitish hair which clothes its +posterior—a character observed in all true chimpanzees, +and therefore without specific value. +Lainier, the keeper of the Museum at Havre, has +had an illustration made from a damaged skin of a +large (probably male) chimpanzee; but we can only +form an imperfect opinion of its general external +appearance from this figure.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> There is as little +certainty about Gray’s <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes vellerosus</i> from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> +the Kamarum mountains.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Duvernoy’s remarks on +<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Tchégo</i>, which he asserts to be a new +species, relate to an aged male specimen of which +the form is also doubtful.</p> + +<p>From the materials brought home by Du Chaillu, +Jeffries Wyman has sought to establish two new +species of anthropoids, the Nschiego Mbouvé (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes +calvus</i>) and the Koolo-Kamba (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes +Koolo-Kamba</i>). I have vainly endeavoured to obtain +a satisfactory account of these two supposed new +species from the descriptions which are intended to +establish them. The whole matter is unfortunately +rendered more confused by the illustrations he subjoins. +That of the Nschiego Mbouvé is only taken +from a very badly stuffed skin of a chimpanzee, +that of the Koolo-Kamba from the skin of a female +gorilla. But we may come to the general conclusion +that there are, in fact, not inconsiderable, and perhaps +even specific, variations from the ordinary type +of chimpanzee.</p> + +<figure id="i_61" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 18em;"> + <img src="images/i_p216.jpg" width="1095" height="1127" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 61.—Mafuca.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Much was said in the years 1875 and 1876 of the +female ape Mafuca (often erroneously termed Mafoca), +which was brought from the Loango coast and placed +in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This was +a wild, unmanageable creature, 120 cm. in height, +reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The +face was prognathous; the ears were comparatively +small, placed high on the skull, and projecting outwards; +the supra-orbital arch was strongly developed; +the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> +of fat on the cheeks. The creature was, moreover, +strongly built, and the region of the hips and the +belly were contracted, while the hands and feet +were large and powerful. When I first saw this +savage creature, early in September, 1875, it was +full of vigour, and I was almost convinced that I +saw a female gorilla, not quite adult, an opinion +shared by such zoologists as K. Th. von Siebold and +others, while it was vehemently opposed by Bolau +and A. B. Meyer. At that time I made a drawing +of its profile, which is given in <a href="#i_61">Fig. 61</a>, and which +was taken at a moment when the animal happened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> +to be resting from its wild gambols. In spite of some +slight errors,<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> the illustration faithfully reproduces +its general and quite original character, and especially +the expression of its countenance. From the +structure of the brain Bischoff attempted to show +that this animal was simply a chimpanzee. No +rational explanation can be attached to this suggestion.</p> + +<p>If, while Mafuca was still alive, I had examined +the dead body of the female gorilla of which I have +already spoken, and which was of about the same +age, I should have been still more disposed to regard +Mafuca as a true gorilla. The general physiognomical +resemblance between these animals was +very great. As I have mentioned in detail in my +earlier works, the female gorilla had a high upper +lip, and a somewhat small nose. Mafuca’s upper +lip is undoubtedly still higher, but otherwise the +physical correspondence between the two animals +is very great. The hands of the female gorilla are +still broader than those of Mafuca; and indeed, +Brehm proposes to classify the latter animal as +a new slender-handed species of anthropoid. The +assumption which I have already contested in the +earlier pages of this work, that the female type +should be placed in the foreground in describing +the species, is especially untenable in the case of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> +gorilla, in which the male character is extremely +predominant.</p> + +<p>To what species, then, did Mafuca belong? A +cross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee was +often suggested at the time. I was myself inclined +to take this view, and it was advocated by C. Vogt +in his contemporary treatise on the subject, as +well as in the magnificent work which has lately +appeared, remarkable for the beauty of its illustrations +and the genius of its style.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> H. von Koppenfels +heard much of such crossings when he was on the +Ogowe, nor is their occurrence by any means +impossible, and indeed they have been directly +observed among other species of apes while in confinement. +Koppenfels also affirmed that he had +shot two such cross-bred animals, which were associating +with a troop of gorillas. The traveller +sought to kill others of the troop, but, when creeping +on hands and knees through the thick bushwood, he +was constrained to retreat by the attacks of some +stinging ants (<i class="taxonomy">Anomma arcens</i>). The skins and +skeletons of the supposed cross-breds were brought +to the Natural History Institution in Dresden. +A. B. Meyer observed that the traveller was mistaken +in these instances, and that the remains +sent by him to Europe were undoubtedly those of +chimpanzees.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> It must be remembered that Koppenfels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> +was a clever hunter, and on the whole a +good observer of nature, but that he was no zoologist, +and may have been mistaken as to the nature of +the animals he had shot. At the same time the +possibility of the existence of such cross-bred +animals cannot by any means be disputed. Meyer +must be convinced that his assertion cannot be +generally accepted: “Any consideration of the +question as to cross-breeding is like fighting with +windmills—that is, making difficulties where none +exist.”</p> + +<p>If the trophies of von Koppenfels’ hunting are +merely chimpanzees, it is, at any rate, very interesting +to learn that these animals were found in the company +of gorillas. We must hope that scientific travellers +will in future feel bound to devote their special +attention to this question.</p> + +<p>In the end of June, 1876, von Falkenstein, who +was attached to Güssfeldt’s Loango Expedition, +brought from Chinchoxo to Berlin a female chimpanzee, +Paulina, which varied a good deal in countenance from +the chimpanzees we have commonly seen. +The ears projected widely in a lateral direction, the +supra-orbital arches were prominent, the nose was wide, +the colour of the skin dark and blending into russet. +I have seen chimpanzees, both living and dead, +which reproduced these characteristics of Paulina +with more or less distinctness. I have nothing to +urge against those who wish to regard such individuals +as the representatives of a special variety. +I would only warn them against the risk of accepting +as such the species entitled by Du Chaillu and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> +Wyman, <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</i>, which appears to +be ill-established.</p> + +<p>An attempt has been made, chiefly by the +unlearned, to regard Paulina as the image of Mafuca. +There is, however, a considerable physiognomical +difference between the two animals. For me and +many other naturalists Mafuca remains up to this +time an enigma, which is slurred over by others with +the help of a few phrases. Paulina, on the other +hand, and animals of the same character, display +much to remind us of the illustration given by +Gratiolet and Alix of their <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Aubryi</i>, +although the drawing was taken from a specimen +dissected by the French naturalists which had lost its +hair through maceration in an impure preserving +fluid. The growth or the lack of hair involves +considerable external differences in specimens of +these animals, yet I repeat my assertion that there +is a resemblance between Paulina and her fellows, +and Aubry’s chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>The certain special characters presented by chimpanzee +forms here mentioned (Paulina and <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes +Aubryi</i>) remind us of the bam found on the +Niam-Niam in Central Africa, which was probably +first discovered by A. de Malzac, and was afterwards +more exactly described by Schweinfurth.</p> + +<p>In <cite>Cassell’s Natural History</cite> (i. 39) the Nschiego-Mbouvé +(<cite>Troglodytes Tschégo Duvernoy</cite>; <cite lang="fr">Troglodytes +calvus Du Chaillu et Wyman</cite>), is described and +drawn by Duncan, but only in profile, from a stuffed +specimen. In this there is much to remind us of +the profile of Mafuca, including the very shrivelled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> +nose. An illustration is given in the same work of +the anthropoid Koolo-Kamba, here given as a distinct +species, and identified in the systematic catalogue +as <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</i>, together with <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes +Aubryi</i>; here we see a full-grown chimpanzee +of the ordinary kind, to which a front view of the +head of the Aubry chimpanzee, as it was published +by Gratiolet and Alix, has been affixed. Honest +research should stand aloof from such confusion. +By Brehm, the Mafuca was given as the representative +of the species already established by Duvernoy, +<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Tschégo</i> or <i class="taxonomy">Anthropopithecus</i>, and this +assertion is accepted by Martin.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> The latter remarks +that this ape cannot be classified either with the +chimpanzee or the gorilla, and gives some reasons +for his assertions.</p> + +<p>In my opinion it is a difficult question to decide +whether there are several or only one species of +chimpanzee. As things are at present, my conviction +is strengthened that it is only possible to make +a provisional settlement, and I am able to admit +a certain constancy in the varieties of chimpanzees. +First, The original representative of the species +(<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>, Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire). This +animal has a round head, and the supra-orbital arches +are strongly developed in the male, more slightly in +the female; the countenance is not very prognathous, +and has an angle of 70 degrees; the ears are +from 75 to 78 mm. in height; and the whole height +of the body varies between 1100 and 1300 mm.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> +The face, hands, and feet are of a dark reddish flesh-colour, +or rarely of a blackish brown or speckled +general colour. The hair is either wholly black or +black shot with reddish brown. Second, Another +variety, bam or mandjaruma (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger +varietas Schweinfurthii Giglioli</i>). The head of this +animal is somewhat long, the supra-orbital arches are +only slightly developed, the nose is wide, and the +upper lip rather low in comparison with the other +variety; the ears are somewhat smaller, and the face is +more prognathous, with an angle of 60 degrees. The +limbs of this variety are slenderer, yet still strongly +developed. The skin is of a dark reddish flesh-colour +in youth, and with the increase of physical +development it becomes a reddish brown, dark +brown, or blackish. The hairy coat is black, shot +with reddish or dark brown, or sometimes of a +reddish brown colour, tipped with tawny or yellowish +grey, especially on the back. To this variety the +mandjaruma belongs, of which an illustration is given +by von Issel, and also the portrait taken from life +of Paulina of Loango, which is given in my osteological +work on the gorilla,<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> as well as <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes +Aubryi</i> (?), and similar animals, of which I have +given illustrations in the <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p> + +<p>The question might now be raised whether we +may assume that there is any distinct species of +anthropoids intermediate between the gorilla and +the chimpanzee. As such, we may perhaps regard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> +Du Chaillu’s <cite lang="fr">Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba</cite>, Duvernoy’s +<cite lang="fr">Troglodytes Tschégo</cite>, the large stuffed animals in the +Museum at Havre, and the heads of which I have +given illustrations in the <cite lang="de">Archiv für Anatomie</cite>, +plate vii. fig. 1 (1875); and in the <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</cite>, p. 121 (1876). Perhaps Mafuca and the +ape which Livingstone found in Manyema might +also be included.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> Duvernoy’s name for the species, +<cite>Troglodytes Tschégo</cite>, seems to me not quite suitable, +since the West African chimpanzees in general +are distinguished by that Latinized specific name. +However, this scientific term may be accepted in +default of a better, until we are enabled by the +possession of more abundant materials to establish +the existence of such an independent species.</p> + +<p>With respect to the orang the unity of species is +also not yet ascertained. The Malays of the country +to which they belong assert that there are different +forms of this animal, which go by the general name of +meias. The descriptions current among that people +respecting these varieties are surprising. We are +tempted to believe in the existence of different +species, and some zoologists, Brühl among others, +hold that there are, at any rate, two such species. +Wallace, who is intimately acquainted with the +species, says nothing on this point in his work on +the Malay Archipelago, but it seems to appear from +his general remarks that he is disposed to recognize +only one species of this animal. There are, perhaps, +constant varieties, limited to different places, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> +future will throw more certain light on this question. +It is better, therefore, to leave it in abeyance, instead +of indulging in peremptory and unnecessary negations. +With respect to the gibbon, the question of +variety of species has been long decided.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><span id="toclink_225"></span>CHAPTER V.<br> + +<span class="subhead">GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, HABITS IN A STATE OF +NATURE, AND NATIVE NAMES OF ANTHROPOIDS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> gorilla inhabits the forests of West Africa, +between lat. 2° N. and 5° S., and long. 6° and 16° E. +They are most widely diffused in the northern part +of this territory, on the rivers Ogōwē, Gaboon, and +Danger. Ford asserts that these apes are chiefly +found in the chain of mountains which extends for +about a hundred miles from the coast of Guinea, +between the Camaroon and Angola, and which is +known as the Serra do Cristal. They have also been +found at the source of the Danger (Muni, Mooney). +In Ford’s time, about 1851, he saw them half a day’s +journey from the mouth of that river. In the years +1851 and 1852 gorillas were seen in large numbers +on the sea-coast, probably driven thither from the +interior by a scarcity of food. At that time four or +five specimens were obtained in the course of a few +months. After this they again completely disappeared +from the neighbourhood of the coast, so +that an American merchant captain offered 6000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> +dollars for a live specimen without being able to +obtain it. According to H. von Koppenfels, the +gorilla inhabits the district which lies between the +mouth of the Muni and that of the Congo.</p> + +<p>According to Pechuël-Lösche, the gorilla is rare +on the Loango coast. In this district it inhabits the +mountainous forests or the strip of country in their +immediate vicinity. Some years ago these apes +were found on the Luemme and Kuilu, even down +to the mouths of these rivers, and also in the ravines +of the plateau of Buala; but they now only come to +the coast at Banya, where the same authority believes +that he once heard gorillas. Neither Pechuël-Lösche, +Falkenstein, nor Güssfeldt have ever seen +the species in its wild state.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The specimen brought +to Berlin by these travellers in 1876 was obtained +by Falkenstein in October, 1875, at Ponta-Negra on +the Loango coast, where it was presented to him +by the Portuguese trader Laurentino Antonio dos +Santos. This animal, which was then extremely +young, had been brought from the Kuilu district by +a negro, who had shot its mother.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> + +<p>In earlier accounts given by Owen, the district +most frequented by gorillas was in the region of the +Gaboon, which presents a pleasant variety of hill +and dale. Here the high ground is clothed with fine, +tall trees, while the valleys are rich in grass, with a +scattered growth of underwood. There are a number +of trees and shrubs, bearing fruits which the +natives find inedible, but which are greedily devoured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> +by gorillas. They show a special preference +for the following fruits:—First, those of the oil +palm (<i class="taxonomy">Elaeis guineenis</i>), of which they also devour +the developed, folded leaves, called the palm-cabbage; +second, the grey plum tree (<i class="taxonomy">Parinarium +excelsum</i>), which bears a mealy and insipid stone-fruit; +third, the melon tree (<i class="taxonomy">Carica Papaya</i>); fourth, +the pisang (<i class="taxonomy">Musa paradisiaca</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Musa sapientum</i>); +fifth, two sorts of scitamines (<i class="taxonomy">Amomum granum paradisi +s. Afzelii</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Amomum malaguetta</i>), the last of which, +according to Lindley, produces the malaguetta +pepper; sixth, <i class="taxonomy">Amomum grandiflorum</i>; seventh, +a tree bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the +gorilla cracks the shell with a stone (this is probably +one of the <i class="taxonomy">Sterculiaceæ</i>, like the Kola-nut); +eighth, another tree with which we are not yet +botanically acquainted, bearing a cherry-like fruit. +Du Chaillu asserts that these animals are also very +fond of sugar-cane and the wild pine-apple. Although +they live in places far from human habitations, yet +they rob the cane-plantations and the rice-fields of +the negroes in the harvest-time, and this is a fact +confirmed by Koppenfels. Savage reports that +gorillas also devour the bodies of animals killed in +hunting, and even human bodies, and this does not +sound improbable. Like most species of apes, the +gorilla preys upon the smaller mammals, upon birds +and their eggs, and upon reptiles. The gorillas +which have been kept in confinement at Berlin have +been quite omnivorous, and have displayed a special +taste for animal food.</p> + +<p>In the little village of Ntondo, near the Kuilu,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> +Güssfeldt saw a fetish called Bunsi, constructed of +the skulls of animals, and quite peculiar to Bakunyaland. +It consisted of a pile of the skulls of animals +which had been slain in hunting, and which were +brought as an offering to the fetish by the hunter +in order that his good luck might be maintained. +The heap consisted for the most part of the skulls +of antelopes, buffaloes, and wild boars, but there +were also many skulls of gorillas. Among these +Güssfeldt saw two fine specimens with high bony +crests. When he inquired where gorillas were +found and killed, the natives of Ntondo pointed to +a neighbouring forest.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></p> + +<p>Güssfeldt describes the character of the forest of +Mayombe, where gorillas are also found, somewhat +as follows:—This forest does not correspond to our +idea of a primeval tropical forest, and would perhaps +perplex a South American traveller, since it is more +like the forests of mountainous districts in Germany. +The luxuriant growth of lianas is characteristic of +a tropical primeval forest: they form a second +roof of leaves above the green masses of the closely +set trees. But in this case the parasitic vegetation +is scanty, although not wholly absent, as the +kautschukranke (<i class="taxonomy">Landolphia florida</i>) shows, which +was at one time very abundant, but is now nearly +extinct. Its growth no longer obstructs the view of +the tall and slender trees, somewhat resembling +beeches. The underwood of our German forests is +here chiefly supplied by the large linear leaves of +the scitamines, of which the most common variety is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> +termed matombe by the natives. Ferns, or rather +tree-ferns, are not wanting, and the ground is +covered with dead leaves. The trees of this forest +have been untouched by the axe, except in places +cleared for the construction of a new village. +Where a tree falls there it lies, encumbering, as it +may for years, the narrow path which leads through +the thicket. An eternal twilight always prevails +here, and on cloudy days it might be supposed +that the sun was eclipsed. The atmosphere is close +and damp, like that of a hothouse, and its weight +is most depressing to mind and body. The dense +stillness is rarely broken by the wailing cry of +a bird, and no wild creature can be seen. Those +who wander in these forests are always going up +or down hill, since there is no level ground, and +by paths scarcely wide enough for a white man, +which are covered with smooth and slippery roots, +while the feet and clothes are constantly caught by +boughs and lianas, which also sting the face, so that +the traveller longs for free, unimpeded motion, for +light and air, and rejoices to see the cleared space +on which the village of Bayoma stands, surrounded +by palms and bananas.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> In the work I have quoted +on the Loango Expedition, a fine water-colour +drawing, by Pechuël-Lösche, of a forest frequented +by gorillas is reproduced, and I subjoin a copy of +this interesting illustration (<a href="#i_62">Fig. 62</a>).</p> + +<figure id="i_62" class="figcenter land" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_p230.jpg" width="1990" height="1131" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 62.—The home of the gorilla.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The gorilla lives in a society consisting of male +and female and their young of varying ages, and +the family group inhabits the recesses of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> +forest.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> According to von Koppenfels, they frequent +the same sleeping-place not more than three or +four times consecutively, and usually spend the +night wherever they happen to be when night +comes on. Koppenfels differs from other narrators +in the assertion that the gorilla constructs a bed for his +night lair upon the trees. He chooses for this purpose +a full-grown tree, not more than 0·30 m. in thickness, +breaks and bends the branches together at a +height of from five to six metres from the ground, and +covers them with the twigs he has torn off, or with +the leaf-moss, which grows scantily in this part of +Africa. The male animal spends the night crouching +at the foot of the tree, against which he places his +back, and thus protects the female and their young, +which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal +attacks of leopards, which are always ready to +devour all species of apes.</p> + +<p>In the daytime the gorillas roam through the +tracts of forest which surround their temporary +sleeping-places, in order to seek for food. In walking +they place the backs of their closed fingers on +the ground, or more rarely support themselves on +the flat palm, while the flat soles of the feet are also +in contact with the ground. The toes are generally +extended, and a little separated from each other, +but occasionally they are doubled under. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> +gait, as Huxley justly observes, is tottering; the +movement of the body, which is never in an upright +position as in man, but bent forward, rolls to some +extent from one side to another. As their arms are +longer than those of the chimpanzee, they do not +reach out so much; but the gorilla also throws his +arms forward, sets his hands upon the ground, then +gives a half-swinging, half-springing motion to his +body. When assuming the position for walking, +the body is much sloped, and its great bulk is so +balanced as to bend the arms upwards. In spite +of his apparently clumsy and unwieldy form, the +gorilla, like the bear, displays great bodily dexterity. +He is a very skilful climber, and, as Koppenfels +asserts, when ranging from tree to tree, he will +go to their very tops. He first tries whether the +branches will bear his weight, and if one branch +is not strong enough, he makes use of three or four +at once. He will also run along the branches on all +fours, stepping warily. Koppenfels saw a full-grown +animal, as danger approached, spring down +from a tree which was thirty or forty feet high, +and then hastily crash through the brushwood. All +Huxley’s informants concur in the assertion that +there is only one adult male attached to each group. +As soon as the young male reaches maturity, a conflict +for the mastery takes place, and, after his rival is +killed or driven away, the stronger animal becomes +the head of the community.</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the diet of the gorilla. +Koppenfels once observed a male and female with +two young ones when they were feeding. The head<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> +of the family remained at his ease, while his wife +and children plucked fruits for him from a small +tree which stood by, and if they were not sufficiently +nimble, or if they took too large a share for themselves, +the old gorilla growled furiously and inflicted +a box on the ear.</p> + +<p>The gorilla is regarded as a dreadful and very +dangerous animal by the negroes who inhabit the +same country, and who themselves are often deficient +in spirit, while their tales of exaggerated horror +serve to increase their scanty fame as hunters. And +what even the luxuriant fancy of negroes could not +paint as sufficiently terrible has been exaggerated +by Du Chaillu for the benefit of his readers. We +will not here repeat these bloodthirsty tales, of +which Brehm justly says that they seem to have +been devised by an indifferent romance-writer, who +has given his pen free play.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> In the letters to +Bastian, which are in my hands, Koppenfels has +endeavoured to modify the accounts of the alleged +ferocity of the gorilla. This appears in the fragment +of poetry given by that esteemed traveller in +one of his letters.</p> + +<p>The same author writes in another place: “As +long as the gorilla is unmolested he does not attack +men—and indeed, rather avoids the encounter.” +These apes generally utter deep guttural sounds, +sometimes protracted like <em>kh-eh, kh-eh</em>, sometimes +roaring or growling. When the animal is scared by +man, he generally takes to flight screaming, and he +only assumes the defensive if wounded or driven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> +into a corner. At such times his size, strength, and +dexterity makes him a by no means despicable +enemy. He sends forth a kind of howl or furious +yelp, stands up on his hind legs like an enraged +bear, advances with clumsy gait in this position +and attacks his enemy. At the same time the hair +on his head and the nape of the neck stands erect, +his teeth are displayed, and his eyes flash with +savage fury. He beats his massive breast with his +fists, or fights the air with them. Koppenfels adds +that if no further provocation is given, and his +opponent gradually retreats before the animal’s rage +has reached its highest point, he does not return to +the attack. In other cases he parries the blows +directed against him with the skill of a practised +fighter; as is also done by the bear, he grasps his +opponent by the arm and crunches it, or else throws +the man down and rends him with his terrible +canine teeth.