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} + div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } + .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; + margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } + .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .blackletter {font-family: 'Old English Text MT', serif; font-weight:bold; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75515 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c001'>BLACKWOOD’S<br> EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.<br> <span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>No. CCCCXV.      MAY, 1850.      Vol. LXVII.</span></span></h1> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <h2 class='c002'>CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Free-Trade Finance</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_513'>513</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Greece Again</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_526'>526</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The Modern Argonauts</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_539'>539</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>My Peninsular Medal. By an Old Peninsular. Part VI.</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_542'>542</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>German Popular Prophecies</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_560'>560</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The History of a Regiment during the Russian Campaign</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_573'>573</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>The Penitent Free-Trader</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_585'>585</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Tenor of the Trade Circulars</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_589'>589</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Alison’s Political Essays</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_605'>605</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Ovid’s Spring-Time</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_621'>621</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Dies Boreales No. VII. Christopher under Canvass</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_622'>622</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'><span class='sc'>Letter from Major-General Sir William Napier</span>,</td> + <td class='c004'><a href='#Page_640'>640</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div><span class='large'>EDINBURGH:</span></div> + <div>WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, 45, GEORGE STREET;</div> + <div>AND 37, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='small'><em>$1</em></span></div> + <div class='c005'><span class='small'>SOLD BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.</span></div> + <div class='c005'><span class='small'>PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH.</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c006'> + <div>BLACKWOOD’S</div> + <div class='c005'>EDINBURGH MAGAZINE.</div> + <div class='c005'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>No. CCCCXV.      MAY, 1850.      Vol. LXVII.</span></span></div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_513'>513</span> + <h2 class='c002'>FREE-TRADE FINANCE.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The Chancellor of the Exchequer +has brought forward the Budget, +and the Financial Measures of Government +are before the public. It +contains matter worthy of the most +serious consideration. It is hard to +say whether the admission it contains, +or the measures it proposes, are +most condemnatory of the system of +Class Government which the Reform +Bill has imposed on the country.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The statement of the Chancellor of +the Exchequer, in a few words, is +this:—“Last year, I calculated upon +a small surplus of L.104,000 for the +year ending 5th April 1850, but that +surplus has swelled to L.2,250,000, +by rise in the produce of the taxes, +and reductions of the expenditure. Of +this sum L.1,500,000 is to be regarded +as the real surplus to be +relied upon for the measures of this +year.” Assuming this as the surplus +to be dealt with, he proposes to apply +L.750,000 in reduction of the last +contracted part of the debt, and +L.750,000 in reduction of taxation; +L.400,000 a-year being applied to the +reduction of the duty on bricks, and +L.350,000 to that of stamps on conveyances. +It is thus that he proposes to alleviate +the agricultural distress which, +he admits, prevails in the country.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Three things are especially worthy +of observation in this statement.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the first place, it affords another +illustration, if another was needed, of +the present deplorable subjection of +Government to the pressure from +without, which has so often and painfully +been exhibited since the new +system of government began. It is +well known that, during the three +disastrous years that preceded the +present one, debt to a large amount +was contracted. To mention two +items only: eight millions were borrowed +in 1847 to relieve the Irish +famine; L.2,000,000 in the succeeding +year, to carry on the current expenses +of the year; and in 1841 the deficiency +had been such, that no less +than L.5,000,000 was borrowed to +meet the ordinary expenses of the +year. One would suppose, that when +a surplus arose in the year 1849, the +natural course would have been to +have applied it, in the first instance, +to extinguish, so far as it would go, +the additional debt so recently contracted. +Has this been done? Not +at all. Only L.750,000 out of a real +surplus said to amount to L.1,500,000, +is to be applied in this way; and +L.750,000 is to be devoted to reduction +of taxes. L.10,000,000 is borrowed +during two years of distress; +L.750,000 only has been devoted to +its reduction, in a year, we are told, +of unparalleled commercial prosperity.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the next place, to what object is +the L.750,000 a-year of surplus available +to reduced taxation, discovered +for the first time after three years of +deficit, to be applied? Is it to be +devoted to remission of taxes pressing +upon the agricultural interest, whom +the measures pursued for behoof of +towns have reduced to such a state of +depression? Not at all. It is to be +applied to reduction of the duty on +<em>$1</em>. The first may be +admitted to be desirable, because, as so +large part of the landed property in +the kingdom will soon, to all appearance, +change hands, it is an object to +render the transfer as little costly as +possible. But of what use is the +reduction of the duty on bricks to the +suffering cultivators? That it is a +boon to the master-builders in towns, +may be conceded; though it may well +be doubted whether it will ever cause +a reduction of price to the purchasers +from them. But what the better will +the farmers and ploughmen, the landlords +and yeomen, be of the change? +Additional houses are not wanted <em>$1</em>; on the contrary, there +will in all probability not be inmates +for those that already are there, from +the certain and experienced effect of +Free-trade in diminishing the demand +for rural labour. It is in the towns +and villages that the building is going +on; because Free-trade policy is +daily more and more forcing the rural +inhabitants into the towns in quest of +employment or relief. In London, +200 miles of new streets, and 66,000 +houses, are said to have been constructed, +or to be in course of construction, +during the last two years. +Is there any increase of houses in the +rural districts? Herein, then, lies +the injustice of the present measures +of Government, that, though prefaced +with professions of a desire to relieve +all parties, they in reality benefit one +class only; and that, introduced at a +time when it is admitted the agriculturists +are in a state of extreme +depression, and the manufacturers are +asserted to be in a state of unexampled +prosperity, they are mainly calculated +to add to the prosperity of the +latter, and take nothing from the sufferings +of the former. It is not difficult +to see where the Reform Bill has +practically lodged the power of +Government in the British Empire.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the third place, and what is +most material of all, the speech of +the Chancellor of the Exchequer contains +an admission in regard to the +present state and past direction of +our finances, since we have fallen under +Liberal direction, of such moment, that +we regard it as the most important +statement that has ever yet been given +in regard to the effect of the new measures +on the national fortunes. It must +be given in his own words, as reported +in the <cite>Times</cite> of March 16:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“If honourable gentlemen will refer to +what has taken place during the last +twenty years—the sums which have been +borrowed on the one hand, and the +amounts which have been applied to the +reduction of the debt on the other—I +think they will see that there is good reason +for not being indifferent on this subject. +In 1835 and 1836, a sum of L.20,000,000 +was borrowed for the emancipation of the +West Indian slave population; to defray +the deficiency, in the year 1841, +L.5,000,000 were borrowed; I was +obliged to borrow L.8,000,000 to meet +the necessities of the sister country in +1847; and when the House refused to +increase the income-tax in 1848, I was +obliged to borrow a further sum of +L.2,000,000, to meet the extraordinary +expenditure. Since the period I have +mentioned, then, a sum of L.35,000,000 +has been added to the national debt. +When I turn to the other side of the +account, I find that all the money which +has been applied from surplus income to +the reduction of debt, in the course of the +last twenty years, amounts to only +L.8,000,000; so that, <em>$1</em>. (Hear, +hear.) When, in 1848, the House refused +to accede to the proposal I made +for an increased tax upon income, I certainly +did hope that, when a turn took +place in our financial affairs, they would +not, the moment there was a surplus of +income, instantly press that the whole of +that surplus should be devoted to the reduction +of taxation. What should we +think of a private individual who acted +in such a manner (hear, hear)—a man +who, whenever he found his income fall +short of his expenditure, borrowed the +money necessary to meet his liabilities, +but who never thought of paying off that +debt when, by a fortunate turn of affairs, +he happened to be in receipt of an excess +of income? (Hear, hear.) I must say +that it will be hopeless for us to maintain +that character as a nation which we +think indispensable in an individual, if, +in a time of profound peace, instead of +reducing our public debt, we go on adding +to it from year to year.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Here it is admitted, by the Whig +Chancellor of the Exchequer, that +after twenty years of profound peace +and unbroken Liberal government, +(Sir Robert Peel was essentially Liberal,) +not only has there been no reduction +of the public debt, but <span class='fss'>AN +INCREASE OF IT TO THE EXTENT OF +TWENTY-SEVEN MILLIONS</span>. It has +been repeatedly demonstrated that, if +the noble sinking-fund of L.15,000,000 +a-year, which Mr Pitt’s policy left to the +Administration at the close of the war +in 1815, had been preserved unimpaired +by keeping up the indirect +taxes from which it arose, the whole +national debt would have been extinguished +in 1845. When the ruinous +monetary act of 1819, and the increasing +concession of successive Administrations +to urban clamour had rendered +that impossible, the semi-Liberal +semi-Tory Governments from 1815 +to 1830 still contrived to pay off +L.82,000,000 of the public debt in +fifteen years; and when the Duke of +Wellington resigned in November +1830, he left, by the admission of all +parties, a real sinking-fund, arising +from an excess of income above +expenditure, of L.2,900,000 a-year to +his successors. But since that time, +under his Liberal successors, not only +has that surplus on an average of +years disappeared, but during twenty +years of profound peace L.27,000,000 +has been <em>$1</em> to the total amount +of the debt. Well may Sir Charles +Wood say, “What should we +think of a private individual who +acted in such a manner?” Such is +the rule of the urban constituencies, +to humour whose fancies, and appease +whose clamour, the whole efforts of +Government for the last twenty years +have been directed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The important thing in the statement +of the Chancellor of the Exchequer +is, that it gives us the result of +Whig government and Free-trade +finance during so long a period. +Every successive quarter, during these +twenty years, we have been told by +the Liberal press that the finances +were in the most flourishing condition; +that any deficiency that appeared was +more apparent than real; and at any +rate, in the most unfavourable view, +it was sufficiently explained by temporary +causes, and afforded no ground +whatever for despondency in the future. +Every successive Session, the Ministers +came down to Parliament with +the most flourishing accounts of the +state of the country and of the public +finances, and demonstrated to the +satisfaction of every reasonable man +in the nation that both never were in +more hopeful and prosperous circumstances. +Even when a deficiency of +one or two millions stared the Chancellor +of the Exchequer in the face, +which was not unfrequently the case, +there was always some temporary or +transient cause to which it was to be +referred. The China tribute had ceased, +or some reduction of duties had come +into operation, or revolutions in +Europe had diminished our exports to +the adjoining states. The Irish potato-rot +was a perfect godsend to the +Liberal financiers. It constituted their +stock in trade for the next three years. +The ruin of L.15,000,000 worth of +agricultural produce in Ireland, out of +at least L.260,000,000 worth in the two +islands, explained the whole distress +of the country and the exchequer for +the next three years; and, strange to +say, the very men who paraded so +ostentatiously the ruinous effects of +this comparatively trifling deficiency +in a single year, made a boast soon +after of their having destroyed +L.90,000,000 of agricultural remuneration +by the importations they induced +of foreign grain.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But nothing is more certain than +that error and delusion cannot, by any +human effort, be prolonged for a very +long period. With the advent of the +time when the interest to deceive has +ceased, or a new generation of deceivers +has succeeded, the whole fabric +falls to pieces. As certainly and mercilessly +as the vices or follies of preceding +monarchs are portrayed by +those who have succeeded to the inheritance +of their results, are the ruinous +consequences of former delusions in +democratic Governments exposed by +succeeding Administrations who find +themselves hampered by their effects. +Many a popular Nero is cast down +from his pedestal, almost before the +vital warmth has left his body; many +a republican Necker is exposed by a +republican Bailly, when he finds the +public finances rendered desperate by +the measures which had been pursued +with the cordial approbation of the +whole Liberal party in the state. It +is the same with our present Chancellor +of the Exchequer. He finds the +public finances, in the midst of boasted +commercial and manufacturing prosperity, +in so deplorable a condition, +that he is fain to lay the whole blame +upon his predecessors; and, after deploring +the extraordinary fact, that +during twenty years of profound peace, +Liberal government, and retrenching +Administrations, we have not only +made no reduction whatever in the +public debt, but added twenty-seven +millions to its amount, he very naturally +and justly observes, “What +should we say to a private individual +who should conduct his affairs in this +manner?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have been so accustomed, during +twenty years of Liberal and popular +rule, to see every successive Administration +live only from hand to +mouth, and to be content if they can +get over present difficulties, without +bestowing a thought on the future, +that the nation has almost forgotten +what it was to have a prudent and +foreseeing Government at the head of +affairs: or rather, nearly the whole +generations who have risen to manhood +have come to think that such a +system of government is impossible, +and is to be ranked with the El +Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, or the +Utopia of Sir Thomas More. To +enlighten their minds on this subject, +we subjoin two Tables, showing what +was done by the corrupt old Tory +Governments—even during the anxieties +and expenditure of a most protracted +and costly war, or when the +national finances were slowly recovering +from its effects—to put the finances +on a good footing, and lay, in present +fortitude and sacrifice, a solid foundation +for future relief and prosperity.</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr><th class='c010' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Table I.</span>, showing the growth of the Money applied to the reduction of the Debt, and the Sums paid off from 1792 to 1815, being twenty-three years of war.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1792,</td> + <td class='c004'>£1,558,504</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1793,</td> + <td class='c004'>1,634,972</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1794,</td> + <td class='c004'>1,872,957</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1795,</td> + <td class='c004'>2,143,697</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1796,</td> + <td class='c004'>2,639,956</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1797,</td> + <td class='c004'>3,393,210</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1798,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,093,164</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1799,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,528,568</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1800,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,908,379</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1801,</td> + <td class='c004'>5,528,315</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1802,</td> + <td class='c004'>6,114,033</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1803,</td> + <td class='c004'>6,494,694</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1804,</td> + <td class='c004'>6,436,929</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1805,</td> + <td class='c004'>9,406,865</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1806,</td> + <td class='c004'>9,602,658</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1807,</td> + <td class='c004'>10,125,419</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1808,</td> + <td class='c004'>10,681,579</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1809,</td> + <td class='c004'>11,359,691</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1810,</td> + <td class='c004'>12,095,977</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1811,</td> + <td class='c004'>13,073,577</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1812,</td> + <td class='c004'>14,098,842</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1813,</td> + <td class='c004'>16,064,057</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1814,</td> + <td class='c004'>14,830,957</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>1815,</td> + <td class='c004'>14,241,397</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c004'>£186,928,399</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>—<span class='sc'>Porter’s</span> <cite>Parl. Tables</cite>, i. 1.</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>It is a total mistake to allege, as is +often done, that this immense and +growing sinking-fund was obtained +entirely by borrowing with the one +hand what was paid off with another. +The <em>$1</em> thus applied to the reduction +of debt were obtained from the +<em>$1</em> taxes set apart on the contraction +of each loan, in amount adequate +not only to defray its annual +interest, but also to extinguish, within +forty-five years after it was contracted, +the principal of the loan +itself. That part of the loan was +applied in each year, especially during +the latter years of the war, to +keep up the sinking-fund, is true, but +is immaterial. That was only because +the taxes set apart for its support were +absorbed, in great part, by the necessities +of the contest; and when <em>$1</em>, these taxes +were amply sufficient to keep up the +sinking-fund without any extraneous +aid. This appears from the following +Table, also taken from Mr Porter, +exhibiting what was actually paid off +of the public debt during the next +fifteen years of Tory peace-government:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr><th class='c010' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Table</span> showing the Money applied to the reduction of Debt, Funded and Unfunded, from 1815 to 1832.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1816,</td> + <td class='c004'>£13,945,117</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1817,</td> + <td class='c004'>14,514,457</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1818,</td> + <td class='c004'>15,339,483</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1819,</td> + <td class='c004'>16,305,590</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1820,</td> + <td class='c004'>17,499,773</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1821,</td> + <td class='c004'>17,219,957</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1822,</td> + <td class='c004'>18,889,319</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1823,</td> + <td class='c004'>7,482,325</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1824,</td> + <td class='c004'>10,625,059</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1825,</td> + <td class='c004'>6,093,475</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1826,</td> + <td class='c004'>5,621,231</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1827,</td> + <td class='c004'>5,704,766</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1828,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,667,965</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1829,</td> + <td class='c004'>2,559,485</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1830,</td> + <td class='c004'>4,545,465</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1831,</td> + <td class='c004'>1,663,093</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>1832,</td> + <td class='c004'>5,696</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'>£162,682,256</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>—<span class='sc'>Porter’s</span> <cite>Parl. Tables</cite>, i. 1.</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>But the Reform Bill, passed in +1832, has entirely put an end to the +reduction of the debt. Since that +time, as Sir Charles Wood tells us, +the debt, so far from having diminished, +has increased £27,000,000.</p> + +<p class='c008'>That there was a substantial reduction +of debt going on during the period +included in the above table, and not a +mere juggle, by transferring debt from +one denomination to another, though +not to the amount which these figures +would indicate, is decisively proved by +the following Table, showing the general +result of the financial operations +from 1816 to 1832, when the Whigs +introduced the Reform Bill:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c003' colspan='3'>Funded Debt on 5th Jan. 1816,</td> + <td class='c004'>£816,311,940</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003' colspan='3'>Unfunded do.,</td> + <td class='c004'>48,510,501</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013' colspan='3'>Total,</td> + <td class='c004'>£860,822,441</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003' colspan='3'>Total Debt on 5th Jan. 1832—</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'>Funded,</td> + <td class='c012'>£754,100,549</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'>Unfunded,</td> + <td class='c012'>27,752,650</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c004'>781,853,199</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003' colspan='3'>Paid off in sixteen years,</td> + <td class='c004'>£82,969,242</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003' colspan='3'>—<span class='sc'>Porter’s</span> <cite>Parl. Tables</cite>, ii. 6.</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>In the next eighteen years, since +the Reform Bill changed the Constitution, +it has been seen the debt was +increased by £27,000,000.</p> + +<p class='c008'>So prodigious and fatal a change +in our financial system would be +wholly inexplicable, considering the +many able and patriotic men who, +since that period, have been intrusted +with its direction, if we did not recollect +the vital change made since that +time in the constitution of the country, +and the new class which was brought +up in overwhelming numbers to return +representatives to the House of Commons. +That class is the borough and +shopkeeping interest, with whom the +main object is to buy cheap and sell +dear. Not only has this principle, +since that time, formed the sole regulator +of Government measures in +general or commercial policy, but it +has operated decisively on our finances, +and is the main cause to which their +present hopeless condition is to be +ascribed. To cheapen everything became +the great object; and this was to +be done, it was thought, most effectually +by taking taxes off articles of +consumption. Under the influence of +this principle, indirect taxes to the +following enormous amount have been +repealed since the peace, the magnitude +of which renders it noways surprising +that the sinking-fund has +disappeared:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr><th class='c010' colspan='6'><span class='sc'>Table</span> showing the Taxes, Direct and Indirect, Repealed and Imposed from 1816 to 1847, both inclusive.</th></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c013' colspan='3'><span class='sc'>Repealed.</span></th> + <th class='c014' colspan='3'><span class='sc'>Imposed.</span></th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Year.</td> + <td class='c012'>Direct.</td> + <td class='c012'>Indirect.</td> + <td class='c013'>Direct.</td> + <td class='c012'>Indirect.</td> + <td class='c004'>Year.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1816,</td> + <td class='c012'>£15,000,000</td> + <td class='c012'>£2,547,000</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>£320,058</td> + <td class='c004'>1816</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1817,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>36,495</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>7,991</td> + <td class='c004'>1817</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1818,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>9,564</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,336</td> + <td class='c004'>1818</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1819,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>705,846</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>3,094,902</td> + <td class='c004'>1819</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1820,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>4,000</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>119,602</td> + <td class='c004'>1820</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1821,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>471,309</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>43,642</td> + <td class='c004'>1821</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1822,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>2,139,101</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1822</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1823,</td> + <td class='c012'>1,860,000</td> + <td class='c012'>2,190,050</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>18,596</td> + <td class='c004'>1823</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1824,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,704,724</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>45,605</td> + <td class='c004'>1824</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1825,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>3,639,551</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>43,000</td> + <td class='c004'>1825</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1826,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,973,812</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>188,000</td> + <td class='c004'>1826</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1827,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>4,038</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>21,402</td> + <td class='c004'>1827</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1828,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>51,998</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,966</td> + <td class='c004'>1828</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1829,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>126,406</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1829</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1830,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>4,093,955</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>696,004</td> + <td class='c004'>1830</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1831,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,598,536</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>627,586</td> + <td class='c004'>1831</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1832,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>747,264</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>44,526</td> + <td class='c004'>1832</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1833,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,526,914</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1833</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1834,</td> + <td class='c012'>1,200,000</td> + <td class='c012'>891,516</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>198,394</td> + <td class='c004'>1834</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1835,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>165,817</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>75</td> + <td class='c004'>1835</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1836,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>989,786</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1836</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1837,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>234</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>3,991</td> + <td class='c004'>1837</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1838,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>289</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>100</td> + <td class='c004'>1838</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1839,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>66,258</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,783</td> + <td class='c004'>1839</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1840,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>18,959</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>2,155,673</td> + <td class='c004'>1840</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1841,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>27,176</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1841</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1842,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>1,596,366</td> + <td class='c013'>£5,529,989</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1842</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1843,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1843</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1844,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1844</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1845,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'>4,535,561</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>23,720</td> + <td class='c004'>1845</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1846,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1846</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>1847,</td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'>1847</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c013'><hr></td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'>£18,060,000</td> + <td class='c012'>£33,523,623</td> + <td class='c013'>£5,529,989</td> + <td class='c012'>£7,743,962</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Imposed,</td> + <td class='c012'>5,529,989</td> + <td class='c012'>7,743,962</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Taxation reduced,</td> + <td class='c012'>£12,431,011</td> + <td class='c012'>£25,779,661</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>Thus the balance of indirect taxation, +reduced since the Peace, has been +above £25,000,000—of direct, above +£12,000,000 annually; and till 1842, +it was £15,000,000 yearly. Had the +sinking-fund been kept up at its +amount as it was in 1815—that is, +at £15,000,000 sterling out of the +indirect taxes, there might have +been repealed £15,000,000 of direct, +and £14,000,000 of indirect taxes, and +still <em>$1</em>. +Why has this most desirable, most +vital object for the national safety in +future times, not been gained? Simply +because the mania of cheapening +everything has ruled the State. Successive +Administrations, which have +succeeded to the helm of affairs, have +endeavoured to gain a fleeting popularity, +by bidding against each other +in the race for popularity, by the sacrifice +of the best interests of their +country; and because Parliament—composed, +so far as its majority goes +since 1832, of the members for +boroughs—have shut their eyes entirely +to the ultimate consequences of +their actions, and looked only to the +gratifying their buying and selling +constituents by the incessant reduction +of the indirect taxes, and lowering +the remuneration of industry of +every kind throughout the country.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In truth, the chasm made in the +finances of the country by this incessant, +uncalled for, and ruinous reduction +of the indirect taxes, in pursuance +of the mania to cheapen everything, +under which the nation has been labouring +during the last thirty years, has +been far greater and more disastrous +than the preceding figures, formidable +as they are, would lead us to suppose. +The taxes repealed are of course set +down at the amount they were <em>$1</em>. But that is very +far from what they would have produced +if they had been kept up; because, +in that case, of course they +would have shared in the vast increase +of wealth and population which has +since taken place. At the time when +a large part of these taxes were +repealed, the British isles did not +contain above from 20,000,000 to +24,000,000 of inhabitants—now they +contain 29,000,000. Our exports +and imports have more than doubled +in amount since the income-tax was +taken off in 1816. Beyond all doubt, +at its original rate of ten per cent, it +would now have produced, at the +very least, £20,000,000 a-year. The +duty on spirits, so fatally lowered +in 1826, would now have produced, +not £2,000,000, but £3,000,000 or +£3,500,000 annually. There cannot +be a shadow of doubt that the taxes, +which in 1815 produced £72,000,000 +a-year, would, if continued at the same +rates, have been now producing 50 +per cent more, or £110,000,000. +There is no man in his senses who +would think that the nation either +could have borne, or ought to have +borne, such a load of taxation. Relief, +on the return of peace, was indispensable. +But it is one thing to give +relief in a reasonable and prudent degree; +it is another, and a very different +thing, to throw away the public +revenue with a reckless prodigality, +without either principle or foresight, +and for no other reason but to win a +temporary popularity for wasteful +Administrations.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Indeed, the inevitable effect of the +cheapening system, and especially of +the repeal of the Corn Laws, in rendering +the taxes unproductive, and payment +of the interest even of the public +debt ere long impossible, was distinctly +foreseen and foretold not only by ourselves +in this Magazine, but by the +most decided apostles of the opposite +set of opinions. Hear Mr Cobbett +on the subject, in Vol. LI. of his <cite>Register</cite>, +No. 2, July 10, 1824—a quotation +for which we are indebted to +that able and consistent journal, the +<cite>Standard</cite>.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“‘The commercial world’ will, I believe, +find it rather difficult to persuade +the landlords to ‘modify and alter the +Corn-laws,’ much less to ‘do away’ +with those laws: but what now is to become +of all the pretty doctrine about the +inseparable interests of manufacture and +agriculture? I trust we shall hear no +more of that soft nonsense....</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Now mind, I do not say that the manufacturers +ought not to be permitted to +get food from abroad; but I say—and +what man in his senses does not say, that +in whatever degree this cotton body is +supplied with food from abroad, it must +and will dispense with food from our own +lands....</p> + +<p class='c015'>“I would fain then see the two-legged +animal who is quadruped enough still to +contend that the interests of the landlords +and those of the cotton-lords are +inseparable. They are directly opposed +to each other; and opposed to each other +they must be as long as this debt shall last.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“It will be curious enough to observe +how ‘the manufacturing mind’ will work +upon ‘the agricultural mind.’ These +two minds will now come into direct +contact with each other. It will be the +business of the cotton mind to convince +the landlords that bringing in foreign +corn will not make their English corn +sell cheaper; or, failing in this, to convince +them that wheat at 4s. a bushel +will, ‘in the long run,’ be better for the +landlords than wheat at 8s. a bushel. A +very long run, I believe, indeed! In +short, it is a question of rents or no rents. +With the present debt and taxes, and +with wheat at 4s. a bushel, there can be +no rents; so that, when the cotton mind +comes forward to get a repeal of the +Corn Bill, it comes in fact to pray that +there shall no longer be rents in England.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The cotton-lords, and indeed all the +lords of the loom and anvil, are bestirring +themselves, and collecting all their forces +for a desperate assault upon the jolterheads +(the landlords) who cry aloud for +national faith. I wish them success. +I will not absolutely join them; but I +wish them success; because that success +would destroy the <em>$1</em> (the system +of paper-money, national debt, and +oppressive taxation) root and branch. +The Corn Bill, the Small-Note Bill, the +laying out of public money in Ireland, the +lending of money occasionally to manufacturers +and merchants, the Bank advancing +money upon big estates—all +these shifts and tricks just keep the thing +agoing; but come a war, or repeal the +Corn Bill, and you will soon see what is +to become of the system. Everything +seems strained to its utmost: and when +that is the case, something must soon give +way.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The alleged advantage which the +Free-trade party oppose to the obviously +calamitous effects of this incessant +surrender of the public revenue, and +the now admitted abandonment of all +attempts to pay off the public debt, is, +that commodities have been cheapened +thereby, and the weight which +oppressed them taken off the springs +of industry. We utterly deny this +advantage. What is the good of this +constant cheapening, when confessedly +you cannot cheapen our debts and +obligations? Is it anything else but +diminishing the funds from which the +interest of these debts and obligations +is to be discharged, and running the +nation into the most imminent hazard +of incurring a general bankruptcy, +public and private? Do not salaries +and incomes fall, from the highest to +the lowest, in consequence; and if so, +what good does the fall of prices do, +even to the individuals who apparently +profit by it? Suppose we gained +our object, and rendered everything +as cheap here as it is in Poland or +Norway—what should we gain by it, +but that we should speedily become +<em>$1</em>, and that the realised +wealth of this nation, now for the +most part invested in situations where +its interest is paid by the industry of +the people, would be lost by that +industry having ceased to receive a +sufficient remuneration? And is that +an object for which the national security +should be endangered, and the +means of maintaining our independence +destroyed?</p> + +<p class='c008'>In truth,—with the exception of +some manufactured articles, such as +cotton and calicoes, in which the fall +of prices has been prodigious, owing +to the successive improvement of the +machinery employed in their formation,—we +are at a loss to see that this +immense remission of indirect taxes, +which has evidently been fatal to the +national finances, has been attended +with the slightest benefit to the country +generally. We say the country +generally—because there can be no +doubt that it has been a very great +advantage to the <em>$1</em>, who have, in most cases, contrived +to put the whole tax lost to the +public into their own pockets. That +is the real secret of the remission. +Individual selfishness, the thirst for +gain, was in most cases the moving +spring. The parties interested besieged +the Chancellor of the Exchequer +with memorials, setting forth +the hardships they sustained from the +tax affecting their branch of industry, +and the immense benefit the <em>$1</em> +would derive from its abolition; but +the public was the very last thing +they were really thinking of. It was +their own profits to which they were +looking; and but for that, they never +would have stirred in the matter. +The immense fortunes made in many +branches of manufactures, during the +last quarter of a century, have been +in great part owing to the tax remitted +having been wholly gained to the +master-manufacturers engaged in +them. We pay the same now for our +shoes and beer as we did thirty years +ago, though, since its termination, the +whole tax on leather and the war tax +on malt have been repealed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There is no doubt that prices have +declined in most articles of consumption +to a great degree during the last +twenty-five years, and in some to a +most extraordinary extent. But +where the decline has been great—as, +for example, in cottons or calicoes, +which are now selling for a fifth of +what they cost during the war—it is +not owing to the remission of taxation, +so much as to the extraordinary +perfection to which machinery and the +division of labour have been brought. +The proof of this is decisive. The fall +of price has been fully as great in +branches of manufactures in regard to +which no remission has taken place, +or in a very slight degree, as in those +in which it has been most considerable. +And in regard to all commodities, +the effect of the monetary bills +of 1819, 1826, and 1844, must be +taken into consideration. Those bills, +by contracting the currency to <em>$1</em> of what it previously had been in +proportion to the industry and population +of the country, have effected a +revolution of prices so great, that +nearly the whole reduction of the cost +of articles prior to the last year is to +be ascribed to it. The great organ +of the money interest, the <cite>Times</cite>, +boasts that recent legislation has +doubled the value of the sovereign. +Unquestionably it has; and of course +it has also doubled the whole debt of +the country, public and private. It +has turned the national debt of +£800,000,000 into £1,600,000,000; +it has made the annual taxation of +£52,000,000 as burdensome as +£100,000,000 would have been during +the war. Prices have generally fallen; +but it is the contraction of the currency +which has done that. As to the remission +of taxation, with the exception of +a few articles, such as salt and spirits, +in which the remission, being very +large, was immediately felt by the +consumer, the reduction of prices has +not been greater than necessarily +flowed from the artificial scarcity of +money, and would have been the same +though no reduction of public duties +had taken place. Generally speaking, +the tax, lost to the public, has been +entirely gained by the master-manufacturer.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Had the system of cheapening, carried +into effect by the contraction of +the currency on the one hand, and the +extensive remission of duties on the +other, been attended by beneficial consequences +to the people, and resulted +in general happiness and prosperity, +there would at least have been some +set-off against the ruin of our financial +prospects which it has occasioned; +and we might have consoled ourselves +for the evident imposition of the public +debt as a hopeless burden upon +the nation, by the reflection that at +least temporary wellbeing had resulted +from the change. Has this been the +case? Alas! the fact is just the reverse; +and among the many mournful +reflections which the present hopeless +condition of our finances awakens, it is +perhaps the most mournful, that the +price paid for it has been, not public +happiness, but general and unprecedented +misery. In the long and varied +annals of English history, there is +beyond all question no period which +has been marked by such repeated and +widespread suffering as the thirty +years which have elapsed since the +cheapening system was begun, by the +contraction of the currency in 1819, +and the present time, when it has been +carried into full effect by Sir R. Peel’s +Free-trade policy in 1846. The three +dreadful monetary crises of 1825, +1839, and 1847, followed, as each of +them was, by several years of devastation +and ruin to the trading classes; +the repeated recurrence of agricultural +distress, especially from 1832 to 1836, +and in 1849; the unheard-of agonies +of the Irish famine of 1846, perpetuated +by the fall of prices, which +rendered agriculture unremunerative +over great part of that country,—are +some of the leading features of an +epoch which will ever be regarded as +at once the most momentous and the +most disastrous which the British Empire +has ever known.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It has left its traces deeply furrowed +and for ever marked in English +annals. It has produced consequences +which will never be forgotten, and to +which the historians of future times +will point as the turning-point of +British story, an eternal warning to +future ages. It has produced the Revolution +of 1832; disfranchised our +whole Colonies; displaced the government +of property, talent, and intelligence +in the ruling island, and installed +that of buying and selling in +its stead. It has severed the public +policy from the protection of the Land +and Native Industry, the real inheritance +and only sure patrimony of the +nation, and anchored it instead on the +shifting quicksands of Commercial +Prosperity. It has destroyed the +West Indies beyond the possibility of +redemption, and spread discontent so +widely through our other Colonies, that +it is universally known they are all +only waiting for some serious disaster +to the parent state, or the advent of +a protracted and hazardous war, to +declare themselves independent. It +has rendered every seventh man in +Great Britain and Ireland, taken together, +a pauper. It has driven from +250,000 to 300,000 industrious citizens, +for the last three years, annually +into exile from their native land. It +has raised the poor-rate in both +islands to an unprecedented height, +and, when measured by its true standard, +the price of subsistence to double +what it ever was before. It has implanted +the seeds of ruin in our Mercantile +Navy, by the rapid growth of +foreign shipping as compared with +British in carrying on our own trade. +It has rendered our shores defenceless +as they were in the days of the Saxon +Heptarchy; and made one of our +first admirals, Sir Charles Napier, +thankful when the winter frosts closed +the Baltic harbours, and secured our +capital from the insulting visits of the +successors of the sea-kings of the +north. It has rendered our means of +raising a revenue so hopeless, that the +“greatest bill-broker in the world,” +Mr Gurney, has declared that we +must end in national bankruptcy; and +the leader of the Free-traders himself, +Mr Cobden, has publicly said that +there is no resource but to disband +our troops, sell our ships of war, and +trust the national security to the justice +and moderation of our enemies, +and the total absence of envy in our +rivals. Such, and not public and +passing felicity, is the price which the +nation has paid for the ruin of its +finances, the abandonment of the sinking-fund, +and the imposing of the +public debt <em>$1</em>, as a burden, +hopeless of redemption, on the country.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The destruction of property which +has taken place in the British Empire +during the thirty years that this +cheapening process was going on, +exceeds probably anything recorded +during a similar period in the annals +of mankind. It has much exceeded +all that was produced by the confiscations +of the Convention, or the +devastation of the wars of Napoleon. +Each of the three great monetary +crises of 1825, 1839, and 1847, occasioned +the destruction at once of +two or three hundred millions worth +of mercantile property, and halved the +fortunes of persons to double that +extent. The intervals between them +were, with the exception of a few +brief gleams of perilous prosperity, +periods of anxiety, gloom, and depression, +during which all persons engaged +in business, with the exception of the +great capitalists, who were daily +getting richer, found their property +melting away under the ceaseless +and progressive fall of prices. It +was exactly the obverse of the vast +impulse given to industry over the +whole world by the discovery of the +mines of Mexico and Peru, and the +consequent rise of prices which everywhere +ensued. One class, and one +only, flourished amidst the general +distress; but, unfortunately, in that +class the government of the nation +for the time was vested, viz., the +<em>$1</em>. So immensely had +this interest grown under the protective +policy of the preceding hundred +and fifty years, that it was able to set +all other interests in the State at defiance, +and to pursue the system of +making the sovereign worth two +sovereigns, despite the evident ruin +which that system was bringing on +all the industrious classes in the state. +Future ages will ask what were the +devastating wars, the stunning calamities, +the loss of provinces, the +severance of colonies, which inflicted +such deep and irremediable wounds +on the British nation during these +memorable periods? and they will be +answered, it was thirty years of unbroken +peace at home, a series of +brilliant colonial conquests abroad, +and <span class='fss'>ONE SYSTEM</span>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But that one system was amply +sufficient to break down the most +wisely-conceived system of finance, +to ruin the most flourishing revenue, +to render beggarly the richest nation, +to destroy the greatest empire. It +is the system, originating with the +Roman empire, as a necessary and just +consequence of its universal conquest, +of universal free-trade—a system +which ruined the empire. It is the more +dangerous that it recommends itself to +the people in the first instance by the +alluring prospect of cheapening everything, +of making money daily go farther, +rendering every one apparently richer +and more comfortable than he was +before. It is readily adopted by the +shopkeeping and trading class, because +it enables them, in the first +instance, to purchase the goods at a +less cost; forgetting that if they buy +cheap they must also sell cheap, and +that their customers’ means of payment +are melting away from the effects +of that very cheapness. It is long, +however, before this truth, how obvious +soever, is generally understood. It is +by slow degrees, and after much +suffering only, that it is discovered +that this system of general cheapening +does not stop short with people’s <em>$1</em>; +that it speedily comes to +affect their <em>$1</em> also, and that in +a still greater degree; that, if shopkeepers +buy cheap, they must sell +little or sell cheap also; that wages +must fall with the decline in the price +of commodities; and that the last condition +of the people is worse than the first. +But while this great and eternal truth +is in the course of being brought home +to the nation by suffering, the national +pre-eminence is lost, the national +security is endangered, the national +spirit is weakened. Multitudes become +desperate in regard to their own +and their country’s fortunes, from the +scenes of suffering and distress which +they perpetually see around them; +the selfish feelings acquire a fatal preponderance, +from the general experienced +impossibility of indulging in +the generous. Meanwhile the national +income melts away under the effects +of the general cheapening of the remuneration +of industry—all steady or +foreseeing system of finance is abandoned, +and every successive Government, +like a needy spendthrift, deems +itself happy if it can get through the +year without a financial crisis, never +bestowing a thought on the future, +either as regards the national security, +its finances, or its means of defence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One memorable instance of the way +in which, under the cheapening system, +the public revenue has been recklessly +and needlessly thrown away, is +to be found in the Penny Postage. It +is well known that, prior to the change, +the Post-office income, after paying +<em>$1</em>, +yielded a clear surplus revenue to the +nation of £1,500,000 or £1,600,000 +a-year. The postage of letters, however, +was decidedly too high; a reduction +was loudly called for by the +public; and, if cautiously and judiciously +applied, the increase of letters +might have compensated the reduction +of rates of postage, and a boon have +been conceded to the community, without +any detriment to the public service. +A uniform 2d. or 3d., or even 4d., postage +would have been hailed with +unmixed satisfaction by the people, +who had been paying 10d. or 1s. for +their letters, and no material diminution +of that important branch of the +revenue experienced. Instead of this, +what did the Government, urged on +by the cheapening party, actually do? +Why, they reduced the postage at once +to a penny for all letters, from all distances +within the two islands. We +were told, that not only would there +be no loss, but a certain gain, after a +few years had elapsed, from the vast +and certain increase in the number of +letters that would be transmitted. +How have these expectations been +realised? The revenue set down as +coming from the Post-office, immediately +after the change, was only +£500,000 or £600,000 a-year; and, +after having been nine years in operation, +it has only risen, in the year +ending 5th April 1850, to £803,000; +much less than half of what it would +have been under the former system, +when the increased population and +transactions of the country are taken +into consideration, if either the old +rates had been continued, or a reasonable +reduction to 2d. or 3d. had taken +place. It is to the embarrassment +produced by this great defalcation that +we are mainly indebted for the renewal +of the income-tax.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But this defalcation, great and serious +as it thus appears on the face of +the public accounts, was little more +than <em>$1</em> of what really occurred +in consequence of the change. +To conceal the effects of this great +innovation, the Free-trading party, +who had now got entire possession of +the Government, had the address both +to get the expense of the Packet Service, +<em>$1</em>, and to keep +that important change a secret among +the Government officials. In this way +a double object was gained. The +disastrous effect of the reduction was +kept out of view, and the increased +charges of the Navy afforded a +plausible ground for demagogues to +assail the Government for alleged extravagance +in that department. But +that which one demagogue had done, +another demagogue brought to light. +Mr Cobden made so violent a clamour +about the increase of expenditure in +the Navy since 1835, when it had +been reduced, under the pressure of +the Reform mania, to its lowest point, +that the Admiralty, in their own defence, +let out the important fact, that, +since the penny-postage system began, +they had been saddled with the +whole cost of the Packet Service, +which they never had been before; +and, in the debate on the Estimates, +Lord John Russell stated that this +cost now amounted to £737,000 +a-year. Thus the real Post-office +accounts stand thus:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Apparent surplus for year ending 5th April 1850,</td> + <td class='c004'>£803,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Deduct cost of Packet Service, thrown on Navy,</td> + <td class='c004'>737,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Real Post-office revenue,</td> + <td class='c004'>£66,000</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>And it has been raised to this level +only during a year of extraordinary +manufacturing activity, when our +exports turned £60,000,000. On the +whole, since the postage was reduced +in 1841, the Post-office has not yielded +a farthing to the country, but, on the +contrary, has occasioned a loss of some +hundred thousand pounds.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have heard enough from the +Free-traders of the disasters which +accumulated on the year 1848, and +commencement of 1849, when a monetary +crisis, the Irish famine, the +European revolution, the Irish rebellion, +and the Chartist sedition, combined +to reduce the revenue to an unprecedented +degree. We have heard +enough, also, of the unexampled +prosperity of the year 1849, when +these extraneous disasters had ceased, +and the blessings of Free-trade and +the cheapening system were still in +undiminished lustre. Be it so. Let +us compare the public revenue of this +year of unprecedented disaster with +that obtained in the next year of unexampled +prosperity, as appearing +from the finance accounts of April 5, +1850:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='c003'></th> + <th class='c013'>Year ending</th> + <th class='c014'>Year ending</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c003'></th> + <th class='c013'>5th April 1849.</th> + <th class='c014'>5th April 1850.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Ordinary revenue,</td> + <td class='c012'>£48,490,002</td> + <td class='c004'>£48,643,042</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>China money,</td> + <td class='c012'>84,284</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Imprest and other monies,</td> + <td class='c012'>665,293</td> + <td class='c004'>656,855</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Repayment of advances,</td> + <td class='c012'>427,761</td> + <td class='c004'>553,349</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c004'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'>£49,667,430</td> + <td class='c004'>£49,853,246</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'>49,853,246</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c012'><hr></td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c012'>Increase in 1849,</td> + <td class='c012'>£185,816</td> + <td class='c004'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c016' colspan='3'>—<cite>Times</cite>, April 1850.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>So that the increase in a year of +extraordinary and unprecedented prosperity, +as we are told, over one of +unexampled and overwhelming suffering, +is <em>$1</em> £185,000, for £128,000 +of which we are indebted to an excess +in the repayment of advances in 1849 +over 1848. We care not to what this +extraordinary fact is to be ascribed, +whether reduction of duties, the continuance +of distress, or any other +cause. We rest on the fact that Free-trade +finance and the cheapening +system have brought the revenue of +the country, <em>$1</em>. History +cannot, and will not, overlook +these facts. The leaders of the Free-traders +say they live for posthumous +fame. Let them not be afraid. Posterity +will do them full justice.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The financial problem of the Free-traders +is—“Given a cheapened nation, +to extract an adequate revenue +out of their unremunerated industry.” +We recommend this problem to the +study of the Free-trading Chancellor +of the Exchequer. If he solve it, +we shall assign him a place superior +to Archimedes in physical—to Bacon +in political science.</p> + +<p class='c008'>What a contrast to this mournful +decay of the national resources, and +ruin of the national strength, from the +effects of a theory acted upon by the +Legislature under the influence of a +class majority in Parliament, would a +truly catholic and national policy, protective +alike to all interests, have +afforded! An adequate but not redundant +currency, cautiously administered, +and relieved from the fatal +liability to abstraction from a great +increase of imports in any particular +year, would at once have afforded free +scope to national industry, and +avoided the frightful vicissitudes in +the demand for labour, which the +opposite system of making the currency +entirely dependent on the most +evanescent of earthly things—gold—of +necessity occasioned. The terrible +monetary crises of 1825, 1839, and +1847, would have been unfelt. They +would have been surmounted, as that +of 1810 had been, by an extended +issue of paper when the gold was for a +time abstracted, without their existence +being known to the nation. Industry, +protected in every department +by adequate but not oppressive fiscal +duties, would have generally and +steadily flourished. Periods of extravagant +speculation and exorbitant +wages, followed by commercial depression +and general suffering, would have +been unknown. The national revenues, +sustained by an adequate currency +and unbroken industry, would +have afforded an ample surplus to +Government, both for the public service +and the promotion of objects of +general utility, after providing for the +maintenance of the sinking-fund. +Emigration, supported, so far as the +destitute are concerned, by the Government +resources, and conducted in +Government vessels, would have +poured a ceaseless and prolific stream +into the Colonies, at once vivifying +their industry, and converting the +paupers of England and Ireland into +consumers of our manufactures, at the +rate of six or seven pounds a-head +per annum. Pauperism at home, +relieved in the classes where it originates +by this wise and paternal +policy, would have been arrested. +Crime itself would have been made +to minister to the general good: the +jails of Great Britain would have +been converted into industrial academies +for behoof of the Colonies. The +industry of the Colonies, encouraged +by the protective policy of the mother +country, and supported by the ceaseless +streams of its emigration, would +have advanced with rapid strides, +and afforded a rising and inexhaustible +mart for domestic manufactures. +The ocean would have become a +British lake: the navy of England, +the floating bridge which at once +united and protected its distant dependencies.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Colonial discontent would have +been unknown. The West Indies, +Canada, and Australia, would have +been the most loyal and contented, +because the most flourishing and justly +governed parts of the Empire. The +foreign trade of the world would have +been to the British Empire what +Adam Smith justly called the most +profitable of all trades, a home trade. +We should have raised the raw material +for all our staple branches of industry +within ourselves; wool from +Australia, cotton from the East and +West Indies, grain from the British +isles and Canada. Agriculture at +home and abroad would have advanced +abreast of manufactures; +commerce and shipping would have +risen with the increase of their productions; +the Navy, fed by an ample +and protected commercial marine, and +sustained at an adequate amount by +a well-filled treasury, would have +secured our independence, and enabled +us to attend to the interests and anticipate +the wants of our remotest +dependencies. We should have been +alike independent of foreign nations +for the materials of pacific industry, +and superior to them in warlike resources. +Great Britain, though grey in +years of renown, would have retained +for centuries the vigour of youth, +because she would have been continually +renovated by the energy of her +descendants. The paternal hall would +have been constantly cheerful and +happy, because it would have been +always filled with children and grandchildren, +or enlivened by their exploits. +Amidst general prosperity +and unceasing progress, the National +Debt—constantly encroached on +by a sustained sinking-fund—would +have disappeared. Before this time +it would have been all extinguished; +and the taxation of the Empire, reduced +to £30,000,000 or £35,000,000 +a-year, would have enabled us for ever +to maintain the national armaments on +such a scale as would have qualified us +to bid defiance alike to the covert encroachments +of our rivals, or the open +hostility of our enemies. Under the +opposite or cheapening system, the +public debt has, on the admission of +its ablest supporters, been virtually +doubled; the sinking-fund has, amidst +general and almost constant distress, +disappeared; Colonial discontent +threatens the Empire with dismemberment; +agricultural distress +will speedily render it dependent for +its daily bread on its enemies; and +the maintenance of the national independence, +if the present system is persisted +in, has been rendered, for any +length of time, impossible.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_526'>526</span> + <h2 class='c002'>GREECE AGAIN.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c017'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in2'>“If, Cassandra-like, amidst the din</div> + <div class='line'>Of conflict none will hear, or, hearing, heed</div> + <div class='line in2'>This voice from out the wilderness, the sin</div> + <div class='line'>Be theirs, and my own feelings be my meed.”</div> + <div class='line in40'><cite>Prophecy of Dante.</cite></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>Greece is a most unfortunate country. +She has only escaped the Turks +to be plundered by her rulers and +ruined by her protectors. Seventeen +years ago, Lord Palmerston placed +King Otho on his throne; he has since +been occupied in making that throne +an uneasy seat. King Otho refuses +to answer Lord Palmerston’s letters; +in revenge, Great Britain ruins a +number of Greek shipowners, and +leaves the Greek ministers unpunished. +The Duke of Wellington has said that +he never bombarded a town, and never +saw the necessity for committing such +an act of cruelty; and the saying does +him even more honour than his long +career of victory. We had hoped that +no Englishman would ever have forgotten +this saying; yet Lord Palmerston +bombards the merchants of Greece +for the faults of King Otho’s ministers. +We are irresistibly reminded, by this +last display of our Foreign Secretary’s +warlike propensities, of Mr Winkle’s +fight with the small boy.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Though much has been written on +the subject of this quarrel, both at +home and on the Continent, no clear +statement of the exact relations between +England and Greece has been +published; nor can it be gathered +even from the papers recently laid before +Parliament.<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c018'><sup>[1]</sup></a> We believe, therefore, +that our readers will thank us +for devoting a few pages to a serious +examination of the political relations +between the two countries, which will +tend to place the recent coercive measures +in their true light. This is the +more necessary, because Ministers, +both in debates and Parliamentary +papers, have it in their power to conceal +everything relating to the past; +and the Opposition must hunt long +before they can spring a single truth +in the thickets of official deception. +A view of the subject, under the guidance +of truth and common sense, free +both from party views and national +prejudices, has been rendered necessary +by the speech of Mr Piscatory, +the late French Minister in Greece. +The spoken pamphlet of Mr Piscatory +was prepared with considerable skill; +but it communicates hardly a single +fact that has not been perverted by +being removed from its true context, +or by having only half its concomitant +circumstances narrated. Indeed, Mr +Piscatory having been bellows-blower +in the disputes between Sir E. Lyons, +the English envoy at Athens, and +King Otho’s ministers, for four years, +is not a famous witness; he has his +own secrets to conceal. His oratorical +display did not impose on the good +sense of General Cavaignac, who parodied +Sylla’s speech to a wordy Athenian +ambassador, by hinting to the +French ex-minister plenipotentiary, +“that it seemed France had sent him +to Athens to study rhetoric, not to +collect information.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The papers laid before Parliament +prove the worthlessness of Mr Piscatory’s +diplomacy; but the conduct of +Lord Palmerston cannot be correctly +appreciated, unless we trace the connexion +of England and Greece since +the convention of 1832, appointing +Prince Otho of Bavaria King of +Greece, under the protection and guarantee +of England, France, and Russia. +That treaty, it must be recollected, +was the work of Lord Palmerston. +King Otho was selected by +Lord Palmerston; he was conveyed +to Greece by Lord Palmerston’s +favourite diplomatist, Sir E. Lyons; +and it was under Lord Palmerston’s +special protection that the Anglo-Bavarian +Regency was furnished with +£2,400,000, and allowed to destroy +the institutions of the Greek nation. +These facts embrace the history of +British connexion with Greece from +1832 to 1837. Great Britain, or, to +speak more correctly, our Foreign +Secretary, is morally responsible for +the government of the Greek kingdom +by Count Armansperg, who ruled far +more absolutely than King Otho has +ever done, for the simple reason that +he had a better filled purse. Sir E. +Lyons supported him with vigour +alike against Russian and French +opposition, Greek patriotism, and constitutional +principles, as may be seen +by a reference to the papers laid before +Parliament in July 1836.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In 1837, Armansperg was dismissed +from office; but Greece is still suffering +from the loss of the institutions he +destroyed, and the political corruption +he introduced. Coletti, it is true, +imitated his political system in the +internal government with singular +aptitude, but with diminished funds +and resources for corruption. Where +Armansperg could appoint an amnestied +brigand a captain of infantry, +Coletti could only make some old +friend a policeman, or peradventure a +consul.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In 1837 the Government of Greece +broke off its intimate connexion with +England, and the English Minister at +Athens became involved in a succession +of quarrels with the court. It is +not necessary for us to prove that the +Bavarian Administration from 1837 +to 1843 was bad. All parties agree +that it was intolerable; and the +Greeks were universally applauded +when they expelled the whole tribe of +Bavarian officials. King Otho had +fallen into an error that might have been +expected from a Whig-created king; +he had neglected all the real duties of +royalty, and transacted the business +of his under-secretaries of state.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The circumstances that have determined +the position of our relations +with Greece, since the Constitution of +1844, occurred in the preceding period. +Lord Palmerston’s first quarrel +with the Greek court dates from 1837, +and originated in the dissatisfaction +then felt, because the British Minister +at Athens did not possess as much +influence with King Otho’s Government +as he had possessed with Count +Armansperg’s. The avowed object of +British diplomacy, at that period, was +to force the adherents of the English +party into office; and King Otho incurred +the enmity of England for preferring +the counsels of France and +Russia. The first pitched battle between +Greece and England was fought +about the waistcoat of the British +Minister’s groom. The question was, +whether the waistcoat worn by Sir E. +Lyons’ groom in his stable dress, and +in which he had been carried off to +prison for squirting water on a policeman, +was or was not a livery waistcoat. +After several weeks’ deliberation, +the Greek court decided, that, +although they did not consider the +waistcoat in question to be a livery +waistcoat, yet, in consideration of the +fact that the British Minister called it +his livery, the Government of Greece +was ready to make every concession +that could be required to heal the +wounded honour of Great Britain. +Parliament had a narrow escape of +seeing the waistcoat laid before both +Houses. Now this is very silly. Yet +there is no doubt that the arrest of the +groom was an intentional insult.