</p> + +<p>The native hunter stalks the gorilla and kills him +with his firearm. Savage states that the hunter +awaits the approach of his prey with levelled gun, +and if he cannot take a sure aim he allows the +animal to seize the barrel of the gun, and fires +when, as is commonly the case, he tries to carry it +to his mouth. If the weapon does not go off, the +barrel, which is not strongly made, is crushed between +his teeth. When hunters of the Ogōwē are +attacked by a gorilla, they will sometimes make +a last attempt to defend themselves from the animal’s +fury with the axe used for felling trees. Buchholz +told me that he had seen the skin of a male gorilla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> +which was injured in the region of the arms, probably +in this way. But such a duel generally ends +in the death of the hunter.</p> + +<p>Pechuël-Lösche talked with two Loango hunters +who had killed gorillas. They stated that they had +not gone in search of the dreaded animals, but that +they chanced to encounter them in the forest. +Only if they met a solitary animal did they venture +to creep close to it and shoot it, and then they +escaped as quickly as possible in order to be safe +from the fury of any of its companions which might +be lingering near. After several hours they would +return in a larger company to carry off their prey. +In Loango the flesh of these animals was not eaten; +but, according to Ford and Savage, it was cooked +by the negroes, in the Gaboon territory, and constituted +one of their favourite dainties.</p> + +<p>Up to this time Europeans have been rarely +successful in killing gorillas. Du Chaillu asserts +that he has been one of the luckiest, but this +assertion has been disputed by others. Fruitless +attempts were made by Winwood Reade, de Compiègne, +Buchholz, Lenz, and de Brazza. In the +letters quoted above from Koppenfels to Bastian, he +mentions that he had already, up to March, 1874, +four gorillas. In the number of the <i class="taxonomy">Gartenlaube</i> shot +which we have mentioned above, he describes some +of his hunting adventures, and goes into details +scarcely adapted for the readers of such a publication. +On December 24, 1874, Koppenfels, accompanied +by a young Galloa, was on the shores of Lake +Eliva, observing a gorilla family, consisting of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> +parents and two young ones. The female climbed +up an iba, or wild mango tree, and shook down its +fruits. The male went to the water’s edge to drink, +and was then shot by Koppenfels, while the female +and her young swiftly escaped. Another time this +traveller was in the neighbourhood of Busu, in the +Bakalayan country, which is on the Eliva Sanka, +and is bounded on the south-east by the mountains +of Aschangolo and by extensive primeval forests. +It was here that he observed the troop of chimpanzees +and gorillas of which we have already +spoken, feeding on the kola nuts, of which they are +very fond. He shot a large and a small specimen +of the chimpanzee; and again in the Aschangolo +mountains he shot a male gorilla, 1090 mm. in +height. The bullet pierced the animal’s heart, and +it sprang into the air with outstretched arms, and +then crashed down upon its face. It dragged down +in its fall a liana of great strength with all its dry +and green branches.</p> + +<p>Adult male gorillas attain to a height varying +between 1500 to 2000 mm., and very rarely exceed +that height. The height of the females is about +1500 mm. An ape of this species, examined by +Ford, weighed 170 lb. without the viscera. The +gorilla shot by Koppenfels in the Aschangolo mountains +was more than 400 lbs. in weight. By the +people of Mpongwe, Orungu, Kamma, Galloa, and +Bakalay the gorilla is called Njina, Njeïna, or +Indjina, and by the people of Fan it is called +Nguyala. On the Loango coast it is called N’Pungu +or M’Pungu.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p> + +<p>As I have already remarked, the chimpanzee +occupies a much wider area than the gorilla. In +West Africa it is found in the latitude of the Portuguese +territory, which ranges from Cachêu in the +north down to the Coanza in the south. The species +is known to exist in certain districts of north and +south Central Africa, and its presence is surmised in +East Africa, to the south of Abyssinia, in the Djuba +territory, and, as the missionary A. Nachtigall asserts, +even in the remote district of Sofalla in the south-east +of Africa, but I cannot pledge myself to the +truth of this fact.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzee is also a denizen of forests. They +subsist on wild fruits of various kinds, but they will +also visit forsaken plantations, and even those which +are still under cultivation, and in some cases it seems +that they do not reject animal food. Pechuël-Lösche +says that on the Loango coast they frequent the +mountains and their vicinity. They are found in the +district of Luemme as far as the lagoon of Tschissambo, +and in those of Kuilu and Banya, as far as +the coast.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzee either lives in separate families +or in small groups of families. In many districts, +as, for example, in the forest regions of Central +Africa, its habits are even more arboreal than those +of the gorilla. Elsewhere, as, for instance, on the +south-west coast, it seems to live more upon the +ground. The bam-chimpanzee of Niam-Niam inhabits +the galleries, as they were called by Piaggia +and Schweinfurth; that is, the forest trees growing +one above the other in stages, of which the growth is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> +so dense that it is difficult to get at them. Here +the pisang plantain rises from the soil. The powerful +stems, thickly overgrown with wild pepper, bear +branches from which hang long streams of bearded +moss, and also a parasitic growth of that remarkable +fern to which Schweinfurth gave the name of +elephant’s ear. The large tun-shaped structures of +the tree-termites are found on the higher branches. +Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports +for the colossal streamers of <i class="taxonomy">Mucuna urens</i>, and form +bowers overhung with impenetrable festoons, which +are as large as houses, in which perpetual darkness +reigns.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p> + +<p>When the chimpanzee goes on all fours, he +generally supports himself on the backs of his closed +fingers rather than on the palm of the hand, and he +goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes +on the closed toes. His gait also is weak and +vacillating, and he can stand upright on his feet for +a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same +time he seeks support for his hands, or clasps them +above his head, which is a little thrown back, in +order to maintain his balance.</p> + +<p>These animals send forth loud cries, which echo +plaintively through the great tropical forests. +Pechuël-Lösche says that the horrible wails, the +furious shrieks and howls, which may be heard +morning and evening, and often in the night, make +these creatures truly hateful to travellers. “Since +they are really accomplished in the art of bringing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> +forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard +at a great distance, and are reproduced by the echoes, +it is impossible to estimate the number of those +who take part in the dreary noise, but often we +seemed to hear more than a hundred. They generally +remain upon the ground among the dense underwood +and thickets of scitamine, and only climb trees +for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be +plainly discerned on soft ground: they stop short +wherever the <i class="taxonomy">amomum</i> grows, of which they are very +fond, and the red husks of its fruit may be seen +scattered all around.” The same narrator observes +that the mischievous and active sea-cat monkeys, +which abound on the Loango, frequently provoke +the defenceless chimpanzees by their malicious +tricks until the tormented creatures cause the forest +to echo with their discordant cries.</p> + +<p>These animals wander about, always in search of +fresh feeding-grounds. They also construct nests +and, as Koppenfels states, the male passes the night +below the nest of his family, which is placed on +a forked branch. Du Chaillu asserts that the +Nschiego-Mbouvé also builds a pent-house. An +illustration of this structure, which is only moderately +successful, and has undoubtedly been embellished +in London, is given by him. Koppenfels +believes that the so-called pent-house is only the +family nest, under which the male places himself; +while Reichenfels thinks it possible that some +parasitic growth, perhaps a <i class="taxonomy">Loranthus</i>, gave rise to +the belief that such a pent-house is erected.</p> + +<p>When chimpanzees are provoked they strike the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> +ground with their hands, but they do not, as the +gorilla does, beat their breasts with the fist. They +generally take to flight at the sight of men, but if +driven to extremity, or wounded, they defend themselves +with their hands and teeth. The direct +conflict with a full-grown chimpanzee demands, in +order to obtain the mastery over him, all the +strength and presence of mind of a strong and +courageous man. I shall always remember the large +female animal at Hamburg, which was able to stand +up against a powerful man. Great daring was +required to control the fury of Mafuca. The Soko +also, which Livingstone found in Manyema, to the +west of Lake Tanganyika, bravely defended itself, +when attacked.</p> + +<p>The native hunters shoot chimpanzees with firearms +or arrows, and also kill them with javelins. +The Niam-Niam tribe go in hunting-parties of +twenty or thirty men, to track the bam in the woodland +galleries so closely interwoven by the liana, and +when they have thrown nets over these, they kill +the animals with lances. Their flesh is eaten in +different parts of Africa, and their skulls sometimes +serve for fetishes. In a Niam-Niam village, by the +stream Diamwonu, Schweinfurth saw the skulls of +men, chimpanzees, sea-cat monkeys, baboons, antelopes, +wild boars, etc., hung on the stump of a tree.</p> + +<p>In the Gaboon district, as we have already said, +the chimpanzee is called Nschégo, Nschiego, +Ndjéko, and the same names serve for the people +of Mpongwe, Galloa, Kamma, and Orungu. By +the people of Aschira and Malimba the animal is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> +called Kulu. The natives of Niam-Niam call the +chimpanzee Ranja or Mandjaruma. The traders +who speak Arabic adopt the name Bam or M’Bam.</p> + +<p>The orang-utan is found in the large Asiatic +islands of Borneo and Sumatra, more frequently in +the former island. It is particularly common a few +days’ journey to the west of Sungi-Kapajan, on the +river Sampiet, in Kotaringin, and in other remote +districts on the southern and western coasts.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> The +Dyaks of Long-Wai told the traveller Bock that the +orang was also found further to the north, and at +Teweh, as well as in Dusem, to the west of Kutai.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> +Wallace states that this animal is widely diffused +in Borneo, inhabiting many parts of the south-west, +south-east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but that +it is restricted to the low-lying marshy forests. It +seems at first sight inexplicable that this ape should +be unknown in Sarawak, while it abounds in Sambas +on the west, and in Sadong on the east, but a closer +acquaintance with the habits and mode of life of +the orang enables us to discern sufficient grounds +for the apparent anomaly in the physical conditions +of Sarawak. In Sadong, where Wallace observed +the orang, he only found it in low marshy districts +which were at the same time covered with primeval +forests. Many isolated hills rise from these +marshes, upon which the Dyaks have settled, and +have planted them with fruit trees. These are a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> +great attraction to the orang, which devours the +unripe fruits, and then retires again to the marsh. +He cannot live on high and dry ground. Thus, for +example, he comes in troops into the low parts of +the Sadong valley; but on reaching the limits where +the ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible, and the +ground, though flat, is dry, the orang is no longer +found. The lower part of the Sadong valley is +indeed marshy, but it is not covered throughout +with a growth of tall trees, only for the most part +with the Nipa palm; and near the town of Sarawak, +the country becomes dry and hilly, interspersed +with scattered tracts of primeval forest, and with +jungle which was formerly cultivated by the Malays +and Dyaks.</p> + +<p>The orang is more rare in Sumatra than in Borneo, +and in the former island is chiefly found in the +north-eastern districts of Siak and Atjin. Rosenberg +states that the orang only frequents the flat, marshy +forests on the coast between Tapanoli and Singkel, +living in thick woods which, on account of their +impenetrability, are seldom trodden by the foot of +man.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzee also frequents the marshy forests +which are not too thickly overgrown, while the +gorilla prefers such tablelands as are not wholly +devoid of water.</p> + +<p>Wallace declares that a large area of unbroken +and tolerably high primeval forest is necessary for +the well-being of the orang. Such forests are like +open ground to them, since they can move to and +fro in every direction, with the same ease that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> +Indians cross the prairie and the Arabs the desert; +they go from the top of one tree to the other without +ever touching the ground. Those tracts of country +which stand high and dry, being more frequented by +men, and more often traversed by clearings, and +subsequently covered with a low-growing jungle, +are unsuitable to the motions characteristic of this +animal. He is, in these tracts, more exposed to +danger, and more frequently constrained to descend +upon the ground. It is also probable that in the district +frequented by orangs there is a greater variety +of fruits, since the low hills, which stand like islands +in the marshy plain, serve as gardens or plantations +in which the trees of the hill country flourish.</p> + +<p>Wallace observes that it is strange and interesting +to watch an orang passing at his ease through +the forest. He goes with circumspection along one +of the larger branches in a half-upright position, +which is rendered necessary by the great length of +his arms and the shortness of his legs. He seems +always to choose such trees as have their branches +interwoven with those which surround them, and +when these are within reach he extends his long +arms, seizes the boughs in question with both hands, +as if to try their strength, then swings himself carefully +on to the next branch, and goes on as before. +The woodcut we subjoin, taken from a photograph +by Hermes, in the Berlin Aquarium, may help to +explain this ape’s mode of climbing<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> (<a href="#i_63">Fig. 63</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p> + +<figure id="i_63" class="figcenter port" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img src="images/i_p244.jpg" width="1384" height="1689" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">Fig. 63.—Climbing orang-utan, seen from behind. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>As Wallace further remarks, the orang never +leaps or springs, seems to be in no haste, and yet +makes his way through the forest almost as fast as +a man can run on the ground below. His long,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> +powerful arms are of the greatest use, enabling him +to climb the highest trees with ease, to seize the +fruits and young leaves from branches which would +not bear his weight, and to collect the young leaves +and boughs with which he forms his nest. This +structure, which serves for his nocturnal refuge, is +generally placed on some low, small tree, which +stands only from twenty to fifty feet from the +ground, probably because such a situation is warmer +and less exposed to the wind. It is said that the +orang makes a fresh layer for himself every night, +but Wallace thinks this improbable, since, in this +case, the deserted nest would be more frequently +found; this author saw some such nests in the neighbourhood +of the coal mines of Simunjon, but since +many orangs must have been there every day, in +the course of a year their forsaken layers would be +very numerous. The Dyaks say that when the +orang is wet he covers himself with pandanus-leaves +or large ferns, and this has perhaps led to the +belief that he builds himself a hut in the trees. +The orang only leaves his layer when the sun is +tolerably high, and the dew has dried off the leaves. +He feeds throughout the middle of the day, but +seldom returns two days running to the same tree.</p> + +<p>These animals seem to be much afraid of man. +Wallace never saw two full-grown specimens together, +but both male and female are often accompanied by +their half-grown young, and three or four young +animals may be seen going about together without +their parents. The orang generally lives on fruit, +but occasionally also on leaves, buds, and young<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> +shoots, as, for instance, on the bamboo. They are +particularly fond of the durian, of which the smell +is so offensive and the taste so good (<i class="taxonomy">Durio +zibethinus</i>). They destroy much more than they +consume, and leave many fragments below the +trees on which they have been feeding. I do not +know whether orangs, as well as gorillas and chimpanzees, +display any taste for carnivorous food. +Huxley, who has collected much information about +anthropoids which is not accessible to others, states +that it is not known whether the orang destroys +living animals.</p> + +<p>The same naturalist terms the orang’s gait on all +fours laborious and unsteady. If chased, he runs +faster than a man, but is soon overtaken. The very +long arms, which are only slightly bent in running, +raise the body in a remarkable way, so that the +orang almost assumes the position of a very old +man, bowed by age, who supports himself with a +stick. When walking, this ape places the closed +fingers, or rarely the open palm, of the hands upon +the ground. The toes of the feet are also curved +inwards, so that the outer edge of the foot is turned +downwards. More rarely the toes are completely +closed, or the whole of the sole of the foot serves as +the support. The use of the outer edge of the foot +in walking, as Huxley justly observes, is such as to +bring the heel more upon the ground, while the +curved toes partly touch the ground with the +upper surface of their first phalanges, and the surface +of the outermost toes of each foot rest altogether +on the ground.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span></p> + +<p>Wallace says that the orang seldom comes down +upon the ground, and indeed only when he is driven +by hunger to seek for the juicy young shoots on the +banks of rivers, or when in very dry weather he goes +down to the water, of which he generally finds a +sufficient supply in the hollow of leaves. This +traveller on only one occasion saw two half-grown +orangs on the ground in a dry hole at the foot of +the Simunjon hills. They were at play together, +standing upright and alternately seizing each other +by the arms. This observer also considers that the +orang is only able to stand upright when he +has some support for his hands, or when he is +attacked.</p> + +<p>Like other anthropoids in a state of nature, when +the orang drinks, he crouches down to the water’s +edge and sucks in the liquid with his lips. Occasionally, +also, he draws water in the palm of his hand, +and gulps or licks it off; at any rate, he does this +when in captivity. In an old number of the <cite>Penny +Magazine</cite> there is a woodcut of an orang which is +very true to nature, in which he is represented as +squatting down by the water, washing his hands, +and this is really his habit.</p> + +<p>Müller and Schlegel<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> state that the adult males +live alone except during the pairing season. Aged +females and young males are often seen together in +parties of two or three, and the mothers generally +keep their young with them. Pregnant females +generally live apart, and continue to do so for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> +good while after the birth has taken place. The +young, which are slow in coming to maturity, live +long under the protection of their mother, who, +when she is climbing, carries her little ones in her +bosom, while they cling to her long, shaggy hair. +It is not yet ascertained at what age the orang +becomes capable of propagating his species, nor how +long the females continue to bring forth young.</p> + +<p>This animal is slow, phlegmatic, and has none of +the agility of the chimpanzee, nor even of the +gibbon. Hunger alone seems to prompt his actions, +and when appetite is appeased the animal relapses +into repose. In sitting, the back is so bent, and the +head so depressed, that the orang’s eyes are directed +downwards to the earth. Sometimes he holds on +with his hands to the higher branches, but generally +his arms fall idly by his sides. In such positions +the orang will remain for hours in his place, almost +motionless, and only occasionally sending forth a +note of his deep, gruff voice. By day he is accustomed +to go from one tree-top to another, and he +only comes down to the ground at night. When +anything occurs to scare him, he conceals himself +in the underwood. When not hunted, he remains +long in one place, and indeed, for several days together +on the same tree. He seldom passes the +night on a high tree, which he finds too cold and +windy, and when night approaches he scrambles +down to the lower and more sheltered parts, or to +the top of some low, leafy tree, such as the Nibong +palm, the pandanus, or the parasitic orchids which +are characteristic of the primeval forests of Borneo.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> +He constructs his nest out of small branches and +leaves, laid crosswise, and lined with fronds, or with +the leaves of orchids, <i class="taxonomy">Pandanus fascicularis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Nipa +fruticans</i>, etc. The nests observed by Müller were +some of them still quite fresh, placed at a height of +from ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and were +from two to three feet in diameter. Some of them +had a lining of pandanus leaves several inches thick. +In others the branches intertwined for a foundation +were united in a common centre, forming a uniform +surface.</p> + +<p>The Dyaks say that the orang generally leaves +his lair about nine a.m., and repairs to it again about +five p.m., or a little later, when it is growing dusk. +He sometimes lies on his back, or, by way of change, +on his side, drawing his legs up to his body, and +supporting his head on his hand. When the night +is cold, windy, or rainy, he covers his body, and +especially his head, with pandanus or nipa leaves, +or with fronds of fern.</p> + +<p>Although the orang lives in the daytime on the +branches of large trees, he seldom crouches on a +thick bough, as other apes, and especially the +gibbon, are in the habit of doing. He keeps rather to +the slender, leafy branches, so that he really reaches +the tree-top. He has not the sessor-callosities found +on other apes, including the gibbon, and the hips +are not so wide and prominent as in those species +provided with callosities.</p> + +<p>The orang is a slow and deliberate climber. He +is particularly careful about his feet, and seems +much more sensitive to any injury to them than is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> +the case with other apes. In climbing he alternately +uses one hand and one foot, or else, as soon +as he has taken a firm hold with his hands, he draws +up both feet together. In his passage from one +tree to another, he always looks out for a place +where two branches come close together, or intertwine. +Even when hotly pursued, he displays +wonderful caution, trying the strength of the +branches, and pressing them down by the weight of +his body, so as to make a bridge from tree to tree. +On this point the accounts of the Dutch naturalists +essentially agree with those of Wallace.</p> + +<p>There is an eager search for these apes in their +native place. Bock states the Malays of Samarinda, +in the south-east of Borneo, capture them near the +small brooks and streams which flow into the +Mahakkam close to that town. These animals come +down to the river-bank in the early morning and +return in the course of the day to the thicket. +When the natives take an orang alive, they sell him +for three dollars to the Chinese, who at first feed +the animal on fruit, and afterwards on rice, but are +never able to keep him alive for any time in +captivity.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a></p> + +<p>Although, in the ordinary course of his existence, +the orang shows himself to be melancholy, slothful, +and indifferent, yet in moments of danger he becomes +angry and able to defend himself. When pursued, +he is said to pelt his aggressors with broken branches, +and the thick, thorny outer husks of the durian fruit. +This is the more probable since the Tscheladas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> +(<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus Gelada</i>), the Hamadryas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus +Hamadryas</i>), and other baboons are in the habit of +hurling branches, stones, and hardened clods of +earth with great adroitness at those who attack +them. In a hand-to-hand fight, the orang seizes the +arm of his opponent, biting and scratching it whenever +he can get at it. Wallace says that no wild +animal ventures to fight with these powerful creatures, +and that they can even obtain the mastery +over crocodiles and gigantic snakes.</p> + +<p>The name orang-utan is derived from the words +orang, man, and utan (belonging to woods), and is +therefore merely wood-man. It is an error to write +orang-<em>utang</em>, which, according to Von Martens, +signifies an <em>indebted</em> man.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> The Malay name, meias, +is often used, and they are distinguished as meias-pappan +or zino, meias-kassu, and meias-rambi. According +to Rosenberg, the orang is called mawas +in Sumatra, and Bock says that the Dyaks of Dusun +call it këu.</p> + +<p>The gibbon in all its movements, and especially +in those of its long arms, has a very singular +appearance. In the second chapter of this work I +have already described the geographical distribution +and grouping of the species of these remarkable +animals. Although they occasionally come down +upon the ground, they are for the most part arboreal +in their habits. They prefer the tropical forests of +high and even of mountainous districts to any others. +Many find shelter in the bamboo thickets, especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> +in those formed by the gigantic stems of <i class="taxonomy">Bambusa +macroculmis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Bambusa gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>The siamang, properly Si-Amang, since Rosenberg +asserts that the first syllable is merely the article, +lives gregariously in Sumatra, and possibly in +Malacca. Martens saw one of these animals in +Sumatra, swinging himself from tree to tree, right +across the path, about fifty feet in front of him. +Diard states that a powerful old male acts as leader +to each troop. They raise a fearful clamour at sunrise, +and keep quiet during the day, always on the +watch, and scampering off at the slightest noise. +They find it easy to get away on trees, but, according +to some accounts, when surprised upon the +ground, they show no agility, and are readily +captured. Rosenberg says that in Sumatra the +siamang and unko inhabit mountainous forests +3000 ft. above the sea, keeping to the trees which +grow on the mountain-side, and rarely descending +to the ground. At the slightest sign of danger +they hasten down the mountain with speed which +rivals the flight of birds, in order in a few moments +to disappear in the dark ravines. In the forests +which partly enclose Tobing, as well as on the +mountains of Barissa, the siamang is not rare. Bock +says that in the recesses of the Sumatran forests, +this animal subsists chiefly on the leaves of a plant +called <i class="taxonomy">Daun simantung</i>. This ape makes a horrible +roaring noise.