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This affair was enacted to lower the +English minister in the eyes of the +populace, and compel the English +Government to change him. Everybody +in Greece knew that the groom +was sent to prison; few Greeks believed +that the Government had apologised +for the insult; indeed, nothing +but the sight of a policeman chained +before the British legation for +twenty-four hours could have reintegrated +the name of England at +Athens, so stoutly did all Government +officials declare that no apology +was ever made. Another scene was +exhibited for the satisfaction of the +court and the <i><span lang="fr">corps diplomatique</span></i>. At +a private theatrical representation in +King Otho’s palace, the British minister +was left without a chair in the +circle, and remained standing during +a long comedy. Some ambassadors +would have been sorely distressed +by this species of physical torture; +but the ambassador in question is +said to have consoled himself, during +this public exhibition of the feelings +of protected Greece to protecting +England, by the reflection that his +turn came next.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A blow was shortly after inflicted +on the royalty of Greece, from which +it can never recover; but Lord +Palmerston is accused of tolerating +the use of forbidden weapons by some +of his adherents, in his eagerness to +make the Greek monarch sensible of +the impolicy of the conduct of the +Hellenic court. Attacks on the person +of King Otho, more bold and +unsparing than the most malignant +vituperation of Junius, appeared in +a London morning paper, then supposed +to be allowed to imbibe some of +its inspiration from Downing Street. +These communications pretended to +come from an anonymous correspondent +in Athens, but it was evident +the unknown writer was aware of +many things that could hardly be +known beyond the Bavarian court and +the sanctuaries of Downing Street. +At least, King Otho drew this conclusion, +and apparently on good +grounds. This correspondent informed +the world, that his Hellenic +Majesty, who had been selected by +Lord Palmerston, and supported with +a loan of £2,400,000, was nevertheless +unfit to govern his kingdom; +and that a certificate to this effect +had been signed by several officers, +civil, military, and medical, who were +then at Athens in the service of King +Otho, and that this certificate had +been placed in the hands of King +Louis of Bavaria. This strange communication +would have passed unnoticed +in Greece, had it not been +made the subject of conversation by +all the English officials, and the attention +of Greek statesmen called to it +by the British legation and consulates. +At last, it was publicly +noticed by the Greek press, and an +outcry produced. Three of the Bavarians +named as having signed the +certificate, published a declaration +contradicting the statement, in a +document bearing date the 11th-23d +June 1839, which was printed in the +Greek newspapers. The medical +and military officers who signed this +counter-certificate were dismissed +from all their places, and immediately +quitted Greece. Very little +has been said on this subject since. +All parties seem heartily ashamed of +their share in the transaction, and +the public never discovered the key +of the mystery. It is certain, however, +that King Otho has given Lord +Palmerston and Sir E. Lyons good +proof of the falsity of the certificate, +if they were ever led into the belief +that such a document really existed; +for, during ten years, he baffled them +both in every diplomatic move, and +made their vaunted constitutional +policy tend more to the injury of +their own reputation than to the +diminution of his power.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This episode of the certificate, +whether its existence be a fact or a +fable, placed an impassable barrier between +Lord Palmerston and King Otho. +Right or wrong, his Hellenic Majesty +held the English foreign secretary +responsible for the publication, for he +believed that the English Government +possessed the power of dragging the +calumniator to light, and that it +would have used the power had the +anonymous correspondent not been +protected by a powerful patron. Besides, +the King of Greece might well +ask, who in England could have acquired +the knowledge which enabled +this correspondent to attack the person +of a monarch under the special +protection of Great Britain, without +fear of investigation or reply, unless +the information came directly from +some high diplomatic authority. We +need not wonder, therefore, when we +find that, from June 1839, hatred to +England was the prominent feeling +displayed by the Greek court in all +its relations with the British cabinet. +Lord Palmerston, finding all hope of +acquiring influence in the Greek court +vain, changed his policy, and became +the advocate of constitutional government.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The revolution in 1843 afforded the +British cabinet an opportunity of +putting our relations with Greece on +a proper footing; but the opportunity +was lost. Instead of English influence +being employed to restore the national +institutions destroyed by the Bavarians, +it supported the establishment +of what is called the constitutional +form of government. One of those +compilations of political commonplace +which the lawgivers of our age +are ready, at a week’s notice, to prepare +either for Greenland or China, +was translated from French pamphlets, +and entitled the <cite>Constitution of +Greece</cite>. Lord Aberdeen, who was +then foreign secretary, committed as +great a blunder in engaging Great +Britain to stand godfather to this +constitution, as Lord Palmerston had +done in making Old England guardian +to King Otho. The following are +the words in which the British +Government thought fit to record its +approbation of this inane waste of +time and paper,—“Her Majesty’s +Government have viewed with no +less satisfaction the admirable temper +which appears to have generally prevailed +in the Constituent Assembly, +throughout the whole of her deliberations +on the deeply interesting and +important act on which they have +been engaged. Such self-command +in a popular Assembly, convoked +under very exciting and critical circumstances, +is highly creditable to +the Greek nation. Nor is the result +of their labours, as a whole, less +entitled to credit for the general +soundness of the constitutional principles +therein established.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>This, being the deliberate opinion +of a British statesman of high character, +not supposed to be infatuated +by a blind love of revolutionary doctrines, +demands serious examination. +Let us see, therefore, what are the +principles which received the sanction +of the British Government on +this occasion. In our opinion, they +are precisely those principles that +lead with certainty to political +anarchy and national demoralisation. +This vaunted constitution revived no +local habits of business, re-established +no parochial usages, improved no +provincial institutions, corrected no +political immoralities, restored no +religious authority, and insured no +education to the clergy. It proclaimed +universal suffrage to an armed people, +and vote by ballot to a mob that cannot +write; and these are the principles +held up to public approbation +for their <em>$1</em>! While, +as to the proofs of admirable temper +and self-command displayed by this +assembly, these feelings were surely +not expressed in the decree by which +this good-tempered assembly excluded +all their countrymen, who had +immigrated to the Greek territory +since the year 1828, from official +employments. There are, perhaps, +some who may feel inclined to observe +to us, as Rob Roy did to his +kinsman, Bailie Nicol Jarvie, when +they met in the Tolbooth of Glasgow, +“Hout, tout! man, let that flee stick +in the wa’; when the dirt’s dry it will +rub out.” Be it so; but there are +political blunders that leave a stain, +which neither time nor repentance +can efface.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We believe that the source of Lord +Aberdeen’s error arose from his wish +to treat Greece as an independent +state. But Greece under the protection +of the three powers, and loaded +with debt, could not be an independent +power. False appearances +always produce evil consequences. +Lord Palmerston had been in too +great a hurry to make the bantling +monarchy of the treaty of 1832 walk +without a baby-jumper, and his +rivalry with Warwick the king-maker +was not more glorious than his emulation +of Mr Winkle. He ought to +have perceived that sundry Klephtopiratic +excrescences, like the protuberances +on the body of a young +bear, required to be carefully licked +into shape. Our Foreign Secretary +delayed the operation too long; and, +when he perceived the dangers that +had resulted from his negligence, he +erroneously fancied that a licking +of a different kind, applied by Admiral +Parker to King Otho’s Government, +would set all right.</p> + +<p class='c008'>When the Greek monarchy was +founded in 1832, it was the duty of +Lord Palmerston to have laid before +Parliament detailed answers to the +following questions, as a justification +of the course he had pursued in +engaging Great Britain to protect +the new state, and furnish it with a +loan of £2,400,000. The questions, in +perfect ignorance of which the character +of England was compromised, and +the money wasted, were:—</p> + +<p class='c008'>1. What were the actual means of +government in the country, and the +nature of the parochial, communal, +borough, provincial and central administrative +institutions, which had +enabled the Greeks to maintain a +war against Sultaun Mahmoud and +Mahommed Ali for seven years? +Enthusiasm and patriotism are good +words in a debate, and may explain +the events of a single campaign; but +common sense tells every one that a +people must possess some administrative +institutions, in order to persist in +a desperate struggle for many successive +years. If Greece had no +institutions in 1832, she was clearly +unfit to receive a king; and the duty +of the Three Protecting Powers was +to frame a system of administration, +not to choose a monarch. But on +the other hand, if the foundations of +political government already existed, +it was especially the duty of Great +Britain to see that these foundations +or local institutions were improved, +and not destroyed, by the new Government.</p> + +<p class='c008'>2. What were the land and sea +forces necessary to maintain order on +shore, and guard the Grecian seas +from piracy; and how could these +forces be immediately subjected to +the system of discipline, which the +protecting powers might consider indispensable?</p> + +<p class='c008'>3. What measures were requisite, +in order to enable the mass of the +population to turn their attention to +profitable branches of industry without +loss of time?</p> + +<p class='c008'>And 4. What were the financial +resources of the country? What was +the amount of the debts contracted +by the Government during the revolutionary +war? What sum would be +required to supply the deficit in the +annual expenditure for the first year +of the new monarch’s reign; and what +sum would be required to be set +apart annually for paying the interest +of the debts of the Greek state, +now converted into a European kingdom?</p> + +<p class='c008'>Strange as it may seem, there is +not the slightest information on these +important questions in the papers laid +before Parliament in 1832; and we +believe that, had Lord Palmerston +taken the trouble to collect even the +limited information we have specified, +before he involved Great Britain in a +guarantee of King Otho’s throne, he +would have perceived that it was not +necessary to burden Greece either +with a new debt or the presence of a +foreign army. Great Britain would +then have prevented the regency +from destroying the existing institutions, +and saved the country from the +administrative corruption that ruined +the despotic royalty of King Otho, +and promises very soon to annihilate +his constitutional monarchy.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One advantage might have been +obtained for Greece by the constitution +of 1844, if either the Greeks or +their sovereign had known how to +profit by it. The direct influence of +the protecting powers in the internal +affairs of the country was greatly diminished. +Unfortunately, Mr Coletti +did not avail himself of this circumstance +to lead the Greeks to make one +single improvement in the interior. +Not a road was made, or a packet +established. Coletti was, nevertheless, +a favourite minister with King +Otho, for he fomented the King’s aversion +to England, and carried on an +active warfare with Sir E. Lyons.</p> + +<p class='c008'>When Mr Wyse arrived at Athens +last year, as British minister, he found +the train laid to the mine Lord Palmerston +was about to spring. He tried +in vain to persuade the Greek ministers +to make such concessions as would +prevent an open rupture. His conciliatory +conduct misled the Greek court +into a belief that Lord Palmerston +was afraid to come to blows, and, in +an evil hour, it deemed itself secure of +victory. The only alternative left to +Great Britain, in King Otho’s opinion, +was to withdraw the English minister +from Athens. But, even if Lord +Palmerston’s disposition had made +him inclined to take this course, King +Otho ought to have remembered that +the convention of 1832, which created +the Greek kingdom, bound England to +watch over it. So infatuated was the +court of Athens at this time, that the +modifications which it would be possible +to make in the Greek constitution, +after the departure of the English +minister, became a subject of conversation. +Yet when the hour arrived, +and Lord Palmerston’s demands were +communicated, the Greek ministers +felt the folly of resistance; and they +would have capitulated, had the minister +of the French Republic not +availed himself of the conjuncture to +flatter King Otho’s private prejudices, +and assumed the direction of affairs. +The Greek minister of foreign affairs, +Mr Londos, was a man utterly unfit +for the place. His communications to +the Chambers, on the subject of the +quarrel, are a tissue of erroneous +statements. M. Thouvenel persuaded +this unlucky minister to brave Lord +Palmerston, and trust to the protection +of France and the European +press. The French minister knew +that he would gain for himself the +star and the broad blue ribbon of King +Otho’s Order of the Redeemer, and he +knew equally well that he would inflict +a serious injury on the commerce +and revenues of Greece, and that he +would cause the ruin of many Greek +merchants. There can be no doubt, +that ambassadors ought never to be +allowed to receive Orders from the +sovereigns to whose court they are +accredited. The interests of nations +are often sacrificed by honourable men +for stars and ribbons. In finally coming +to an open rupture with Greece, +Lord Palmerston probably only did +what any other minister who had +placed himself in a similar position +must have done. But though we believe +that it was King Otho who made the +cup run over, we have shown our +readers that Lord Palmerston had +already filled it pretty full; and we +are far from approving of the measures +he adopted for the coercion of +the Greek Government. In our opinion, +it was cruel to punish the Greek +people for the faults of their rulers, +since those rulers were selected and +protected by the Three Powers, of +which England is one. The coercion +ought to have been confined to measures +that would have directly affected +the King and the Government.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have now laid before our readers +the history of all the causes, supposed +and real, of Lord Palmerston’s war +with Greece. It was neither the livery +waistcoat of Sir E. Lyon’s groom, the +missing chair at the royal comedy, Mr +Pacifico’s furniture, Mr Finlay’s garden, +no, nor the constitutional policy +of the English Government, that +brought our fleet to Salamis. It was +the anonymous correspondent of the +<cite>Morning Chronicle</cite> in 1839, be that +individual who he may. Lord Palmerston’s +conduct to Greece since that +period, it is true, has been generally +unwise, and often unjust; but that correspondence +having been once placed +to the account of the British Cabinet +by the King of Greece, he consequently +acted in such a spirit towards +England, that we acknowledge a +collision became unavoidable, without +a sacrifice of the dignity of the British +Crown. The papers laid before Parliament +show, that the communications +of the English Government were +left unanswered for years.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are bound also to observe, that +the conduct of King Otho has so completely +disorganised the finances of +Greece, that his throne is in imminent +danger, and a great change in the +government of Greece must take place +in the present year. In the year 1848, +a serious rebellion took place in Greece. +The diplomacy of England was accused +of encouraging the insurgents, and, for +some days, the flight of King Otho +from Athens was an event hourly expected. +When the full extent of the +evil, and the anarchy which threatened +the country in consequence of the +insane conduct of the Greek Opposition, +was known in England, Lord +Palmerston frankly changed his policy, +and sent our ablest and best English +diplomatist, Sir Stratford Canning, to +save King Otho’s throne. If a throne +be of any value, the King of Greece +owed some thanks to England for the +great services of Sir Stratford Canning, +who had to encounter a virulent and +unfair opposition from the English +officials at Athens during his exertions +to save Greece from anarchy.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have no time to point out the +connexion of the events we have noticed +with the general movement of +European diplomacy since 1833. Our +space compels us to confine our observations +to Greece; and we must now +hastily examine the state of society +in the country, in order to enable our +readers to judge of the manner in +which the civilisation of the people +affects the administration of public +affairs. The Greeks themselves think +that their great political want is a good +systematic central administration. We +believe, on the contrary, that their +great political deficiency is the want +of municipal institutions, that would +admit of their making some exertions +to improve their own condition. Every +one who has travelled much in Greece +must have seen, that every little town +and island contains two or three individuals +capable of fulfilling the duties +of a local magistracy with honour to +their country; while everybody who +has had anything to do with the ministers +of King Otho, or with the +members of his council of state, knows +that there is not a statesman in Greece +capable of filling a ministerial post, in +a period of political difficulty, without +disgracing his country. It would be +invidious to name respectable men as +instances of incapacity; but every +one, who has followed the political +history of Greece, is aware that every +Greek statesman has had opportunities +of disgracing it, and repeating the +same blunders several times. The +despotic government of King Otho +failed from the utter incapacity of his +ministers; the constitutional monarchy +is hastening to ruin from the same +cause. In the present state of Greece, +it is not possible to find men capable +of conducting the King’s Government +with the necessary ability. The people +are greatly in advance of their rulers.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The conclusion of the revolutionary +war left the nation divided into several +classes of society, as different in +their ideas and habits of life as if they +had formed parts of different nations. +These classes were, first, the peasantry—for +so the cultivators of the +soil are generally called, though a +large portion of them are landed proprietors, +and often the only persons of +substance in the provinces. Second, +the primates, or proprietors, who did +not cultivate their own lands. These +men managed public business, and +acted as collectors of the revenue +under the Turks: they frequent coffee-houses, +and form political societies +under the centralised constitutional +system of government. This +class, however, possesses some education, +but its moral character is vitiated +by a firm conviction that it is +entitled to be maintained in a state +of idleness at the public expense. It +has gained considerable political influence +by means of the election law +of 1844. Coletti, by intimidating the +weak, bribing the active, and creating +innumerable places, purchased this +class wholesale, and rendered himself +master of nearly all the electoral districts +in Greece. The third class is +composed of that numerous body of +Greeks who have emigrated to the +Hellenic territory from different provinces +of Turkey. This class includes +the greater part of the ablest and +best educated men in the country; +but the abject principles of the Phanariotes, +or Greeks educated for the +public service in Turkey, and the base +avidity displayed by this class in +place-hunting, which is their principal +means of life, rendered them very +unpopular, and enabled their rivals, +the primates, to exclude them from +official employments by a decree of +the national assembly of 1844. The +fourth class is the military. This +class is very numerous, as its ranks +are swelled by crowds of individuals +who never served in a military capacity, +but who have received military +rank as a payment for political services. +King Otho makes generals of +secretaries, and colonels of commissaries; +while farmers of the revenue, +muleteers, and officers’ servants, form +about one half of the unattached officers +of an army which counts an +officer for every two privates and a +quarter, if we can trust the Greek +Budget and the Greek newspapers.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There is also a remarkable difference +between the social condition of +the inhabitants of the country and of +the towns; and this difference must +be taken into consideration in estimating +the political state of Greece. +The principal towns contain as many +persons of education, and as high a +degree of mental cultivation, as can be +found in any towns of a similar size +in other countries; but in the rural +districts, on the contrary, there is a +want of material civilisation, a degree +of rudeness in every process of industry, +which places the agricultural +population far below the people of +every other European country, even +including the Greek population in +Turkey. The Hellenic peasant +cultivates his <em>$1</em>, or yoke of land, +in a manner that only enables him to +live, to rear a family to replace his +own, and to pay his taxes. No improvements +take place on his farm—nor, +indeed, can any take place under +the system of taxation and administration +actually in force. Fruit trees +are annually destroyed, and forests +are burnt down, but none are ever +planted. The depopulation caused by +the war of the revolution may still +admit of the location of some additional +families on uncultivated land; +but no improvement has yet been +commenced in agricultural industry or +transport, that will give one family +the means or the time to cultivate +more land than its predecessors have +cultivated, or that will make the same +extent of land to yield any additional +produce.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here, then, we find precisely the +state of things which produced the +stationary condition of European society +during the middle ages, and +which still keeps the greater part of +the East in its immutable condition. +The land under the windows of King +Otho’s palace, and the fields around +the university of Athens, are more +rudely cultivated than any other portion +of the soil of Europe; yet neither +king, senators, deputies, nor professors, +appear to have perceived that +the turning point of national civilisation +is not marked by the splendour +of court balls, the regularity of the +payment of official salaries, or the +number and quality of scholastic lectures, +but by the creation of a state of +things in which capital is advantageously +employed in augmenting the +produce of the soil. When this is +not the case, generations of agriculturists +succeed one another for ages, +treading in the footsteps of their predecessors +in the same numbers, and +in the same state of barbarism.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Coexistent with this rude peasantry, +there is an educated class +whose numbers are also limited by +the fixed amount of rent and taxes, +on which they depend for their support, +and by means of which they +perpetuate themselves by the side of +the rude agriculturists, giving the +towns all the appearance of civilisation. +This unfortunate state of society +is not new in the history of the +Greek nation: it has now existed for +more than 1000 years, and it forms +the prominent feature in the internal +organisation of the Byzantine empire. +Judging from the records of that +government, it is a state of society +that presents greater obstacles to +change than any social combinations +which the history of the human race +reveals to the west of China. The +cultivators of the soil cannot improve +their condition or increase in number; +the educated classes are interested in +opposing change, and have influence +enough to prevent it: poverty in the +country, and meanness in the towns, +render the universal moral degradation +an element of stability in the political +condition of a nation whose social +state is such as we have described.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There remains an important class +of society in Greece, which we have +not yet mentioned, because it has been +excluded from all political influence +since the formation of the Hellenic +monarchy. This is the mercantile +class. Before the revolutionary war, +and during the contest with the +Turks, it was the Greek merchants +and shipowners who formed the +aristocracy of the nation; but this +class is now almost null in the movement +of political affairs at Athens. +The greater part of the able, respectable, +and wealthy merchants have +quitted the country, and are to be +found at Odessa, Trieste, Marseilles, +London, and Manchester, not in King +Otho’s dominions. A small fraction +of shipowners remain, but the small +schooners that now compose the +mercantile navy of Greece cannot be +compared with the fine ships that +Hydra, Spetzia, and Psara formerly +sent out to engage the Turkish fleet; +and the comparative increase of the +tonnage of the trading vessels of large +size in Greece and Turkey, since 1840, +shows that the trade of the Levant is +extending more rapidly under the +Turkish than under the Greek flag.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have now described the state of +society with sufficient accuracy to +enable us to examine the value of the +measures adopted for founding a monarchy +in Greece. From what we +have said, it must be evident that +constitutional government, as the +Continental liberals and English political +lecturers understand the term, +could not be an object of much interest +to those classes that were called upon +to exercise universal suffrage. It probably +never engaged their attention +more seriously than the laws of gravitation +or the number of the fixed +stars. They felt that they wanted +permanent and systematic administration, +in place of the inconstant and +arbitrary measures from which they +suffered; they demanded security of +property, liquidation of the public +debt, and employment for labour, but +they knew not how to arrive at the +consummation of their wishes. Instead +of attending to these commonplace +matters, the British Government +and its allies gave the Greeks a king, +a court, a regency less united than +their own Capitani, civil wars, additional +debts, and an order of knighthood +to corrupt foreign diplomatists; +but not a road, a bridge, or a ferry-boat, +was introduced into a country +full of mountains and dangerous torrent-beds, +and consisting, in great +part, of peninsulas and islands. King +Otho, who has spent £3,000,000 sterling +on civil wars, and £1,000,000 on +palaces, does not possess fifty miles +of road practicable for a donkey-cart, +in his whole dominions. There is not +a carriage-road from Athens to Corinth, +nor a ferry-boat to the islands +of the Archipelago. Need we wonder, +then, if the Greeks despise their own +Government, and suspect the intentions +of the three protecting powers +that support it in its evil conduct? +The consequence is, that fifteen thousand +military and police officials fail +to preserve order in a population of +nine hundred and twenty thousand +souls. The result of this political +experiment, in the foundation of monarchies, +certainly reflects little credit +on the statesmen of England, France, +and Russia.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We must examine the error that +was committed, in giving the countenance +of Great Britain, as a protecting +power, to the absurd constitution +established in 1844; and while we +blame what was then badly done, we +shall point out what common sense, +when not warped by party interests, +dictated ought to have been done. +Of course, we can only offer the suggestions +urged by a wise minority at +Athens. The nation, in making the +revolution in 1843, did not want a +constitution, for they possessed institutions +which a written constitution is +only valuable as a means of attaining. +The Greeks, as we have said before, +sought to reform the system of administration. +The method of carrying +on the executive government, under +the hourly control of an elective +chamber, called constitutional government, +was forced upon them by accident, +as France lately became a +republic. Without the assistance of +this <i><span lang="fr">pons asinorum</span></i> of French politicians, +the Greeks had saved the +liberty of the press from the attacks +of Count Armansperg, and established +trial by jury in spite of Austria and +Russia.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The constitutional system of government, +as it has laid hold of the +public mind on the Continent, is a +very imperfect political contrivance: +practically, it has proved a delusion—a +mere form, figured in empty space +by a mass of thick clouds, impelled +hither and thither by unseen currents +of wind, the precursor of an approaching +storm, not the source of beneficial +showers. When examined in detail, +with its tribunes; its orators, pamphlet +in hand; its galleries, and its +ministers playing at see-saw between +social democracy and court corruption, +what hope does it hold out of +establishing a sense of moral responsibility +and firmness of purpose in +individual statesmen, or the deep +conviction that creates patriotic feeling, +and the power of self-sacrifice, in +a whole people? What collection of +men, chosen by a mob which can +never hear the names of the wisest +and best in their immediate vicinity, +can, in the actual state of education, +morality, and religion, either possess +the qualifications necessary to make +laws, or the experience required to +control and direct the executive government? +English institutions, or +what we call, in conversation, the +English constitution, is even now +something totally different from this +spawn of modern political quackery. +Yet even among men of education, at +home as well as among demagogues +and itinerant orators, we now find +some who pretend that our political +system would be improved by allowing +Gregory the poacher, and Herman the +tinker, to take an active share in +legislation, by the adoption of universal +suffrage, annual Parliaments, and +the vote by ballot. We doubt whether +a British <cite>Codex Gregorianus</cite> or <cite>Hermogenianus</cite>, +so framed, would do our +country much honour. Things are +bad enough as they are. We already +make laws faster than lawyers can +read them; and the electors care +very little about the legislative labours +of the elected. They seem contented +to know that the work has been done +in such a hurry, that half of it must +be done over again next year. The +people of England, like the Continental +constitutionalists, are beginning +to fancy that the proper function +of our legislators is to make themselves +the real executive. A true +constitutional chamber, according to +the modern theory of government, +ought to use the king’s ministers as +its own head-clerks. The evil is +manifest. Ministers know that their +masters, the chambers, have no administrative +plans, and a very defective +memory, so they themselves remain +without any settled policy. This +state of things is a vice of our age. +It is as apparent in the embryo constitutionalism +of Greece, as in the +premature decrepitude of Liberalism +in France.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Constitutional government, where +no educated and independent class +exists in the provinces, must always +turn out, as it has done in Greece, to +be injurious to the cause of liberty, +unless it be neutralised by powerful +municipal institutions, and an able +and disinterested monarch. The prominent +vices of the Greek constitution +are, universal suffrage, vote by ballot, +and a servile, ignorant, and useless +Senate, as a satire on a House of Peers. +Without entering into any general +examination of the value of similar +measures in other countries, we shall +show that they are unsuited to the +actual state of society in Greece. +Universal suffrage evidently supposes +that the people intrusted with it is +entitled to self-government; yet the +constitution of Greece, which gives +the people universal suffrage, does +not allow them any practical influence +even in the affairs of their smallest +towns and rural districts. Every +person in Greece is supposed to be +capable of choosing legislators, but +not mayors, aldermen, and provincial +councillors. The Greeks possessed +great power in the local administration +under the Turks. This power contributed +in a high degree to the preservation +of their national existence, but it +alarmed the weak-minded Bavarians; +and, under the shield of the three +protecting powers, the Greeks were +robbed of their municipal institutions +by the Regency. A system of local +oligarchies was introduced, which +prevails at present.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The election of the mayor and +aldermen is vested in an electoral +college, one half of which is composed +of the persons who pay the greatest +amount of taxes. Here is an element +of respectability; but in order to +dilute it with one of servility, a certain +number of individuals, decorated with +crosses, is admitted. Even this respectably +servile body is not allowed +to elect the mayor; it is only empowered +to name three candidates, +from which the King chooses the +individual who is to direct the interests +of the little community. The +mayor so chosen enjoys his office for +three years, and receives a good +salary from the municipal funds. Let +us now examine how this system is +worked, in conformity with constitutional +principles, in the capital of the +Hellenic kingdom. Attica, it must +be observed, sends four deputies to the +Legislative Chamber; and as these +deputies receive two hundred and +fifty drachmas a-month, and have +succeeded in making the sittings of +the Greek Chambers perpetual, the +place of deputy is worth as much as +the best estates in Greece. Now, as +these interminable sitters are chosen +by universal suffrage, but are required +to support the minister, it became +absolutely necessary to job the elections, +by means of the oligarchy holding +office in the municipalities. This +was not very difficult, for the number +of persons who can read and write +among the Albanian population of +Attica, which outnumbers the Greek, +is very small. Even among the Greek +population of the city of Athens, the +proportion of government officials and +street porters, who pay no taxes, +exceeds the number of the independent +citizens. The middle classes, and +the friends of order, are excluded from +all local influence, by being excluded +from any share in the municipal government. +A town-council party is formed, +and this party is allowed to employ +the whole local revenues of Attica, +amounting to between three and four +hundred thousand drachmas annually, +in jobbing, on condition that they +support the ministerial candidates at +the elections.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The constitutional system of political +corruption, to make universal suffrage +profitable to the court, runs +thus: The mayors are selected from +men without character or local influence. +This is brought about by +naming the third candidate mayor, he +being generally some insignificant +person, whom both the leading parties +agree to admit on the list. This individual, +when appointed, is nothing +more than a creature of the prefect or +of the court, which alone possesses the +power of protecting him in office, and +in the receipt of a good salary for +three years. The duty of the mayor +is to bribe the aldermen, by allowing +them to arrange with the municipal +councillors how to divert the revenues +of the city into their own pockets, or +that of their relations, by the creation +of places. The extent to which the +court have brought jobbing, is testified +by the shifts and tergiversation +employed to prevent the publication +of any regular accounts of the receipts +and expenditure of the municipalities; +and the municipal revenues exceed the +sum of two millions of drachmas. +Athens, with a revenue of three hundred +thousand drachmas a-year, +would be the filthiest town in Europe, +were nature not kinder to it than its +magistrates.