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> When a young one is wounded, its +mother turns in a threatening manner towards the +aggressor, yet without being able to do him any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> +serious injury. The mothers seem to act with great +tenderness towards their young, taking them down +to the water to wash and dry them, etc. Diard affirms +that before they are able to run alone the young +animals are always carried by the parent of the +same sex, the male by the father, the female by the +mother. The siamang must fall an easy prey to +tigers and panthers (<i class="taxonomy">Felis macroscelis</i>). The species +is considered by the natives to be slothful and +unintelligent; and Bock adds that, although the +Malays are skilled in the care of animals, they are +unable to keep these stupid and slothful apes alive +in captivity for any length of time.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p> + +<p>Harlan states that the hulock is found on the +Garrau mountains, near Gulpara, in Assam. These +apes prefer the adjoining hilly ground to the +mountains themselves, which are several hundred +feet higher, and exposed to the winds. Their +favourite food is a fruit called propul, which is very +abundant in this district. A traveller named Owen +encountered troops of these animals, from 100 to +150 together, near the Naga and the Abors in the +wooded hills to the east of Assam. The noise they +made was deafening. On one occasion, when Owen +crossed their path, he was threatened by them, and +pursued with angry gestures and piercing howls. +They had also attacked a native of the district. +Snakes of considerable size (<i class="taxonomy">Python reticulatus</i>) +were torn to pieces by them.</p> + +<p>The wauwau, or, as Martens calls it, the uwa-uwa,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> +appears to live more commonly in pairs than in +troops. We learn from Duvaucel that these animals +move through the trees with great swiftness, grasping +the slenderest and most flexible branches. They +swing two or three times to and fro, and then spring +with outstretched arms so that the flat surface of +the body resists the air like a parachute, and in this +way they can pass through spaces of forty feet, and +go on for hours without fatigue.</p> + +<p>Gibbons are generally more capable than other +anthropoids of walking upright. Some species, +such as the lar, the white-handed, and the slender +gibbon, display special dexterity and endurance in +maintaining this position. They press the flat soles +of their feet upon the ground, turn out their knees +and toes, hold their bodies fairly erect, draw the +shoulders together, and place their half-bent arms +by their sides, with the slender hands hanging +slackly down. Others walk with their raised arms +crossed above the head. When a gibbon is walking +on perfectly flat ground, he sways his arms to +and fro like balancing poles. On irregular ground +they seize any projection in the way with their outstretched +arms, and, holding on to it, swing the +body strongly forwards. In this way they make +better progress over wide tracks of country, since +every such effort enables them to pass more readily +over difficult ground. When in great haste, they +go upon all fours without closing either fingers +or toes. In repose, these animals take a sitting +position upon their posteriors, cross their long arms +and stare at whatever is before them with an air<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> +of indifference. When seated on the branches of +trees, they lay hold of the higher branches above +them for the sake of security (<a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>). In this +position some gibbons (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates lar</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hulock</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Albimanus</i>) +have recently been photographed in the +Zoological Gardens, London. Although they are for +the most part content with a vegetable diet, gibbons +sometimes eat animal food, such as lizards; and +Bennet saw a siamang seize and devour one of these +animals whole. I do not at this moment remember +Huxley’s authority for the statement that gibbons, +when they drink, dip the hand in water and lick it +off, but I have myself seen this done by a captive +animal. They sleep in a sitting position without +building nests: like other anthropoids, they digest +their food quickly.</p> + +<p>In the case of gibbons, as of anthropoids generally, +the length of the period of gestation is still a matter +of uncertainty. The young are of slow development, +and are not fully mature before their fourteenth +or fifteenth year. Neither is the duration +of their lives accurately known, since observations +made on captive specimens only lead to vague conclusions. +If we observe the processes of osseous +development in the skeletons of aged specimens of +gorillas in order to make an approximate estimate, +we may infer that the duration of the life of anthropoids, +at any rate in their larger forms, hardly falls +short of the average length of human life. But up +to this time the question remains undecided.</p> + +<p>These creatures do not appear to be free from +morbid conditions in the wild life which is in conformity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> +with their nature. In addition to the +injuries to the hide and skeleton which may often +be observed, and which have been caused by the +weapons of man, or by the teeth and claws of their +own kind, there are often traces, especially on the +skulls of chimpanzees, of the decay of teeth and +maxillary necrosis, as well as of curvatures, excrescences, +and united fractures of other parts of the +bony structure.</p> + +<p>This brief description is enough to show that +anthropoids in their free life develop an intelligence +which sets them high above the other mammals. +They do not, however, display the keenness of scent +and quickness of sight which distinguish some +animals of a lower order, such as canine beasts +of prey and ruminants manifest in many different +ways. The structure of their nests is rude in comparison +with that of some other mammals—as, for +example, of rodents. But we must not forget that +several of the lower races of men, such as the +degraded Bedja, the Obongo, the Fuegians, many +aborigines of the Brazilian forests, and the Australian +blacks, scarcely rise above the inartificial structure +of an anthropoid’s nest in the construction of their +huts.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><span id="toclink_257"></span>CHAPTER VI.<br> + +<span class="subhead">LIFE IN CAPTIVITY.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> accounts given by the earliest observers of +gorillas would lead us to expect that the attempt +to tame even young apes of this species must be +fruitless. Du Chaillu tells us that he obtained a +young male gorilla, a creature of from two to three +years old, which was quite as furious and unmanageable +as any adult specimen could have been. The +negroes of the district between the Rembo and +Cape Santa Catharina had surprised the mother +and her young one in the forest, and after killing +the former, they succeeded, with great difficulty, in +capturing the latter by throwing a cloth over his +head. By means of a wooden slave-fork, fixed upon +its neck, the animal was transported to the village +in which Du Chaillu was staying at the time. +Young as he was, the gorilla displayed extraordinary +strength, and after he had been successfully +fastened into his cage, he contrived to attack +his new master again, tearing his trousers, and then +retreating sullenly into a corner. He would only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> +eat the wild berries and fruits collected for him in +the forest, and also the soft parts of pine-apple +leaves. He escaped from his cage, and was only +recaptured, after many fruitless endeavours, by +throwing a net over him. The traveller adds that +he had never seen so furious a creature as this +gorilla. He flew at every one who came near him, +bit the bamboo lattice-work of his cage, and showed, +on every possible occasion, that he was of a thoroughly +malicious and unkindly nature. He broke +loose a second time, and was again captured, and at +the end of ten days he died suddenly.</p> + +<p>Somewhat later Du Chaillu obtained a young +female gorilla, which clung affectionately to its +mother’s dead body, so that all the spectators were +affected by its grief. The creature was too young +to be fed on anything but milk, and since this was +unattainable, it died three days after its capture.</p> + +<p>Reade, Lenz, and Buchholz were more fortunate +in their experience with the gorillas captured by +them, and Lenz wrote to me as follows about one +of these animals:—“On my return to the Gaboon +from a journey to Okanda, I was attacked by a somewhat +serious fever which hung about me for a long +while. A living gorilla, which was brought to the +German factory on the Gaboon, was some compensation +to me for this involuntary idleness. The +creature came from Kamma (Fernand Vaz), the +place from which Du Chaillu also obtained his +specimens, and was captured out of a troop of eight +animals. A small dog, which had been somewhat +injured by an old gorilla, afterwards killed, prevented<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> +the young one from escaping until a negro +came up, seized it by the neck, and got another +man to bind its hands. In this way the gorilla was +conveyed to the basket-factory of the house, and +there, as is unfortunately done in most cases, the +two large canine teeth were filed off for fear of his +using them to bite his captors.</p> + +<p>“This gorilla is a young, male specimen, probably +two years old, and has reconciled himself to captivity +and to intercourse with men with no great +difficulty. A long, slender iron chain is fastened +round his neck, which gives him plenty of room to +move about; but for the greater part of the day +he sits in a cask, and makes himself very comfortable +in the straw. He is very susceptible to cold, +wind, and rain, and a thick sail-cloth is wrapped +round the cask at night. He generally adopts a +squatting position, with his arms folded across his +breast, and he is always observant of surrounding +objects. He always seats himself so as to have +nothing at his back, but to keep his enemies before +him. When asleep, he stretches himself at full +length on his back or side, using one hand as a kind +of pillow; and he never sleeps like other apes, in a +squatting position. He goes upon all-fours with +the soles of his hindhands on the ground, while +the forehands are closed, so that he goes upon the +knuckles, and he has the lateral gait characteristic +of the species. At this moment he suffers terribly +from the so-called dissous or sand-fly; both his forehands +are full of blisters, which contain the eggs of +this annoying little insect.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p> + +<p>“In any attempt to transport the gorilla, the question +of food is necessarily the most important. We +have already offered him rice, bread, milk, etc., such +things as may be obtained on board ship, as well as +in Europe, but with indifferent success. He has +occasionally eaten some bread, and has taken ship’s +biscuit more readily, and once he ate some rice, +but for the most part he does not touch it. His +favourite food is a red fruit, very common here, of +which he eats the inner kernel; he is likewise fond +of bananas and oranges, and above all, of sugar-cane, +which he takes from my hand with evident +pleasure, and chews. He will also take a glass of +water from my hand, carry it steadily to his mouth, +and drink it up. Only on rare occasions, when he +was much excited, I have heard him utter a growling +noise; generally he is quite dumb.” This +animal died on the voyage to Europe, and its body, +preserved in rum by Pansch and Bolau, was used by +me in some of the researches of which I have given +an account.</p> + +<p>Falkenstein gives an attractive description of the +gorilla represented in Figs. <a href="#i_3">3</a>, <a href="#i_4">4</a>, during the first +months of his captivity: “When this animal reached +the station (Chinxoxo, in Loango) it was our first +care to procure all the forest fruits within reach, +as well as a she-goat, in order to restore the young +anthropoid’s failing strength. It can easily be supposed +that we watched his attempts to eat with +great interest, and were very much relieved when +he not only readily drank milk, but ate various +fruits with evident increase of appetite, and especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> +those of <i class="taxonomy">Anona senegalensis</i>, which are of +about the size of a walnut, with a rough husk, and +grow in the savannahs. In spite of this, however, +he remained for a long while so weak that he would +fall asleep while eating, and he passed great part of +the day crouching asleep in a corner. He gradually +became accustomed to cultivated fruits, such as +bananas, guavas, oranges, and mangoes, and as he +became stronger, and was more often present at our +meals, he began to demand for himself whatever +he saw us eating. Since he was thus gradually +accustomed to eat all kinds of food, the likelihood +of transporting him successfully to Europe was +increased.”</p> + +<p>This is perhaps the only way in which other +and possibly older specimens can be rendered fit to +endure the passage to Europe. Every attempt to +embark them immediately after their capture, without +previously weaning them from their old modes +of life, and adapting them slowly and systematically +to their altered conditions, has invariably resulted, +sooner or later, in sickness and death. Falkenstein +also recommends, relying on the experience he has +had of apes in a state of nature, that this species +should be supplied with some form of animal food. +He gives this further account of the captive +<span class="locked">gorilla:—</span></p> + +<p>“In the course of a few weeks he became so accustomed +to his surroundings, and to the people whom +he knew, that he was allowed to run about at +liberty, without fear that he would make any attempt +to escape. He was never chained, nor confined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> +to a cage, and was watched only in the way +that little children are watched when they are at +play. He was so conscious of his own helplessness +that he clung to human companionship, and displayed +in this manner a wonderful dependence and +trustfulness. He showed no trace of mischievous, +malicious, or savage qualities, but was sometimes +self-willed. He expressed the ideas which occurred +to him by different sounds, one of which was the +characteristic tone of importunate petition, while +others expressed fright or horror, and in rare instances +a sullen and defiant growl might be +heard.</p> + +<p>“In his moods of exuberant satisfaction and +simple pleasure, he might be seen to rub his breast +with both fists, while raising himself on his hind +legs. Moreover, he often expressed his feelings +after quite a human fashion, by clapping his hands +together, an action which no one had taught him; +and he executed such wild dances, sometimes overbalancing +himself, reeling to and fro, and whirling +round, that we were often disposed to think that +he must be drunk. Yet he was only drunk with +pleasure, and this impelled him to display his +strength in the wildest gambols.</p> + +<p>“His dexterity in eating was particularly remarkable. +If any of the other apes chanced to enter +his chamber nothing was safe from them; they +snatched greedily at everything, only to throw it +away with a certain aversion, or carelessly to let +it drop. The gorilla behaved quite differently: he +took up every cup or glass with instinctive care,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> +clasped the vessel with both hands, and set it down +again so softly and carefully that I cannot remember +his breaking a single article of our household goods. +Yet we never taught the creature the use of our +vessels and other manufactured articles, since we +wished to bring him to Europe, as far as possible in +a state of nature. His behaviour at meal-times was +quiet and mannerly; he only took as much as he +could hold with his thumb, fore, and middle finger, +and looked on with indifference when any of the +different forms of food heaped up before him were +taken away. If, however, nothing was given him, +he growled impatiently, looked narrowly at all the +dishes from his place at table, and accompanied +every plate carried off by the negro boys with an +angry snarl or a short, resentful cough, and sometimes +he sought to seize the arm of the passer-by +in order to express his displeasure more plainly by +a bite or a blow. In another minute he would play +with the negroes as with his fellows, and this distinguishes +him altogether from other apes, and +especially from baboons, who appear to feel an instinctive +hatred against many of the black race, and +take a peculiar pleasure in displaying their animosity +against them.</p> + +<p>“He drank by suction, stooping over the vessel +without even putting his hands into it or upsetting +it, and in the case of smaller vessels, he carried them +to his mouth. He was a skilful climber, but sometimes +his high spirits made him careless, and he +once fell to the ground from a tree, which was +fortunately not very high. His cleanliness was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> +remarkable, for if by accident he touched a spider’s +web, or rubbish of any kind, he sought to brush it +off with absurd horror, or held out his hands to have +it done for him. There was no offensive smell about +him. It was his favourite amusement to play and +paddle about in the water, nor did the fact that he +had just taken a bath prevent him from amusing +himself by rolling in the sand with other apes +immediately afterwards. His good-humour and +shyness, or rather roguishness, deserves special mention +as his strongest characteristic. When he was +chastised, as it was necessary to do at first, he never +resented the punishment, but came up with a beseeching +air, clinging to my feet, and looking up +with an expressive air which disarmed all displeasure. +When he was anxious to obtain anything, +no child could have expressed its wishes in a more +urgent and caressing manner. If in spite of this he +did not obtain what he wanted, he had recourse to +cunning, and looked anxiously about to see if he was +watched. It was just in these cases, when he obstinately +pursued a fixed idea, that it was impossible +not to recognize a deliberate plan and careful calculation. +If, for example, he was not allowed to leave +the room, or, again, was not allowed to come in, he +would, after several attempts to get his own way +had been baffled, apparently submit to his fate and +lie down near the door in question with assumed +indifference. But he soon raised his head in order +to ascertain whether fortune was on his side, edging +himself gradually nearer and nearer, and then, looking +carefully round, he twisted himself about until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> +he reached the threshold; then he got up, peered +cautiously round, and with one bound galloped off +so quickly that it was difficult to follow him.</p> + +<p>“He pursued his object with equal pertinacity +when he felt a desire for the sugar or fruit which +was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room; he +would suddenly leave off playing and go in an +opposite direction, only altering his course when he +believed that he was no longer observed. He then +went straight to the room and cupboard, opened it, +and made a quick and dexterous snatch at the sugar-box +or fruit-basket, sometimes closing the cupboard +doors behind him before beginning to enjoy his +plunder, or, if he was discovered, he would escape +with it, and his whole behaviour made it clear that +he was conscious of transgressing into forbidden +paths. He took a special, and what might be called +a childish, pleasure in making a noise by beating on +hollow articles, and he seldom omitted an opportunity +of drumming on casks, dishes, or tin trays, +whenever he passed by them—a noisy amusement to +which he was much addicted during our homeward +voyage on board the steam-vessel, in which he was +at liberty to roam about. He very much disliked +strange noises. Thunder, the rain falling on the +skylight, and especially the long-drawn note of a +pipe or trumpet threw him into such agitation as to +cause a sudden affection of the digestive organs, and +it became expedient to keep him at a distance. +When he was slightly indisposed, we made use of +this kind of music with results as successful as if we +had administered purgative medicine.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p> + +<p>My personal observations enable me to add but +little to this excellent and exhaustive account. It +is well known that this ape throve in the Berlin +Aquarium. His skin, especially on the extremities, +was at first covered with dry, cracked patches, which +the late veterinary surgeon Gerlach believed to be +due to mange; but these gradually disappeared, and +as they scaled off the skin became smooth and of a +dark black colour, and there was a fresh growth of +hair. The creature generally slept in the bed of his +keeper Viereck, covered himself up in an orderly +manner, and ate at the man’s table of plain but +nourishing food, cooked by the keeper’s wife. He +sometimes ate fruit, and bananas were occasionally +provided for him. When taking his meals, drinking, +etc., I saw that he always behaved with good +manners. He often moved freely about in an office-room +of the Aquarium, and he was as obedient to +the Director as to his keeper. He was generally +good-tempered, fond of play, but rather mischievous, +and he would snatch roughly, and occasionally try +the sharpness of his teeth. Sometimes he tried to +seize from visitors things which attracted his +curiosity, such as the trimmings of ladies’ bonnets, +lace falls, and the like. But on the whole he behaved +with propriety, playfulness, and good temper, +and there was much which resembled man in his +look and bearing.</p> + +<p>Early in 1876, before leaving Africa, this ape +suffered from malaria, and he subsequently suffered +from other complaints, from which he recovered. +He died in November, 1877, of a galloping consumption.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> +The gorilla now living in the Berlin +Aquarium is also very playful and affectionate.</p> + +<p>The chimpanzees which have up to this time been +observed in captivity, have been, while in good +health, lively and amusing animals, and generally +good-tempered. Buffon in 1740 possessed a specimen +about two years of age, and this ape always +walked upright, even when he carried heavy loads. +It is known that other apes can also be trained to +adopt this posture. Buffon’s chimpanzee had a +serious and melancholy expression, moved slowly, +was gentle and patient, and obedient to a word or +sign. He offered people his arm, walked with them +in an orderly manner, sat down to table like a man, +opened his napkin and wiped his lips with it, made +use of his spoon and fork, poured out wine and +clinked glasses, fetched a cup and saucer and put in +sugar, poured out tea, let it get cold before drinking +it; but, while doing all this, he did not seem happy. +He ate all the ordinary food of men, but preferred +fruit, and he was not so fond of wine as of milk, tea, +and sweet liqueurs. He was friendly with every one, +coming close to them, and taking pleasure in their +caresses. He took such a fancy to one lady, that +when other people approached her he seized a stick +and began to flourish it about, until Buffon intimated +his displeasure at such behaviour.</p> + +<p>Dr. Traill, of Liverpool, obtained a female chimpanzee +which likewise came from the Gaboon, and +which, as soon as she came on board, reached out her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> +hand to some of the sailors, and remained on good +terms with the whole crew, including the cabin-boy. +When the sailors were at meals the ape regularly +appeared, and begged for her portion. When angry +she made a baying noise like a dog, and on another +occasion she wailed like a spoiled child, scratching +herself vehemently. She was lively and cheerful in +warm regions, but the nearer the vessel approached to +northern latitudes the more inert she became, and was +glad to wrap herself in a warm coverlet. She seemed +uneasy in an upright position, and when she assumed +it she rested her hands on her thighs. Her hands +were very strong, and she could hold on to a cord and +swing for a long while without interruption. She +gradually acquired a taste for wine, and once stole +a bottle and uncorked it with her teeth. She was +fond of coffee and sweetmeats, ate with a spoon, drank +from a glass, and took pleasure in imitating the behaviour +of men. She was attracted by shining metals, +pleased with articles of clothing, and often put on +a hat. She was unclean, and of a timid disposition.</p> + +<p>According to the account of Captain Grandpré, a +female chimpanzee on board his vessel would heat +the oven, taking care that no coals fell out, and +carefully watching until it was of the right heat, of +which she would inform the baker. She fulfilled all +the duties of a sailor, such as drawing up the anchor, +furling and making fast the sails. She patiently +endured maltreatment by a brutal mate, stretching +out her hands imploringly to ward off his blows. +But after this she refused all food, and died in five +days of grief and hunger.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p> + +<p>A chimpanzee in Brosse’s possession was sick, +and twice blooded. When he again fell ill, he held +out his arm as if to demand another venesection.</p> + +<p>In reading these accounts, which have gone the +round of various old-fashioned books on natural +history, the question arises what we are or are not +to believe, for many particulars appear to be exaggerated. +Dr. Hermes, the director of the Berlin +Aquarium, disputes the assertion made by others +that the female chimpanzee, Molly, which was kept +for a long while in that establishment, poured out +wine for herself at an evening party, and clinked +glasses with a neighbour.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p> + +<p>There is, however, an account given by Broderip +of a male chimpanzee, which was brought from the +Gambia, and placed in the London Zoological +Gardens in 1835, which appears to be simple and +faithful. The creature, clothed in a little jacket, +nestled for the most part in the lap of an old female +keeper. When he had nothing else to do, he played +with his toes, just as a child does under like circumstances. +He took Broderip’s hand without fear, +and touched the ring on one of his fingers with his +teeth, but without bending it. He tried all artificial +substances with his teeth. He held fast to his +keeper’s gown when she proposed to leave him, and +he played with Broderip like a child. He displayed +great terror when an anaconda was brought into the +room in a basket, and did not dare to take an apple +from off the closed lid of the basket; but as soon as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> +the snake and its basket were removed, he ate the +apple and became cheerful again. He willingly +placed himself in a swing, and held on to the cords +with both hands. He generally slept in a sitting +position, leaning forwards with folded arms, or sometimes +resting his face on his hands. But he would +also sleep upon his belly, with his feet drawn up, +and his head on his arms.