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A single instance of how matters +are carried on in the provinces, is sufficient +to describe the whole system. +A rural commune, placed on an important +line of communication, wished +to make a good mule road over a +mountain pass. It voted the sum of +six hundred drachmas in its budget, +hoping, by its example, to produce +similar votes in the neighbouring +communes. The central government +was then invited to send an engineer, +to trace the best line of road. The +deputy of the province was a creature +of the court; he and the minister of +the interior put their heads together, +and sent down an inspector of the +road, before it was surveyed or commenced, +with an order on the commune +which had put six hundred +drachmas in its budget, to pay him a +salary of fifty drachmas monthly for +a year. This ministerial exploit put +an end to all projects of road-making +on the part of the municipalities.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The vote by ballot is converted into +a constitutional method of counteracting +any evil effects that might otherwise +arise to ministerial candidates +from the use of universal suffrage; for +man is fallible, and the Greeks felt +inclined, in some places, to oppose the +system of Coletti. We recommend +the plan adopted to the attention of +an eminent historian of ancient Greece, +who has more faith in the wood of the +ballot-box than in the moral responsibility +of the elector. When the +number of electors in a district was +about five thousand, and it was feared +that three thousand might vote against +the government candidates, and only +two thousand in their favour, the +ballot-boxes were doctored beforehand, +by having one thousand votes +placed in them before the process of +the public ballot commenced. Intimidation +was resorted to, to prevent +at least one thousand of the real +voters from attending, and it was +generally successful with the middle +classes; but, in one unlucky district, +which contained only about four thousand +voters, six thousand tickets were +found in the ballot-box. At times, +the success of the opposition was so +great, that nothing could be done at +the time of voting. The persons +charged to convey the ballot-box to +the place appointed for the scrutiny, +were, in such cases, waylaid by armed +bands, and the ballot-boxes were destroyed. +These scenes were enacted +even in Attica. We believe that, in +order to secure free institutions to any +people, it is more necessary to create +a feeling of moral responsibility, than +to protect the electors from the effects +of intimidation and fraud merely when +they exercise the franchise. National +liberty cannot be protected by a +wooden box; it must be fought for +boldly before the face of all mankind. +The vote by ballot injures the nation +more than it protects the individual; +and it can only cease to do harm in a +state of society where perfect equality +reigns among the electors themselves, +and between the electors and the +elected.</p> + +<p class='c008'>With regard to the Greek Senate, +we have little to say. In a country +where not one single element of an +aristocracy exists, and where it was +impossible to secure superior education +in the members of a chamber +appointed for life, it was evident that +one chamber would afford a better +guarantee against bribery and corruption +than two. No nobles, no independent +gentlemen, no dignified clergy, +no learned lawyers, can enter the +Greek Senate. The qualification of a +senator is a certain period of service +in official appointments, which have +been generally held by men who can +neither read nor write. The consequence +is, that the Senate is utterly +useless as a legislative body, from the +ignorance of its members; while the +nature of the materials from which it +is composed, render it a more servile +instrument, in the hands of every minister, +than the elective chamber. It +was yesterday a tool in the hands of +Coletti—to-morrow it may become +one in those of Mavrocordatos. It +would be an object of contempt, were +it not an expensive instrument of +oppression.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have now shown what the constitution +has effected; let us turn to consider +what measures Great Britain ought +to have recommended to the attention +of the national assembly, when it was +occupied in framing this constitution. +The first great national question was +municipal reform. Unless the people +could be intrusted with the direction +of the affairs of their own districts, it +was unwise to entrust them with a +direct control over the national legislation +and expenditure. Men take a +more lively interest in the trifling details +of their own households, and in +affairs that pass under their own eyes, +and with which they are perfectly +cognisant, than they do about more +distant though more important matters. +Had the people in Greece been +allowed to administer their local affairs, +they would have drawn much +of their attention from party struggles +about which they knew very little, to +devote it to business they perfectly +understood. No guarantee for the +permanent existence of Greece, as an +independent and free state, can exist, +until the present oligarchical constitution +of the municipalities throughout +the country is destroyed. The mayors +must be annually elected by the +people, and not removable by the +minister of the interior. The accounts +of the municipal expenditure must be +published quarterly.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The next step towards giving +Greece some practical liberty is to +abolish universal suffrage. In a country +where the election of provincial +councillors is regulated by a census, +surely the same guarantee ought to be +required in the election of legislators. +In Greece, everybody is expected to +know how to read and write except +the national legislators and the King’s +ministers. Oligarchy prevails in the +municipal institutions, aristocracy in +the provincial, democracy in the legislative, +and ignorance in the executive; +and British statesmen, under +whose protection matters have arrived +at this condition, express surprise at +the anarchy they have themselves +nourished, instead of blushing at their +own negligence or political incapacity. +The vote by ballot had better +be abolished, and the senate replaced +by a deliberative council of state, +composed of men of education capable +of preparing laws. The actual representative +chamber must only be allowed +to sit for two months annually, +in order to put an end to the jobbing +in which its members have acquired +an alarming degree of experience.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The question arises, How are the +changes necessary to save Greece to +be effected? We believe that there +is not moral force in the country to +produce the necessary reforms. Greece +is now very much in the situation in +which England was during the reign +of Charles II.; she is exhausted with +civil war and party struggles. Besides, +she does not possess a body of +statesmen, or any statesman, of superior +abilities or commanding character. +In the present state of things, any +ministry that attempted to clean the +Augean stable of the administration, +would create a degree of opposition, on +the part of the court and of the officials +in Athens, that would drive him or +them from office in less than six months.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If Lord Palmerston desire to save +Greece, and secure her a place among +independent states, he must lose no +time in convoking a conference of +England, France, and Russia; and +this conference must decide on a practical +scheme of administration for the +Greek government, and impose a +budget on the ministers. The army +must be reduced; a navy of packets +must be created; roads must be +made; the taxes in kind must be +gradually commuted; and a field must +be opened for the improvement of +agriculture. If this is not done, the +first great convulsion in the East will +put an end to the monarchy created +by Lord Palmerston in 1832, and +Greece will separate into a number of +small cantons, like ancient Hellas and +modern Switzerland, or fall under the +domination, direct or indirect, of some +foreign power. The reputation of +Great Britain for political wisdom is, +throughout the East, connected with +the growth and prosperity of the +monarchy she founded: hitherto she has +gained very little honour by the share +she has taken in the affairs of Greece.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We cannot conclude without making +a few observations on Lord Palmerston’s +attempt to conquer the +islets of Cervi and Sapienza for the +Ionian republic. We never knew +Lord Palmerston undertake a worse +case, nor conduct one in a worse +manner. Whether the islands in +question belong to King Otho or Sir +H. Ward, is a matter about which +neither can feel very positive, as it +turns on the interpretation of obscure +treaties that make no mention of the +thing in dispute; and these treaties +were in part framed before either of +the states now appearing as claimants +had an existence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The facts are, Greece is in possession +of two islands. The Ionian republic +advances a claim to them. +Greece takes no notice of this claim, +even when backed by the powerful +intervention of England. Lord Palmerston, +considering the British Government +is not treated with proper +courtesy by King Otho, gives orders +to seize the islands and deliver them +to Sir H. Ward; but, before these +orders are executed, he receives an +answer from the Greek Government, +and recalls his orders. Still he boldly +tells the world that he had given these +orders, as may be seen in the last +despatch printed in the Parliamentary +papers. Now this announcement was +quite uncalled for, and has very naturally +given great offence to the Russian +Government, for it was a gratuitous +violation of the diplomatic +courtesy due to our allies, the joint +protectors of Greece. When England +found that Greece was withholding +property supposed to belong to +the Ionian republic, it was clearly her +duty, as protector of the Ionian republic, +to lay the case before Russia, +France, and England, the three protectors +of Greece. No want of courtesy +on the part of Greece, in leaving +the communications of England unanswered, +could ever warrant England +forgetting what was due to Russia +and France, and even to herself. +England alone could not pretend to +decide whether Cervi and Sapienza +belong to Greece or to the Ionian +republic. Russia, from her earlier +connexion with the Ionian islands, and +her more intimate knowledge of Greek +and Turkish affairs, was the power +best qualified to decide the question; +and both Russia and France had a +right to take part in deciding it. Had +the imprudent order of Lord Palmerston +been unfortunately carried into +execution, it might have seriously +troubled our relations with Russia; +even as it is, the unnecessary publicity +given to the fact that such an order +had been issued, has been viewed as +an intentional slight.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These two islands, it must be remembered, +have been in the possession +of the Greek Government ever +since its formation. King Otho found +them a part of the Greek territory +when it was delivered over to him by +the protecting powers in 1833; and as +they are within cannon-shot of the +shores of Greece, he could hardly doubt +that he was their lawful sovereign. +But, at all events, we cannot understand +what object could be gained by +Great Britain taking forcible possession +of these paltry little islands, when +it was evident that the final decision +concerning their property could only +be given by Russia and France.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We hope Lord Palmerston has some +better argument to plead before these +two powers than he has communicated +to Greece in his despatch of the 9th +February last, as given in the correspondence +presented to Parliament. +If not, his case is lost. The geography +and the logic of this document are +equally defective. As a proof that +these islands belong to the Ionian state, +he cites an act of the Ionian legislature +dated in the year 1804, in which they +are enumerated as portions of the territory +of the republic. This act, however, +does not even prove that they +were ever occupied by the Ionian +government. The legislature of Great +Britain, when Lord Palmerston was a +young man, was in the habit of enumerating +France as an appendage of +the crown of England; the King of +France used to boast of himself as +King of Navarre, without Europe attaching +much importance to the enumeration +of territory in the possession +of others. The Sultan does not +trouble his head about the pretensions +of the Kings of Sardinia and Naples to +the kingdom of Jerusalem; so that +King Otho may be excused for not +paying more attention to the Ionian +claim to Cervi and Sapienza, than he +does to the Spanish claim to the +Duchy of Athens and New Patras.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Nor does Lord Palmerston strengthen +his argument when he declares, that +no island belongs to Greece except +those expressly enumerated in the +protocol of the 3d of February 1830. +If this dictum of his lordship be correct, +neither Hydra, Spetzia, Poros, +Ægina, nor Salamis, would belong to +Greece, which is manifestly absurd; +unless, indeed, Lord Palmerston supposes +these islands are included under +the name of Cyclades, which would be +still more absurd, for it is wiser to quarrel +with King Otho than with Strabo.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This imprudent attack on Greece +lays the despatch open to reply; for +though Lord Palmerston is proved to +be wrong when he says that no island, +except those expressly enumerated in +the protocol of 3d February 1830, can +belong to Greece, he is right in maintaining +that the legislative act of the +Ionian republic in 1804 cannot advance +a claim to any island not enumerated +in it. Now only one island of Cervi +is mentioned in that act, and that +island will be found laid down on the +west side of Cerigo, with the Greek +name of Elaphonisi, which is identical +with the Italian name Cervi, in +the map of Greece published by Arrowsmith, +which we believe was the +one used at the conference on the +3d February 1830. It corresponds +in size, form, and value, with the +island of Dragonera, situated on the +east side of Cerigo, which is enumerated +immediately before it in the +legislative act of 1804. The island of +Cervi on the coast of Greece does not, +therefore, belong to the Ionian republic.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_539'>539</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE MODERN ARGONAUTS.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c017'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28'>I.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>You have heard the ancient story,</div> + <div class='line in11'>How the gallant sons of Greece,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Long ago, with Jason ventured</div> + <div class='line in11'>For the fated Golden Fleece;</div> + <div class='line in9'>How they traversed distant regions,</div> + <div class='line in11'>How they trod on hostile shores;</div> + <div class='line in9'>How they vexed the hoary Ocean</div> + <div class='line in12'>With the smiting of their oars;—</div> + <div class='line'>Listen, then, and you shall hear another wondrous tale,</div> + <div class='line'>Of a second Argo steering before a prosperous gale!</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>II.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>From the southward came a rumour,</div> + <div class='line in11'>Over sea and over land;</div> + <div class='line in9'>From the blue Ionian islands,</div> + <div class='line in11'>And the old Hellenic strand;</div> + <div class='line in9'>That the sons of Agamemnon,</div> + <div class='line in11'>To their faith no longer true,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Had confiscated the carpets</div> + <div class='line in11'>Of a black and bearded Jew!</div> + <div class='line'>Helen’s rape, compared to this, was but an idle toy,</div> + <div class='line'>Deeper guilt was that of Athens than the crime of haughty Troy.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>III.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>And the rumour, winged by Ate,</div> + <div class='line in11'>To the lofty chamber ran,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Where great Palmerston was sitting</div> + <div class='line in11'>In the midst of his Divan:</div> + <div class='line in9'>Like Saturnius triumphant,</div> + <div class='line in11'>In his high Olympian hall,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Unregarded by the mighty,</div> + <div class='line in11'>But detested by the small;</div> + <div class='line'>Overturning constitutions—setting nations by the ears,</div> + <div class='line'>With divers sapient plenipos, like Minto and his peers.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c020'>IV.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>With his fist the proud dictator</div> + <div class='line in11'>Smote the table that it rang—</div> + <div class='line in9'>From the crystal vase before him</div> + <div class='line in11'>The blood-red wine upsprang!</div> + <div class='line in9'>“Is my sword a wreath of rushes,</div> + <div class='line in11'>Or an idle plume my pen,</div> + <div class='line in9'>That they dare to lay a finger</div> + <div class='line in11'>On the meanest of my men?</div> + <div class='line'>No amount of circumcision can annul the Briton’s right—</div> + <div class='line'>Are they mad, these lords of Athens, for I know they cannot fight?</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>V.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>“Had the wrong been done by others,</div> + <div class='line in11'>By the cold and haughty Czar,</div> + <div class='line in9'>I had trembled ere I opened</div> + <div class='line in11'>All the thunders of my war.</div> + <div class='line in9'>But I care not for the yelping</div> + <div class='line in11'>Of these fangless curs of Greece—</div> + <div class='line in9'>Soon and sorely will I tax them</div> + <div class='line in11'>For the merchant’s plundered Fleece.</div> + <div class='line'>From the earth his furniture for wrath and vengeance cries—</div> + <div class='line'>Ho, Eddisbury! take thy pen, and straightway write to Wyse!”</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>VI.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>Joyfully the bells are ringing</div> + <div class='line in11'>In the old Athenian town,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Gaily to Piræus harbour</div> + <div class='line in11'>Stream the merry people down;</div> + <div class='line in9'>For they see the fleet of Britain</div> + <div class='line in11'>Proudly steering to their shore,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Underneath the Christian banner</div> + <div class='line in11'>That they knew so well of yore,</div> + <div class='line'>When the guns at Navarino thundered o’er the sea,</div> + <div class='line'>And the Angel of the North proclaimed that Greece again was free.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>VII.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>Hark!—a signal gun—another!</div> + <div class='line in11'>On the deck a man appears</div> + <div class='line in9'>Stately as the Ocean-shaker—</div> + <div class='line in11'>“Ye Athenians, lend your ears!</div> + <div class='line in9'>Thomas Wyse am I, a herald</div> + <div class='line in11'>Come to parley with the Greek;</div> + <div class='line in9'>Palmerston hath sent me hither,</div> + <div class='line in11'>In his awful name I speak—</div> + <div class='line'>Ye have done a deed of folly—one that ye shall sorely rue!</div> + <div class='line'>Wherefore did ye lay a finger on the carpets of the Jew?</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>VIII.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>“Don Pacifico of Malta!</div> + <div class='line in11'>Dull, indeed, were Britain’s ear,</div> + <div class='line in9'>If the wrongs of such a hero</div> + <div class='line in11'>Tamely she could choose to hear!</div> + <div class='line in9'>Don Pacifico of Malta!</div> + <div class='line in11'>Knight-commander of the Fleece—</div> + <div class='line in9'>For his sake I hurl defiance</div> + <div class='line in11'>At the haughty towns of Greece.</div> + <div class='line'>Look to it—For by my head! since Xerxes crossed the strait,</div> + <div class='line'>Ye never saw an enemy so vengeful at your gate.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>IX.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>“Therefore now, restore the carpets,</div> + <div class='line in11'>With a forfeit twenty-fold;</div> + <div class='line in9'>And a goodly tribute offer</div> + <div class='line in11'>Of your treasure and your gold:</div> + <div class='line in9'>Sapienza, and the islet</div> + <div class='line in11'>Cervi, ye shall likewise cede;</div> + <div class='line in9'>So the mighty gods have spoken,</div> + <div class='line in11'>Thus hath Palmerston decreed!</div> + <div class='line'>Ere the sunset, let an answer issue from your monarch’s lips;</div> + <div class='line'>In the meantime, I have orders to arrest your merchant ships.”</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>X.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>Thus he spake, and snatched a trumpet</div> + <div class='line in11'>Swiftly from a soldier’s hand,</div> + <div class='line in9'>And therein he blew so shrilly,</div> + <div class='line in11'>That along the rocky strand</div> + <div class='line in9'>Rang the war-note, till the echoes</div> + <div class='line in11'>From the distant hills replied;</div> + <div class='line in9'>Hundred trumpets wildly wailing,</div> + <div class='line in11'>Poured their blast on every side;</div> + <div class='line'>And the loud and hearty shout of Britain rent the skies,</div> + <div class='line'>“Three cheers for noble Palmerston!—another cheer for Wyse!”</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>XI.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>Gentles! I am very sorry</div> + <div class='line in11'>That I cannot yet relate,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Of this gallant expedition,</div> + <div class='line in11'>What has been the final fate.</div> + <div class='line in9'>Whether Athens was bombarded</div> + <div class='line in11'>For her Jew-coercing crimes,</div> + <div class='line in9'>Hath not been as yet reported</div> + <div class='line in11'>In the columns of the <cite>Times</cite>.</div> + <div class='line'>But the last accounts assure us of some valuable spoil:</div> + <div class='line'>Various coasting vessels, laden with tobacco, fruit, and oil.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in28 c019'>XII.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in9'>Ancient chiefs! that sailed with Jason</div> + <div class='line in11'>O’er the wild and stormy waves—</div> + <div class='line in9'>Let not sounds of later triumphs</div> + <div class='line in11'>Stir you in your quiet graves!</div> + <div class='line in9'>Other Argonauts have ventured</div> + <div class='line in11'>To your old Hellenic shore,</div> + <div class='line in9'>But they will not live in story,</div> + <div class='line in11'>Like the valiant men of yore.</div> + <div class='line'>O! ’tis more than shame and sorrow thus to jest upon a theme</div> + <div class='line'>That, for Britain’s fame and glory, all would wish to be a dream!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_542'>542</span> + <h2 class='c002'>MY PENINSULAR MEDAL.<br> BY AN OLD PENINSULAR.</h2> +</div> + +<h3 class='c021'>PART VI.—CHAPTER XV.</h3> + +<p class='c022'>Early in the morning I was surprised +by a visit from Mr Chesterfield. +He had received information, which +he wished to communicate. From +other British officers, then in the +town, he had learned that the state +of the country through which we had +to pass was far from satisfactory; +and one or two had even told him that, +in the course of this day’s march, +we should certainly be attacked. +Mr Chesterfield added that he had +attempted, under the circumstances, +to obtain an addition to our escort, +but without success; there were but +few troops in the place, and none +could be spared. He wished, therefore, +to know what course I thought +preferable; whether to wait till fresh +parties bound to headquarters came +up, or to proceed at once.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I was quite for proceeding. Begged +to ask, Did he know what was the +character of the road we should have +to travel?</p> + +<p class='c008'>Mr Chesterfield had inquired. It +was for the most part through an open +country. “Any villages?”—If there +were, no doubt parties of troops were +stationed in them, and their presence +would be a check on the population.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These replies confirmed my previous +views; and, as my orders were to +conform to the written route, not only +with regard to places, but with regard +to time, I gave my voice decidedly +in favour of going on. If plans against +us were in process of concoction, +delay on our part would both give +encouragement, and afford time for +the mischief to come to a head. With +a convoy like ours, holding out so +many temptations to irregular enterprise, +it seemed far better to pass +quickly on, ere reports could spread, +and an attack be organised. Admitting +that there was danger if we proceeded, +there was also danger if we +remained stationary. If we incurred +any disaster by remaining, we incurred +it by a breach of orders; if by proceeding, +we met it in the path of +duty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Fully concurring in these views, +and agreeing that we should proceed, +Mr Chesterfield then suggested—might +it not be proper to adopt some +precautions? He thought, as soon as +we were out of the town, the men +should load.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This I fully concurred in, not only +as a defence, but as likely to keep the +men steadier, by letting them see that +we were preparing for business in +earnest. Here were two inexperienced +youths, the one raw from college, the +other from school, thrown on their +own resources, and laying their heads +together to meet an emergency, by +the most prudent measures their +united stock of wisdom could suggest. +Suffice it to say, we both spoke with +oracular gravity; and gave dignified +evidence of our perfect self-possession, +by blowing copious puffs of fragrant +smoke.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The conference between our two +high mightinesses, though, was suddenly +interrupted. Enter Corporal +Fraser, evidently in a little bit of a +flurry. The sight of Mr Chesterfield +brought him at once to a halt. He +saluted, and seemed to check himself +in something that he was going to say. +In short, he looked flushed and +anxious—not altogether himself—breathed +hard between his clenched +teeth—stood silent. The visit being +to me, Mr Chesterfield gave me a +look; so I asked the corporal what +he wanted.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I am sorry, sir,” said he, “to be +the bearer of disagreeable intelligence.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, corporal, out with it.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The men, sir, I regret to say, +are in a state of beastly intoxication.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The corporal, it was clear, wishing +to shield the men, had come to my +billet, intending the information for +my ears only. But finding Mr Chesterfield +with me, and not being at the +time in the absolute possession of his +faculties, (for, though quite unconscious +of the fact, he was himself partially +under the influence of liquor,) +he had no resource but to tell out all, +though not by any means one of those +petty officers “as likes to get poor +fellers into trouble.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Beastly intoxication? What! at +this early hour of the day? It was a +strange circumstance, and excited +ugly apprehensions. How could they +have become so? Who made them +drunk? Under other circumstances, +I should have applied to the corporal +for an explanation forthwith; +but I saw indications, in the corporal’s +eye, that it would not be kind to +question him at the moment before an +officer—so proposed, instead, that we +should go and look for ourselves. We +went. The case was much as Fraser +had stated it. We reached a large +old house with a <i><span lang="fr">porte cochère</span></i>, within +which was a court. On entering this +court we found the men—happily the +infantry only, for the cavalry had +quarters just by—all, with one exception, +more or less in a state of intoxication. +Some were laughing; others +were wrangling; one or two were +crying—maudlin drunk. Some were +making a show of cleaning arms and +accoutrements, with profound bows +and sagacious nods. All tried, on our +arrival, to look as sober as they could. +On any morning this would have been +a serious state of things, at the hour +of mustering to start; but now, when +we expected hostility, it was worse +than ever. Neither did I like the +look of the inhabitants. There was +no exact throng, indeed; but parties +were standing near in groups, evidently +cognisant of our present fix, +watching, and making their remarks +among themselves. In that old house, +guarded by those drunken soldiers, +were sixty mule-loads of silver and +gold! Things looked still worse, +though, when we entered the quarters. +Three or four men, who were most +overcome, had deliberately laid themselves +down again for a snooze. There +they were, wrapped up in their blankets, +stretched and snoring on the +floor; while Corporal Fraser, himself +a little “disguised,” flushed in the +face, and in a high state of indignation +and excitement, was storming +and kicking them up; and a fellow, +who found it easier to lean against +the wainscot than to stand upright, +was expostulating—“You haven’t no +business to kick a poor soger in that +’ere way.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>To this general boskiness, I have +said, there was one exception. It was +Jones. In fact, with all his faults, I +never, on any one occasion, saw Jones +overcome with liquor; which was the +more remarkable, because he got more +than any other soldier of the detachment. +His own ration—all that he +could appropriate of mine—occasional +contributions from Coosey—all he +could get from every quarter, (and he +never missed an opportunity,) all went +down his throat without visible effect. +In short, he seemed brandy-proof. +I never saw him affected, nor had he +the appearance of a hard drinker. +Observing that he looked much as +usual, while all around were looking +so different, I applied to him for an +explanation. “Why, Jones, what’s +the cause of this disgraceful scene? +How did the men get it?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, the fellers is very +sorry for it, sir. Hadn’t no intentions +to get drunk <em>$1</em>, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, but how did it happen, +man?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, the jeddleham stood +treat, sir; treated ’em all, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“What gentleman?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, the same as treated +me the night before last, sir: give me +a tumbler of hot punch what was all +a-fire, sir; brought it out into the +inn-yard all of a blaze, sir. Told me +the French soldiers got that twice a day, +sir. Said, if the Hinglish soldiers +had their rights, they’d get the +same, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The night before last? What +gentleman treated you the night before +last?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, it was the same jeddleham +as aast to speak to you, sir; +the jeddleham what you went into the +house to speak to him, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Oh, that fellow! Why, you +might have seen him again yesterday. +Didn’t you notice him among the +people at the ferry?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, when we come to the +ferry, I was in the rear, sir; halted +there, and remained till we turned the +hinnimy over the ford, sir. Didn’t +git a sight on him, sir. Only wish I +had, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, but how comes it some of +the other men didn’t know him again? +They must have seen him yesterday, +if you didn’t.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, I s’pose it’s ’cause +this morning he was dressed different, +sir. Had a large hat pulled over his +eyes, sir; and muffled up in a long +cloak, sir. Shouldn’t not have knowed +him myself, sir, only if it hadn’t not +a-been for his nose, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Stood treat, though? How?—did +he treat the whole party?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, I won’t tell you no lie, +sir. Jest after the fellers turned out +in the morning, sir—jest as I was a-washing +my face in this ’ere horse +trough, sir—there come along a man +with a couple of barrils, sir; which +the barrils was slung on a-top of a +donkey, sir. So he took and stopped +the donkey close to that ’ere gateway, +sir, which some of the fellers was +standing at it, sir. So they knowed +at once it was wine, sir—in course +they did, by the look on it, sir—so +they got a-bargaining with him for a +drink, sir. So, jest as they was a-bargaining +come along that ’ere Nosey, +sir; which, as soon as he see the +fellers a-talking to the man what belonged +to the donkey, sir, he looked +very pleasant, and stopped and spoke +to him, sir. Then he spoke to the +fellers, sir, and told ’em they might +drink as much as they pleased, sir; +might drink it all, if they liked, sir; +and he’d stand it, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Did he speak English, then?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Yes, he did, sir; sitch Hinglish as +they speaks here, sir; not sitch as you +and I speaks, sir. I won’t tell you no +lie, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The case was too clear. Hookey +was still on our traces. Disappointed +in his two previous attempts to turn +us from our route, he meant to keep +near us, watch his opportunity, and +act accordingly. Making the men +drunk just when we were about to +start on a dangerous part of the road, +was as unquestionably part of some +more extensive plot as it was palpably +Hookey’s doing. I briefly +stated the matter to Mr Chesterfield, +adding, “We shall see that fellow +again to-day.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“If he comes once more within the +range of a firelock,” said Mr Chesterfield, +“we must not let him get off so +easily.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, the immediate question +was a practical one: What course was +best, under existing circumstances? +In spite of the state of the men, I was +still for proceeding.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Very well,” said Mr Chesterfield; +“then let the packing commence. We +will take all the infantry who are fit +to march when the mules are loaded, +and go on with them and the cavalry. +Such as are too bad must remain behind, +and come up afterwards with +other parties, as they can.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Mr Chesterfield then went to see +after his own men; the mules arrived, +and the muleteers began loading. +Jones stepped up to me: he had +apparently overheard our conversation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, none of the fellers +won’t not stay behind, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“How do you know?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“’Cause, sir, when the mules is +ready, they’ll be ready, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Ready? How ready, if they ’re +beastly drunk?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, they won’t be beastly +by that time, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“How can you tell that?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, ’cause I knows they +won’t, sir; ’cause it’s only that ’ere +wine, sir. Please, sir, that ’ere hasn’t +not got no varchy in it, like the sperrits +has, sir. ’Cause, please, sir, when a +feller gets drunk on sperrits, sir, they +makes him rale drunk, sir; but that +’ere wine only jest makes him drunkish-like, +sir; ’cause it’s only jest for a +time, sir, and then it goes off again, +sir; ’cause there’s no good in it, sir, +if you drink a butt of it, sir. Hope no +offence, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Common country wine, was it?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, it was new wine, +sweetish-like, sir. That’s what did +it, sir. Sitch new wine gits into a +feller’s headpiece at once, sir; makes +him silly drunk directly instant, sir; +but then he soon gits sober agin, +sir. Consickvent, I considers the fellers +will all be sober agin in an hour +or two, sir; and then they’ll be able +to fall in, sir. ’Cause I knowed it +was new, sir; ’cause it sparkled like +cider do when it’s drawed frish from +the barril, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Jones’s prognosis, though not very +clearly expressed, was verified by the +result. Ere the loading was completed, +all the men had become either +sober or nearly so. Even those who +had been most affected fell in, and +mustered with the rest; and though +our rank and file displayed some set +and gummy eyes, only two or three +of the worst betrayed the disaster by +their gait. Hookey had thus outwitted +himself. By dosing the men +with new wine, (which, as all persons +acquainted with the wine countries are +well aware, flies at once to the head, +even if taken moderately,) he had, +indeed, succeeded in making them +drunk at once; but not in making +them drunk for a continuance. “Let +alone it’s new,” said Jones, “it +isn’t no wine, sitch as the fellers gits, +as would make ’em rale drunk; +nayther Spanish wine, nor yit Frinch +wine, except it’s the jinny-wine.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The men having somehow discovered +that they were likely to be put +on their mettle during the day’s +march, were all, in appearance, truly +sorry for what had occurred. They +became aware, through Jones, of +Hookey’s real character; saw through +his contrivance to make them all +drunk; and, feeling that they had +been in a measure his dupes, were +savage at the artifice, and burned for +an opportunity to retrieve their character +in the course of the day. Mr +Chesterfield now returned: he glanced +at the men, and afterwards took an +opportunity of speaking to me.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“That fellow with the nose,” said +he, “according to your account of +him, must be a dangerous character. +Should not steps be taken for his +apprehension?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“If you like, I will go to the Mairie, +and make inquiries about him.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I fear,” said he, “you will not be +very cordially seconded in that quarter, +judging, at least, from my own +last night’s experience, when I applied +for billets. However, it can do no +harm.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, then, the sooner I go the better. +I will take with me the Spanish +Capataz. As soon as we have gone in, +be so kind as to keep an eye on the entrance. +If Señor Roque puts his head +out, send me three or four dismounted +dragoons. We must see if we can’t +teach those fellows good manners.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I took with me Señor Roque, and +explained to him, by the way, what I +wished him to do. If, after we entered +the bureau of the Mairie, I gave him a +look, he was to go down to the door, +and bring up the dragoons.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We entered; and, as at a previous +interview the night before, found three +gentlemen busily employed in writing, +each at his desk. The interval had +wrought no improvement in their +manners. When I saluted them, +neither of the three took the least +notice—all went on writing. I addressed +the head man of the party.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I have the honour of waiting on +you, Monsieur, for the purpose of soliciting +your co-operation.”—Still he +writes. Wait awhile. Try again.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I must soon be leaving this place, +Monsieur, and have duties which will +occupy me in the interval. May I +claim a moment’s attention?”—Scribble, +scribble, scribble.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One or two similar attempts were +similarly met. I then gave friend +Roque the concerted look; and he, +nothing loath, went off to fetch the +dragoons. Meanwhile, no seat having +been offered me, I took one, and remained +quiet. The three official gentlemen, +though so dreadfully busy, +just before, that they could not notice +my application, now began jabbering +amongst themselves upon some indifferent +topic, as if no one else had been +in the room. When a Frenchman +really wishes to treat you with insolence, +I must say he has a neat, quiet +way of doing it, which no other people +on earth can equal. An Englishman, +I admit, can beat him in vulgarity; +but for <em>$1</em> of execution, there is +no intentional rudeness like the rudeness +of a Frenchman.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Presently was heard on the stairs +a stumping—ha!—a hoof-like tread!—the +tramp of heavy feet! With it +ascended the clatter of accoutrements! +Four scabbards were mounting the +stairs, each scabbard marking each +step by a bang! The three officials +started—exchanged looks—wrote on +in silence with redoubled energy, +while their faces twitched.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The door opened! Four big fellows +entered the bureau, with clattering +accoutrements and resounding steps. +Señor Roque, his face burnished with +exultation—for he hated the French—followed, +and closed the door. The +bold dragoons ranged themselves in +line, with their backs to the wall. +Nay, more: their four right hands, +probably by a hint from the Capataz, +moved simultaneously towards their +left sides; four enormous swords +leaped from their scabbards, flashed +in the air, and slumbered on the +bearers’ shoulders. The writing was +now intense.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The display of arms in such a place, +though, might compromise us with +our own authorities. I made a sign, +and the swords were sheathed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Having so often spoken in vain, I +was determined that the civic dignities +should speak first. I therefore quietly +took out a cigar. Quick as lightning, +my friend the Capataz whipped out +his smoking gear, and went to work +with flint, steel, and junk. At the +first click, my three polite entertainers +almost jumped from their stools. +The twinkle of the jolly old Spaniard’s +eye, as he handed me a light, was +worth a dollar any day. The four +dragoons, much to their credit, maintained +the most perfect gravity +throughout. I lit, and blew a cloud.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The panic of the three writers increased. +They were evidently telegraphing. +At length the chief turned +round on his seat, and, with alarm +and courtesy comically mingled in his +visage, begged to be informed in what +way he could be of service to me.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I interrupt you, Monsieur. Pray, +finish the business you have in hand.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Monsieur, I have no business so +cherished as to expedite yours.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I then told my object—that there +had been in the place a suspicious +<i><span lang="fr">sujet</span></i>, whom I described. Should he +again make his appearance, he must +be apprehended <i><span lang="fr">tout-de-suite</span></i>, and kept +in safe custody, till he was surrendered +to the normal authorities. “Messieurs, +has he presented himself here?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Three voices answered simultaneously—“Yes”—“No”—“Yes.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Do you know anything of him?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He is an Englishman—a courier +from Madrid.”—“He bears despatches +to the British headquarters.”—“Nothing +whatever.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He is neither an Englishman nor +a courier; consequently, he must be +provided with a passport. Has he +presented it <span class='fss'>HERE</span>?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Viewing him as attached to the +British service, we did not consider it +our affair.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Where is he now?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He is not here.”—“He didn’t +state his intended route.”—“He has +left this place.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“By what route?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“We don’t know.”—“He went, +within the last hour, towards St +Sever.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Is that an ascertained fact?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Yes, Monsieur, yes,” they all answered; +“he is gone in the direction +of St Sever.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“If, Messieurs, what you have now +stated should prove correct, and if I +find that you have told me all you +know, I trust I shall not feel it necessary +to report the matter to our commander-in-chief.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>These gentlemen, I felt, could have +told me more, had they chosen; and +I, with time at my command, could +have extracted more. But in our case +it was touch and go. We could not, +with such a charge, stop to pursue +investigations. So I took my leave, +deeming it, at any rate, something to +have ascertained that friend Hookey, +in accordance with my anticipations, +though not in accordance with his own +statements, had preceded us by the +route which we were so soon to +follow.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The civic trio were as courteous at +my departure as they were rude at my +entry. First stumped out the cavalry—who +had really done the business; +then followed the old unctuous Capataz; +and I, with a horizontal tripartite +bow, closed up the rear. Ere I +had fairly quitted the room, the three +were all at work again, intently scribbling. +The “dressing” of a <em>$1</em>, +with formal and full details of +the whole transaction, was probably +their occupation for the rest of the +morning. I was sorry that we had +compromised ourselves by the exhibition +of cold steel. But, under all +the circumstances, I felt little apprehension, +to borrow an expression from +Jones, of their “telling that ’ere to +my Lord Valentine.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The mules were loaded, the men +fell in; and, though some of them +were still a little the worse for the +disaster of the morning, we were quite +in a condition to lick any Frenchmen +that might come across us, and made +a very respectable march of it to the +outskirts of the town. There we were +again joined by Pledget and Gingham; +and shortly after, Fraser, by Mr +Chesterfield’s direction, made the infantry +load, and saw that each had a +supply of cartridges—a process which +caused the muleteers to look a little +queer. We then proceeded on our +march.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Passing through an open country, +Mr Pledget and Mr Chesterfield rode +on side by side in conversation, at the +head of the line; while Gingham and +I followed close, in similar guise. +Suddenly was heard, in the rear, the +crack of a musket! A ball whistled +close over our heads, and struck the +road, a few yards before us. Mr +Chesterfield immediately called a halt +of the whole party; and he and I proceeded +to the rear. As we were +riding back, Corporal Fraser came +running forward to meet us, and soon +explained. Our Yorkshire lad, it appeared, +had been larking with another +soldier, one of those whose early sobriety +the wine had most disturbed, +and had got him into a scrape. The +result was, that the musket of the +half-tipsy soldier had gone off, and +had so nearly done execution amongst +us in front. It was evident our infantry +were not yet in a state to be +trusted with loaded arms; it wouldn’t +do. Mr Chesterfield gave directions +at once, that they should all draw +their charges. And as our route for +some distance appeared perfectly level +and open, so as to afford no cover for +a sudden attack, (it was that sort of +country so common in France, cultivated +to the road-side, but totally +bare of hedges, copse, or trees,) it +was settled that they should not load +again till circumstances rendered it +necessary. The man whose musket +had caused the alarm looked stupid +and bewildered—could give no explanation, +but that “it went off.” I +observed, however, that Mr Chesterfield +quietly spoke a few words to the +Yorkshireman. What they were, I +did not hear; but they certainly had +the effect of making that worthy a +better-behaved, though not a merrier +man, during the rest of our march.</p> + +<h3 class='c023'>CHAPTER XVI.</h3> + +<p class='c022'>Finding no foe to fight withal, we +began to suspect that Mr Chesterfield, +as a new-comer, had been hoaxed, in +our last halting-place, by some military +wag; and Gingham and I fell +into a long conversation, which he +commenced by reminding me of our +arrangement to campaign together, +entered into a year before, at Falmouth. +All obstacles, he said, were +removed; he hoped, therefore, the +plan would now be carried out. To +this I readily consented; the advantages, +indeed, were all on my side. +Gingham then, in his own way, introduced +a discussion respecting his plans +and mine. Be it however premised, +we had dined together the night before; +and I had shown him some +methods—more expeditious than those +in common use, which were the only +ones he knew—of reducing one denomination +of coin to another: <em>$1</em>, +dollars to pounds sterling, pounds +sterling to francs, &c. He expressed, +as before, his high gratification; and +begged my MS. calculations “in the +strictest confidence,” depositing them +in the recesses of his writing-desk. +He now, as we were riding along, +commenced an important, and, on his +part, highly diplomatic conference, +by a friendly examination as to the +nature of my official duties at Lisbon. +I described them, as I have described +them to the reader a few chapters +back.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Then, in fact,” said Gingham, +“your last year has been employed +to as good purpose as it could have +been in any London counting-house.” +(That was Gingham’s standard.) +“You have had the keeping of a distinct +account, and that in all its parts, +from the items to the account current. +Of course, it occupied your whole +time.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Not the whole,” said I. “There +was some to spare, for which I had +other employment.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Indeed!” said Gingham, with interest. +“Will you, Mr Y—, as a particular +favour, permit me—confidentially +of course—to make an inquiry?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Make any inquiry you like: I +shall feel pleasure in answering it.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Would you, then,” said Gingham, +“have the kindness to inform me—that +is, unless you feel it a violation +of official confidence—what were your +other duties?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“No violation whatever. I kept +the letter-books; managed the correspondence: +not the whole correspondence +of the department, but that of +the branch I belonged to—the account +office.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Your duty, then,” said he, “was +to arrange and enter all letters received, +and to keep copies of all letters +sent?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Sometimes to copy, sometimes to +make the draughts. A man soon gets +into the way, you know.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“One entire account,” said Gingham, +speaking to himself, “and one +whole branch of correspondence! +What an excellent introduction!”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Not understanding in what sense he +used the word “introduction,” I made +no reply.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Of course,” he proceeded, “the +correspondence was in English?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Almost exclusively. I should +scarcely feel equal to any other, except +perhaps Portuguese.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Might I not,” said Gingham, “add +Spanish and French?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, if I get a little polishing, +perhaps you might. Italian I hope to +be able to add ere long; and, in due +time, German.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Gingham now turned half round in +his saddle, and addressed me with +great gravity. “Mr Y—, my dear +sir, I venture, as a friend, to offer one +suggestion. If a person, not older +than yourself, applied for an engagement +in the corresponding line, I +would say to him—that is, in the +strictest confidence, speaking as a +friend—‘Say only three languages; +wouldn’t advise you to say more.’ +The principal, however unjustly, might +suspect—excuse me, I speak candidly—might +suspect a little romancing. +In short, if a person under eight-and-twenty +or thirty said five languages, +it might prevent an engagement.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Gingham, I should observe, talked +just as he always did. There was +still the touch of mannerism, the quiet +earnestness blended with courtesy. I +never viewed any man with more unfeigned +respect and esteem; and yet +there were moments, in the course of +our present conversation, when I could +scarcely refrain from laughing in his +face. True, I was one year farther +removed from boyhood than when our +acquaintance commenced; and more +than one incident had taught me, in +the interval, the necessity of respecting +“time, place, and circumstances.” +But the trial was great; a gravity +that even Liston could not shake, +would have been shaken by Gingham. +Still there was his comical solemnity. +Still there was his politeness, touched +off with formality. Still there were +his green barnacles, and his two little +winky-pinky eyes. Still, still there +was his irresistible nose. Stand everything +else, I would defy you to stand +that. Great, please to observe, was +the difference between Gingham’s nose +and Hookey’s, though both arrested +the beholder. When Hookey and +Gingham met on board the packet, +each observed of the other that he +had a very odd nose. The first meeting +of the two noses, and the look +exchanged by the two wearers, beat +anything in Molière—so much more +comical is nature than fancy. Hookey’s, +unquestionably the most marked feature +of a very marked countenance, +did nevertheless so far maintain the +unities, that it perfectly harmonised +with the rest of his physiognomy. It +was an eagle’s beak, and his whole +face was aquiline. Gingham’s, on the +contrary, was conspicuous by contrast. +It had no appearance of belonging to +his face. You might fancy him one +of the triumphs of Talicotius—a man +(on which subject see Lavater) with +a false nose. Neither broad nor massive, +yet prominent and conspicuous, +it was slightly crooked, flattened on +one side; as if, when a baby, he had +slept too much on his right cheek, and +his nose, from its thinness, had got +bent towards his left. This nose, I +say, from its peculiar expression, or +rather want of expression, appeared +no part or parcel of the face in which it +stood. And, what was unfortunate, +its extraneous appearance was most +marked when Gingham was most in +earnest; so that it provoked you to +laugh just at the time when a man is +least disposed to be laughed at.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Well, Gingham having thus accomplished +his first object, by ascertaining +all that he wished to ascertain +concerning myself, now went on, in +the second place, to develop his own +plans.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“You are, I believe,” said he, “to +a certain extent aware of the scheme +which brought me out from England. +By the public prints, and still more by +my private correspondence, I am now +led to conclude that Napoleon’s day +is near its close, and that the war will +soon be terminated. In that event, +my plan falls to the ground. But +should we carry on the war here +another twelvemonth, I shall have +time to try it; and, if we go on permanently, +I mean to carry it out.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I have some general idea of your +plan, and that is all. You wish to +meet the monetary difficulties connected +with the operations of our +army, by a method which you have +concocted; and which you intend to +start, for self and friends, as a private +speculation. Don’t see how you can +make a beginning: where’s the opening?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“An opening is afforded by the +necessity of the case,” replied he; +“which necessity my plan will +meet.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Don’t see how. Look here; the +difficulty is just this: Here are certain +headquarters transactions, which +require ready money; and that ready +money must be current coin. Credit +will not do; bank notes will not +answer the purpose; no, nor yet bills, +nor any kind of available security. +It must be specie, minted gold and +silver, hard cash. For example, the +troops have hitherto been usually +paid in dollars. When we have got +dollars in the military chest, the +troops can be paid; when our dollars +are gone, they must wait till we get +more. And though we had power to +draw at will on the British treasury, +for three months’ pay to the whole +army, not a stiver can the army +receive till we have more dollars.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“That’s just it,” said Gingham; +“and I beg to ask, is such a state +of things desirable? The efficiency of +our army depends, not on the solvency +of our Government, but upon the +activity of money-dealers in raking +up specie in the four quarters of +the globe. That is the state of +things which my plan proposes to +remedy.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Do that, and you will effect a +great object. The mode, though, is +quite beyond me.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I mean to do it, sir,” said Gingham, +almost sternly, (for the little man, +as he sat on his splendid horse, +swelled with the grandeur of his conceptions)—“I +mean to do it, sir, by a +twofold method: not by two independent +methods, operating simultaneously; +but by the united operation +of two systems combined in one.” +His eyes looked full in mine; but his +nose pointed at Pledget, who was +riding before. I didn’t laugh—in +face at least I didn’t—though suddenly +seized with a dreadful twitching +of the intercostal muscles. “I +shall effect my object, sir, partly by +paper, partly by hard cash. I shall issue +notes payable at sight; and I shall +get all the dollars I can into my own +keeping. You, when you want dollars +to pay the troops, come to me. I, on +receiving what I deem an equivalent, +let you have them. What will be the +result? Instead of requiring a fresh +supply of dollars from the coast every +time you give the soldiers their pay, +you will pay them with the same dollars +twice over, nay, over and over +again.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Why, that’s a bank! You will be +banker to the British army!”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Exactly,” said Gingham, subsiding +all at once into his ordinary style +of speech: “I mean to establish a +headquarters bank. Suggest a title.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Suppose,” said I, “as of course +you will move with the army, you +borrow a suggestion from the military +hospitals of the French, and call it +“The Ambulatory Bank.” No, that +title doesn’t go well. Let me see. A +good title requires time and consideration.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“To be candid, sir,” said Gingham, +“you need not trouble yourself: the +title is already decided. I won’t tell +it, I’ll show it you. Have the kindness +to draw up by the road-side.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We halted, the convoy passed, the +cart came on in the rear, and was +stopped by Gingham. He then dismounted, +gave the bridle to Coosey, +stepped up into the cart, opened the +tarpaulin at its back, raised a lid, and +exhibited a green baize frame fitting +into the top of a box, which frame +contained a large and splendid brass +plate.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“It wouldn’t exactly do,” said +Gingham, “to borrow this title at +home. Here, though, I mean to +make free with it.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>In bold, broad letters, excavated +in the burnished brass, I read</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>“THE BANK OF ENGLAND.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Really the largeness of Gingham’s +plans was too much for my limited +capacities. We rode forward again to +the head of the column; and I, for a +while, rode on in silence, digesting. +At length, one idea leading to another, +I ventured to say something about +“authority—concurrence.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Gingham, big with his scheme, was +now like a gladiator prepared for +every thrust. “At home,” said he, +“I have all the concurrence, all the +authority I need, with many good +wishes to boot; and, as to pecuniary +support, I can have whatever amount +is required. All that I settled before +I left Falmouth, or have since +arranged by correspondence. Here +I ask for countenance only so far as +my plan is found, on trial, to aid the +public service. Let that once become +manifest, and I doubt not we shall +find all the favour we want.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Only sorry your plan was not +thought of before. It might have +spared our Commander much anxiety, +and our soldiers many privations.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Swelling with the plenitude of his +anticipations, Gingham began to dogmatise. +“In London,” said he, +“credit is equivalent to cash. Here, +at headquarters, the case is different. +In London, so long as my +banker will honour my cheques, I have +cash at command. Here, I may +possess unlimited power to draw +bills, yet not be able to raise a rap. +What makes the difference?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Here, your resource is at a distance; +there, your banker is close at +hand.” I was more disposed, though, +to chew upon Gingham’s ideas than +to discuss them, and we again rode +on in silence. At length I bolted +out a difficulty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Well, we make an issue in cash—say +a hundred thousand dollars, for +the pay of the troops. These dollars +are distributed, and spent; the whole +sum evaporates. How do you get +them together again, for a second +payment?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I don’t expect to get them all,” +said Gingham, scornfully. “But +suppose I can get a part of them, say +half. That, I think, I shall manage; +for, observe, ten dollars are quite as +many as you can carry about your +person without annoyance. Undoubtedly, +then, many individuals, +receiving a payment in dollars, will +be glad enough to lodge them in a +bank, when there’s a bank at hand. +And when I have issued my paper, +payable at demand, many, I make no +question, will much rather take it, +than burden themselves with a load +of specie.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The reasonableness of Gingham’s +expectations was fully borne out, by +scenes which I afterwards witnessed, +when accompanying the military +chest, as it moved from place to place +with the headquarters of the British +army. A gentleman, say a Frenchman +or a Spaniard, has a claim for +payment, on account of provisions, +forage, or other necessaries, supplied +for the service of the troops—the +amount, suppose, ten thousand dollars. +After long following headquarters +from place to place, till he is +far distant from his own home, he has +at length established his claim: it’s all +right, he has got a written order for +payment, and enters our office elated, +bearing it between his finger and +thumb, eager to receive the cash. +The cashier takes the bill, points to +five deal boxes, each containing two +thousand dollars, and tells him, +“There’s the money.” I have seen a +man, under such circumstances, +knocked down in a moment, perfectly +dumfounded. He has not brought a +horse and cart, and every available +conveyance has been impressed by the +troops. One of the five boxes is as +much as a man can carry; two are a +load for a mule. If he has a lodging +in the place, he possesses no means +even of taken them there; but probably +he has none—the whole town +is full of soldiers. But to-morrow it +will be worse: the army will have +swept on; headquarters will be three +or four leagues in advance; and the +troops will be succeeded by stragglers, +camp-followers, marauders, and all +the lawless tribe that close up the rear +of an advancing host. Poor man! +what an alteration in his looks! He +sees, in an instant, the full amount +of his difficulties. Two minutes ago, +he was dying to realise; now, he +has got the cash, and doesn’t know +what to do with it. I remember an +instance when an acquaintance of +mine, a Frenchman, came to receive +five thousand dollars, which, with the +aid of an attendant, he removed from +the office. Presently he reappeared +at the door, caught my eye, intimated +by bows and simpers his request +for a private interview. It was +easy to guess the subject of his communication, +but I followed him out. +He had got his five bags in a cowhouse. +His home was distant a two +days’ journey. How was he to get +them there? Could he have gold +instead of silver? Would gladly +make any sacrifice in the way of <em>$1</em>. +Couldn’t I <em>$1</em> it?—How he +managed at last, I never learned—whether +he got his dollars to a place +of safety, or was robbed and murdered +on the road. Sometimes the +claimants would come eagerly demanding +their money, and, the next +moment, would most earnestly entreat +permission to leave it in our +keeping. If a man so circumstanced, +instead of hard dollars, could have +had paper securing him cash at demand, +at a time more convenient for +receiving it—in short, Gingham’s +plan just meets a case like this. And +Gingham, who knew headquarters +well, especially in respect to financial +details and the attendant difficulties, +had devised his scheme as a practical +remedy. The claimant gives his bill +to Gingham, and takes Gingham’s +bank notes, or, if he prefers it, part +notes and part specie. Gingham, at +his own convenience, gets the official +dollars on the bill. Then comes the +other advantage. So much hard +cash as has not been paid away to +the claimant remains at headquarters, +available, by monetary arrangements +with the authorities, for the payment +of the troops, or for any other headquarters +purposes. What an improvement +from the state of things when +cash was so low, that, the commander-in-chief +wishing to communicate with +a distant point, it was necessary to +raise a private loan for the expenses +of the courier!</p> + +<p class='c008'>In short, twenty practical difficulties +occurred to my mind, all which Gingham +took off, as fast as I started them. +“After all,” said he, “the only real +difficulty will be this: that whereas +now, at headquarters, there sometimes +is not a dollar disposable for +public purposes, we shall then, especially +if the army is on the move, have +more dollars than we know what to +do with.” His plan, indeed, contemplated +a large concern, for the cash +transactions of headquarters were +immense; but it was clear he had +viewed the scheme in every light, +and was prepared to carry it out. +No question, Gingham would have +made a good thing of it, both for +himself and for his backers in London. +Yet it was a concern which Government +could not undertake; and which, +if Government had undertaken it, +would have infallibly broken down. +Private enterprise alone could prosperously +conduct the scheme.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Gingham had laid out our conference +in three parts, and two were now +disposed of. First, he had ascertained +the progress of my financial education +in the past year; secondly, he had +developed his own plans; but there +yet remained the third topic of discussion, +into which he now led with +all his usual elegance, straightforwardness, +and good feeling. The +long and the short of it was this,—he +had two gentlemen in London, +ready to come out to Bordeaux +whenever he commenced operations; +they would arrive, like a letter, by +return of post; but there was a question +respecting myself. Did I feel so +far interested in his plan that I might +be willing, on due reflection, to relinquish +my actual appointment, and +work with him? He asked it “in the +strictest confidence,” and begged me +to consider all that now passed “as +merely conversation.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Have the kindness to excuse me +for a few moments. I’ll presently +tell you just exactly my own prospects +and plans, and then we’ll talk the +matter over. In the mean time, accept +my best thanks for this proof of +confidence.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>While listening with the profoundest +attention to Gingham, I had, +it must be confessed, been taking a +look, from time to time, at the country +round. Hitherto our route had been +across an open level, and we had +always seen the road before us. Now, +first, we reached a spot were we could +not discern what was in front. The +table-land, over which we had been +marching, terminated in a brow or +declivity. The road dipped, and disappeared; +where it led us there was +no perceiving. The road itself also +became hollow—that is, it descended +between two high banks, and these +were covered with underwood. This +was the part of our way on which we +were now about to enter.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Just at this moment, while I was +debating with myself whether we +ought to go on without a little exploration, +Jones stepped up to me +rather hastily. “Please, sir,” said +he, “I’m a-thinking Nanny siz something +as we doesn’t see.” I should +mention that, in the course of our +march, when we approached any +eminence that afforded a view of the +road and country in front, Nanny +would trot off from the party, run to +the summit, and make her observations—in +short, see all that was to be +seen. Goats, if you observe, never, +unless compelled, venture on new +ground, till they have first halted, and +taken a view of it. Even sheep, if +not over-driven, will not turn down a +lane, till they have stopped and turned +their heads, for the purpose of +taking a look with <em>$1</em> eyes. Cows, +on the contrary, look and advance at +the same time; and your nag, contenting +himself with a <em>$1</em> view, +appears to advance without looking +at all. Your dog, who has more +sense than all the others put together, +when you come to a place where the +road forks—dear old Burruff!—<em>$1</em>. Well, Nanny, in the +present instance, had done as she +always did. The ground rose to our +left, and the elevation <em>$1</em> the +valley in front. On that elevation +Nanny was now standing, and Jones’s +observation was evidently correct. She +saw something, or somebody, unseen +by us. There she stood—not, though, +as on previous occasions, quietly taking +a survey of the road before us: +her tail, the “upward curl” of which +was more than perpendicular—<em>$1</em>—from +time to time vibrated +rapidly. She uttered, at intervals, +a sharp, anxious bleat, and ever and +anon stamped with a movement so +quick, the eye could scarce discern it. +“What d’ye think, then, she sees +down there?” said I to Jones—“other +goats?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir,” said Jones, “I’m +a-thinking it’s not goats, sir; ’cause +then she wouldn’t stop up there, sir. +Please, sir, she’d come back at once, +and keep close, sir; ’cause she knows +as how I’d protect her varchy, sir; +’cause for fear the Billies should make +too free, sir; ’cause, when the Nannies +is in milk, sir, they doesn’t not +pemit hinnersint libbities, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Nanny now adopted a new style of +attitude—rearing, as when at play, +with arched neck and combative front, +still, at times, subsiding into the quadruped; +now bleating, now stamping, +now wagging her tail with intense +vivacity; then walking back, stamping +again, advancing; gazing all the while +on the low ground in front. “If +Nanny takes a view, why shouldn’t +Sancho?” I cantered up, and speedily +cantered down again. “Mr Chesterfield, +I think, sir, we had better +halt.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Indeed there was reason. In front +was the enemy, drawn up to receive +us, in military array. The road, I +must explain, led down to a lower +level. Just at the bottom, another +road crossed it; and, where the two +roads cut, they spread out round a +large pond. About this pond, but +principally in advance of it, appeared +a large concourse of the rural population. +“<i><span lang="fr">Tout Français est soldat.</span></i>” +I never felt the force of the phrase as +I did at that moment. They were +armed, and stood in line; their number +formidable, their aspect decidedly +pugnacious. Oh, you plucky villains! +won’t we be down upon you presently? +I stated to Mr Chesterfield what +I had seen, and he immediately halted +our whole party. “If you will ride +up with me,” said I, “you may see +the whole lot of them.