</p> + +<p>A male chimpanzee, which was kept in the Berlin +Aquarium in 1876, was remarkable for his excessive +liveliness. He had contracted a friendship with a +fellow-captive, a young female orang, and their +intimacy was confirmed by their games together, +accompanied by many tender embraces. The small +orang, a good-tempered, phlegmatic creature, allowed +the chimpanzee to do what he pleased with her, and +the former betrayed remarkable intelligence. In +consequence of a general repair of his cage, Dr. +Hermes, the director of the institution, to whom we +owe this account, was obliged to keep the chimpanzee +in his office, in company with himself and other +officials. The chimpanzee soon accustomed himself +to his new surroundings, and was on particularly +friendly terms with Dr. Hermes’ two-year-old boy. +When the child entered the room, the chimpanzee +ran to meet him, embraced and kissed him, seized +his hand and drew him to the sofa, that they might +play together. The child was often rough with +his playfellow, pulling him by the mouth, pinching +his ears, or lying on him, yet the chimpanzee was +never known to lose his temper. He behaved very +differently to boys between six and ten years old.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> +When a number of schoolboys visited the office, he +ran towards them, went from one to the other, shook +one of them, bit the leg of another, seized the jacket +of a third with the right hand, jumped up, and with +the left gave him a sound box on the ear; in short, +he played the wildest pranks. It seemed as if he +were infected with the joyous excitement of youth, +which induced him to riot with the troop of schoolboys.</p> + +<p>One day when Hermes gave his nine-year-old son +a slight tap on the head, on account of some miscalculation +in his arithmetic, the chimpanzee, who +was also sitting at the table, gave the boy a smart +box on the ear. If Hermes pointed out to him that +some one was staring or mocking at him, and said, +“Do not put up with it,” the creature cried, +“Oh! oh!” and rushed at the person in question +in order to strike or bite him, or express his displeasure +in some other way. As he made distinctions +in the age of human beings, so also with +animals. He was gentle and considerate in his +behaviour to young dogs and apes, while with older +animals he was as boisterous as he was with the +schoolboys. When he saw that Hermes was writing, +he often seized a pen, dipped it in the inkstand, and +scrawled upon the paper. He displayed a special +talent for cleaning the window-panes of the aquarium. +It was amusing to see him squeezing up the cloth, +moistening the pane with his lips, and then rubbing +it hard, passing quickly from one place to another.</p> + +<p>Mafuca was a remarkable creature, not only in +her external habits, but in her disposition. At one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> +moment she would sit still with a brooding air, only +occasionally darting a mischievous, flashing glance +at the spectators; at another she took pleasure in +feats of strength, or she roamed to and fro in her +spacious enclosure like an angry beast of prey. She +would insert the index finger of her right hand in the +opening of a vessel which weighed thirty pounds, +climb up the pole with it, and let it fall with a crash +and clatter from a height of six feet. This ape would +sometimes rattle the bars of her cage with a violence +which made the spectators uneasy. She was fond +of playing with old hats, which she set upon her +head, and if the top was quite torn off, she drew it +down upon her neck. Mafuca clawed at people who +entered the vestibule of her cage and tried to tear +their clothes. She hardly obeyed any one except +Schöpf, the director of the Dresden Zoological +Gardens, and when in a good humour she would sit +on his knee and put her muscular arms round his +neck with a caressing gesture. In spite of this, +Schöpf was never secure from Mafuca’s roguish +tricks, since her good-humour was of short duration. +She was rather fond of the keeper, but not always +obedient to him, and the whip was often in request, +even at feeding-times. Mafuca was able to use a +spoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could +pour from larger vessels into smaller ones without +spilling the liquor. She took tea and cocoa in the +morning and evening, and a mixed diet between +whiles, such as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and +water, and sugar.</p> + +<p>Mafuca, for a while, was pleased with the companionship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> +of a pretty sea-cat monkey, but she teased +the creature so much that a special refuge was set +apart for it, into which she could not enter. She +was so scared and terrified by a heavy thunderstorm +that she seized her sleeping playfellow by the tail +and dashed it to the ground. She chased the mice +which ran about her cage with deadly fury. She +was much afraid of snakes, which is not usually the +case with chimpanzees. If she was left alone for +any time she tried to open the lock of her cage +without having the key, and she once succeeded +in doing so. On that occasion she stole the key, +which was hanging on the wall, hid it in her +axilla, and crept quietly back to the cage. With +the key she easily opened the lock, and she also +knew how to use a gimlet. She would draw off +her keeper’s boots, scramble up to some place out +of reach with them, and throw them at his head +when he asked for them. She could wring out wet +cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief. +When her illness began, she became apathetic, and +looked about with a vacant, unobservant stare. Just +before her death, from consumption, she put her +arms round Schöpf’s neck when he came to visit +her, looked at him placidly, kissed him three times, +stretched out her hand to him, and died.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> The last +moments of anthropoids have their tragic side!</p> + +<p>We owe to Wallace an interesting account of +young orangs in a state of captivity. This observer +shot, near Simunjon, in Borneo, a large female ape<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> +of this species, which had a young one about a foot +long. As Wallace carried this creature home, it +took such a firm hold of his beard that he had much +difficulty in getting free, for the unequal phalanges of +the fingers in these animals are hook-shaped. At +that time the creature had not a single tooth, but +the two lower front teeth were cut a few days later. +Unluckily, there was no milk, nor any female animal +to give suck to the little ape. Wallace was obliged +to give it rice-water from a bottle, with a quill inserted +in the cork, from which, after some attempts, +it learned to suck very well. Sugar and cocoa-milk +were added, to make the pap more nourishing. +When Wallace put his finger in the creature’s +mouth, it sucked at it vigorously, then pushed it +angrily away and began to scream, as a child does +in like circumstances. When it was fondled and +caressed, it was quiet and content, but began to +scream again as soon as it was laid down; and for +the first two nights it was very noisy and restless.</p> + +<p>Wallace arranged a little box for the creature’s +cradle, with a soft mat which was changed and +washed every day. The little ape itself liked to be +washed. As soon as it was dirty it began to scream, +and never stopped until carried to the spring by its +master, when it became quiet at once, although it +struggled when first touched by the cold water, and +made absurd grimaces when water was poured over +its head. It was extremely fond of being dried and +rubbed, and appeared to be perfectly happy when +Wallace brushed its hair, lying quite still with +extended arms and legs while the long hair on its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> +back and arms was brushed out. At first it clung +helplessly by all-fours to whatever it could get hold of, +and Wallace had to be always on the watch to save +his beard. When restless, it worked its hands above +in the air, in search of something to hold, and if it +got hold of a stick or piece of cloth with two or three +of its hands, it was perfectly happy. In default of +anything else, it nursed its own foot, and after a while +it often folded its arms, and seized with each hand the +long hair which grew below the opposite shoulder. +The strength of the creature’s gripe soon diminished, +however, and Wallace had to invent expedients for +giving it exercise and strengthening its limbs. +With this object he made a short ladder of three or +four rounds, to which he suspended the young orang +for a quarter of an hour at a time. At first it was +pleased, but finding itself unable to assume a comfortable +position when holding on by all four hands, +it let go with one after another and at last fell to +the ground. Often, when only hanging by two +hands, it let go with one, in order to cross it over +the opposite shoulder, and get hold of its own hair, +and on finding this much more agreeable than the +piece of wood, it let go with the other, and so fell to +the ground, where it lay on its back with folded +arms, quite content and apparently none the worse +for its numerous tumbles.</p> + +<p>When Wallace saw how fond the creature was of +hair, he endeavoured to construct an artificial mother +by stitching together a piece of buffalo hide which +he suspended about a foot from the ground. At +first this seemed quite successful, since the small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> +orang could cling round it and always find something +hairy to which it held fast with great persistency. +Wallace now hoped that he had made +the little orphan happy, and so it was for a while, +until it remembered its lost mother and tried to +suck. It raised itself so as to be quite close to the +hide, and hunted about for promising places; but +when its mouth was only filled with wool and hair +it was much displeased, cried vehemently, and gave +up the attempt after two or three endeavours. On +one occasion it got some wool into its throat, and +Wallace was afraid it must be choked; but after a +good deal of cough it threw it up, and he destroyed +the mock mother and relinquished the last attempt +to give the little creature some occupation.</p> + +<p>At the end of a week Wallace began to feed the +ape with a spoon. He mixed soaked biscuit with +egg and sugar, and sometimes with sweet potatoes. +It took this food readily, and made droll grimaces +in order to express its satisfaction or displeasure +with what was offered. The little being licked its +lips, drew in its cheeks, and screwed up its eyes with +an expression of extreme content when it had a +mouthful of anything it particularly liked. On the +other hand, when the food was not sufficiently sweet +and savoury, the orang turned it about in its mouth +for a moment, as if to taste it thoroughly, and then +spat it out. If the same food was presented again, it +screamed violently and threw its arms about like a +passionate child.</p> + +<p>Three weeks after Wallace obtained the young +orang, a macaca (<i class="taxonomy">Macacus cynomolgus</i>), likewise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> +young, was brought to him. The two animals +became at once the best of friends, neither showing +the least fear of the other. The small macaca had +not the slightest scruple about sitting on the other’s +body, and even on its face. When Wallace fed the +orang, the macaca sat by to pick up any morsels +which dropped, and when the meal was over it +licked off whatever remained on the orang’s lips, +and even tore open its mouth to see if anything +remained there; then it lay down on the poor creature’s +body as if it were a comfortable cushion. The +small, helpless orang endured all these insults with +the most unexampled patience, only too glad to +have something warm to cling to and encircle fondly +with its arms. But it had its revenge, for when the +other little ape wished to get away, the orang held +on as long as possible to the movable skin of the +back or head, or to its tail, so that it cost the macaca +many violent struggles to escape.</p> + +<p>Wallace carefully observed the different behaviour +of these two animals, which were of nearly the same +age. All the observations hitherto made show that +very young anthropoids display a helplessness resembling +that of children of about the same age, +although other families of apes, in common with most +young mammals, kittens, puppies, etc., early attain +to greater activity and independence.</p> + +<p>When Wallace had kept the orang for about a +month, and placed it on the ground, its legs straggled +outwards, or it overbalanced itself and fell +heavily forwards. When lying in its box, it would +hold on to the edge, and once or twice it fell out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> +in consequence. If allowed to be dirty or hungry, +or otherwise neglected, it would cry loudly until it +received attention, or sometimes would cough or +struggle like an adult animal. If there was no one +in the house, or if no one paid attention to its cries, +it would be quiet for a time, and only renew them +when a step was heard.</p> + +<p>At the end of five weeks the two upper front +teeth were cut, but throughout that period the +creature had not grown, and remained of the same +size and weight. This was doubtless owing to the +want of milk or other nourishing food. Cocoa-milk +seemed to produce diarrhœa, of which it was cured +by castor-oil. A week or two later it sickened of +what appeared to be intermittent fever, and died +within a week.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a></p> + +<p>In 1837 the Zoological Gardens in London received +an orang of two or three years old. He was for the +most part sluggish and inert, but had occasional fits +of better humour and playfulness. When angry he +would attack strangers, but he generally sat cross-legged +on a low stool, or on the ground before the +fire, wrapped in a woollen rug. When the giraffes +of the establishment inquisitively stretched their +long necks over the bars of the ape’s cage, the +creature evinced no fear, but tried to seize the long-legged +animals by the muzzle. This orang answered +to his name, and was obedient to his keeper, often +searching in his pocket for the dainties concealed +there. He was uneasy when separated by the cage-bars +from his master; and when confined in an enclosure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> +of cane interwoven with wire, he bent the wire +asunder and squeezed himself through the hole, so +that the cage had to be made stronger. The creature +presented an absurd appearance dressed in a jacket +and breeches. When he desired any dainty that he +saw, he looked alternately at it and his keeper, and +protruded his lips like a snout. In drinking, this +animal took the vessel in his hand, brought the rim +to his lips, and then drank with an air of gravity. +I may here observe that when anthropoids drink in +this way, they generally take the vessel in one hand, +and support it with the back of the fingers of the +other.</p> + +<p>When the orang we have just described was disappointed +in his desire to obtain anything, he threw +himself on the ground, howling and screaming until +he got his own way. He sometimes had furious fits +of passion, in one of which he tried to destroy the +bars of his cage by hitting them with the stool. +As he did not succeed in this attempt, he gave vent +to his fury in a loud outcry, which only ceased on +the return of his keeper.</p> + +<p>An orang brought by Montgomery to Calcutta in +1827, was less phlegmatic than animals of this species +usually are. He played with those who carried him +when they stooped over him, caught them by the hair, +and so on. He tried to scour his tin vessel with a +cloth, throwing one end over his shoulder, as he had +seen the servants of the house do. He was particularly +fond of milk, tea, wine, and pandanos fruit. +He was very inquisitive, and tried everything that he +could reach, first with the fingers, then with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> +lips, and finally with his teeth. He was fond of +biting off the coat-lappets of his visitors. His +absurd gestures, combined with his air of solemnity, +excited laughter even in the grave natives. He was +once drinking tea, when some one filled the empty mug +with water; he emptied it out upon the floor, threw +himself on his back, screamed, and struck his breast +and belly with his hands. His gait was clumsy and +unsteady when he tried to walk upright. When he +went on all-fours, he sometimes supported himself +on his hands and swung himself forward with his +feet. If he lost his balance in walking upright, he +fell upon his head, and then went on by turning +somersaults. As soon as he was unchained, he went +into the house and tried to get a portion of his +master’s breakfast. In spite of his usual inquisitiveness, +he was not at all excited by the sight of +his melancholy countenance in the glass.</p> + +<p>The large orang which was in the Berlin Aquarium +in 1876 was a sullen companion, and looked +like an old Bedouin as he crouched down and peered +from under the covering which was thrown over +him. His keeper could only trust him when he +brought him an orange, and if he approached the +bars of the cage without food, the ape flew at him, +gnashing his teeth. He was sluggish whenever he +was not excited by hunger. Then he started from his +usually sitting position, and devoured the food which +was cautiously passed through the door. If kept waiting, +he threw himself on his back in a rage. When +his hunger was satisfied, he played with the straw, +the cord, or with his blanket. When it was necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> +to change his straw, he was lured away by +holding out an orange at the top of his pole, and the +change was effected while the ape was tearing open +the rind and sucking out its contents. In the evening +he never omitted to clear out a hole in the +straw, and to roll himself in his blanket. Gabriel +Max has drawn a striking likeness of the resigned +attitude of a sick orang.</p> + +<p>Gibbons have often been observed in a state of +captivity. Of the slothful and inanimate siamang +there is nothing of much interest to report. The +other species are, with few exceptions, phlegmatic, +shy, and timid, but hardly ever averse from human +society. Within a month Harlan was able to make +a hulock so tame that he would hold on with one +hand to him, while putting the others on the ground, +and so walk about with his keeper. He came to +his master’s call, seating himself close to him on +a chair, shared his breakfast, and took an egg or +chicken-bone off the table so neatly as not to soil +the cloth. He was fond of cooked rice, bread soaked +in milk, bananas, oranges, coffee, tea, chocolate, +milk, etc. Generally he only dipped his fingers +in the drinking vessels and licked off the liquid, +but he could drink in human fashion. He searched +the house for spiders and other creeping things, +and brushed away flying insects with his right +hand. The creature was very affectionate, and +when Harlan came to him in the morning, he +greeted him with a joyful sound like a bark, which +went on for about a minute. He came to a call even +when at a distance, and was pleased to be combed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> +brushed, and fondled. Two other hulocks taken by +Harlan behaved in the same way.</p> + +<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> of the Berlin Aquarium, +which I have already mentioned, was, as described +by Hermes, and also according to my own observations, +a very peaceable creature, although, if compelled +to do what he did not like, he sometimes +tried to bite a little, especially when just taken +from his warm bed. But as soon as he was taken +by the hand or lifted up, his anger was appeased. +Although much less lively than the chimpanzee +which was his companion, and less inclined to play, +he was pleased with children, and watchfully observed +their movements. His dexterity was wonderful. +He was almost always present at dinner +and supper, when the table was covered with dishes, +and he ran up and down it, in order to go from one +person to another, without touching, still less upsetting, +the smallest article. His food consisted +chiefly of white bread, milk, sweet cocoa, fruit, and +Kiel sprats, of which he was particularly fond, as +well as of sweet grapes. Before taking any liquid, +he cautiously touched it with his tongue, to ascertain +that it was not too hot; then he drank it up, +without taking the cup or vessel in his hand, as the +chimpanzee did. He did not like cold or moist food, +and would seldom touch a peeled pear, while willing +to eat it from Herme’s hand. Grapes were his +favourite dainty, and if hungry when he saw them, +he uttered a gentle noise which resembled the cry +of a wood-pigeon. He often repeated this noise, +<em>Hu</em>, <em>Hu</em>, to express pleasure, surprise, or curiosity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> +or when the same sound was uttered by others; and +it was in this way that he greeted Hermes when he +came to his bed in the morning. He was happiest +when seated on a woman’s arm, with his long arms +wound round her neck, and would sit quiet in this +position as long as he was permitted to do so, and +when taken away would scream like a child. When +Frau Hermes left the room, he would run after her, +and try to scramble up as soon as he reached her; +if she took his hand, he went with her quietly. +This gibbon may be compared favourably with other +anthropoids, on account of his extraordinary cleanliness. +He always returned to the place first used +for his necessities, and never made his bed or the +room unclean. There was not a trace of smell about +him, so that he was quite an agreeable companion; +and he shared the bed of one of Dr. Hermes’ children +without causing the least disturbance or discomfort. +He was fond of swinging to and fro by a +cord, to which he held with one hand.</p> + +<p>A specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i> was kept in Paris +for about a year. It was very intelligent, yet less +so than other anthropoids. It knew its keepers and +frequent visitors, and was pleased to be fondled; +but it showed no preference for one person more +than another, not even for its keeper.</p> + +<p>Martin describes how in 1840, in Paris, a live +bird was let into the cage of an <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>. +After watching its flight, the ape swung himself on +to a distant bough, which he seized with one hand +and the bird with the other. Its objects, both +the bird and the bough, were attained with as much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> +certainty as if only one object had arrested its +attention. He bit off the bird’s head, plucked out +the feathers, and then threw it away.</p> + +<p>Another female specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i> +suddenly attacked her keeper, sprang upon him, +scratched him with hands and feet, and bit him on +the breast, so that it was fortunate for the man that +the creature had shortly before lost her canine +teeth. It was said that the same ape had killed +a man in Macao.</p> + +<p>Anthropoids when kept in confinement suffer from +caries of the teeth and jaws, from chronic and acute +bronchial and intestinal catarrhs, from inflammation +and consumption of the lungs, from inflammation of +the liver, from pericardial dropsy, from parasites of +the skin and intestines, etc. When ill, as we learn +from many sources, these animals display much +resemblance to men. Among others, Bock observed +an aged male orang-utan in Sumatra, suffering from +consumption, which lay nearly all day wrapped in +a coverlet, and was constantly racked by a violent +cough.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p> + +<p>On the skulls of wild gorillas and chimpanzees +we find traces of caries of the teeth and jaws, by +which, therefore, these animals may be affected in a +state of nature, as well as by parasites on the skin +and intestines.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII"><span id="toclink_285"></span>CHAPTER VII.<br> + +<span class="subhead">POSITION OF ANTHROPOIDS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> racial history of apes can only be traced with +any certainty up to the Miocene period. The fact +of the contemporary existence of apes and pachydermata +has been frequently asserted, but it is still +too far from being established to merit further consideration +here. Traces of the slender ape (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>) +have, however, been found in the Miocene +of Greece, Wurtemburg, the mountains of Sewalik, +and in the region bordering on the Himalayas. The +name given to one of these fossil species (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus +subhimalayanus</i>) seems to establish its locality. +The numerous remains of <i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus Pentelici</i> in +Attica have, however, given rise to controversy. +Gaudry and Beyrich were disposed to assign these +specimens exclusively to the slender ape, but Gaudry +has since declared that, while the structure of the +skull and teeth is that of <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, the structure +of the limbs is that of a macaca. He regards,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> +therefore, <i class="taxonomy">Mesopithecus</i> as an interesting form of +apes, and this is expressed by its scientific name.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p> + +<p>The separation of these two species of apes (<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i> +and <i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>) must, he considers, have +occurred rather late. <i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i>, from the fresh-water +marl, Sansan, is assigned by Gaudry and +others to the gibbon. Lartet and Quenstedt believe, +however, that it is nearer to the next neighbour on +the south, the magot (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>), on account of the five +fangs of its last tooth. Köllner thinks the connection +with <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i> not improbable.</p> + +<p><i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus Fontanii</i>, of which I have already +spoken, seems, as I judge from a cast taken by Fric +in Prague, to be of an expressly anthropoid character; +but the scantiness of the materials do not +allow us to form any precise conclusions as to the +zoological position of this extinct animal. The +structure of the back teeth, as we have already +said, is certainly anthropoidal. Quenstedt, always +cautious in his judgments, is of opinion that the +ape’s teeth found in the ironstone of the Suabian +Alps in the secondary mammal formation, are of +a decidedly anthropoid character, and the animals +to which they belonged must therefore have been +of the same type. Fossil remains of the African +stumpy ape (<i class="taxonomy">Colobus</i>) have also been found at Steinheim.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> +<i class="taxonomy">Macacus priscus</i> of the valley of the Arno +seems to be allied with the African macaca.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> Owen’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> +<i class="taxonomy">Macacus pliocenus</i> from Essex is closely related to +<i class="taxonomy">Macacus sinicus</i>. Fossil apes have also been observed +in America. <i class="taxonomy">Protopithecus</i> was a very large +animal, related to <i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>. Another fossil species, +found in South America (<i class="taxonomy">Laopithecus</i>), must have +been closely related to man. This latter fact is +the more remarkable, since it has generally been +assumed, and indeed with reason, that there is a +marked division between the apes of the Old and +New Worlds.</p> + +<p>The species now found in tropical America of +the silky apes (<i class="taxonomy">Hapale</i>), the Sahui (<i class="taxonomy">Jacchus</i>), the +leaping apes (<i class="taxonomy">Callithrix</i>), the bellowing apes (<i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>), +and the rolling apes (<i class="taxonomy">Cebus</i>), were already +represented in the diluvial period of that continent. +It does not appear that any extensive generic diffusion +of apes has taken place since that period. It +is otherwise with the development of species, which +seems, at any rate to a partial extent, to have +occurred late. This may be inferred from the +physical characteristics of gorillas and chimpanzees, +which, with all their differences, have much in common +with each other. In the fourth chapter we +have described forms of apes lying between the +gorilla and the chimpanzee, and it seems possible +that these are a reversion to one or the other form. +The numerous varieties of form among anthropoids +point to a continuance of the process of severance +in this family of apes, and little more than an +isolating influence is needed to produce the gradual +conversion of varieties into constant species.