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I returned to Nanny’s look-out +post, but Mr Chesterfield did not follow. +Had I known what he was +about to do, I should certainly have +remonstrated. He chose to take a +nearer look at the enemy, and for that +purpose rode forward alone. On the +eminence on which I stood, I heard +the rattle of his horse’s hoofs in the +hollow way; and presently I saw him +emerge below, at its further extremity. +He then reined in his horse, +and sat viewing the foe, who greeted +his appearance with shouts and yells. +Having quietly made his observations, +he turned, and began to come back at +a walk. As he withdrew, three or +four shots were fired after him from +below, but without effect. After he +again disappeared in the hollow road, +though, on his way to rejoin us, I +heard, with great uneasiness, other +shots fired—the report much nearer. +They were evidently from rascals +ambushed in the underwood of the +two banks, between which he was +passing. I rejoined the convoy just +as he rode up. His look was perfectly +calm and self-possessed, but +pale as ashes. He held the bridle in +his right hand, while his left hung +helpless at his side. Pledget at once +tumbled off his mule, stepped up, and +addressed him with a tone and aspect +of unfeigned concern—“Not serious, +sir, I hope?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Oh, nothing,” said he, his manner +a little hurried; “a mere graze—nothing. +Corporal Fraser, the infantry +must load immediately. Let them +fix bayonets, though. We must begin +by clearing those two banks.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Scarcely were the words out of his +lips, when his face became ghastly +like death, his eyes half closed, his +mouth half opened. His head drooped; +and speechless, almost fainting, +he sank down gradually from his +saddle into Fraser’s arms. The corporal +carried him to the road-side—why, +he was but a boy—and seated, or +rather laid him upon the bank. Pledget +was promptly in attendance, got +off the patient’s coat, and examined +the wounded arm, amidst the clatter +of fixing bayonets and ramming down +cartridges. “Oh, ain’t we going at +it in yarnest, though?” said Jones.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The system,” said Pledget, with +all his usual deliberation—“the system +has received a severe shock; that +is the cause of these alarming symptoms—they +will not last. So it often +happens with gunshot wounds. The +wound itself is not dangerous. The +ball has gone clean through the arm, +and at short distance too, but without +fracturing the bone or injuring any +important vessel.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Oh, had you seen that lad languishing +on the sod, with the black blood +trickling from two holes at once, and +joining in a sluggish stream which +went rippling down his arm, and +dripped into the grass! I don’t know +what he thought of; I thought of his +mother. Enough: the foe is in +front.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But affairs now assumed a new +phase. While I was anxiously surveying +our wounded commander, Corporal +Eraser stepped up to me, saluting +in due form, <i><span lang="fr">à la militaire</span></i>! He +stood waiting and looking at me, as if +he expected to receive directions.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The nature of the position in which +I was so unexpectedly placed, broke +upon me in a moment. I’ll tell you +just everything, exactly as it occurred. +Mr Chesterfield was <em>$1</em>. +Pledget, in discharge of his professional +duty, was wholly occupied in +attending upon him. The corporal, +and, it was clear, the men also, looked +to me for direction in our present fix. +Gingham, when the corporal approached +me, backed his horse. From +many persons such an action might +have gone for nothing. But Gingham +had a reason for all he did; and, from +him, it seemed to say, “Now, Mr +Y—, take the management of this +little business, and go through with it. +Don’t you see, my dear sir? It has +devolved upon you.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The men are ready, sir,” said +Corporal Fraser; “shall we now +proceed to clear the banks?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It was evident I must direct, or +nothing could be done. “Wait a +minute, Fraser.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I beckoned to the cavalry sergeant, +and desired him to place a few of his +men, with swords drawn, in the rear +of the convoy, giving them strict directions +to suffer no one to fall behind, +mule or muleteer. He was then to +divide the rest of our mounted force +into two equal parties, under his two +corporals, who, when the infantry advanced, +were to descend along the top +of the banks, and halt at its extremity. +I then gave the word to Corporal +Fraser to move forward at once +with the infantry, and clear the underwood, +but to halt where the cavalry +halted, and by no means to go beyond.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Then, to prevent that,” said the +corporal, “I will go first myself, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>He dashed forward, and the infantry +followed, with a shout. Thus we +moved down to the extremity of the +hollow road. The infantry led the way, +gallantly headed by General Fraser, +and dislodged some ten or a dozen +fellows from the banks, who bolted +successively, and cut away, making +good their retreat to their own party +below. This movement was not +effected without some firing on both +sides, but nobody was hurt on either. +The cavalry, supporting the infantry, +walked quietly down the two edges of +the cutting: and I put the convoy in +motion to follow. Mr Chesterfield +now rallied for a few moments, and +was eager to remount. But the faintness +returned; it was evident he +could neither ride nor walk; so he +was brought down in Gingham’s cart, +with every attention both from Gingham +and Pledget.</p> + +<p class='c008'>While we were thus moving down +through the hollow, I heard, close behind, +an angry shout from our dragoons +on the banks above. Then followed +three shots in quick succession, one from +the underwood, on the side, two from +the summit. A bullet whizzed by my +head, and spat into the opposite bank. +A rustling was then distinguishable +among the bushes, and presently a +peasant, in a blue gabardine, slid down +stiff into the road, and there doubled +up. Eluding Fraser and the foot +soldiers, he had remained in ambush +till we came along, when he had +selected me for a passing compliment, +as the head of the party, intending +no doubt to climb up the bank, if +pursued, and escape above. Just as +he was taking aim, though, he was +seen by the dragoons, who, unheard +by him, were quietly moving down at +a walk over the ploughed ground. +Two of them fired their carbines, and +one or both of their shots taking effect, +prevented the effect of his.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Too green to know that it was unmilitary, +I returned a few paces to +take a view of the dying foe. A +Frenchman to the last, he must needs +find something to say, though life was +now ebbing apace. Slowly, and with +apparent difficulty, he raised his eyes +till they were fixed full on mine; and +then, with quivering features, and a +strange snapping of the jaw, began to +speak. “<i><span lang="fr">Ah, Monsieur —— j’ai +pensé—vous.</span></i>”——He was dead!</p> + +<p class='c008'>We now gained the extremity of +the hollow way, and stood looking +down on the enemy ranged in order of +battle at the pond. Fraser had drawn +up the infantry across the road, and +the cavalry, with the exception of the +rearguard, formed on our two flanks. +Our first movement was thus effected. +All our men were perfectly steady, +but burning to fall to, and savage on +account of Mr Chesterfield’s casualty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Gingham now suggested, as the +enemy were so numerous—two hundred +and fifty at least, if not three hundred—that +it might be prudent to wait a +while, in the hope that other parties, +bound to headquarters, might come +up. But I happened to know that +none were coming that day; and +Gingham, on hearing this, withdrew +his motion. What, then, was our +course? How were we to deal with +these Mounseers? No doubt we could +lick them; and, had fighting been our +object, nothing would have given our +men greater satisfaction. But we had +dollars in charge, and our first care +must be to get safe through, and +deliver them safe at headquarters. +My decision, then, was taken. We +must advance—we must continue our +march—and we mustn’t let those fellows +hinder us; but we must, if possible, +effect our purpose, without coming +to close quarters. A mêlée we +must shun; for, though the issue would +be glorious—no doubt of that—yet, if +once mixed up with our convoy, the +enemy, when they took to flight, +might persuade some of our mules to +go with them. Our object, then, reduced +itself to this: we must disperse +the foe, without coming to close quarters +with them. Gingham quite +adopted this view of the subject, and +now prepared for further operations by +drawing his pistols from the holsters, +and examining their priming. He +next called to Coosey to get him his +sword out of the cart, girded it on, and +drew it forth from the scabbard—a +formidable Andrea Ferrara, equally +available for cut and thrust. He bore +it bolt upright, with great gravity, +and with an air half military, half +civic, which, on his showy Spanish +horse, would have rendered him a +highly ornamental addition to a Lord +Mayor’s procession.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We were now immediately in front +of the enemy; and I rode a few yards +forward, to take a full view of their +position, previous to our advance. +They favoured me with a great deal +of noise, and, on my turning, with a +few shots, which I acknowledged by +taking off my hat. Many of them returned +the compliment; while others +expressed their civility by a courteous +gesture, vernacular in most civilised +countries.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The enemy, it was clear, had no idea +that we marched with a Nanny-goat in +company, and had intended that we +should walk into them unawares. In +that case, we should probably have +come off second best. As matters +stood, our position was far more +favourable: and theirs, less advantageous +in the same degree. The worst +of it was, though, that to the left of the +main road—that is, on the enemy’s +right—a wood came down to within +two hundred yards of them; which +same wood, further on, extended close +up to the road we were to proceed by, +and seemed to skirt it for some distance. +The danger was that, when +we attacked the enemy, and drove +them before us, some of them, perhaps +the greater number, might escape into +this wood; in which case we might +afterwards find it difficult to get rid of +their agreeable company. These considerations, +then, indicated the plan +of our attack. I desired the sergeant +of cavalry to select seven or eight of +his steadiest men, and gain at once +the skirts of the wood, at the point +nearest the enemy. He was to advance +at first as if intending to attack +their right; but, when he got nearer, +was to quicken his pace, and make at +once for the wood. Immediately after, +when he saw the general attack commence, +his party, also, were to advance +and fire; but not to advance so +far that fugitives, escaping from the +enemy’s rear, might be able to enter +the wood. The infantry were to advance, +firing, down the road; and the +remainder of the cavalry was to spread +out on our flanks, and act in concert +with us: our whole party pressing +more on the enemy’s right than left, +in order that their retreat might be +from the wood, not to it. These +matters I explained distinctly. One +other point remained.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Corporal Fraser, step this way. +Your duty is the most responsible of +any.” I knew it would be a bitter +pill for the corporal, so endeavoured +to gild it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I am ready for any duty you may +assign me, sir,” said the corporal, +whose blood was up.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“You must take two or three of +the infantry to the rear—we shall +want all the cavalry—and see that no +muleteer loiters behind, or falls out—bring +all up.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“As you please, sir,” said Fraser; +“but in action, the rear is not the +place to which I have been most accustomed.” +The poor fellow looked so +dismally blank, I really felt for him.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Never mind that, corporal. Remember +you have had your turn already, +and have done well. Depend upon +this,” I added, with a consolatory wink, +“should there be any real business in +front, though I don’t expect it, you, if +possible, shall have your share.” The +clouds were now dispelled from the +corporal’s face, and he retired to his +station in the rear.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Our preparations being thus completed, +I forthwith sent forward the +cavalry sergeant with his party, to +gain the wood. The movement was +well executed. They advanced steadily +down upon the enemy’s right, without +answering his fire; then turned suddenly +to the left, and trotted off to the +trees. Having reached the point assigned +them, they pulled up, faced +round, and formed in line. Immediately +upon this commenced our general +movement in advance, Fraser following +the train of mules and muleteers, +and “keeping them up behind.” Infantry +and cavalry marched down to +the attack; while both the contending +armies maintained a brisk fusillade. +As far as I then discovered, none of +the enemy’s shots took effect, while +some of ours appeared to tell. The +foe stood his ground manfully at first; +but, as we got closer, some of them +began to run from the rear, and all +soon joined in the flight. The retreat +was as rapid as it was general; and +we, as the convoy could not be left, +abstained from pursuit. The cavalry +advancing from the wood, though, got +a little too forward. The consequence +was that a few of the fugitives, running +down the main road, attempted +to escape into the wood. But a few +carbine shots soon turned them back +on the main body; and the whole +mass then made their escape down the +road to our right, which was just what +I wanted. Long after we had ceased +to fire, they continued to run, without +stopping to look behind, alarmed probably +by the apprehension of a cavalry +pursuit. Half a mile off, in remarkably +short time for the distance, I +saw some of them, like a scattered +flock of sheep, scampering up a hill, +and disappearing over its summit. +What execution was done by our fire, +did not immediately appear. Some +decamped slower than others; one or +two were carried. Some made their +escape through the pond; and of +these, some fell over in the water, as +if they had been hit. One fell, the +men said, and didn’t get up again. A +few of the enemy halted awhile to +take a look, in their run down the +cross-road, as if they would like to +make an attempt on the extremity of +our convoy, which probably appeared +to them unprotected. But, receiving +the fire of our rearguard, they again +took to flight. We assembled at the +pond, and there halted in a body, convoy +and escort.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Mr Chesterfield had not yet recovered +from the first shock of his +wound; and was obliged to remain in +the cart, unable to sit up. Gingham +administered some brandy, with good +effect. We had, however, one other +wounded man. I noticed several of +our fellows, horse and foot, assembled +in a group, from which proceeded +loud jeers, and shouts of laughter. +There was something in the midst of +them, the occasion of their mirth, +which I could not see. Presently, +however, I caught a sight of poor +Jones, the picture of woe. He was +standing in a posture very far from upright, +and leaning with his elbows on +the back of a spare mule—his aspect +cadaverous. Advancing, I heard the +talk.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Why, Taffy, old feller, how come +ye to get hit there?” A roar of +laughter drowned Jones’s indignant +reply.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Taffy, my lad, why, I didn’t think +you vos the chap as vould turn tail.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“It’s a lie,” roared Jones, in a voice +of extreme agony and exasperation. +“I didn’t turn tail; nor I haven’t not +never turned tail. Only jest turned +round to load, and felt all at wance +jest as if somebody had bin and give +me a kick——” A universal roar +drowned the conclusion of the sentence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Mr Pledget,” said I, “there seems +to be here another case, soliciting your +attention.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The men made way. Pledget advanced +with great seriousness; and +the laughter, though less vociferous, +became tenfold in intensity, at the +rich idea of Pledget’s investigating +and doctoring Jones’s wound. Jones, +at the sight of the doctor, in his alarm +and anguish set up a regular hullabaloo, +almost running into a cry. The +doctor, regardless of Jones’s fears and +lacerated feelings, began gravely to +question him—made serious attempts +and approaches to ascertain particulars. +Two or three of the fellows, +positively overcome with the scene, +threw themselves down by the road-side +in an agony. One, I really thought, +would have laughed himself into a fit. +He turned red, crimson, purple, almost +black in the face; still, in his +bursts, casting his eyes, from time to +time, towards Jones and the doctor. +Jones, leaning on the mule’s back, +screwing and twisting first this way +then that, evaded and defeated all +the doctor’s approaches; while the +men, taking a little extra freedom +after our glorious victory, renewed +their vociferous merriment. Pledget, +at length, began to lose his patience. +“Come, my good fellow,” said he; +“this won’t do, you know.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>He then looked round at the soldiers, +and made a sign. Four of them +stepped forward, seized Jones by the +arms and legs, and bore him off to the +road-side—struggling, fighting, kicking, +roaring, screeching, his agony increasing +as he saw the moment at +hand when he must be doctored. +Pledget humanely pointed to some +bushes close by, and the men carried +Jones behind them. There the bullet +was extracted at once. But how +Pledget proceeded, or what was the +precise character of the wound, of +course we, who remained in the road, +had no opportunity of perceiving. The +progress of the operation, however, +was marked by occasional shouts and +yells from Jones; and in five minutes +he hobbled forth with a rueful aspect, +but looking “as well as could be expected.” +Pledget almost immediately +followed, and handed the bullet to +Jones. “There, my man,” said he; +“put that in your pocket.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>There still was something, though, +upon Jones’s mind. He limped down +to the edge of the pond with an eager, +anxious look; and began prowling +about, examining among the reeds and +bushes, right and left.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Jones, hadn’t you better keep +yourself quiet? Sit down, man.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, if you’ve no objections, +sir, I’m noways inclined to sit down +jest at present, sir, ’cause it would be +rayther ill-colvelielt, sir; rayther be +excused, sir. Hope no offence, sir.” +He continued on the prowl.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“What are you looking for, Jones? +Lost any part of your kit?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, I’m a-looking for that +’ere Nosey, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“What! the man that stood treat +this morning? You don’t expect to +find him here.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Please, sir, I see him here, sir; and +I marked him too, sir. See him drop +somewhere hereabouts, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>This intelligence was “important, +if true;” and I also began to look.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There was nothing, however, on +this part of the field of combat, to +indicate that a wounded man had +fallen. Jones, though, was positive.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Sure you were not mistaken, +Jones?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“No, sir; it wasn’t no mistake, +I’m sartain, sir. I’m sartain as I see +him, and I’m sartain as I marked him, +sir. Knowed him by his——Oh, +there he is, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Jones pointed to something in the +pond that looked like a package or +bundle, half immersed in the water, at +the edge of the reeds, a little out from +the side.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A soldier stepped in, and examined +more closely. “It’s a dead man, sir.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Dead! Get him out, that’s a good +fellow. Perhaps he’s only wounded, +and not past recovery.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He’s past that, sir,” said the soldier, +as he turned him, face upwards, +on the bank.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The face had a mask of mud. The +soldier knelt down, felt in the dead +man’s pockets, brought out a white +handkerchief of French cambric—wiped +away the mud. Yes, it was +Hookey! The features retained their +general expression—harsh by temperament, +but composed to blandness. +Oh, what a look was that! Hookey +shot through the neck! The brow +was slightly knit; the lips were parted; +the teeth clenched. His perpetual +smile had set his face, at last, in a +fixed, unmeaning smirk—the dead +man’s simper! The two corners of +his semicircular mouth, drawn up high +on the cheeks, were flanked by two +furrows, rigid and profound! It was +the sort of look which, seen but for a +moment, stamps on the memory an +impression that we can recall at will, +and that sometimes comes unbidden!</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Just hold up that handkerchief, +my man. Spread it out, will you? +Oh, there’s the mark—<em>$1</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Any papers?” said I to Jones, +who was rummaging in the dead man’s +pockets.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Only this here, sir,” said Jones, +holding up an envelope, which had +been emptied of its contents. It was +the cover of my letter, which Hookey +had undertaken to deliver at headquarters. +The letter itself he had probably +sent in a different direction.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Jones, meanwhile, had found a +leathern purse, which, without any +remarks, he was quietly secreting about +his own person. The soldier, though, +who had landed the dead man, detected +this act of conveyance, and +demanded “snacks.” A discussion +arose, and a squabble seemed inevitable. +“Corporal Fraser,” said I, +“just see all fair here.” I then turned +Sancho’s head, and withdrew from +the scene. Sancho had more than +once brought down his nose, slowly +and cautiously, into close proximity +with the object that lay stretched out +before him. He now, ere he obeyed +the bridle, pawed, tossed his head, +and snorted; as though fain to get rid +of the very air that he had just been +inhaling, and to blow out of his nostrils +the smell of blood!</p> + +<p class='c008'>Mr Chesterfield, now considerably +recovered, stood by the cart, with his +arm slung in a silk handkerchief. He +thought he was able to sit his horse—at +any rate, wished to try. Pledget +objected—wanted him to come on in +the cart. A discussion arose; and it +was settled at last, that Pledget should +mount the horse, while Mr Chesterfield +rode Pledget’s mule. Gingham +then gave directions to Coosey and +Joaquim, who helped Jones into the +cart. Coosey had already been won +upon by Jones. But now, when Jones +came out fresh from the field, with a +memorial of the combat that would +follow him to the day of his death, +Coosey’s admiration knew no bounds. +I saw him pass something to Joaquim, +who took an early opportunity of passing +it to Jones. “You don’t think,” +said I to Gingham, “Coosey will give +him more than will do him good?”—“No, +no,” said Gingham; “you may +depend on Coosey’s discretion.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It was time to be getting on again. +First, however, Mr Chesterfield deemed +it advisable to see all right respecting +the wood. For this purpose, he sent +forward Corporal Fraser with part of +the infantry. After they entered the +wood, we heard a single shot. In +about ten minutes the whole party +returned, the Corporal riding a clumsy +French cart-horse, with a rope bridle. +They had found a horse and cart. +The shot was fired to bring up the +driver, who had, however, got off. +The object of the horse and cart was +pretty evident. It no doubt had occurred +to Hookey that, in case of his +making a successful foray, and securing +part of our dollars, such a conveyance +might do good service in carrying +off the “swag.” There was no +convenient way of getting the cart to +us out of the wood; it appeared to +have been brought from another direction; +so Fraser had taken out the +horse, which he considered his own +lawful prize. All being now arranged, +we proceeded on our march.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Jones rode on in the cart. He lay +along at full length; not on his back, +though, but in the opposite position, +which he preferred under existing circumstances. +I observed him—like a +recumbent bull-terrier, with muzzle +protruding from his kennel—keenly +watching as we proceeded—now forwards, +now right, now left, looking +out for the <em>$1</em>, and eager to have +another slap at a Frenchman.</p> + +<p class='c008'>With regard to the enemy’s position, +it will probably occur to the military +reader, that they might have +chosen a better. A more skilful opponent, +probably, would have concealed +himself in the forest, and +attacked us in flank; and a bolder +one might have ventured to occupy +the hollow way with all his forces—a +plan which, if detected, would have +been attended with greater risk to +himself, but, if successful, with greater +damage to us. As it was, the ambuscade +was too far in front of the +main body, and we were able to deal +with it before we were further engaged. +Still, I think, it must be +admitted, on the whole, the arrangements +of the enemy were not badly +made. Had we not kept a good look-out—or +rather, had not our four-legged +attendant providentially put us on +our guard—we might not have discovered +our opponents till it was too +late to avoid a conflict at close quarters, +the probable consequence of +which would have been the loss of +some of our mules; while the crossroads +afforded facilities for driving +them off, with the choice of four directions. +And, some of their party being +concealed in the two banks between +which we had to pass, we might have +discovered an enemy at hand only by +finding ourselves under fire. On the +whole, we had reason to be thankful +that our loss was so small.</p> + +<p class='c008'>With regard to our fallen opponent, +Hookey or Christophe, in lately turning +over Colonel Gurwood’s volumes, +I met with something which appears, +curiously enough, to identify him. +In a letter from our Commander-in-Chief, +bearing date 2d January 1814, +that is, two or three months before +our rencontre, I find that a person, +calling himself Christophe, had been +arrested and sent to General Freyre, +to be forwarded to Madrid; that, in +the November previous, this Christophe +was at Bilbao; that he had letters +from King Ferdinand; that he +showed a draft or order on the Biscayan +Provinces to pay him seventy +thousand dollars; that he was advised +to present himself to the Government; +and that, as the opinion entertained of +him was not very favourable, and he +remained at St Jean de Luz, he was +at length arrested, and sent off.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Now, I am not prepared to assert +that this was the same individual +with my Christophe or Hookey; but, +supposing it so, we may give some +such sketch of his services as the following. +In the early part of 1813, +the period of my voyage from Falmouth +to Lisbon, the French authorities +in Spain, civil and military, were +not a little perplexed as to our Commander’s +plans for the ensuing campaign. +This mystery he solved ere +long, by breaking forth from the +north of Portugal, advancing on the +line of the Douro, marching across the +north of Spain, winning the battle of +Vittoria, investing San Sebastian and +Pampeluna, liberating the Peninsula, +crowning the Pyrenees, completing +the great circle that was closing round +Napoleon, and menacing the south of +France. Precisely when we may +suppose the curiosity of the Gallic +leaders to have been most intense, +that is, in the early spring of 1813, +just previous to Lord Wellington’s +advance, Hookey—Christophe, said +his cambric handkerchief—came off +to us in the Oporto boat, and, under +the assumed character of a courier, +obtained a passage by the Falmouth +packet from Oporto to Lisbon—in +other words, from the left to the right +of the position then occupied by the +British troops. Subsequently, a +Christophe makes his appearance at +Bilbao, in the November of the same +year; and, on account of his suspicious +conduct there, and afterwards at +headquarters, is arrested, and delivered +over to the Spaniards, for transmission +to Madrid. The Spaniards, +of course, let him escape; and he then +returns to his old trade. He cannot, +however, appear again at headquarters, +therefore hangs about the line +of march on the look-out for a job; +falls in with a greenhorn in charge of +treasure; gets out of him all the information +he can; tries to divert him +from his route; tampers with his personal +attendant; opposes his passage +of a river; makes his escort drunk; +and musters a rural force, with the +aid of which he hopes to realise more +by ready cash, than he did by his +cheque on the “Biscayan provinces.” +Thus he went on, prying, plotting, +and meddling, till he found his +end.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We proceeded quietly on our march, +Gingham and I riding side by side, +while Pledget and Mr Chesterfield +preceded us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Yes,” said Gingham, resuming +the thread of our conversation where +our rencontre with the enemy had +broken it off; “I know that you have +formed schemes connected with military +service; and those, I presume, +are the plans you allude to.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>I really did not understand, at the +moment, what Gingham meant; and, +fancying he referred to our recent +operations in the presence of the foe, +answered wide of the mark.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“No, no,” said he; “I was not +speaking, sir, with regard to the little +affair which has just come off; though, +give me leave to say, Mr Y—, you +acquitted yourself in a way that does +you credit. I allude to what fell from +you within the last hour, when you +mentioned some plans that you had +formed, and which, you were kind +enough to say, you would communicate +for my information.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We now resumed the conversation, +which the “little affair” had interrupted. +I stated my plans, hopes, +difficulties, without reserve; and +Gingham, in reply, from his own +knowledge and observations, drew, +with equal force and feeling, a not +very agreeable picture of the discouragements, +disappointments, toils, +hardships, sufferings, privations, +wrongs, and snubbings, incidental +to the life of a marching officer on +actual service. He was still eloquently +descanting on these topics, +when we reached the termination of +our day’s journey.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_560'>560</span> + <h2 class='c002'>GERMAN POPULAR PROPHECIES.</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>LETTER FROM PROFESSOR GREGORY TO THE EDITOR.</p> + +<p class='c009'><span class='sc'>Dear Sir</span>,—The following notice of certain popular prophetic traditions, +widely current in the country to which they refer, may perhaps prove interesting +to your numerous readers.</p> + +<p class='c015'>All widely-spread opinions, however apparently absurd, have, or have had +at some time, a foundation in nature or in historical fact; and it cannot be +uninteresting, with a view to the history of popular traditions, to place on +record those which I have here collected, even although we cannot at present +trace them satisfactorily to their origin. The whole subject of trances, and +the various phenomena connected with them, including the second sight, is +one hitherto very imperfectly studied, and for that reason I have not entered +into detail on that part of the question; but I may possibly do so at a future +period.—Believe me, very truly yours,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r c024'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>William Gregory.</span></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c015'><span class='sc'>Edinburgh</span>, <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is well known that in all ages, +and in most countries, prophetic traditions +have been said to exist; and +although it may often have happened +that such traditions have arisen from +spurious prophecies, written after the +event, and falsely said to have existed +before it, yet it would also appear +that genuine prophecies have from +time to time appeared, and become +traditions before the events took +place. Of course, we do not here +allude to the Scriptural prophecies, +but to such as have no pretensions to +a divine origin. There can be little +doubt that the Sybilline Books contained +prophecies of the future fate of +Rome; and although we cannot now +ascertain, even if this were the case, +whether they were accurate predictions, +or merely sagacious guesses, +nor whether the event confirmed them, +yet the tradition of their existence is +in itself curious. We cannot here +enter into an enumeration of the various +prophecies which are said to have +existed, in ancient or modern times, +before the events occurred, but on +some future occasion we may return +to that subject: in the mean time +we may allude, as a modern example +of popular prophecy in our own +country, to the prediction of the extinction +of the male line of the house +of Seaforth, in the person of a deaf +Caberfae—a prediction which Mr +Morritt of Rokeby, the friend of Scott, +heard quoted in Ross-shire at a time +when the last Lord Seaforth, who became +quite deaf, had several sons in +perfect health. We have no doubt +our Highland readers are acquainted +with many analogous cases.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Our present object is to direct attention +to the fact, that in Germany, +more especially on the Rhine and in +Westphalia, there exist many remarkable +popular prophecies concerning +public events, of various dates, and +originating in various quarters, but +exhibiting a remarkable coincidence +in many of the chief points. Many of +these have been printed at various +times; others exist as traditions +among the peasantry; others, again, +are said upon good evidence to +have been in modern times taken +down from the lips of the prophets +themselves, all or most of whom are +now dead. Yet they generally predict, +and often with strange minuteness +of detail, events which were to +occur about this time,—viz. in 1848, +1849, and 1850. Political and religious +convulsions, wars, and finally +peace and prosperity, form the burden +of them; and we shall see that the +events of 1848 and 1849 supply apparently +strong confirmation of their +truth, their previous existence being +admitted.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Having spent some months in +Rhenish Prussia during the summer +of 1849, we made many inquiries on +the subject, and found everywhere, +and among all classes, a firm conviction +of the <em>$1</em> of many of the +popular prophecies; while it was admitted +that they had long been known +and believed by the people. As the +matter, considered under any point of +view, is a curious and interesting one, +we procured the latest work on the +subject, which in fact appeared while +we were in Germany. It is entitled, +“Prophetic Voices, with Explanations. +A collection as perfect as possible, +of all Prophecies, of Ancient +and Modern date, concerning the +Present and Future Times, with an +explanation of the obscure parts,” by +Th. Beykirch, licentiate in Theology, +and (R.C.) curate in Dortmund. The +worthy Curate is often too brief in his +accounts of the prophecies themselves, +and very diffuse in his explanations, +which, for the most part, tend to extract +from the predictions the comfortable +assurance of the complete reestablishment +of the Roman Catholic +religion, and the utter discomfiture of +Protestantism. He even treats his +readers to a disquisition, altogether +out of place, on Scriptural prophecies, +and an interpretation, by Holzhaüser, +of the Apocalypse, in which he applies +to Protestantism the same passages +which Protestants apply to the +Papacy, and does so, apparently, very +much to his own satisfaction. We +shall not touch on these parts of his +work, but use it as a storehouse, from +which we may draw the predictions +themselves, without regarding them +through the theological medium of +the reverend author.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The first we shall mention is of an +ancient date. It is the vaticination +of Brother Herrmann, a monk of the +monastery of Lehnin, who flourished +circa <span class='fss'>A.D.</span> 1270, and died in the odour +of sanctity. It is written in a hundred +leonine hexameters, rhyming in the +middle and end of each verse, and was +printed in 1723 by Professor Lilienthal, +from what was said to be an old +MS. His prophecies chiefly concerned +the future fate of his own monastery +of Lehnin in Brandenburg, and +of the monastery of Chorin in the +Uckermark, a part of Brandenburg. +But as that fate depended on public +events, more especially on the history +of the princes of that country, his +vaticination assumes the form of a +brief prophetic history of the house of +Hohenzollern, that is, the now royal +house of Prussia. Our readers will +probably readily dispense with the +whole of the original hexameters of the +good monk, but we shall give a few +specimens: he begins—</p> + +<p class='c009'>1. <span lang="la">“Nunc tibi, cum cura, Lehnin! +cano fata futura,</span></p> + +<p class='c015'>2. <span lang="la">Quæ mihi monstravit Dominus, qui +cuncta creavit,” &c.</span></p> + +<p class='c015'>“Now, oh Lehnin! I sing with sorrow +to thee thy future fates,</p> + +<p class='c015'>Which the Lord, the creator of all, has +shown to me.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>He proceeds to describe the prosperity +of Lehnin under the race of +Otto I., and its decay after the extinction +of this family, which took +place in the person of Henry III., +1320. These princes were from +Anhalt, of the race called the Askanier +in German history.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At verses 14 <em>$1</em>, he describes +Brandenburg as becoming a den of +lions, while the true heir is excluded. +After Margrave Henry III., the +Dukes of Pomerania, Mecklenburg, +Brunswick, Anhalt, Electoral Saxony, +and Bohemia attacked the Mark, +(Brandenburg,) and committed horrible +devastations. The Emperor +Louis of Bavaria seized it for himself, +excluding the princes of Saxony, the +nearest heirs to the former princes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>After various details concerning +the fate of Brandenburg, plundered by +robber knights and barons, who were +to be put down by a strong emperor, +as happened under Charles IV. who +died in 1378,—he comes to the accession +of the Hohenzollerns, and describes +the first prince of that family +as rising to distinction by holding two +castles or Burgen. The Emperor +Sigismund sold Brandenburg to +Frederick, Burggraf of Nuremberg, of +the house of Hohenzollern. He belonged +to the lower nobility, but now +became more important by the possession +of two castles—those of +Nuremberg and Brandenburg. These +examples are sufficient to give an idea +of that part of Brother Herrmann’s +prophecy, concerning events which +preceded the printing of it in 1723, +and in which he describes <em>$1</em>, +without giving the names, and very +briefly, but in striking language, the +fate and character of the successive +Margraves, Electors, and Kings, till +he comes to Frederick William I., +who died in 1740, seventeen years +after the prophecy was printed, and +whose character and death he describes. +Then follows Frederick the +Great, whose career, with its vicissitudes, +is indicated with tolerable +clearness. One line is curious,</p> + +<p class='c009'>84. “<span lang="la">Flantibus hinc Austris, vitam +vult credere claustris.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“When the south wind blows, he trusts +his life to the cloisters.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In fact, Frederick, when hard +pressed by the Austrians, was once +compelled to conceal himself in a +monastery.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>$1</em> signifies south wind, but is +probably here used for Austria.</p> + +<p class='c008'>After his successor, Frederick William +II., whom the good monk truly +describes as vicious, sensual, and oppressive, +but not warlike, comes this +line—</p> + +<p class='c009'>89. “<span lang="la">Natus florebit; quod non sperasset +habebit.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The son shall flourish; he shall possess +what he did not hope for.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The application of this to the late +king, Frederick William III., is obvious. +Under him, Prussia, after +having been reduced to the lowest +ebb by Napoleon, became, unexpectedly, +far more powerful than it had +ever been.</p> + +<p class='c009'>90. “<span lang="la">Sed populus tristis flebit temporibus +istis.</span></p> + +<p class='c015'>92. “<span lang="la">Et princeps nescit quod nova +potentia crescit.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“But the sad people shall mourn in +these times;</p> + +<p class='c015'>“And the King knows not that a new +power is arising.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>These lines also apply well to +Frederick William III.</p> + +<p class='c009'>93. “<span lang="la">Tandem sceptra gerit, qui ultimus +stemmatis erit.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“At length he bears the sceptres, who +shall be the last of his race.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Now this is very remarkable. In +line 49, he had said—</p> + +<p class='c009'>49. “<span lang="la">Hoc ad undenum durabit stemma +venenum.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“This poison<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c018'><sup>[2]</sup></a> shall last to the eleventh +generation.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The present king, Frederick William +IV., is the eleventh from Joachim +III., the first Protestant prince of +Brandenburg, in reference to whom +the above line is written. But why +did the writer (even supposing the +prophecy not to have existed earlier +than 1723, when it was printed) stop +at this point? We shall see that +other prophecies coincide with this +one in predicting that the present +will be the last King of Prussia.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Then comes the remarkable line—</p> + +<p class='c009'>95. “<span lang="la">Et pastor gregem recipit, Germania +regem.</span>”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“And the shepherd receives his flock, +Germany a king.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The worthy curate of Dortmund +explains this as pointing out the submission +of Europe to the Pope, and of +Germany to one sovereign. Brother +Herrmann goes on to predict peaceful +times, and the restoration of Chorin +and Lehnin to their pristine splendour.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have omitted many curious +lines, but the reader will probably +feel satisfied that the brief and obscure +vaticinations of Brother Herrmann +are worthy of notice, especially that +part of them relating to the last +hundred and twenty years, bearing in +mind that they were printed in 1723.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The next prophet mentioned by our +author is Joseph von Görres, who +died in January 1848—that is, before +the last revolution in France, which +shook the thrones of Europe. On +his deathbed he lamented the misfortunes +about to come on Poland, described +Hungary as appearing to him +one huge field of carnage, and wept +over the approaching downfall of the +European monarchies. The events +of February and March 1848, the insurrection +in Posen, the devastations +committed by the Prussians in suppressing +it, and the war in Hungary, +would appear to be the events to +which he referred. But he was a +man deeply read in history, and there +are some of those prophetic hints +which may possibly have occurred to +him as reflections on probable events, +and have assumed a certain degree of +vividness in his mind.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We now come to a peasant prophet, +namely Jaspers, a Westphalian shepherd, +of Deininghausen, near the +ancestral seat of the Lord of Bodelschwing. +He was a simple-minded +pious man. In 1830, soon after which +time he died, he publicly predicted as +follows:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“A great road (said he) will be carried +through our country, from west to east, +which will pass through the forests of +Bodelschwing. On this road, carriages +will run <em>$1</em>, and cause a +dreadful noise. At the commencement +of this work, a great scarcity will here +prevail; pigs will become very dear, and +a new religion will arise, in which wickedness +will be regarded as prudence and +politeness. Before this road is quite completed, +a frightful war will break out.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>These words, to the astonishment +of the natives, have nearly all been +fulfilled. The railway from Cologne +to Minden has, since his death, been +carried through the very district he +mentioned in 1830, before the first +English railway had been opened, +and when the primitive shepherds of +Westphalia were little likely to know +anything about railways. The scarcity +took place at the time specified; +and his remark as to a new religion +is supposed to apply to a deterioration +of manners among the simple +natives, consequent on the opening +up of their district. A personal +friend of Jaspers collected the following +sayings, which the author, after +minute inquiry on the spot, considers +as genuine.</p> + +<p class='c009'>1. “Before the great road is <em>$1</em>, a dreadful war will break out.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The railway has for a year or two +been in operation; but, up to the +end of 1849, as we saw by advertisements, +the second line of rails was +not laid down. It is probably still +only in progress. Now in 1848 and +1849, we have seen war in Schleswig-Holstein, +Hungary, Italy, Posen, and +Baden.</p> + +<p class='c009'>2. “A small northern power will be +conqueror.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Probably the Danish war, and the +success of Denmark, is here meant.</p> + +<p class='c009'>3. “After this another war will break out—not +a religious war among Christians, +but between those who believe in Christ +and those who do not believe.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Here we must remember that the +simple and ignorant peasants of Westphalia +have strong religious feelings +and prejudices, and are apt, like some +nearer home, to apply the term Infidel +somewhat rashly. Possibly +Russia and the Greek church may be +here alluded to.</p> + +<p class='c009'>4. “This war comes from the East. I +dread the East.</p> + +<p class='c015'>5. “This war will break out very suddenly. +In the evening they will cry +‘Peace, peace!’ and yet peace is not; +and in the morning the enemy will be at +the door. Yet it shall soon pass, and he +who knows of a good hiding-place, for a +a few days only, is secure.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The probability of a war, in which +Russia shall take an active share, cannot +escape any observer of the signs +of the times; and, with the aid of +railways, which were not known at +the date of Jaspers’ death, the sudden +outbreak is quite possible, even in +Westphalia.</p> + +<p class='c009'>6. “The defeated enemy will have to +fly in extreme haste. Let the people +cast cart and wheels into the water, +otherwise the flying foe will take all +carriages with them.</p> + +<p class='c015'>7. “Before this war, a general faithlessness +will prevail. Men will give out +vice for virtue and honour, deceit for +politeness.</p> + +<p class='c015'>8. “In the year in which the great +war shall break out, there shall be so fine +a spring, that in April the cows will be +feeding in the meadows on luxuriant +grass. In the same year, wheat may be +harvested, (in his district,) but not oats.” +(This appears to be likely to apply to +1850.—W. G.)</p> + +<p class='c007'>He seems here to hint that the harvest +of oats will be interrupted by the +war; if so, the war occurs in autumn.</p> + +<p class='c009'>9. “The great battle will be fought <em>$1</em>, between Unna, Hamm, and +Werl. The people of half the world will +there be opposed to each other. God will +terrify the enemy by a dreadful storm. +Of the <em>$1</em>, but few shall return +home to tell of their defeat. Jaspers +described this battle as terrific.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>We shall by and by hear more of +this birch-tree.</p> + +<p class='c009'>10. “The war will be over in 1850, and +in 1852 all will be again in order.</p> + +<p class='c015'>11. “The Poles are at first put down; +but they will, along with other nations, +fight against their oppressors, and at +last obtain a king of their own.</p> + +<p class='c015'>12. “France will be divided internally +into three parts.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>It is curious to notice, that at present, +although the state of matters in +1830 was very different, there are +three parties in France, all of them +powerful: namely, the Buonapartists, +(with at least a part of the Orleanists,) +and the moderate as well as the <i><span lang="fr">pro +tempore</span></i> Republicans, headed by Louis +Napoleon; the party of the old Bourbons +and the priests, led by Falloux +and the old nobility, such as Larochejaquelein +and Montalembert; and +lastly the Red Republicans, Socialists, +and Communists. These three parties +hold each other in check, and no one +of them can at this moment do much.</p> + +<p class='c009'>13. “Spain will not join in the war. +But the Spaniards shall come after it is +over, and take possession of the churches.</p> + +<p class='c015'>14. “Austria will be fortunate, provided +she do not wait too long.</p> + +<p class='c015'>15. “The papal chair will be vacant +for a time.</p> + +<p class='c015'>16. “The nobility is much depressed, +but in 1852 again rises to some extent.</p> + +<p class='c015'>17. “When asked as to the future of +Prussia, he maintained an obstinate +silence, saying only that King Frederick William +IV. would be the last.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This agrees with Brother Herrmann, +as formerly stated. A man named +Pottgiesser, in Dortmund, long since +dead, drew up a genealogical tree of +the royal house, in which he says of +the present king—to whom he gives +no successor—“He disappears.”</p> + +<p class='c009'>18. “There will be one religion. On +the Rhine stands a church which all +people shall aid in building. From +thence, after the war, shall proceed the +rule of faith. All sects shall be united; +only the Jews shall retain their old obstinacy.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The dome at Cologne is obviously +alluded to. We shall see, hereafter, +that Cologne is expected to become +the seat of ecclesiastical rule by other +prophets.</p> + +<p class='c009'>19. “In our district priests shall become +so rare, that, after the war, people +will have to walk seven leagues in order +to attend divine service.</p> + +<p class='c015'>20. “Our country will be so much depopulated, +that women will have to cultivate +the soil; and seven girls shall +fight for a pair of inexpressibles.</p> + +<p class='c015'>21. “The house of Ikern shall be set +on fire by shells.</p> + +<p class='c015'>22. “The soldiers shall march to battle +(or to war) first, then return, decked +with the cherry blossoms. And only after +that shall the great war break out.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In spring 1848, troops marched to +Baden, at the time of the first insurrection +there, in which war General +von Gagern was killed; and they +returned home decked with cherry +blossoms.</p> + +<p class='c009'>23. “Germany shall have one king, +and then shall come happy times.</p> + +<p class='c015'>24. “He spoke also of an approaching +religious change, and warned his children, +when that time should come, to go to +Mengede.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>When jeered on his prophetic +powers, Jaspers often said—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“When I have long been in the grave, +you will then often remember what I +have said.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is a prophet in Dortmund, +who, among other curious things, said, +in 1840, “When the Prussian soldiers +shall be dressed like those who +crucified our Lord, then war shall +break out with great violence.” It is +worthy of notice that, since that time, +the whole Prussian army, with the +exception of the Hussars, have been +armed with helmets of Roman form. +Their new Waffenrock, or military +coat, is also a short plain surtout, +buttoned to the throat, and probably +not unlike a Roman tunic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The predictions of Jaspers are curious—first, +on account of their minuteness; +secondly, because they specify +dates yet future. We shall see that +they coincide, in many of the chief +points, with other popular prophecies.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The next prophet is Spielbähn, +a Rhenish peasant. “Spielbähn” signifies, +in the dialect of his countrymen, +“the fiddler;” and this name was given +to him on account of his skill as a rustic +performer on the violin. He was employed +as messenger and servant in +the convents of Siegburg and Heisterbach. +His predictions have been published +by Schrattenholz, and widely +circulated; but, as we could not +procure this work, we can only +give such extracts as our author has +selected.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Spielbähn died in 1783 in Cologne. +He is said to have been rather addicted +to the wine-flask, and to have +occasionally indulged in predictions of +doubtful authenticity, possibly from +interested motives. But he is thought, +in the main, to have uttered what he +really believed to be true predictions, +and he gave them out as visions. He +predicted the imprisonment of the +Archbishop of Cologne, which took +place a few years ago, with many less +interesting local occurrences, which +our author passes over. Speaking of +the present time, (1848–50,) and of +what should follow, he said—</p> + +<p class='c009'>1. “In that time it will be hardly possible +to distinguish the peasant from the +noble.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In Rhenish Prussia, where the Code +Napoleon prevails, there is hardly a +trace of the splendour of the old aristocracy +to be found. The nobles of +old family who remain have lost all +exclusive privileges, and are poor.</p> + +<p class='c009'>2. “Courtly manners and worldly vanity +will reach to a height hitherto unequalled. +Yea, things will go so far, that +men will no longer thank God for their +daily bread.</p> + +<p class='c015'>3. “Human intellect will do wonders, +(or miracles,) and on this account men +will more and more forget God. They +will mock at God, thinking themselves +omnipotent, because of the carriages, +which shall run through the whole world, +(or everywhere,) without being drawn by +animals.</p> + +<p class='c015'>4. “And because courtly vices, sensuality, +and sumptuousness of apparel, are +then so great, God will punish the world. +A poison shall fall on the fields, and a +great famine shall afflict the country.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In Nos. 3 and 4, railways and the +potato blight seem meant.</p> + +<p class='c009'>5. “When a bridge shall be thrown +across the Rhine at Mondorf, then it will +be advisable to cross, as soon as possible, +to the opposite shore. But it will only be +necessary to remain there so long as a +man will take to consume a 7 lb. loaf of +bread; after which (that is, in less than a +week,) it will be time to return.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This coincides with Jaspers’ prediction +of the shortness of the last +great struggle.</p> + +<p class='c009'>6. “Thousands shall conceal themselves +in a meadow among the seven mountains, +(opposite Bonn.)</p> + +<p class='c015'>7. “I see the destruction of the heretics, +with dreadful punishments; of those +who dared to think their puny minds +could penetrate the councils of God. But +the long-suffering of God is at an end, +and a limit is put to their wickedness.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The worthy curate dwells with peculiar +satisfaction on this prediction.</p> + +<p class='c009'>8. “Observe well, thou land of Berg! +Thy reigning family, which proceeds from +a Margraviate, shall suddenly fall from +its high station, and become less than the +smallest Margraviate.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The grand-duchy of Berg, on the +Lower Rhine, of which Düsseldorf is +the chief town, was given by Napoleon +to Murat, and was afterwards +part of the kingdom of Westphalia, +but, since the peace, has formed part +of Prussia, the royal family of which, +as we have seen, descends from the +Margraves of Brandenburg; but in +1783 all this was as yet in the womb +of time. See also Jaspers, No. 17, +and Brother Herrmann, verse 93.</p> + +<p class='c009'>9. “The false prophets (heretic clergy?) +shall be killed with wife and child.</p> + +<p class='c015'>10. “The holy city of Cologne shall +then see a fearful battle. Many, of foreign +nations, shall here be killed, and men and +women shall fight for their faith. And +it will be impossible to avert from Cologne, +up to that time spared by war, all +the cruel extremities of war. Men will +then wade in blood to the ankles.</p> + +<p class='c015'>11. “But at last a foreign king shall +arise, and gain the victory for the good +cause. The survivors of the defeated +enemy fly to the <em>$1</em>; and here shall +the last battle be fought for the good +cause.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>See Nos. 9 and 33 of Jaspers’ sayings, +as to the birch-tree and the German +king; also verse 95 of Brother +Herrmann.</p> + +<p class='c009'>12. “The foreign armies have brought +the ‘black death’ into the land. What +the sword spares the pestilence shall devour. +Berg shall be depopulated, and +the fields without owners; so that one +may plough from the river Sieg up to the +hills without being (Scoticè) challenged. +Those who have hid themselves among +the hills shall again cultivate the land.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>See No. 20 of Jaspers’ predictions.</p> + +<p class='c009'>13. “About this time France will be +divided internally.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>See Jaspers, No. 12.</p> + +<p class='c009'>14. “The German Empire shall choose +a peasant for Emperor. He shall govern +Germany a year and a day.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Archduke John, late regent of the +empire, had long lived, banished from +court, as a Styrian peasant, adopting +the costume and manners of the peasantry. +He also married a peasant +girl. His regency lasted little more +than a year, and, indeed, after the +year had expired, he only returned to +Frankfort in order to resign his power +to the present commission.</p> + +<p class='c009'>15. “But he who after him shall wear +the imperial crown, he will be the man +for whom the world has long looked with +hope. He shall be called Roman Emperor, +and shall give peace to the world. +He shall restore Siegburg and Heisterbach, +(two convents, above mentioned.)</p> + +<p class='c015'>16. “Then shall there be no more Jews +in Germany, and the heretics shall beat +their own breasts.</p> + +<p class='c015'>17. “And after that shall be a good +happy time. The praise of God shall +dwell on earth; and there shall be no +war, except beyond the seas. Then shall +the fugitive brethren return, and dwell in +their homes in peace for ever and ever.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Men should heed well what I have said, +for much evil may be averted by prayer; +and although people jeer me, saying I +am a simple fiddler, yet the time will +come when they shall find my words +true.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>See Jaspers’ predictions, Nos. 18 +and 23. Brother Herrman, also, in +verses 96–100, prophesies happy times, +and the restoration of the convents of +Chorin and Lehnin.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The next seer is Anton (Anthony), +called the Youth of Elsen, a village +near Paderborn, in Westphalia. He +had the gift of the “second sight”—that +is, he saw visions—and has a +great reputation in that country as +a true seer. His predictions were first +collected by Dr Kutscheit, from whose +work the author extracts as follows. +The date is not given by our curate.</p> + +<p class='c009'>1. “When the convent of Abdinghof is +occupied by soldiers, armed with long +poles, to which little flags are attached, +and when these troops leave the convent, +then is the time near.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>At this time (1849) Prussian lancers +occupy the convent, which has been +converted into a barrack. This was +not the case when the prediction was +made.</p> + +<p class='c009'>2. “From Neuhaus, houses may be +seen on the Bock, (Buck,) and a village is +founded between Paderborn and Elsen. +Then is the time near.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Bock is a wooded eminence +near Paderborn, where an inn was +built. To obtain a fine view from the +inn, the wood was lately cut through, +and thus the buildings have become +visible from Neuhaus. The village +or <em>$1</em> is a newly-founded country +house, or rather farm-house, with its +appurtenances—<em>$1</em>, a town.</p> + +<p class='c009'>3. “When people see, in the Roman +field, houses with large windows; when +a broad road is made through that field, +which shall not be finished till the good +times come, then shall come heavy +times.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the Roman field, on the high road +to Erwitte, the Thuringian Railway +was begun in 1847, and a terminus, +the buildings of which have very large +windows, has been laid down on the +spot. The works have been, from the +necessity of the times, suspended for +the present. See Jaspers, No. 1, and +Spielbähn, No. 3.</p> + +<p class='c009'>4. “When barley is sown on the Bock, +then is the time close at hand. Then +shall the enemy be in the land, and kill +and devastate everything. Men will +have to go seven leagues to find an acquaintance. +The town of Paderborn +shall have eight heavy days, during which +the enemy lies there. On the last day, +the enemy shall give up the town to plunder. +But let every man carry his most +valuable property from the ground floor +to the garret; for the enemy will not have +time, even to untie his shoestrings, so near +will succour be.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the summer of 1848, the first +attempt was made to grow barley on +the Bock, a cold, high-lying district.</p> + +<p class='c009'>5. “The enemy will try to bombard +the town from the Liboriberg, (a hill +close to Paderborn); but only one ball +(or shell) shall hit, and set on fire a house +in the Kampe. The fire, however, shall +soon be extinguished.</p> + +<p class='c015'>6. “The French shall come as friends. +French cavalry with shining breastplates +(cuirassiers) shall ride in at the Westergate, +and tie their horses to the trees in +the Cathedral close. At the Giersthor, +(another gate) soldiers with gray uniforms, +faced with light blue, shall come +in. But they will only look into the +town, and then immediately withdraw. +On the Bock stands a great army, with +double insignia, (or marks—possibly the +two cockades, Imperial German and +Prussian, now worn by the Prussians,) +whose muskets are piled in heaps.</p> + +<p class='c015'>7. “The enemy shall fly towards Salzkotten, +and towards the heath. In both +places a great battle shall be fought, so +that people shall wade in blood to the +ankles. The pursuers from the town +must take care not to cross the Alme +bridge; for not one of those who cross it +shall return alive.</p> + +<p class='c015'>8. “The victorious prince shall enter, +in solemn procession, the castle of Neuhaus, +which shall be repaired (for the +occasion?) accompanied by many people +with green boughs in their hats. On the +Johannes Bridge, before Neuhaus, there +shall be such a crowd that a child shall +be crushed to death. While this goes on +a great assembly shall be held in and +before the Rathhaus (Town House.) +They shall hurry (or drag) a man down +from the Rathhaus, and hang him on a +lamp-post before it.</p> + +<p class='c015'>9. “When all these things shall have +come to pass, then shall there be a good +time in the land. The convent (of Abdinghof) +shall be restored; and it will be +better to be a swineherd here, in our +land, than a noble yonder in Prussia +(proper).”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Next comes an old traditionary +prophecy concerning Münster.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Woe to thee, Münster! Woe to you, +priests, doctors, and lawyers! How shall +it be with you in the days of sorrow?</p> + +<p class='c015'>“For three days they shall go up and +down thy streets. Three times shall the +city be taken and lost.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Let every man keep in the garret; +thus shall he be safe. A dreadful fire +shall break out in and destroy Ueberwasser, +so that it may be seen from the +cathedral place to the castle.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The enemy shall be beaten, and shall +fly through Kinderhaus so fast that they +leave their cannon on the street. All this +shall happen in the same year in which +an illustrious person dies in the castle.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The conquering prince shall make his +entry through the Servatii-Thor, (a gate).”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Part of this prophecy has been spread +over the district of Münster for sixty +years; part of it comes from the tailor +at Kinderhaus, who also prophesied +much to Blucher. He was one of +the seers, or, as they are called +in that country, “Spoikenkikers.” +“Spoikenkikers,” in high German, signifies +ghost or spirit; “Spoikenkikers” is our Scotch +word “Keeker,”—in high German, +“Spoikenkikers.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The next is an old prophecy concerning +Osnabrück.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Osnabrück shall suffer much for fourteen +days, and see a bloody contest in her +streets.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Even the service of the Greek Church +shall be performed in the churches of +Osnabrück.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This is quite possible, should Russians +enter Westphalia. See Jaspers, No. 9.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“A violent contest shall arise between +Catholics and Protestants. All the +churches shall be again taken possession +of by the Catholics.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“A priest, in the act of carrying the +most Holy (the Host) into the Lutheran +Church, shall be killed by a ball at the +church door.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The three preceding prophecies are +very remarkable, from the minute details +which they contain, and which +seem to indicate that the seers described +<em>$1</em> in visions or in +dreams. Of course, most of these +visions, referring to events yet future, +cannot be at present verified. But +the signs given by Anton, to know +when the time approaches, have come +to pass.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following traditionary prophecy +about Cologne, was found by Magister +Heinrich von Judden, pastor of the +small church of St Martin, in the convent +of the brethren of the Holy Virgin +of Carmel, (in Cologne?):—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“O happy Cologne! when thou art +well paved, thou shalt perish in thine +own blood. O, Cologne! thou shalt +perish like Sodom and Gomorrha; thy +streets shall flow with blood, and thy +relics shall be taken away. Woe to thee, +Cologne! because strangers suck thy +breasts and the breasts of thy poor,—of +thy poor, who therefore languish in +poverty and misery.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Old tradition concerning Coblenz:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Woe! woe! Where Rhine and +Moselle meet, a battle shall be fought +against Turks and Baschkirs, (Russians?) +so bloody, that the Rhine shall be dyed +red for twenty-five leagues.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Traditions of battles in Westphalia:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“A prodigious number of people shall +come from the east towards the west.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The whole west and south shall rise +against them.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The armies shall meet in the middle +of Westphalia.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“A dreadful battle shall take place on +the Strönheide, (a heath,) near Ahaus.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“At Riesenbeck, a bloody combat shall +be fought.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“At Lüdinghausen,” said a seer, “I +saw whole hosts of white-clad soldiers. +(Austrians?)</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Ottmarsbocholt will have much to +suffer.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“On the Lipperheide (a heath) a bloody +battle is fought.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Also in Rittberg, and the whole +country round, a battle shall be fought.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“But the chief engagement shall be <em>$1</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Every one, says the author, who +takes the trouble, can hear all this +from the mouths of the peasantry. In +many places, the seers have even +described the positions of the troops, +and the direction in which the cannon +are pointed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Prophecy of a Capuchin monk in +Düsseldorf, of date 1672:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“After a dreadful war (Napoleon’s +wars?) shall there be peace; yet there +shall be no peace, because the contest of +the poor against the rich, and of the rich +against the poor, shall break out.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“After this peace shall come a heavy +time. The people shall have no longer +truth nor faith.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“When women know not, from pride +and luxuriousness, what clothes they shall +wear—sometimes short, sometimes long, +sometimes narrow, sometimes wide; when +men also change their dress, and wear +everywhere the beards of the Capuchins,<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c018'><sup>[3]</sup></a> +then will God chastise the world. A +dreadful war shall break out in the south +(Hungary?) and spread eastward and +northward. The kings shall be killed. +Savage hordes shall overflow Germany, +and come to the Rhine. They shall take +delight in murdering and burning, so that +mothers, in despair, seeing death everywhere +before their eyes, shall cast themselves +and their sucklings into the water. +When the need is greatest, a preserver +shall come from the south. He shall defeat +the hordes of the enemy, and make +Germany prosperous. But, in those days, +many parts shall be so depopulated, that +it will be necessary to climb a tree to +look for people afar off.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>An old prophecy concerning the +battle of the <em>$1</em>:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“A time shall come when the world +shall be godless. The people will strive +to be independent of king or magistrate, +subjects will be unfaithful to their princes. +Neither truth nor faith prevails more. It +will then come to a general insurrection, +in which father shall fight against son, +and son against father. In that time, +men shall try to pervert the articles of +faith, and shall introduce new books. +The Catholic religion shall be hard +pressed, and men will try with cunning to +abolish it. Men shall love play and jest, +and pleasure of all kinds, at that time. +But then it shall not be long before a +change occurs. A frightful war shall +break out. On one side shall stand +Russia, Sweden, and the whole north; +on the other, France, Spain, Italy, and +the whole south, under a powerful prince. +This prince shall come from the south. +He wears a white coat, with buttons all +the way down. He has a cross on his +breast, rides a gray horse, which he +mounts from his left side, because he is +lame of one foot. He will bring peace. +Great is his severity, for he will put down +all dance-music and rich attire. He will +hear morning mass in the church at Bremen. +(According to some traditions, he +will read mass.) From Bremen he rides +to the Haar, (a height near Werl;) from +thence he looks with his spyglass towards +the country of the Birch-Tree, and observes +the enemy. Next, he rides past +Holtum, (a village near Werl.) At +Holtum stands a crucifix between two +lime-trees; before this, he kneels and +prays with outstretched arms, for some +time. Then he leads his soldiers, clad in +white, into the battle, and, after a bloody +contest, he remains victorious.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The chief slaughter will take place at +a brook which runs from west to east. +Woe! woe! to Budberg and Söndern in +those days! The victorious leader shall +assemble the people after the battle, and +address to them a speech in the church.