</p> + +<p>On account of their external bodily characteristics,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> +of their anatomical structure, and their highly +developed intelligence, anthropoids not only stand +first among apes, but they take a still higher place, +approximating to the human species. In accordance +with what I have said in the second and third +chapters, I set aside the order of the <i class="taxonomy">Quadrumana</i>, +and accept the Linnæan order of the <i class="taxonomy">Primates</i>, both +for men and apes. I would include men as <i class="taxonomy">Erecti</i> +with anthropoids as <i class="taxonomy">Anthropomorpha</i> in a sub-family +of the <i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>. In the case of apes (<i class="taxonomy">Simiina</i>) I +should retain the convenient distinction between +those with a narrow and those with a wide nasal +aperture (<i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Platyrrhina</i>). The semi-apes +(<i class="taxonomy">Prosimii</i>) should constitute a separate order of +mammals. The following systematic scheme shows +the classification I <span class="locked">suggest:—</span></p> + +<p class="center p1 vspace b0"> +I. <span class="smcap">Mammals</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Mammalia</i>).<br> +A. <i class="taxonomy">Monodelphia</i>, Blainv. (<i class="taxonomy">Placentalia</i>, Owen). +</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang"> + +<p>I. Order: <i class="taxonomy">Primates</i>, Linnæus.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>1. Family: <i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(1) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Erecti</i> (<i class="taxonomy">Homo sapiens</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Anthropomorpha</i>, Linnæus.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i class="taxonomy">Dasypoga</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Anthropomorpha, without +the sessor callosities.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(α) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes</i>, E. Geoffroy.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Species: The gorilla (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, Savage +and Wyman). The chimpanzee (<i class="taxonomy">Tr. niger</i>, +E. Geoffroy).</p> + +<p>The other species are not accurately known.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(β) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Pithecus</i>, E. Geoffroy.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Species: Orang-utan (<i class="taxonomy">Pithecus Satyrus</i>, E. Geoffroy).</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i class="taxonomy">Tylopoga</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Anthropomorpha, with +sessor callosities.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(λ) Genus: <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>, Illig.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p><div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Species: see <a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>2. Family: Apes proper (<i class="taxonomy">Simiina</i>).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(1) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Catarrhina</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Genera: <i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Colobus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus</i>, +<i class="taxonomy">Inuus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Macacus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus</i>.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>(2) Sub-family: <i class="taxonomy">Platyrrhina</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Genera: <i class="taxonomy">Mycetes</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Lagothrix Ateles</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cebus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Pithecia</i>, +<i class="taxonomy">Nyctipithecus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Callithrix</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Chrysothrix</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hapale</i>.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span id="toclink_290"></span>CHAPTER VIII.<br> + +<span class="subhead">A SUMMARY, TOGETHER WITH SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE +ANTHROPOMORPHISM OF THE GORILLA, CHIMPANZEE, ORANG, AND GIBBON.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Huxley’s</span> statement, that the lowest apes are further +removed from the highest apes than the latter are +from men, is, according to my experience, still perfectly +valid. It cannot be denied that the highest +order of the animal world is closely connected with +the highest created being.</p> + +<p>In the third chapter I have sought to show in +what way the pithecoid characteristics of men may +be proved. From the latter chapters, also, much +may be learned with respect to the anthropoid +characteristics of anthropoids. The external form +first provokes the comparison. There is much in +the bodily structure which spans the apparent +chasm between men and apes, and this is evident +to the simplest understanding. The head, and the +general form of the body, especially in young male +and female gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangs, and +even in gibbons, if we exclude the length of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> +arms, display many points of resemblance with man. +It is shown even in separate organs of the body—as, +for instance, in the ear. The illustrations given in +the second chapter of the ears of apes, including +that of the gorilla, were intentionally taken by me +from such specimens as had least resemblance to +man, and yet even in these a certain likeness must +be recognized.</p> + +<p>I have already observed that the old males of +an anthropoid species are always further removed +from man than the young, and this is especially the +case with the gorilla. The head of an aged male +gorilla, with its great cranial crests and powerful +jaw, displays striking differences from the human +type. This is an important fact, since in the case +of man we almost without exception regard the fully +developed male adult as the typical form.</p> + +<p>In considering the limbs, the differences between +the arms and hands of man and those of anthropoids +are apparent, but less striking than in the case of the +lower limbs. For the prehensile foot of apes has in +it something abnormal which distinctly differs from +the human foot, adapted for walking. Nor can the +prehensibility of the human toes in certain cases be +directly compared with the prehensibility of an +ape’s foot, in which the great toe has the action of a +thumb. Haeckel remarks that newly born children +can also take a strong grip with the great toe, and +if a spoon is inserted they can hold it with the foot +as firmly as with the hand.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> This power is, however, +only partial and subordinate, compared with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> +manifold and developed prehensibility of an anthropoid’s +foot. The possibility of walking upright to a +certain, although sometimes to a very limited, extent +is no exclusive privilege of anthropoids, since this +power may be acquired by training in the case of +other apes, as well as of dogs, pigs, horses, etc. +Many apes of the New World, such as the tailed and +climbing apes, as well as some semi-apes, bears, +ichneumons, scaled and rodent animals, can go for +some distance in an upright position, quite as readily +as anthropoids, and without being trained to do so.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> +The structure of anthropoids is, indeed, better adapted +for going on all-fours, or for climbing. The projection +of the coccyx in the form of a rudimentary +tail has, as is well known, been observed in some +isolated cases in the human species. This peculiarity +is supposed to be hereditary in the case of +some non-European peoples, such as the Niam-Niam +of Central Africa, and some of the Southern Malays. +But this surmise has not yet been confirmed.</p> + +<p>It has already been said that when we compare +men and anthropoids, the profile of the coloured man +presents a striking likeness to that of anthropoids. +This is believed by the coloured people themselves, +who, especially among negro races, regard the large +apes as accursed individuals of their own species, as +dumb and hairy men, and so on. It should, however, +be noticed that anthropomorphism plays an important +part in the religious life of rude peoples, and that it is +comparatively easy for uncivilized men to place themselves +on the same level as animals, while civilized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> +races reject such ideas with self-conscious pride. I +may add that civilized men are revolted by the proverbial +ugliness of apes, and therefore reject with abhorrence +any admission of actual relationship with them. +We must, however, remember that men are by no +means generally endowed with physical beauty, and +especially with beauty of feature. Among all nations +we find individuals whose ugliness is little inferior +to that of anthropoids, and which sometimes even +exceeds it. A claim to a widely diffused physical +beauty may be made by the peoples of classical +antiquity; by the Teutonic, Roumanian, and Slav +races; by the Circassians, Armenians, Tartars, Turks, +Senites, Berbers, Bedja; and by some of the Indians, +Polynesians, American Indians, and negroes: but +such attractions are rare among other peoples of the +world, such as the Mongols, the majority of negroes, +Papuans, Guaranis, and Malays. We have already +shown that among some of the lower races it is +impossible not to recognize a purely external and +physical approximation to the simian type.</p> + +<p>Some men, again, altogether on psychical grounds, +shrink from admitting any relationship between +men and apes, since the mental organization of the +former seems to them to be allied by no connecting-link +with the anthropoids of which they think so +meanly. Yet it should not be forgotten that the +modes of living in degraded races differ little from +those of anthropoids. I may here refer to what +I have said of the Australian aborigines, whose +brutal instincts demand our whole attention when +we undertake such comparisons. A horde of Botocudos,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> +mentioned by the intelligent observer Prince +Maximilian of Neuwied,<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> and a village on the upper +Yupurá, inhabited by the Mirenhas, and described +by Martius,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> left upon the travellers a grisly impression +of their brutal degradation. This impression +might be further strengthened if we could inspect +a hutted encampment of the Obongo or the Doko.</p> + +<p>It has been observed that the rudest savage is in +a condition to show pity and loyalty to his own +fellows. Thus, for example, in the winter of 1881–82, +when some Fuegians were exhibited in Europe, +one of them fell sick, and was cared for by his +savage companions with affection, and even with +a certain appearance of tenderness. But, as we +have seen, anthropoids take care of and defend the +members of their family in the same way, and +display mutual dependence and loyalty; this has +been especially noticed in the case of several orang-utans +which have tended each other. Love for +their young, and not rarely love for their mates +expressed in the strongest manner, is, speaking +comparatively, deeply rooted in the animal world. +It is well known that both rude and civilized peoples +are capable of showing unspeakable, and as it is +erroneously termed, inhuman cruelty towards each +other. These acts of cruelty, murder, and rapine +are often the result of the inexorable logic of +national characteristics, and are unhappily truly +human, since nothing like them can be traced in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> +the animal world. It would, for instance, be a grave +mistake to compare a tiger with a bloodthirsty +executioner of the Reign of Terror, since the former +only satisfies his natural appetite in preying on +other mammals. The atrocities of the trials for +witchcraft, the indiscriminate slaughter committed +by the negroes on the coast of Guinea, the sacrifice +of human victims made by the Khonds, the dismemberment +of living men by the Battas, find no +parallel in the habits of animals in their savage +state. And such a comparison is, above all, impossible +in the case of anthropoids, which display no +hostility towards men or other animals unless they +are first attacked. In this respect the anthropoid +ape stands on a higher plane than many men.</p> + +<p>A great chasm between man and anthropoids is +constituted, as I believe, by the fact that the +human race is capable of education, and is able to +acquire the highest mental culture, while the most +intelligent anthropoid can only receive a certain +mechanical training. And even to this training +a limit is set by the surly temper displayed by +anthropoids as they get older. They are interesting +subjects of study in the menagerie, but they never +become, like our ordinary domestic animals, useful +members of the household economy. I myself hold +that all human races are capable of culture, while +differing in the degree to which it is possible for +them to attain. I do not, for example, suppose +that a tribe of Queensland Australians can be so +educated as to be placed on a level with the highest +intellects of our own nation. But how many ages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> +it has taken to raise us so far above the Papuans! +It is indeed manifest that even very rude savages +may be constituted serviceable members of human +society, as we may see from the changes which have +taken place among the Sandwich Islanders, the +Tahitians, and the Maoris in the course of the last +eighty years. In our days the envoys of the Queen +of Madagascar have understood how to move in the +highest Berlin circles with high-bred demeanour, +and we must recognize this fact as significant, +without, however, deluding ourselves by too wide +deductions from it.</p> + +<p>The remark has often been made that the African +blacks, Indians, etc., display great docility when +young, and are very receptive of wisdom and culture, +but stop short at a certain point, as if unable +to advance beyond it, and sometimes, indeed, like +apes in advancing age, relapse into their originally +savage state. It may, however, be inferred that +these attempts to educate young savages are +generally wrecked by mistaken methods of instruction. +The young sons of nature are often too much +indulged, their childish performances are over-estimated, +their minds are over-taxed, the due development +of mind and body is checked; they become +arrogant, and then people are surprised that, as +self-consciousness increases in their immature brains, +a greater or less amount of conceit is developed. +There are cases in which a savage, who has been +with much labour educated and civilized, relapses +into barbarism, and comes to a violent end as the +enemy of his former protector, as a robber or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> +rebel; yet, even to the end of his life, he has developed +qualities and conditions which recall to +him better times. We see an example of this in +some of the civilized Maoris who afterwards joined +the revolted tribes, and who introduced among their +countrymen the strength of a firmer organization +against the English supremacy. The bearing of +these relapsed savages always has in it something +higher than we can trace in the savage obstinacy +of a morose old chimpanzee or orang.</p> + +<p>Nor have the attempts to educate savages been +uniformly unsuccessful. The great Indian chief +Tekumseh; the presidents Benito Juarez, and Ramon +Castilla; the negro Toussaint l’Ouverture; the Hova +king, Radama I.; the Polynesian rulers, Kamehameha +I., Pomare II., Georges, and Kokabau, show +what may be made of such materials under favourable +circumstances. The poor Indian from Oaxaca; +the steadfast leader Perus, who belonged to a needy +Arriero family; the Haytian who was formerly driver +on a plantation, are as far removed from aboriginal +savages as the Malagasy and Polynesians educated +by European missionaries.</p> + +<p>It is well known that nations, in the earliest +periods of their existence, have to pass through +certain rude conditions of their development, and +the most highly civilized nations are not exempt +from this law. The transition period of the Stone +Age is necessary for all, and with the use of metals +a higher and more cultivated life has been gradually +developed. Even for those who do not recognize +any sharp line of demarcation between the stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> +and metal periods, yet, speaking generally, they will +admit that the times in which stone instruments, +and those in which bronze and iron instruments +were chiefly used, present tokens of actual epochs in +historical culture. As we know, there are also +certain phases of development in the Stone Age. In +its earliest stages the rudely shaped and unworked +tool could not procure for its owner any regular +shelter: he lived in caves, clefts, or under a scanty +covering of leaves, and made use of his tool in +killing wild animals; in cutting wood; in preparing +skins, tendons, and gourd-vessels; in dismembering +the prey obtained in hunting; and in extracting +marrow from bones. With the art of shaping and +sharpening these stone tools, a progressive improvement +in the conditions of human life went hand in +hand.</p> + +<p>We can picture to ourselves the physical and +psychical conditions of the first and earliest men of +the Stone Age as those of extremely rude savages, +but who were endowed with the gift of working out +for themselves higher conditions of life.</p> + +<p>In the year 1868 Colonel Laussedat, of the Berlin +Academy of Sciences, exhibited the lower jaw of a +rhinoceros, found in the Miocene at Billy, Allier, in +which there was a notch which must, in the opinion +of many naturalists, have been made by the hand of +man. The Abbé Delaunay found in the Miocene of +Pouancé, Maine-et-Loire, the rib of a Halitherium, +which was notched, and which likewise appeared to +have been subjected to human manipulation. +Garrigou is of opinion that certain bones found at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> +Sansan were broken by the hand of man, and +Dücker expressed a similar belief about the fossils +of Pikermi. These ideas have been strongly opposed. +Many of the marks on these bones have been represented +to bear traces of the teeth of carnivora, +rodents, etc. The Abbé Bourgeois found flints in +the Miocene of Thenay, near Pont-Levoy, Loir-et-Cher, +of which he ascribes the working to beings +of a higher intelligence than the animals of that +period. This opinion is shared by eminent anthropologists, +such as Vibraye, Worsaae, Mortillet, de +Quatrefages, and Hamy. Gaudry does not doubt +the accuracy of the account given of their position +at Thenay, by so experienced a geologist as +Bourgeois. The illustrious observer of the quaternary +epoch is only concerned with the question +whether these flints at Thenay were artificially +worked or not. The stones were found in a layer of +the same kind of rubble. When a number of such +flints are placed together, only a few people can +discover an incontestable distinction between the +artificially shaped and the unshaped stones. The +alleged presence of shaped flints in the Miocene Age +still demands careful examination. The epoch of +the Middle Miocene is very ancient, and Léberon +distinguishes between fauna found in the limestone +of Beauce and Faluns and those of the Upper +Miocene, of Eppelsheim and Pikermi. According to +this author, the next in succession was the Lower +Pliocene of Montpellier; then the Pliocene of +Perrier, Solilhac, and Coupet. Next came the fauna +of the forest bed at Cromer, and then those of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> +boulder clay. To judge from the Norfolk strata, +these latter were of very long duration. Above the +fauna of the boulder clay are those of the diluvium, +followed by the fauna of the reindeer period and of +our own time.</p> + +<p>Whatever may be thought of the many changes +which have taken place, whether they are regarded +as the result of distinct and independent creations +or as the result of transformations, no geologist can +doubt that an immense tract of time was required +for the production of these forms. In the Middle +Miocene there is not a single species of mammal +which corresponds to any of our extant species. If +we start from the standpoint of simple palæontology, +it would be difficult to assume that the being which +shaped the flints at Thenay can have remained unaltered +in the midst of all these changes. If, as +Gaudry remarks, it can be shown that the flints +collected by Bourgeois in the Beauce limestone +were really artificially shaped, he as a geologist +would not hesitate to recognize in the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> +the author of this handiwork.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a></p> + +<p>But, speaking provisionally, the <i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i> which +is assumed to have used these flints, and of which we, +unfortunately, know only the little which can be +gleaned from a few fragments of bone, must remain +the object of an interesting hypothesis, so far as his +advanced anthropomorphism is concerned. No anthropoid +now in existence has shown itself capable +of adapting stones, etc., to his personal use. Moreover, +the most fanatical advocates of the doctrine of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> +descent are becoming ever more convinced that man +cannot be the issue of any extant form of anthropoids. +It is true that a close, and in many respects +a very close, physical connection may be traced +between men and anthropoids, but not the possibility +of a direct descent from the one to the other. +This is especially shown from the physical development +of the larger apes, which only strongly resemble +men in their youthful stages, and lose this character +more and more as they grow older. The absolute +deficiency of any capacity for the further development +of the intellectual qualities of our modern +species of anthropoids is another proof of this fact; +their intelligence is, indeed, higher than that of +other mammals, and also of other apes, but they are +still far behind the intelligence of man, which is +capable of still further development.</p> + +<p>In the process of physical growth, as I feel myself +compelled often to repeat, anthropoids constantly +diverge further from the human organization. +C. Vogt justly observes: “When we consider the +principles of the modern theory of evolution, as it is +applied to the history of development, we are met +by the important fact that in every respect the +young ape stands nearer to the human child than +the adult ape does to the adult man. The original +differences between the young creatures of both types +are much slighter than in their adult condition: +this assertion, made long since in my lectures on the +human race, has received a striking confirmation +from recent autopsies of young anthropoids which +have died in the Zoological Gardens of Europe. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> +proportion to the age of the specimen, the characteristic +differences in the form of the jaw, the +cranial ridges, etc., become more evident. Both +man and apes are developed from an embryonic +condition, and from the period of childhood in a +diverging or almost opposite direction into the final +type of their species, yet even adult apes still retain +in their whole organization features which correspond +to those of the human child.”<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> Quenstedt +also says: “However much <i class="taxonomy">Homo sapiens</i> is raised +by his intelligence above all other animals, however +important the physical differences are which divide +him from apes, yet the scene of their existence in the +world is by no means so wide that, as time goes on, +the narrow limits between them may not approximate +more closely.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p> + +<p>In these words the opinion I have already +expressed is set forth, an opinion which continues +to gain ground; namely, that man cannot have +descended from any of the fossil species which have +hitherto come to our notice, nor yet from any of the +species of apes now extant. It is more probable +“that both types have been produced from a common +ground-form, which is still more strongly +expressed in the structure of young specimens, +because the age of childhood is less advanced” +(Vogt).</p> + +<p>This supposed progenitor of our race is necessarily +completely hypothetical, and all the attempts +hitherto made to construct even a doubtful representation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> +of its characteristics are based upon the +trifling play of fancy.</p> + +<p>Darwin came to the conclusion that man has, at +any rate, descended from a highly organized form. +He goes on to say:</p> + +<p>“The grounds upon which this conclusion rests +will never be shaken, for the close similarity between +man and the lower animals in embryonic +development, as well as in innumerable points of +structure and constitution, both of high and of the +most trifling importance, the rudiments which he +retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is +occasionally liable—are facts which cannot be disputed. +They have long been known, but until +recently they told us nothing with respect to the +origin of man. Now, when viewed by the light of +our knowledge of the whole organic world, their +meaning is unmistakable. The great principle of +evolution stands up clear and firm, when these +groups of facts are considered in connection with +others, such as the mutual affinities of the members +of the same group, their geographical distribution +in past and present times, and their geological +succession. It is incredible that all these facts +should speak falsely. He who is not content to +look, like a savage, on the phenomena of nature as +disconnected, cannot any longer believe that man +is the work of a separate act of creation. He will +be forced to admit that the close resemblance of +the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog; +the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole +frame, independently of the uses to which the parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> +may be put, on the same plan with that of other +mammals; the occasional reappearance of various +structures—for instance, of several distinct muscles, +which man does not normally possess, but which are +common to the Quadrumana; and a crowd of analogous +facts;—all point in the plainest manner to the +conclusion that man is the co-descendant with the +other mammals of a common progenitor.”<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a></p> + +<p>“The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom +of the vertebrata,” observes the same great English +naturalist in another place, “at which we are able +to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of +a group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ +of existing Ascidians. These animals probably gave +rise to a group of fishes as lowly organized as the +lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other +fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. +From such fish a very small advance +would carry us on to the amphibians. We have +seen that birds and reptiles were once intimately +connected together; and the Monotremata now, in +a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. +But no one can at present say by what line of +descent the three higher and related classes, namely, +mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from +either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely, +amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals, +the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from +the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials; +and from these to the early progenitors of the +placental mammals. We may thus ascend to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> +Lemuridæ, and the interval is not wide from these to +the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into +two great stems, the New World and Old World +monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period, +Man, the wonder and glory of the universe, proceeded.”<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p> + +<p>Setting aside for the present this long pedigree +of man, let us consider some of the isolated phases +which have been established in the still incomplete +condition of modern science. As far as semi-apes +are concerned, whose near relation to men and +apes has of late been strongly urged, I agree with +those who, like Vogt, consider that their order, with +its variety of forms, points to a complex origin, +probably from marsupial animals, with which their +organization presents many common features; hence +it appears that some of their forms belong to the +earliest Tertiary mammals with which we are well +acquainted. “In conclusion,” he writes, “it appears, +from these facts, that any very close connection +between the semi-apes and apes, and hence with +man, cannot be proved. With the exception of the +opposing thumb, which is and was a widely diffused +characteristic common to many species, the semi-apes +have not a single anatomical feature in common +with apes. Their jaw, the most permanent characteristic, +places them in the insectivorous class; to +enroll them among the ancestors of man is to set +at nought all the principles of scientific research.”<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a></p> + +<p>That purely hypothetical being, the common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> +ancestor of man and apes, is still to be found, and +this is the task assigned to palæontology. Whether +this science, to which a great future belongs, will +ever accomplish the task, is a question which concerns +itself. Meanwhile, considering the great +palæontological achievements of our day, the discovery +of the <i class="taxonomy">Odontornithes</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Ætosauri</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhamphorynchi</i>, +<i class="taxonomy">Holoptychia</i>, etc., we need not despair of the possibility +of discovering the true link between the +world of man and mammals. This purely speculative +side of research, this purely scientific mode of +treating the descent of man, is no longer satisfied +with unproved assertions, but will rather trust to +the strenuous labour of future times, and this need +not disturb any religious or political convictions. +Even if the assumed ancestral type should really be +discovered in some geological stratum, yet research +will have to overcome immense difficulties, if it is to +explain the development of the understanding and +of speech, and the growth of independent human +intelligence. Yet we must not, on this account, +refuse to recognize the possibility of achieving some +new discoveries in this direction. To do so would +be to stifle the impulse to scientific research, and +this would be unworthy of our former intellectual +achievements. Let us therefore labour on with +courage.</p> + +<p>In matters which concern ethnology we are constantly +shown that even those races of men which +are very remote from each other, and of whom it +cannot be supposed that they were in earlier times +united in one nation, have made the same technical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> +discoveries, and have adopted similar manners and +customs and similar religious observances. This +allows us to infer that there is a physical and +psychical unity of human nature which indeed +separates into races and varieties, but not into +distinct species. Certain tokens of what is hypothetically +the primeval type will predominate even +in the progeny which has been modified by a distinct +and separate development, and we need not be +surprised by reversions to the animal structure, +even in man, the ultimate scope of organic development. +Nor will the developed culture of man offer +any hindrance to such reversions. The theromorphic +conditions which we have pointed out in the third +chapter of this work, such as the frontal process of +the squamous temporal portion, the transverse +enlargement of the occipital bone, the pointed +ear, etc., occur both in the higher and lower races +of man; just as, for example, both in primitive and +high-bred races of horses there are reversions to +fossil forms in hind toes, cloven hoofs, etc.</p> + +<p>Not only the physical, but the mental development +of man advances uniformly, and not <i lang="la">per saltum</i>. +Physical qualities and defects may occur in a given +number of negroes and Papuans, and may be absent +in an equal number of Europeans, and conversely +may occur in the one and be absent in the other; +yet, in their mental condition, negroes and Papuans +must always be regarded as in a lower order than +Europeans. And if physical superiority is more +widely diffused in European peoples than elsewhere, +owing to higher culture, less exposure, and better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> +nourishment, a more regular mode of life, and often +also to the sexual selection prompted by æsthetic +considerations, yet the reversion to such animal +characteristics as do not exercise any modifying +influence on the bodily development of the individual, +occurs both in these and other races. I +conclude these remarks with the reproduction of the +fine passage with which Darwin ends his work on +the descent of man.</p> + +<p>“Man may be excused for feeling some pride at +having risen, though not through his own exertions, +to the very summit of the organic scale; and the +fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been +aboriginally placed there, may give him hopes for +a still higher destiny in the distant future. But we +are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only with +the truth, as far as our reason allows us to discover it. +I have given the evidence to the best of my ability: +and we must acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, +with all his noble qualities; with sympathy which +feels for the most debased; with benevolence which +extends not only to other men, but to the humblest +living creature; with his god-like intellect, which +has penetrated into the movements and constitution +of the solar system;—with all these exalted powers, +man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible +stamp of his lowly origin.”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX"><span id="toclink_309"></span>APPENDIX.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">It</span> was after I had finished this treatise that Mohnike’s +<cite lang="de">Blicke auf das Pflanzen- und Thierleben in den indischen +Malaienländern</cite> (Münster, 1883) came into my hands. +The author, who was for several years physician +and medical superintendent in the Dutch Indies, has +given an interesting account of the orang-utan. It +appears that this animal is only found in the northern +part of Sumatra, and is more common on the western +than on the eastern coast. Even there the orang is +only occasionally captured. The Dyaks of Borneo are +fond of the flesh of this ape, which they shoot, especially +in the interior of the island, with poisoned darts, +projected from a blow-pipe. The wounded part is +then carefully cut out.</p> + +<p>Mohnike states that in Borneo <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates concolor</i> is +called Ouo-ouo by the Malays, and Kalawet by the +Dyaks. Dark specimens of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates variegatus</i> are in +the Malay dialect called <i class="taxonomy">itam</i>, or black Unko, and light +specimens are called <i class="taxonomy">puti</i>, or white Unko. A good illustration +of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i> is given in the <cite>Proceedings +of the Zoological Society</cite>, p. 680, Plate 42: London, 1877.</p> + +<p>It should be added to what I have said in the text,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> +that the uvula of the orang-utan is often absent (Bischoff, +<cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Anatomie des Gorilla</cite>, p. 37; and Rückart, +<cite lang="de">Der Pharynx als Sprach- und Schluck-apparat</cite>, p. 24, +plate iii. fig. 10: Munich, 1882). I have, however, +examined a specimen in which the uvula was quite +perceptible, as well as the palate and arched root of the +tongue.</p> + +<p>In addition to the lower jaw from Naulette, of which +I have spoken above, the fragment of a lower jaw +has lately been found in the Schipka cave, Moravia, +declared by Schaaffhausen to be that of an ape-like child. +Virchow has carefully examined this fragment, and +considers that it belongs to an adult of the mammoth +age, who suffered from retention of the teeth, and that +there is nothing pithecoid about it. The same author +subjected the Naulette jaw, which he has repeatedly +examined in Brussels, to a close analysis, and is somewhat +disposed to admit the pithecoid character of this +specimen (<cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, p. 277: 1882).</p> + +<p>R. Baume, on the other hand, considers that both the +Naulette jaw and that from the Schipka cave are +pithecoid forms. He finds in these two specimens the +actual proof of the existence of man-apes in the diluvial +period, since they differ widely, in the form of the lower +jaw, from any living specimens. This author is of +opinion that in the diluvial period there must have +been races of men far inferior to the lowest races now +in existence (<cite lang="de">Die Kieferfragmente von La Naulette und +aus der Schipkahöhle</cite>, Leipzig, 1883).</p> + +<p>See Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender +Freunde zu Berlin</cite>, November 19, 1878, for +remarks on the tendon, the blood-vessels of the shoulder +and thigh in anthropoids, in addition to those given in +the text.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="AUTHORITIES_FOR_CHAPTER_I">AUTHORITIES FOR CHAPTER I.</h2> +</div> + +<p>(<a id="auth1" href="#AUTH1">1</a>) “Hinc (<i>i.e.</i> Θεῶν ὄχημα) tridui navigatione torrentes +igneos prætervecti in sinum venimus, qui Noti +Ceras dicitur (Νότου Κέρας). In sinus recessu insula erat +priori, illi similis; nam lacum habebat, in quo insula +erat altera, referta hominibus silvestribus. Erant +autem multo plures mulieres hirsutis corporibus, quas +interpretes Gorillas (Γορίλλας) vocabant. Nos persequentes +viros quidem capere non potuimus, omnes enim +effugiebant quum per præcipitia scanderent et saxis se +defenderent; sed feminas cepimus tres, quæ mordentes +et lacerantes ductores sequi nolebant. Atque occidimus +eas et pelles detractas asportavimus Carthaginem. +Neque enim ulterius navigavimus, quum annona deficeret” +(Hannonis Carthaginiensis Periplus. Geographi +Græci Minores, ed. C. Muelleri, vol. i.).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth2" href="#AUTH2">2</a>) Comp. Temminck, Esquisses zoologiques sur la +cote de Guinée (Leiden, 1853), p. 3.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth3" href="#AUTH3">3</a>) Marc. de Serres first directed the attention of +naturalists to this mosaic. Comp. Froriep, Notizen zur +Natur- und Heilkunde, book 42. It has been frequently +said that the original of this mosaic is in the Museum +of Antiquities at Berlin. Undoubtedly the mosaic in +question also consists of a landscape with hippopotami, +crocodile, etc., but it cannot be compared with that of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> +Palestrina, which is to my knowledge in the Barberini +palace at Rome.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth4" href="#AUTH4">4</a>) See the Natural History of the younger Pliny, +ii. 172; vii. 2.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth5" href="#AUTH5">5</a>) Regnum Congo: hoc est Vera Descriptio Regni +Africani quod tam ab incolis quam Lusitanis Congus +appellatur, per Philippum Pigafettam, olim ex Edoardo +Lopez acromatis lingua Italica excerpta, nunc Latio +sermone donata ab Aug. Cassiod. Reinio. Iconibus +et imaginibus rerum memorabilium quasi vivis, opera +et industria Joan. Theod. et Joan. Israelis de Bry, +fratrum exornata (Francofurti, <span class="allsmcap">MDXCVIII.</span>).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth6" href="#AUTH6">6</a>) Abhandlungen der Königl. Bayrischen Akademie +der Wissenschaften (iii. cl. ix. div. 1).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth7" href="#AUTH7">7</a>) A voyage to Congo and several other countries +in Southern Africa, Church collection of voyages and +travels (London, 1744), i. 651.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth8" href="#AUTH8">8</a>) Relation d’un voyage fait en 1695–97 aux côtes +d’Afrique, etc. (Paris, 1699).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth9" href="#AUTH9">9</a>) Nouveau voyage en Guinée, p. 74.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth10" href="#AUTH10">10</a>) Observationes Medicæ (Amsterdam), § 56. I +have recently had occasion to doubt whether Tulpe’s +representation of an ape is not founded on that of an +orang-utan of average size. At any rate, the head of +the animal given by this anatomist reminds me more +of an orang than of a chimpanzee.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth11" href="#AUTH11">11</a>) The Anatomy of a Pygmy, compared with that +of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. With an Essay concerning +the Pygmies, etc., of the Ancients (edit. i., +London, 1699; edit. ii., 1751).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth12" href="#AUTH12">12</a>) Purchas, His Pilgrims. I have made use of +the edition published in London in 1625 (vol. ii. 982).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth13" href="#AUTH13">13</a>) Beschryvinge des Afrikaensche gewesten van +Egypten, Barbaryen, Lybien, Biledulgerid, Negrosland, +Ethiopien, Abyssinie, etc. (Amsterdam, 1688; edit. ii. +1679). I have made use of the German version of 1760.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth14" href="#AUTH14">14</a>) The name Quojas Morrou is also used by +Tulpe. A living specimen of these animals was given +by Dapper to Prince Frederick Henry of Orange, and +is perhaps the one described by Tulpe.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth15" href="#AUTH15">15</a>) Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti +(London, 1819: trans. Weimar, 1820; Vienna, 1826). +I have made use of the latter translation.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth16" href="#AUTH16">16</a>) Trans. of the Zoolog. Soc., vol. iii., 1848: On a +new species of Chimpanzee, by Professor Owen.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth17" href="#AUTH17">17</a>) A description of the external characters and +habits of Troglodytes Gorilla, by Ph. S. Savage, and +of the osteology of the same, by Jeffreys Wyman +(Journal of Nat. Hist., Boston, 1847, vol. v.).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth18" href="#AUTH18">18</a>) Th. Savage: Notice of Troglodytes Gorilla, a +new species of Orang on the Gaboon (Boston, 1847). +Comp. Kneeland in Proc. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. +Hist., 1850, 1852.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth19" href="#AUTH19">19</a>) Ostéographie (Paris, 1839–64). Atlas, vol. iv., +Mammifères, plate i.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth20" href="#AUTH20">20</a>) Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de +Paris, vol. x.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth21" href="#AUTH21">21</a>) Ibid., vol. viii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth22" href="#AUTH22">22</a>) An impression on steel: A mode of photographic +illustration used by Nièpce de St. Victor, +which has since been materially improved.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth23" href="#AUTH23">23</a>) Der Gorilla, etc. A coloured illustration by +G. Mützel, plate i.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth24" href="#AUTH24">24</a>) Adventures and explorations in Equatorial +Africa (London, 1861). A journey to Ashango Land +(London, 1867). The country of the Dwarfs (London, +1872).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth25" href="#AUTH25">25</a>) Reade, Savage Life: being the narrative of a +tour in Equatorial, South-Western, and North-Western +Africa, etc. (London, 1863). Brehm, Thierleben, edit. i., +i. 16. See also Hartmann, Der Gorilla, p. 4.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth26" href="#AUTH26">26</a>) Observations on Du Chaillu’s papers on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> +new species of mammals discovered by him in Equatorial +Africa: Proceed. of the Zool. Soc., London. 1861.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth27" href="#AUTH27">27</a>) Proceed. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1860. +See also Du Chaillu’s Adventures and Explorations, +chap. 22; and Reichenbach’s Vollständigste Naturgeschichte +der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), p. 196.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth28" href="#AUTH28">28</a>) Description of cranium of an adult male gorilla +from the River Danger, indicative of a variety of the +great chimpanzee (Troglod. Gorilla): Trans. of Zoolog. +Soc., London, vol. iv., 1853. Memoir on the Gorilla +(London, 1865): well illustrated. Odontography +(London, 1840–45). Article on Teeth, by Todd and +Bowman, in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, +vol. iv. part ii. Lectures on the comparative +anatomy and physiology of Vertebrata (London, 1866–68, +vol. iii.).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth29" href="#AUTH29">29</a>) Burton’s Two Trips to the Gorilla land, and +the cataracts of the Nile (London, 1876).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth30" href="#AUTH30">30</a>) Compiègne’s L’Afrique Equatoriale (Paris, +1875; Gabonais, p. 260).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth31" href="#AUTH31">31</a>) De Brazza’s Le Tour du Monde, Année 1878, +No. 936.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth32" href="#AUTH32">32</a>) Lenz’s Skizzen aus Westafrika (Berlin, 1878), +p. 171.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth33" href="#AUTH33">33</a>) Die Loango Expedition, pt. ii., by Falkenstein, +p. 149.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth34" href="#AUTH34">34</a>) Koppenfels’ Die Gartenlaube (1877), No. 25.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth35" href="#AUTH35">35</a>) Zoologiska Studier, Andra Häftet. (Lund, 1857).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth36" href="#AUTH36">36</a>) Revue d’Anthropologie (1876), p. 1, etc.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth37" href="#AUTH37">37</a>) The Medical Times, 1872.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth38" href="#AUTH38">38</a>) Descrizione di una scimmia antropomorfa proveniente +dall’ Africa centrale, in den Annali del Museo +Civico di Genova, i. 53.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth39" href="#AUTH39">39</a>) Studii craniologici sui Cimpanzé. Ibid., iii. 3.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth40" href="#AUTH40">40</a>) Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences +(Philadelphia, 1879), pt. iii. p. 385.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth41" href="#AUTH41">41</a>) On the Appendicular Skeleton of the Primates: +Philosophical Transactions (1867), 299.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth41A" href="#AUTH41A">41<span class="allsmcap">A</span>)</a> Macalister’s Muscular Anatomy of the Gorilla: +Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy of Science, +2nd series, vol. i.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth42" href="#AUTH42">42</a>) Ueber die Schädelform des Menschen und der +Affen, Leipzig, 1867.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth43" href="#AUTH43">43</a>) Die Hand und der Fuss. Abhandlungen der +Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, vol. v.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth44" href="#AUTH44">44</a>) Archiv. für Anthropologie, viii. 67.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth45" href="#AUTH45">45</a>) Abhandl. aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften, +herausgeg. vom Naturwis. Verein zu Hamburg-Altona +(Hamburg, 1876), pp. 74–83.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth46" href="#AUTH46">46</a>) Ibid., p. 84, etc.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth47" href="#AUTH47">47</a>) Die anthropomorphen Affen des lübecker Museums +(Lübeck, 1876).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth48" href="#AUTH48">48</a>) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoolog. Museum +zu Dresden (1877), No. 2, p. 225.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth49" href="#AUTH49">49</a>) Der Gorilla, mit Berücksichtigung des Unterschiedes +zwischen Menschen und Affen, etc. Denkschrift +des Offenbacher Vereins für Naturkunde (Offenbach, +1863).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth50" href="#AUTH50">50</a>) Ueber die Verschiedenheit in der Schädelbildung +des Gorilla, Chimpanse und Orang-utan, etc. (München, +1867). Vergleichende anatomische Untersuchungen +über die äussern weiblichen Geschlechts- und +Begattungsorgane des Menschen und der Affen. Abhandl. +der königl. bayrischen Akad. d. Wissensch., cl. +ii. vol. xiii. plate ii. Beiträge zur Anatomie des +Gorilla. Ibid. cl. ii. vol. xiii. plate iii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth51" href="#AUTH51">51</a>) Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse. +Abhandl. der K. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. Göttingen, +vol. 28.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth52" href="#AUTH52">52</a>) Ueber den Schädel des jungen Gorilla. Monatsberichte +der königl. Akademie der Wissensch. zu +Berlin (June 7, 1880), p. 516.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth53" href="#AUTH53">53</a>) Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissensch., +plate ii. (Petersburg, 1876), v. 235.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth54" href="#AUTH54">54</a>) Various works on the gorilla under the following +titles:—Beiträge zur Kenntniss der sogen. anthropomorphen +Affen, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, series iv. +198; viii. 129; ix. 117. Ueber das Hüftgelenk der +anthropoiden Affen. Sitzungsber. der Gesellsch. Naturforsch. +Freunde zu Berlin, April 17, 1877. Ueber den +Torus occipitalis transversus am Hinterhauptbeine des +Menschen; Ibid., Nov. 26, 1880. Die menschenähnlichen +Affen, No. 247 of the Sammlung gemeinverständlicher +wissensch. Vorträge, by Virchow and Holtzendorff, p. 11.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth55" href="#AUTH55">55</a>) Vogt’s Vorlesungen über den Menschen (Giessen, +1863).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth56" href="#AUTH56">56</a>) L’homme et les singes. Bulletin de la Société +d’Anthropologie, vol. iv. series ii., 1870.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth57" href="#AUTH57">57</a>) Magitot, Bulletin de la Soc. d’Ethnographie de +Paris, 1872.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth58" href="#AUTH58">58</a>) Gesammelte Werke. A. d. Engl. von J. V. Carus, +v. 1, 2 (Stuttgart, 1875).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth59" href="#AUTH59">59</a>) Gervais’s Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, +1854), vol. i. p. 27.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth60" href="#AUTH60">60</a>) Huxley’s Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated +Animals (London, 1871).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth61" href="#AUTH61">61</a>) Flower’s Introduction to the Osteology of the +Mammalia (London, 1870).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth62" href="#AUTH62">62</a>) Giebel’s Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung +des Zahnsystems der lebenden und fossilen +Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1855).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth63" href="#AUTH63">63</a>) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. (London, 1876).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth64" href="#AUTH64">64</a>) Hist. Nat. générale et particulière, vol. 35 +(Paris).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth65" href="#AUTH65">65</a>) I quote here the passage which Bosman has +taken from the foregoing work by Buffon: “Les singes +que l’on appelle smitten (forgerons) en flamand, sont +de couleur fauve, et deviennent extrêmement grands:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> +j’en ai vu un de mes propres yeux qui avait cinq pieds +de haut et de bien moins grand que l’homme. Ils sont +méchants et très forts; un marchand m’a conté, que dans +le voisinage du fort de Wimba, le pays est occupé par +un très-grand nombre de ces singes, qui sont de force +à attaquer l’homme, ce dont on citait des exemples.” +Bosman goes on to speak of another species of ape in +the same district, which is as hideous as those of the +larger kind (Beschrijving van Guiné (1737), p. 34; +Voyage de Guinée, p. 258).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth66" href="#AUTH66">66</a>) Comp. on this point Huxley’s very lucid remarks +in his work on the position of man in nature.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth67" href="#AUTH67">67</a>) Le Jardin des Plantes, by Bernard, Couailhac, +Gervais and Lemaout (Paris, 1842), i. 82.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth68" href="#AUTH68">68</a>) Ibid., p. 83, together with the illustration.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth69" href="#AUTH69">69</a>) Copied by Chenu, Encycl. d’Hist. Nat. Quadrumanes +(Paris, 1851), plate i. fig. 36. By Gervais, +Hist. Nat. des Mammifères (Paris, 1854), i. 16, 22. +By A. B. Reichenbach, Praktische Naturgesch. des +Menschen und der Säugethiere (New edit., Leipzig), +plate i. fig. 4. H. G. L. Reichenbach, Die Vollständigste +Naturgesch. der Affen (Dresden and Leipzig), +plate xxxiv., fig. 466; etc.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth70" href="#AUTH70">70</a>) J. B. Brehm’s Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), i. +46, 68.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth71" href="#AUTH71">71</a>) Hartmann, Der Gorilla, etc. Woodcuts, Nos. +vi., vii., viii., xiii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth72" href="#AUTH72">72</a>) Beobachtungen an zwei lebenden Chimpanse, by +H. Tiedemann, Philadelphia. Nach brieflichen Mittheilungen +bearbeitet by L. Bischoff (Bonn, 1879).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth73" href="#AUTH73">73</a>) Temminck’s Esquisse Zoologique, pt. i., etc.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth74" href="#AUTH74">74</a>) Vrolik, Recherches d’anatomie comparée sur le +Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1841).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth75" href="#AUTH75">75</a>) On the muscles and nerves of a Chimpanzee, +etc. (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, series ii. +1871, p. 176).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth76" href="#AUTH76">76</a>) Brühl, Myologisches über die Extremitäten des +Chimpanse (Wiener Medicin. Wochenschrift. Jahrg. +1817).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth77" href="#AUTH77">77</a>) Ontleedkundige nasporingen over de hersenen +van den Chimpanse (Amsterdam, 1849).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth78" href="#AUTH78">78</a>) Des caractères anatomiques des grands singes +pseudo-anthropomorphes, Archives du Muséum, vol. viii. +Vergleichung der Anatomie des Gorilla mit derjenigen +des Chimpanse: very well illustrated.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth79" href="#AUTH79">79</a>) Recherches sur l’anatomie du Troglodytes +Aubryi (Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Histoire +Naturelle. Mémoires, vol. ii.).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth80" href="#AUTH80">80</a>) Mittheilungen aus dem königl. Zoologischen +Museum zu Dresden, No. 2 (Dresden, 1877).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth81" href="#AUTH81">81</a>) Comp. the works cited in note 54. Also Hartmann, +Beiträge zur Zoologischen und Zootomischen +Kenntniss der sogenannten anthropomorphen Affen. +Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., by Reichert +and Du Bois-Reymond. Series for the years 1872–76, +with many plates, some of them chromo-lithographs.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth82" href="#AUTH82">82</a>) Description de l’espèce de singe aussi singulier +que très rare, nommé Orang-Outang, de l’isle de Borneo. +Apporté vivant dans la ménagerie de M. le Prince +d’Orange. Description d’un recueil exquis d’animaux +rares, etc. (Amsterdam, 1804). The plates, representing +the orang, which accompany this work are not +badly done.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth83" href="#AUTH83">83</a>) Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap. +Tweede Deel. (Derde Druk, 1826).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth84" href="#AUTH84">84</a>) Beschrijving van der groote Borneosche Orang-outang +of de Oostindische Pongo. Ibid. Also Briefe +des Herrn v. Wurmb und des Herrn Baron v. Wollzogen +(Gotha, 1794).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth85" href="#AUTH85">85</a>) General and particular descriptions of the vertebrated +animals; order quadrumana (London, 1831): +with coloured plates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth86" href="#AUTH86">86</a>) Monographies de Mammalogie, vol. ii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth87" href="#AUTH87">87</a>) Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis +der Nederlandsche overzeesche besittingen (1839–45). +Zoologie, p. 1.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth88" href="#AUTH88">88</a>) Description des mammifères nouveaux ou imparfaitement +connus de la collection du Muséum +d’histoire naturelle. Nouv. Archives du Muséum, etc., +ii. 485.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth89" href="#AUTH89">89</a>) Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1842), +ix. 54.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth90" href="#AUTH90">90</a>) Calcutta Government Gazette, Jan. 13, 1853. +Asiatic Researches, xv. 489, 491.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth91" href="#AUTH91">91</a>) Wallace’s Malay Archipelago.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth92" href="#AUTH92">92</a>) Naturgeschichte des Orang-Utan und einiger +anderer Affenarten. Herbell (Düsseldorf, 1791).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth93" href="#AUTH93">93</a>) On the Comparative Osteology of the Orang-utan +and Chimpanzee: London and Edinburgh Philosoph. +Magazine, vi. 457; x. 259. Trans. of the Zoolog. +Soc. of London, i. pt. iv.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth94" href="#AUTH94">94</a>) Archiv. für Anatomie, Physiologie, etc., 1836, +p. 46; 1839, p. 209.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth95" href="#AUTH95">95</a>) L. s. cit.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth96" href="#AUTH96">96</a>) Vier Abbildungen des Schädels der Simia +Satyrus von verschiedenem Alter zur Aufklärung der +Fabel vom Orañ-Utañ (Marburg, 1838).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth97" href="#AUTH97">97</a>) Note sur les métamorphoses du crâne de l’Orang-Outang, +Bulletins de l’Académie de Bruxelles (1838). +Annales des Sciences Naturelles (1839), p. 56.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth98" href="#AUTH98">98</a>) Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes und der Orangarten +(Wien, 1856).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth99" href="#AUTH99">99</a>) Die Muskulatur der Extremitäten als Grundlage +einer vergleichend-myologischen Untersuchung.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth100" href="#AUTH100">100</a>) L. s. c., Fig. 42, plate vii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth101" href="#AUTH101">101</a>) L. s. c., plate i. p. 30 (left figure).</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth102" href="#AUTH102">102</a>) Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1876), vol. 15. +Brehm’s Thierleben, i. 83.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></p> + +<p>(<a id="auth103" href="#AUTH103">103</a>) Copied in Cassell’s Natural History, i. 8 (52), +with the erroneous title, “Sick Chimpanzee.”</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth104" href="#AUTH104">104</a>) Naturhistorische Früchte der ersten kais. +russischen Erdumsegelung (Petersburg, 1813), p. 130.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth105" href="#AUTH105">105</a>) Le règne animal (nouv. edit.), i. 88.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth106" href="#AUTH106">106</a>) Is. Geoff. Saint-Hilaire et F. Cuvier, Hist. +Nat. des mammifères (Paris, 1819–35), plate iii. fig. 4.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth107" href="#AUTH107">107</a>) Wanderings in New South Wales (London, +1834), vol. ii. chap. viii.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth108" href="#AUTH108">108</a>) Man and Monkeys (London, 1840), p. 423.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth109" href="#AUTH109">109</a>) Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., i.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth110" href="#AUTH110">110</a>) See work cited in note 83.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth111" href="#AUTH111">111</a>) See work cited in note 63, p. 140.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth112" href="#AUTH112">112</a>) Hist. Nat. des Singes (Paris, an. ix.), p. 154.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth113" href="#AUTH113">113</a>) Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat., v. 529.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth114" href="#AUTH114">114</a>) Blyth in Journal of the Asiatic Soc., 1846, xv. +172; Ibid., 1847, xvi. 730.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth115" href="#AUTH115">115</a>) Proceed. of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, xiv. 11.</p> + +<p>(<a id="auth116" href="#AUTH116">116</a>) Beiträge zur Anatomie des <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leuciscus</i>. +From the Proceedings of the Bavarian Academy of +Science, 2nd series, vol. x. plate iii.</p> + +<div class="chapter footnotes"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES.</h2> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> <cite>Vorträge über Viehzucht und Rassenkenntniss</cite>, i. 61: Berlin, +1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> Comp. Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire, table v.; also Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der +Gorilla</cite>, p. 14, Anm. 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> Owen, <cite>Memoir</cite>, etc., plate ii.; Brehm, <cite lang="de">Thierleben</cite>, i. 56.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> Comp. Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, fig. 8. This is undoubtedly +one of the most successful illustrations of the chimpanzee, its +habits, expression, and disposition.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Comp. Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, fig. 27, representing the Hamburg +animal in middle age. Fig. 6 gives the wild Paulina of +the German Loango expedition. The inscription, by an error of +the press, states that it is a male, not a female chimpanzee.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> While writing these words I obtained a dried specimen, <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates +lenciscus</i> (Kuhl), injected with Wickersheiner’s fluid; a large +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i> of the same species, preserved in spirits of wine; another +<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates albimanus</i> (Is. Geoffr. Saint-Hilaire), preserved in the +same way; and the skeletons of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i> (F. +Cuvier), and of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> A very good illustration of this animal may be seen in Ed. +Poeppig’s <cite lang="de">Illustrirter Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs</cite>, vol. i. fig. +24 (Leipzig, 1847), which is taken from some English source with +which I am not acquainted. Another woodcut of this animal is in +Bock’s <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 342: Jena, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> A specimen of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates leucogenys</i> (Ogilby) may be seen in +the British Museum. Comp. J. E. Gray, Catalogue of monkeys, +lemurs, etc.: London, 1870.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> A good woodcut of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates pileatus</i> (J. E. Gray) appears in +Huxley’s work, <i lang="de">Man’s Place in Nature</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> A very good coloured illustration of <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates funereus</i>, +probably taken from life by Werner, may be seen in Is. Geoff. +Saint-Hilaire’s <cite lang="fr">Description des mammifères nouveaux, ou imparfaitement +connus de la collection du Muséum d’histoire naturelle</cite>. +<cite lang="fr">Archives du Muséum</cite>, v. 26.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> The coronal crest has attained to a quite unusual height in +the fine specimen of the skull of an aged male gorilla, No. 92, in +the Natural History Museum in Paris.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> <cite lang="de">Ethnologische Schriften, nach dem Tode des Verfassers gesammelt +von dessen Sohne Professor Gustav Retzius</cite>, p. 33: Stockholm, +1864.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Kenntniss des Orangskopfes</cite>, etc., p. 3. Virchow observes +(<cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, March +18, 1876): “The fact that the gibbon, as well as the orang-utan, +is brachycephalous is of great geographical interest.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Monthly report of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, +June 7, 1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Virchow, <cite lang="de">Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am +Schädel</cite>, p. 41: Berlin, 1875. <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, xii. 23: +1880. <cite lang="de">Monatsbericht der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften +zu Berlin</cite>, p. 523: 1880. The <i lang="la" class="anatomy">os epiptericum</i> may be +observed in cranium No. 92 of the Paris collection. It is plainly +seen in Fig. 4, p. 127, in <cite lang="de">Darwinismus und Thierproduction</cite> +(Munich, 1876), in which I refer to this skull. See also Bischoff, +<cite lang="de">Schädelwerk</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> This illustration is from Duvernoy’s <cite lang="fr">Des caractères anatomiques +des grandes singes pseudo-anthropomorphes</cite>, plate ii. It is an +excellent illustration of the characteristic spinous processes of the +vertebral column, and of the relative position of the limbs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> Duvernoy, table vi. fig. B.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> Brühl, <cite lang="de">Zur Kenntniss des Orangkopfes</cite>, pp. 2, 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> “The Missing Link,” <cite>Engineering and Mining Journal</cite>, xx. 3: +New York.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> <cite>Report of Anthropological Society</cite>, Berlin, April 16, 1881.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, p. 21.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> Virchow’s <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Pathologische Anatomie</cite>, liii. 485: 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> <cite>Report of Anthropological Society</cite>, Berlin, March 9, 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, vol. i. p. 192.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> <cite lang="de">Geologische Bilder zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Bewohner</cite>, +ii. 120: Leipzig, 1851–53.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> <cite lang="fr">Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil</cite>: Paris, 1839.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> <cite lang="de">Anthropogenie</cite>, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> It appears to be very common among Japanese apes (<i class="taxonomy">Inuus +speciosus</i>).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> Brühl has noted the intermittent occurrence of a connection +between the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and the temporal +bone.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 121: 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> Schlocker, <cite lang="de">Ueber die Anomalien des Pterion</cite>. Inaugural +dissertation. Dorpat, 1879.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Kraniologie der Mongoloiden: Beobachtungen und Messungen</cite>, +p. 56. Dissertation. Heidelburg, Berlin, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie</cite>, iv. fig. 305.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</cite>, +p. 164: 1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> <cite lang="de">Die vierte allgemeine Versammlung der deutschen Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> <cite lang="de">Die Urbevölkerung Europas</cite>, p. 46.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> <cite>Quarterly Journal of Science</cite>, January, 1864. Comp, also +Fuhlrott, <cite lang="de">Der fossile Mensch aus dem Neanderthal</cite>: Duisburg, 1865.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, viii. fig. 63.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> <cite lang="de">Zeugnisse</cite>, etc., 157.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> <cite>Crania Ethnica</cite>, plate xxvi.; <cite lang="de">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, series +12, plate viii. fig. 2.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> <cite>Crania Ethnica</cite>, plate xxxvi.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> Ten Kate, <cite>loc. cit.</cite> pp. 17, 42. Virchow is of opinion that +the facts are not sufficiently clear to enable us to judge how far +this formation affects men (<cite lang="de">Monatsbericht der Akademie der +Wissenschaft zu Berlin</cite>, p. 258: 1881). The detachment of the +malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fissure of the orbit has up +to this time been too rarely observed in anthropoids to merit +serious consideration in this work.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> Joly, <cite>Man before Metals</cite>: London.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> Gaudry, <cite lang="fr">Les enchainements du monde animal</cite>, p. 232: Paris, +1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> Hartmann, <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, pp. 68, 109.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der Deutscher Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 148, with illustration: 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> <cite lang="de">Zur Morphologie des Gesichtsschädel</cite>, pp. 73, 85, 89: Stuttgart, +1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> Welcker on His und Braune, <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, 1881. +Rosenberg, Gegenbaur’s <cite lang="de">Morphologisches Jahrbuch</cite>, i. 172.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Geburtshülfe</cite>, p. 161.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien</cite>, +lxxxv. fig. 1: 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, etc., by Reichert and Du +Bois-Reymond, pp. 639–643: 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Wiedersheim, <cite lang="de">Morphologisches Jahrbuch</cite>, ii. 421.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 463: 1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> <cite lang="de">Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel. Aus der Abhandlungen +der Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin</cite>, p. 47: 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>: +April 17, 1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> See Spengel’s <cite>Caves and Primitive Inhabitants of Europe</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> <cite>Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</cite>, p. 481: +London, 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> <cite>An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia</cite>, p. 310: +London, 1870.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> <cite>On the Anatomy of the Vertebrates</cite>, ii. 551. Also see my +own works in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, p. 648: 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> <cite lang="de">Studien aus dem Gebiete du Naturwissenschaften</cite>, ii. 316: +St. Petersburg, 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, etc., p. 653: 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> Welcker in His and Braune’s <cite lang="de">Archiv. Jahrg.</cite>, i. p. 71.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> Camper, <cite lang="fr">Œuvres</cite>, i. 152; <cite lang="de">Naturgeschichte des Orang-utan</cite>, +etc.; Owen, <cite>Transactions of the Zoological Society of London</cite>, +i. 365–368; Ibid., v. 15; Welcker in His and Braune’s <cite lang="de">Archiv. +Jahrg.</cite>, ii. p. 106.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> <cite lang="de">Wiener medicinische Wochenschrift</cite>, p. 4: 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> Duchenne’s <cite lang="fr">Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine</cite>. Darwin’s +<cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>. Gamba’s <cite lang="it">Lezioni di anatomo-fisiologia +applicata alle arti belle</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> Macalister, in the <cite>Annals and Magazine of Natural History</cite>, +vii. 342 (1871), asserts that he was unable to distinguish the +corrugator from the orbicular muscle, and I have been equally +unsuccessful.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> Darwin’s <cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> Darwin, <cite>Expression of the Emotions</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> <cite>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</cite>, +1879. <cite lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</cite>, 1873, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> <cite>Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</cite>, +1879.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> Hartmann in <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie</cite>, by Reichart and Du Bois-Reymond, +p. 743 (1875); p. 636 (1876).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> Halford, <cite>Not like man, bimanous and biped, nor yet quadrumanous, +but cheiropodus</cite>: Melbourne, 1863. <cite>Lines of demarcation +between Man, the Gorilla, and the Macaca</cite>: Melbourne, 1863. +I only know these two treatises from Bischoff’s quotation. +<cite lang="fr">Anatomie, etc., des Hylobates leuciscus</cite>, pp. 23, 24.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> Ruge also considers this muscle to be part of the extensor +longus digitorum.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Gorilla und Chimpanse</cite>, p. 32, plate +ii. fig. 3.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris</cite> (1869), pp. 83, +113.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> As, for example, in <i class="taxonomy">Hylobates syndactylus</i>. Comp. Giobel, +<cite>Odontographia</cite>, p. 2: Leipzig, 1855.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> <cite lang="de">Ortleetkundige Beschryving van een volvassen Orang Oetan. +Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neederlandsche +Bezittingen</cite>: Leiden, 1840. <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie +de Paris</cite>, iv. pp. 368–371: 1869.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> Comp. Aeby, <cite lang="de">Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des +Menschen</cite>, p. 7, table v. fig. 11: Leipzig, 1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> <cite>The Brain as an Organ of Mind.</cite> International Scientific +Series.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> Pansch writes of a gorilla’s brain: “The cerebellum ought, +in a horizontal position, to be somewhat overlapped by the cerebrum.” +I do not understand what he means by the expression +<em>ought</em>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> <cite>Natural History Review</cite>, p. 201: 1861.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> <cite lang="de">Sitzung der Mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der königl. +bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</cite>, p. 100: Feb. 4, 1871.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> Gratiolet, <cite lang="fr">Mém. sur les plis cérébraux de l’homme et des +primates</cite>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 133: 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> Ibid., p. 25: 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 28: 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> <cite lang="de">Archiv. für Anthropologie</cite>, p. 129: 1867.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 283: 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> <cite lang="de">Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 134: 1877. H. Gerhartz, <cite lang="de">Ueber die Ursachen der Microcephalie</cite>. +Inaugural dissertation. Bonn, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> <cite lang="de">Anatomische Untersuchung eines Microcephalen Knaben.</cite> Reprint +of a paper written for the celebration of the three hundredth +year of the University of Wurzburg, p. 27.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +p. 248: 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> <cite lang="de">Das peripherische Nerversystem der Wirbelthiere</cite>, p. 219: +Leipzig, 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> <cite lang="fr">Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France</cite>, p. 1: 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> <cite lang="de">Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte der Affen</cite>, p. 191: Leipzig +and Dresden.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> See Chenu, <cite lang="fr">Encyclopédie d’Historie Naturelle, Quadrumanes</cite>, +p. 34.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> Catalogue of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Fruit-eating Bats in the +British Museum. Appendix, p. 127: London, 1870.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> For example, the ears are represented as somewhat too +small. Although the growth of hair on the crown of the head +makes them look larger, the want of proportion must be admitted. +It might easily have been altered, but I preferred to reproduce +the original sketch as it stood.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild.</cite>, by C. Vogt and Specht, +p. 11: Munich, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> <cite lang="de">Mafoca Betreffendes.</cite> Reprinted from the reports of the +<cite lang="de">Gesellschaft für Natur und Heilkunde zu Dresden</cite>, Sitzung, xxvii. +p. 9: 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> <cite lang="de">Thierleben</cite>, ii. 80, 81. <cite lang="de">Illustrirte Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs</cite>, +i. 11: Leipzig, 1880.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> <cite lang="de">Der Gorilla</cite>, vi. p. 25. The inscription to this fine cut erroneously +gives this as a male instead of a female specimen.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> Series for 1876, plate vii. figs. 2, 4.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> <cite>Livingstone’s Last Journals in Central Africa from 1865 to his +death</cite>, ii. 52–55: London, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, Abth. iii. p. 248: Leipzig, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Ibid., Abth. ii. p. 150.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, Abth. i. p. 123.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> <cite lang="de">Die Loango Expedition</cite>, p. 103.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> The account given by H. von Koppenfels, whose early death +we must all deplore, is taken from his article in the <cite lang="de">Gartenlaube</cite> +(1877, No. 25); from his correspondence with his family, which +I have been allowed to see; and from a long paper addressed to +Professor Bastian from Adalinalonga, dated March 26, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> <cite lang="de">Illustrirtes Thierleben</cite>, i. 17: Hildburghausen, 1864.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> Schweinfurth, <cite lang="de">Im Herzen von Afrika</cite>, p. 335: New edition, +Leipzig, 1878.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> Duirentuin: Illustrated description of the mammals and +birds kept in the Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam. Published +in the Dutch language about 1862.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, etc., p. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> This illustration confirms the remark already made, that the +posterior of this ape somewhat resembles the rump of a bird in +structure.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche +overzeesche Bezittingen</cite>: Leiden, 1840–45.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> <cite lang="de">Die Preussiche Expedition nach Ostasien. Zoologische Abtheilung</cite>, +vol. i. p. 249: Berlin, 1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> <cite lang="de">Unter der Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 327.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> Sir Stamford Raffles saw a perfectly white specimen of this +species (<cite>Transactions of the Linnæan Society</cite>, xiii. 241).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> G. Broesike, <cite lang="de">Sitzungtbericht der Gesellschaft naturforschender +Freunde zu Berlin</cite>: December 18, 1877.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> <cite lang="de">Verhandlungen der berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</cite>, +March 18, 1876, p. 93.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> See also Nissle, <cite lang="de">Die Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</cite>, pp. 56, 57: +1876.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> Wallace’s <cite>Malay Archipelago</cite>, vol. i.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> <cite lang="de">Unter den Kannibalen auf Borneo</cite>, p. 31.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> <cite lang="fr">Enchainements</cite>, p. 235.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> Fraas, <cite lang="de">Wurtembergische Jahresheft</cite>, xxvi. plate iv. fig. 1: 1870.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> Forsyth, <cite lang="it">Atti della Societá Italiana di Scienze Naturali</cite>, xiv.: +1872.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> <cite lang="de">Anthropogenie</cite>, p. 482: Leipzig, 1874.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> We do not here include the leaping and running mice.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> <cite lang="de">Reise nach Brasilien</cite>, ii. 177: Frankfurt-am-Main, 1821.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> <cite lang="de">Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas</cite>, etc., +i. 534: Leipzig, 1867.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">133</a> <cite lang="fr">Les Enchainements du monde animal</cite>, p. 240.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">134</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild</cite>, p. 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">135</a> <cite lang="de">Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde</cite>, 3rd edit., i. 38: Tübingen, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">136</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 385.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">137</a> Darwin’s <cite>Descent of Man</cite>, i. p. 212.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">138</a> <cite lang="de">Die Säugethiere in Wort und Bild</cite>, p. 67.</p> + +</div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX"><span id="toclink_321"></span>INDEX.</h2> + +<hr class="narrow"> + +<div class="index"> +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">A</li> + +<li class="indx">A-Bantu, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Abel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Abors, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aeby, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> + +<li class="indx">African negroes, pithecoid structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aidanill, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ainos, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alix, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Angola, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Anthropoid apes, development of acquaintance with, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">external form of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">external and anatomical structure of, compared with the human, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">ears of, and men, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">neck of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">trunk of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">carpus of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">hand of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">upper limbs of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skull of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">vertebral column of, and men, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">humerus of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tibia of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">hinder extremities of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">muscular system of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skin of head of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">clavicle of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">digestive system of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">teeth of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tongue of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">vertebral column of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">liver of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">stomach and intestines of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">spleen of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sexual organs of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">brain of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">nervous system of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">peripheral, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">vascular system of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">varieties in the form of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">geographical distribution, habits in a state of nature, and native names of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">life in captivity of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">position of, in the zoological system, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Anthropomorphism of gorilla, orang, chimpanzee, and gibbon, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aschangolo, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aschira, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ashanti, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Astarte, temple of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Authorities for Chapter I., <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Australian blacks, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">B</li> + +<li class="indx">Baboon, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Baker, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ballone, river, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bam (<i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes niger</i>), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Banya, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bär, K. E. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bari, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bartels, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bastian, Ch., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Battel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bennet, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beyrich, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Biceps of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>Bischoff, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, + <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blainville, D. de, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blyth, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bolau, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bond, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Borneo, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bosman, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Boucher de Perthes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bourgeois, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bouvier, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bowdich, E., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brain of apes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brazza, De, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brehm, A. E., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brooke, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brosse, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brühl, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Broca, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Broderip, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buala, plateau of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buchholz, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buchta, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buffon, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Burmeister, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Burton, R., <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bushmen, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Busu, Bakalaya, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">C</li> + +<li class="indx">Cachêu, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Camaroon river, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Carpus of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Catharcludi, land of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Champneys, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chapman, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chenu, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, + <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chimpezée, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chinchoxo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chudzinsky, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Clavicle of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Colobus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Compiègne, A. de, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Congo, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cuvier, G., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">D</li> + +<li class="indx">Dabulamanzi, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dahlbom, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dahomey, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Danger, river, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dapper, O., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Darwin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Delaunay, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Devéria, A., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Diard, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Digestive system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dippel, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Dryopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Du Chaillu, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duchenne, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dücker, Von, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dumortier, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duncan, P. M., <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Durand, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duvaucel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Duvernoy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dyaks, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of Dusun, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">E</li> + +<li class="indx">Ears of anthropoids and men, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ehlers, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eliva, lake, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Engeco, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eyelids of anthropoids and of man, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">F</li> + +<li class="indx">Fan, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Falkenstein, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Femur of mammals, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Flower, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Foot of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ford, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fortuna, temple of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Four-handed, rejection of the term, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Franquet, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Froger, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>Froriep, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">G</li> + +<li class="indx">Gaboon district, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Galloa, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gamba, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Garrau mountains, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Garrigou, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gaudry, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gautier Laboulaye, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gegenbaur, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Geographical distribution of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gervais, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ghauts, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gibbon, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gibbon, skeleton of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gibbon (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates</i>), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. albimanus</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. entelloides</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. funereus</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Hoolock</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Lar agilis</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. leuciscus</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. leucogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. pileatus</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx">—— <i class="taxonomy">H. Rafflesii</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Giebel, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Giglioli, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glover, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gorilla, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, + <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skull of an aged male, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skull of young male, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skeleton of aged male, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skeleton of female, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gorilla, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grandpré, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gratiolet, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gray, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Griffith, E., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gruber, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gulliver, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gulnarber, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Güssfeldt, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">H</li> + +<li class="indx">Habit of anthropoids in a state of nature, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Haeckel, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hair, growth of, in man and anthropoids, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hamadryas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus</i>), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hand of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">muscles of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hanno, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Harlan, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hausanese, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Head, skin of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">muscles of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Henle, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hermes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Heusinger, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hoeven, Van der, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Holl, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hooker, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Human foot, skeleton of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Human structure compared with that of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Humerus of gorilla, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Huxley, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hyrtl, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">I</li> + +<li class="indx">Ibos, natives of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ihering, H. von, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Issel, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">J</li> + +<li class="indx">Japanese, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jeffreys Wyman, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jockos, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">K</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamma, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Klebs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kolk, Van der, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Koolo-Kamba, the anthropoid, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Koppenfels, H. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kotaringin, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Krause, R., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>Kuilu, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">L</li> + +<li class="indx">Lainier, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lambdoidal suture, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Langer, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Laopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lartet, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Larynx, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Laussedat, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lewis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lenz, H., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Life in captivity of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ligaments of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ligaments, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Limbs of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liver of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Livingstone, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Loango, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lopez, Ed., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lucae, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lucan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Luemme, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">M</li> + +<li class="indx">Macacu, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Macalister, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mafuca, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Magitot, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mahakkam, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Malays, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Malacca peninsula, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Malimba, people of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Malzac, A. de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mammals, femur of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mammals, systematic scheme of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mandril, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mandjaruma, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Martens, Von, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Martin, W. L., <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Martius, Von, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Max, G., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mayombe, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meckel, J. F., <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meias, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Merolla, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meyer, A. B., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meyer, B., <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meyer, R, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Miklucho-Maclay, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mivart, F., <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mpongwe, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Müller, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Muni (Mooney), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mirenhas, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Muscular system of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mützel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">N</li> + +<li class="indx">Naga, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nathusius, H. von, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Native names of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ndjéko (nschégo), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Niam-Niam, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nervous system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Neck of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ntondo, village of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nuehr, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">O</li> + +<li class="indx">Obongo, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ogōwē, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Orang-utan, anthropomorphism of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Orang-utan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, + <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skull of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">skeleton of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ornstein, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Orungu, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Owen, R., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">P</li> + +<li class="indx">Pansch, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pechuël-Lösche, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Papuans, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pedro da Cintra, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pelvis of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Penaud, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>Petit, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pigafetta, P., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Platysma myoides, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Plinius, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Pliopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pongo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ponta-Negra, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Primarii</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prince, Mrs., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Protopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pruner-Bey, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Q</li> + +<li class="indx">Quatrefages, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Quenstedt, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Quojas morrau, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">R</li> + +<li class="indx">Rademacher, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reade, W., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reichenbach, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Retzius, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rolleston, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rosenberg, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rousseau, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">S</li> + +<li class="indx">Sachs, Dr., <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sadong, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sambas, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sarawak, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Satyrs, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Savage, Dr., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Schaaffhausen, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Schilluk, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Schlegel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Schweinfurth, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Scott, J., <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sexual organs of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Siam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Siamang, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Siebold, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Simiina, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skeleton of human foot, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skeleton of aged male gorilla, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of female gorilla, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skeleton of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skin of head of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skull of adult chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skull of aged male gorilla, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of young male gorilla, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skull of orang-utan, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, W., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Soko, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Spengel, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Spleen of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stieda, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Structure of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stomach of anthropoid apes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sungi-Kapajan, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">T</li> + +<li class="indx">Tapanoli, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teeth of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Temminck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teweh, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Throat pouch, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thorax of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tibia of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tiedemann, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tilesius, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tongue of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Traill, Dr., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trinchese, Salvatore, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Troglodytes Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trunk of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tscheladas (<i class="taxonomy">Cynocephalus Geleda</i>), <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tschissambo, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tulpe, N. von, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tyson, E., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">U</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>Unko, (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates Rafflesii</i>), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">V</li> + +<li class="indx">Vascular system of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vélins, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vertebræ, cervical, of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vertebral column of anthropoids and men, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Virchow, R., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, + <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vogt, C., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vosmaer, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vrolik, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">W</li> + +<li class="indx">Waldeyer, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wallace, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wau-wau (<i class="taxonomy">Hylobates agilis</i>), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Welcker, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wilson, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wimba, Fort, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Woolner, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wurmb, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Z</li> + +<li class="indx">Zuckerkandl, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +</ul> +</div></div> + +<p class="p4 center small wspace"><span class="bt">PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.</span></p> + +<div class="chapter transnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> + +<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made +consistent when a predominant preference was found +in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> + +<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced +quotation marks were remedied when the change was +obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> + +<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned +between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions +of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page +references in the List of Illustrations lead to the +corresponding illustrations.</p> + +<p>Transcriber added figure numbers 43–45 to the illustration on <a href="#i_43">page 138</a>, +so that the captions will be unambiguous on small screens.</p> + +<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them, +have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of +the book, just before the Index.</p> + +<p>The index was not checked for proper alphabetization +or correct page references. +</p> + +<p><a href="#AUTHORITIES_FOR_CHAPTER_I">Authorities for Chapter I</a> numbered 11, 17, 26, and 50 are referenced twice in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>. The +backlinks to those references all lead to the first occurrence.</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75484 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75484-h/images/cover.jpg b/75484-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..52a769c --- /dev/null +++ b/75484-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75484-h/images/i_p014.jpg b/75484-h/images/i_p014.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b5593a --- /dev/null +++ b/75484-h/images/i_p014.jpg diff --git a/75484-h/images/i_p017.jpg b/75484-h/images/i_p017.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1fbf888 --- /dev/null +++ b/75484-h/images/i_p017.jpg diff --git a/75484-h/images/i_p022.jpg b/75484-h/images/i_p022.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9c7472 --- /dev/null +++ b/75484-h/images/i_p022.jpg diff --git a/75484-h/images/i_p023.jpg b/75484-h/images/i_p023.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 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