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>So runs the above prophecy, according +to the concurring testimony of +many peasants of that country. It +was long ago printed in a small pamphlet, +in the convent at Werl. But, at +the removal of the convent, all its +books were lost or destroyed. The +tradition, however, remained among +the peasantry, and has even penetrated +into France; for when French +(troops?) came to Werl, they inquired +for the Birch-Tree. In Pomerania +also, natives of Westphalia, when +quartered there, have been questioned +about its position. It stood long between +Holtum and Kirch-Hemmerde, +villages lying between Unna and +Werl. When it withered, a new one +was, by royal order, planted on the +spot. This proves that the Government +knew of the prophecy or tradition, +and felt an interest in it. The +people believe so firmly in the prophecy, +that the peasantry near Werl +even opposed the introduction of new +hymn-books, under the impression +that they were the predicted <em>$1</em>. Bremen, Holtum, Budberg, +and Söndern are villages near Werl. +A crucifix stands at Holtum between +two young lime-trees; and a brook +there flows from west to east.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another old prophecy of the battle +of the Birch-Tree. This prophecy was +printed at Cologne in 1701, in Latin. +The title, translated, is as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“A prophecy concerning the frightful +contest between South and North, and a +terrific battle on the borders of the duchy +of Westphalia, near Bodberg, (Budberg.) +From a book, entitled, A treatise on the +heavenly regeneration (or restoration,) by +an anonymous author, illuminated (or enlightened,) +by visions. With permission of +the Officialate at Werl. Cologne, 1701.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>It was translated and printed in +German by the monks of Werl, but, +as already stated, their library was +destroyed or dispersed.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“After these days shall dawn the sad +unhappy time, predicted by our Lord. +Men, in terror on the earth, shall faint +for expectation of the coming events. +The father shall be against the son and +the brother against the brother. Truth +and faith shall no longer be found. After +the nations, singly, have long warred +against each other, after thrones have +crumbled, and kingdoms been overthrown, +shall the entire South take arms against +the North. (Auster contra Aquilonem.) +Then country, language, and faith shall +not be contended for, but they shall fight +for the rule of the world.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“They shall meet in the middle of +Germany, destroy towns and villages, +after the inhabitants have been compelled +to fly to the hills and the woods. This +dreadful contest shall be decided in Lower +Germany. There the armies shall pitch +camps, such as the world has not yet +seen. This fearful engagement shall begin +<em>$1</em> near Bodberg. Woe! +woe! poor Fatherland! They shall +fight three whole days. Even when +covered with wounds, they shall mangle +each other, and wade in blood to the +ankles. The bearded people of the seven +stars (?) shall finally conquer, and their +enemies shall fly; they shall turn at the +bank of the river, and again fight with +the extremity of despair. But there shall +that power be annihilated, and its strength +broken, so that hardly a few will be left, +to tell of this unheard-of defeat. The +inhabitants of the allied places shall +mourn, but the Lord shall comfort them, +and they shall say, It is the Lord’s doing.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The two preceding prophecies, both +old, and printed long since, have +probably a common origin, whatever +that may be. The tradition has probably +come to the people from the +monks of Werl.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Some predictions or visions, connected +with the prophecy of Werl:—</p> + +<p class='c008'>A seer, named Rölink, of Steinen, +who has been dead some time, prophesied +of three processions in Kirch-Hemmerde.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The first shall be a funeral procession. +The names of several men shall be +hung up on the church.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This happened when, in the war of +1813–15, some brave men of this +district fell in battle.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The second procession shall go from +the old church to the new one.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>This took place when the Catholics +of Kirch-Hemmerde built a new +church; and the Host was carried +from the Simultankirche into the new +edifice.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The third shall be after a dreadful +war. Then shall Catholics and Protestants +again go together in procession into +the old church, and have one religion.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>He said further,—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“When two towers are built between +Söndern and Werl, then shall a frightful +war soon break out.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The towers are now there, having +been lately built. One is a chimney +for the Salt-Works; the other a +Bohrthurm, (a tower over the pit +whence the salt spring is pumped up.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another seer, named Ludolf, saw +the whole order of battle of both +armies, and pointed out in a corn-field +near Kirch-Hemmerde the spot, near +the <em>$1</em>, where he saw in his +vision a colonel fall from his horse, +struck by a ball. The horse, he said, +would run to a sheaf of oats, (therefore +late in autumn,) snap at it, and in the +same moment fall, also pierced by a +shot.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A third seer, Hermann Kappelmann, +of Scheidingen, near Werl, prophesied +as follows, thirty years ago +(1819,) before a whole company.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The times are yet good, but they shall +change much. After many years a frightful +war shall break out. The signs shall +be: When in Spring the cowslips appear +early in the hedges, and disturbances prevail +everywhere; in that year the explosion +does not take place. But when, +after a short winter, the cowslips bloom +very early, and all appears quiet, let no +man believe in peace.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“When great wisps of straw stand on +the Bärenwiese, (Bear’s meadow,) then +shall the war break out.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The Bärenwiese is a large common +meadow at Scheidingen. Soon after +the French and Polish revolutions of +1830 it was divided, and on that +account wisps of straw were set up. +The people believed the great war was +then at hand. Now there are once +more wisps of straw set up, to mark +the line of the railway to Cassel, +which is in progress.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“When you then hear cannon from the +side of Münster, then hasten to cross the +Ruhr, and take bread (a loaf) with you +sufficient for three days. He who only +puts his foot in the water shall be safe +from harm. Then you may return, but +whether you shall find your posts (or +poles) again, I cannot say. (Probably +marks of agricultural subdivisions.) After +a short contest shall follow peace and +quiet. The peace shall be announced at +Christmas from all the pulpits.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Numberless traditions speak of the +burning of the town of Unna, round +which, and not through it, the armies +will march, on account of the conflagration. +Others speak of the burning +of Dortmund, on the east side. +Others, again, describe how the remains +of the enemy fly to Erwitte +and Salzkotten, and are there totally +cut to pieces. All the towns and +villages from Paderborn to the Rhine +have similar traditions. There is a +very old one concerning the Marienheide, +(a heath,)—namely, that there +the Whites shall drive the Blues +before them, and through the Lippe, +in which many shall be drowned.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Traditions concerning the years +1846–1850:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“1846, I would not be a vine.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“1847, I would not be an apple-tree.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“1848, I would not be a king.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“1849, I would not be a hare, a soldier, +or a gravedigger.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>“1850, I would not be a priest.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In 1846, the crop of grapes was too +heavy for the vines.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In 1847, the apple-trees broke +under the weight of their fruit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In 1848, as we know, kings were +at a discount.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In 1849, the hares suffered from +the suspension or abolition of the +game laws in Germany; the soldiers +had much to suffer; and the gravediggers, +in consequence of war and +cholera, were overwhelmed with work +in many places.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As to the priests in 1850, we heard +from several quarters, of an old +prophecy that there shall be a fearful +massacre of priests, against whom the +people shall be much embittered. +One seer declares, that such will be +the hatred of the peasantry towards +the priests, that a peasant, sitting +down to dinner with his family, and +having just stuck a fork into the +fowl, shall, on seeing a priest pass by +the house, lay down his fork, rush +out, beat out the priest’s brains with +his club, and then return to his meal +with satisfaction.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another tradition, of which we +heard from several well-informed +persons, states that a pope shall come +as a fugitive to reside at Cologne, +with four cardinals, and there exercise +his ecclesiastical functions.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A prophecy, of date 1622, concerning +certain months of a year not +named.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The month of May shall earnestly +prepare for war. But it is not yet time. +June shall also invite to war, but still it +is not time. July will prove so cruel, +that many must part from wife and +child. In August, men shall everywhere +hear of war. September and October +shall bring great bloodshed. Wonders +shall be seen in November. At this +time the child is twenty-eight years old, +(the powerful monarch) whose wet nurse +shall be from the east. He shall do +great things.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Prophecies of the “Powerful Monarch:”—</p> + +<p class='c009'>One prophet says,—“He shall be of +an ancient noble house, and descend +from the top of the rocks. His mother +shall be a twin. He will be Emperor +of the Holy Roman Empire, (the German +Empire.) Holzhaüser says, ‘He shall +be born in the bosom of the Catholic +Church;’ his name shall be, ‘The Help of +God.’”</p> + +<p class='c007'>See the preceding prophecies, <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have now given a sufficient +sketch of some of the more curious +and definite popular German prophecies. +The curate of Dortmund +adds a considerable number of others, +more vague, mystical, and in some +cases theological, which we omit, as not +adapted to our present purpose; and +others not bearing on Germany, of some +interest—especially a long one concerning +Italy, by the Franciscan monk, +Bartolomeo da Saluzzi—which want +of space prevents us from discussing +at this time.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us now consider the foregoing +prophecies in general. We must +admit, as it seems to us, that there +exist in Germany unfulfilled popular +prophecies, the authenticity of which +is respectably attested and generally +admitted.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We further observe, that, taking the +whole of them, as far as known to us, +we can trace the following points pervading +the entire series, more or less:—</p> + +<p class='c008'>1. A great war after a peace, about +this time.</p> + +<p class='c008'>2. It is preceded by political convulsions, +and lesser wars.</p> + +<p class='c008'>3. The East and North fight against +the South and West.</p> + +<p class='c008'>4. The latter finally prevail, under +a powerful prince, who unexpectedly +rises up.</p> + +<p class='c008'>5. The great struggle is short, and +occurs late in the year.</p> + +<p class='c008'>6. It is decided by the battle of the +Birch-Tree, near Werl.</p> + +<p class='c008'>7. After horrible devastations, and +murders, and burnings, caused by this +war, peace and prosperity return.</p> + +<p class='c008'>8. Priests are massacred and become +very rare; but</p> + +<p class='c008'>9. One religion unites all men.</p> + +<p class='c008'>10. All this takes place soon after +the introduction of railways into +Germany.</p> + +<p class='c008'>11. The present King of Prussia is +the last.</p> + +<p class='c008'>12. The “powerful prince” from +the South becomes Emperor of Germany.</p> + +<p class='c008'>13. France is, about this time, inwardly +divided.</p> + +<p class='c008'>14. The Russians come as enemies +to the Rhine, the French enter Germany +as friends—without entering +into further details.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We see moreover, that, admitting +the genuineness of the prophecies, +partial fulfilment has in several cases +taken place. Here it must be noted, +that our curate has chiefly confined +himself to the unfulfilled parts, and +has avowedly omitted many fulfilled +predictions. While we attach considerable +importance to the general +impression among the people of the +truth of these prophecies, which in +part depends on their partial fulfilment +in past times, our chief object has +been to put on record the more remarkable +of the unfulfilled predictions, +in order that they may be compared +with future events.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If we seek to form any idea of the +origin of these prophecies, we find +that there are three sources, from +which the people may have derived +the traditions.</p> + +<p class='c008'>1. They may possibly be, in some +cases at least, derived from the reflections +of sagacious men. Even Napoleon +predicted dreadful wars, and that +Europe must become either Cossack +or Republican. But although some +things may thus be explained, we do +not see how the minute details, in +other cases, can be thus accounted for.</p> + +<p class='c008'>2. Scriptural prophecies may have +been applied to modern events, which, +indeed, are no doubt foretold in +them, in a general way. We cannot +avoid observing the tolerably frequent +occurrence of Scripture language in +the predictions; but this also does +not account for all the details.</p> + +<p class='c008'>3. The seers or prophets may have +had genuine visions, or dreams, in +which they saw what they describe; +it has been seen that various prophets +use language implying this. And, +while the general resemblance of the +different visions naturally leads us to +suspect that the popular traditions +have a common origin; we can at +most conclude from this, that the +original seer or seers lived long ago, +which only increases the difficulty. +They were probably, like Brother +Herrmann, monks and ascetics, their +imaginations exalted by religious +fervour: in other words they were +nervous and excitable, and predisposed +to visions. Supposing their +visions known to the people, the feeling +of the marvellous, if excited along +with religious sentiments, may have +led to visions or second sight among +the peasantry, and thus visions may +have been multiplied and expanded +in details.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If we reflect on the many known +instances of prophetic dreams, +and on the alleged and respectably +attested cases of somnambulistic +prevision, we shall see reason to hesitate +before we deny the possibility of +the occurrence, in certain individuals, +of prophetic visions. We are far +from imagining that, if such have been +the case with our German seers, they +have enjoyed direct communications +from Heaven; on the contrary, were +we satisfied of the fact, we should +regard it as a phenomenon depending +on some obscure physical cause, +which may in time be discovered and +traced; and which, at all events, +exists by Divine permission.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here we may allude to the remarkable +prophecy of Monsieur de Cazotte, +who, some years previous to 1787, +predicted to a large company of persons +of rank, science, and literature, +with much detail, the atrocities of the +Reign of Terror. He likewise told +many of those present, both male and +female, that they should perish on +the guillotine. To Condorcet he +said, that he should die in prison, of +the effects of a poison which he +should long, with the view of escaping +a public execution, have carried about +his person—which happened. He +also predicted the fate of Louis XVI. +and his Queen. This prophecy caused +much amazement, and soon became +known. Persons are yet alive, both +in France and England, who heard it +detailed before 1789. We have seen +one of them. Now, it might be said, +that Cazotte merely exercised a rare +sagacity, in judging of the course of +events, at a time when all France +was enthusiastically looking forward +to the blessings of liberty, and while +yet no one dreamed of violence or +bloodshed. But this would hardly +account for the details he gave. On +the other hand, he often uttered predictions; +and it is very remarkable, +although it has been too much overlooked, +that those who report his prophecies, +including the above one, +always state that, when about to predict, +he fell into a peculiar state, <em>$1</em>—yet not ordinary sleep. It can +hardly be doubted that this was a +trance, in which he saw visions. +That they were fulfilled to the letter +is surely, if only a coincidence, a +most wonderful one. If, again, it was +merely the result of sagacious reflection, +how came it that Cazotte alone, +of all the able thinkers then in Paris, +made these reflections, and was +laughed at for his pains?</p> + +<p class='c008'>The laborious, minute, and conscientious +researches of the Baron von +Reichenbach have proved, beyond a +doubt, that we are far from being +acquainted with all the physical influences +which surround us; and he has +even referred to a physical cause—<em>$1</em> +source of the belief in ghosts—by +proving that luminous appearances +are visible, to sensitive persons, over +recent graves. No one can fail to +see the resemblance between the Sensitives +of Baron von Reichenbach, +who are far from rare, and the Spoikenkiker, +or ghost seers, of the curate +of Dortmund.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We consider it probable, therefore, +that at different periods seers have +had visions, more or less distinct and +detailed, of what appeared to their +minds likely to happen; that these +visions have occurred in a state of +trance; that among ascetic monks, +who may be regarded as liable to such +trances, it may often have happened +that extensive knowledge of history +and of mankind has enabled them to +foresee the probable course of events; +that their predictions, becoming known +to the peasantry, have given a tone +to <em>$1</em> visions, in which the events +are generally localised in the immediate +vicinity of the seer; and that +thus, by degrees, more detailed predictions +have arisen. Considering +the general ignorance and superstition +of the peasantry in all countries, it is +not wonderful that such predictions, +generally bearing on violent political +convulsions, war, and religion, the +subjects most interesting to their +minds, should acquire a hold over +them such as is found to exist in +many parts of Germany, in reference +to the prophecies above described. It +is even probable that the existence of +the predictions may have had a considerable +influence in preparing the +people for such sudden outbreaks as +those of 1848, and may thus, in some +measure, have contributed to their +own fulfilment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We must admit that these remarks +do not much assist in explaining the +occurrence of minute details in these +predictions, many of which are said, +on good authority, to have been fulfilled. +But we do not feel ourselves +in possession of sufficient evidence to +justify us in arguing on the alleged +fulfilment as certain; and we have +therefore satisfied ourselves with laying +before the reader a brief sketch of +these predictions, the existence of +which, as an article of belief with +many thousands of people at this day, +is, under whatever point of view it +may be considered, very interesting.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>W. G.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_573'>573</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE HISTORY OF A REGIMENT DURING THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN.<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c018'><sup>[4]</sup></a></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The Russian Campaign of Napoleon +is unquestionably the most wonderful +episode in the history of war. +We are not only interested, but +astounded, by its study. It comprises +a series of events gigantic and unparalleled +in the annals of human strife. +From the note of preparation to the +final wail of despair, the reader’s imagination +is continually on the stretch +to realise and comprehend the prodigious +scale of its circumstances. At +the word of the great military magician, +half-a-million of men, levied from +half Europe, mustered in arms for +aggression. From France they came, +from Italy and Poland: Austria and +Prussia dared not refuse their contingents; +Illyria and Dalmatia sent forth +their infantry; to their astonishment +and dismay, Spanish and Portuguese +battalions were marched into the +dreary north under the banners of the +man against whose generals their brothers +and fathers were at that moment +contending on the mountains of their +native peninsula. The West was +arrayed against the East. Since the +birth of discipline and civilisation, +such an army had never been seen. +The events of its first and only campaign +were in proportion to its unprecedented +magnitude. In six months +the mighty armament returned, a +shattered wreck, having fought the most +desperate battle the world ever saw, +having witnessed the self-destruction +of a vast and wealthy capital—suicide +for the country’s salvation—and having +endured sufferings which may have +been equalled on a smaller scale, but +which certainly never before or since +fell to the lot of so numerous and +powerful a host.</p> + +<p class='c008'>After reading that delightful work +of Count Ségur, which combines the +fascination of a romance with the +value of history, few persons much +care to consult any other French +account of the great campaign. It +was with something of this feeling, +and with slender expectation of interest, +that we opened General de Fezensac’s +recently-published Journal. But +its perusal agreeably disappointed us. +Narratives of personal adventure have +a peculiar charm; and the unadorned +tale of a soldier’s hazards will often +rivet the attention of those who would +not persevere through the more copious +and important history of a great +war. M. de Fezensac has not attempted +the history of the campaign. +He confines himself to his own adventures +and those of the regiment he +commanded. At most does he include +in his delineations the exploits of the +3d (Ney’s) corps, (to which his regiment +belonged,) at the time when +cold, famine, fatigue, and the sword +had reduced it to little more than the +ordinary strength of a brigade, and, +subsequently, to a mere handful of +jaded, frost-bitten warriors. By a few +lines here and there, he supplies, with +true military brevity, that outline of +the operations necessary to connect +and complete the interest of his journal. +He avoids controversy; he is +slow to censure acts or impute motives; +his style is remarkably free from that +fanfarronade into which many French +writers unconsciously run when recording +the military achievements of +their countrymen. He tells only what +he himself saw, and he tells it modestly +and well, without attempt at rhetorical +adornment; rightly believing that +the events he witnessed and shared in +are sufficiently remarkable to need no +factitious colouring.</p> + +<p class='c008'>M. de Fezensac commenced the +campaign upon the staff. In the capacity +of aide-de-camp to Berthier, he +joined the headquarters of the Grand +Army at Posen, and marched with +them to Wilna. It was in the month +of June. Already, although the campaign +had been opened but a few days, +during which the Russians had everywhere +receded before the invaders, +certain ominous circumstances contradicted, +to observant eyes and reflecting +minds, those anticipations of +triumphant success so confidently and +universally entertained, a few short +weeks before, at Dresden. The fervent +heat was succeeded by torrents +of rain; mortality amongst the horses +commenced; the army, living upon +the country, suffered from want of +food and forage; already the number +of stragglers was great, and acts of +pillage and violence were frequent. +As an instance of these, when the Poles, +with Napoleon’s approval, organised +a civil government of Lithuania, one +of the sub-prefects, repairing to his +post, was plundered by the French +soldiers, and arrived almost naked in +the town he was sent to preside over. +The French Emperor’s seventeen days’ +halt at Wilna, so severely censured by +historians, gave M. de Fezensac opportunity +to observe the details and +composition of the monstrous staff +and retinue that attended Napoleon, +of which he furnishes the following +curious account:—</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The Emperor had around him the +grand marshal, (Duroc,) the master +of the horse, (Caulaincourt,) his aides-de-camp, +his orderly officers, the +aides-de-camp of his aides-de-camp, +and several secretaries attached to his +cabinet. The major-general (Berthier) +had eight or ten aides-de-camp, and +the number of clerks necessary for the +great amount of work occasioned by +such an army; the general staff, composed +of a vast number of officers of +all grades, was commanded by General +Monthion. The administration, +directed by Count Dumas, intendant-general, +was subdivided into the administrative +service properly so called, +comprising directors, inspectors of reviews, +and commissaries; the service +of health, including physicians, surgeons, +and apothecaries; the service +of provisions in all its branches, and +workmen of every kind. When the +Prince of Neuchatel passed it in review +at Wilna, it looked, from a distance, +like a body of troops ranged in order +of battle, and, by an unfortunate +fatality, notwithstanding the zeal and +talents of the intendant-general, this +immense administration was almost +useless from the very commencement +of the campaign, and became noxious +at its close. Let the reader now picture +to himself the assemblage, at one +point, of the whole of this staff; let +him fancy the prodigious number of +servants, of led horses, of baggage of +all kinds that it dragged along with it, +and he will have some idea of the spectacle +presented by the headquarters +of the army. Also, when a movement +was made, the Emperor took with him +but a very small number of officers; +all the rest set out beforehand, or followed +behind. At a bivouac, the +only tents were for the Emperor and +the Prince of Neuchatel; the generals +and other officers slept in the open air, +like the rest of the army.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“There was nothing irksome in +our duty as aides-de-camp to the +major-general.... In his personal +intercourse with us, the Prince of Neuchatel +exhibited that mixture of goodness +and roughness which composed +his character. Often he appeared to +pay no attention to us, but, upon +occasion, we were sure to find his +sympathy; and during the whole of +his long military career, he neglected +the advancement of none of the officers +employed under his orders. The best +house in the town, after that taken +for the Emperor, was allotted for his +accommodation; and as he himself +always lodged with the Emperor, the +house belonged to his aides-de-camp. +One of these was charged with the +household details, whose regularity +was a pattern; the Prince of Neuchatel +himself, in the midst of all his occupations, +found time to give his thoughts +to these matters; he wished his aides-de-camp +to want for nothing, and had +often the goodness to inquire whether +such was the case.... We saw +little of him, having no duty to do +under his immediate eye; he passed +almost the whole day in his cabinet, +dispatching orders agreeably with the +Emperor’s instructions. Never was +there seen greater exactness, more +complete submission, more absolute +devotion. It was by writing during +the night that he reposed from the +fatigues of the day; often he was +roused from his sleep to alter all +that he had done on the previous +day, and sometimes his sole recompense +was an unjust, or, at least, a +very severe reprimand. But nothing +slackened his zeal; no amount of +bodily fatigue, or of assiduity in the +cabinet, exceeded his powers; no +trials wearied his patience. In short, +if the Prince of Neuchatel’s position +never gave him an opportunity to +develop the talents essential to the +commander-in-chief of great armies, +it is at least impossible to unite, in a +higher degree, the physical and moral +qualities adapted to the post he filled +near such a man as the Emperor.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The peculiar talents of Berthier, +his patience, industry, and wonderful +habit of order, have been often admitted, +but we do not remember to +have seen his character placed in so +amiable a light as here by his former +aide-de-camp. M. de Fezensac continued +upon his staff until after the +battle of Borodino, when he was promoted +by the Emperor, on Berthier’s +recommendation, to the command of +the 4th regiment of the line, vacant +by its colonel’s death in that murderous +fight. He was doubly grateful +for this promotion, because it placed +him under the orders of Marshal Ney, +with whom he had served some years +previously. As to the regiment itself, +it was in no very flourishing state. +Of 2800 men who had crossed the +Rhine, 900 remained, so that the +four battalions formed but two upon +parade. The equipments, and especially +the shoes, were in bad repair; +supplies of provisions were irregular; +and constant change of place was indispensable, +for the troops ravaged +within twenty-four hours the country +they traversed. The majority of the +officers were raw youths from the +military schools, or old sergeants, +whose want of education should have +retained them in the ranks, but who +had been promoted to sustain emulation, +and to fill the enormous gaps +occasioned by destructive campaigns. +For the 4th was an old regiment, +formed in the first years of the Revolution, +and had fought through all +the German wars, and numbered Joseph +Buonaparte amongst its colonels. +Its present shattered and unprosperous +condition extended to the whole +of Ney’s corps, which was reduced to +a third of its original numbers. The +losses were unparalleled, and so was +the depression of the soldiers. Their +gaiety had disappeared; a mournful +silence replaced the songs and +pleasant tales with which they formerly +beguiled the fatigues of the +march. The officers themselves were +uneasy; they served for duty and for +honour’s sake, but without ardour or +pleasure. After a victory that opened +the road to Moscow, this universal +discouragement was strangely ominous.</p> + +<p class='c008'>With his regimental command commences +the interesting portion of M. +de Fezensac’s journal, of which his staff +experience occupies but a couple of +chapters. Often as it has been described, +he yet contrives to give freshness +to his details of Moscow’s appearance +after the terrible conflagration, +at whose flame was sealed the +doom of the Grand Army.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“It was both a strange and a horrible +spectacle. Some houses appeared +to have been razed; of others, fragments +of smoke-blackened walls remained; +ruins of all kinds encumbered +the streets; everywhere was a horrible +smell of burning. Here and there a +cottage, a church, a palace, stood erect +amidst the general destruction. The +churches especially, by their many-coloured +domes, by the richness and +variety of their construction, recalled +the former opulence of Moscow. In +them had taken refuge most of the +inhabitants, driven by our soldiers +from the houses the fire had spared. +The unhappy wretches, clothed in +rags, and wandering like ghosts amid +the ruins, had recourse to the saddest +expedients to prolong their miserable +existence. They sought and devoured +the scanty vegetables remaining in +the gardens; they tore the flesh from +the animals that lay dead in the +streets; some even plunged into the +river for corn the Russians had thrown +there, and which was now in a state +of fermentation.... It was with +the greatest difficulty we procured black +bread and beer; meat began to be +very scarce. We had to send strong +detachments to seize oxen in the +woods where the peasants had taken +refuge, and often the detachments +returned empty-handed. Such was +the pretended abundance procured us +by the pillage of the city. We had +liquors, sugar, sweatmeats, and we +wanted for meat and bread. We +covered ourselves with furs, but were +almost without clothes and shoes. +With great store of diamonds, jewels, +and every possible object of luxury, +we were on the eve of dying of hunger. +A large number of Russian soldiers +wandered in the streets of Moscow. +I had fifty of them seized; and +a general, to whom I reported the +capture, told me I might have had +them shot, and that on all future occasions +he authorised me to do so. I +did not abuse the authorisation. It +will be easily understood how many +mishaps, how much disorder, characterised +our stay in Moscow. Not an +officer, not a soldier, but could tell +strange anecdotes on this head. One +of the most striking is that of a Russian +whom a French officer found +concealed in the ruins of a house; +by signs he assured him of protection, +and the Russian accompanied him. +Soon, being obliged to carry an order, +and seeing another officer pass at the +head of a detachment, he transferred +the individual to his charge, saying +hastily—‘I recommend this gentleman +to you.’ The second officer, +misunderstanding the intention of the +words and the tone in which they +were pronounced, took the unfortunate +Russian for an incendiary, and +had him shot.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The retreat commenced. After the +affair of Wiazma, Ney’s corps relieved +the 1st corps as rearguard, and the +4th regiment, rearmost of Ney’s corps, +had to repel the repeated attacks of +the Russian van and of the swarming +Cossacks. They were hard pressed; +but still the Emperor’s order was to +march slowly and preserve the baggage. +In vain Ney wrote to him +there was no time to lose, and that he +risked being anticipated by the Russians +at Smolensko or Orcha. At +Dorogobuje the marshal formed the +design of arresting the progress of the +Russians for a whole day; but the +attempt was unsuccessful, and the +French rearguard was driven onwards. +The cold had set in, and the +sufferings of the troops were terrible. +Famine was superadded to their other +miseries. The road resembled a +battle-field. Some, with frozen limbs, +lay dying on the snow; others fell +asleep in the villages, and perished in +the flames lighted by their comrades.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“At Dorogobuje I saw a soldier of +my regiment, in whom hunger had +produced the effect of intoxication. +He stood close to us without recognising +us, inquiring for his regiment, +naming the soldiers of his company, +and at the same time speaking to +them as to strangers; his gait was tottering, +his look wild. He disappeared +at the commencement of the affair, +and I saw him no more. In two days +from Dorogobuje, we reached Slobpnowa, +on the bank of the Dnieper. +The road was so slippery that the ill-shod +horses could hardly keep their +legs. At night we bivouacked amidst +the snow in the woods. Each regiment +in turn formed the extreme +rearguard, which the enemy unceasingly +followed and harassed. The +army continued to march so slowly, +that we were on the point of overtaking +the 1st corps, which immediately +preceded us. The encumbrance on +the bridge over the Dnieper was +extreme: for a quarter of a league +beyond, the road was still covered with +abandoned carriages and ammunition-waggons. +On the morning of the +10th November, before crossing the +river, measures were taken to clear +the bridge and burn all these vehicles. +In them were found a few bottles of +rum, which were of great service. I +was on the rearguard, and during the +whole morning my regiment defended +the road leading to the bridge. The +wood through which this road passes +was full of wounded whom we were +obliged to leave to their fate, and +whom the Cossacks massacred almost +by our sides. M. Rouchat, sub-lieutenant, +having imprudently approached +an ammunition-cart that was to +be blown up, was shattered to pieces +by the explosion. Towards night the +troops passed the Dnieper; the bridge +was destroyed.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It was important to delay the +enemy’s passage of the river, and Ney +prepared to do so.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“That night he walked for a long +time in front of my regiment with +General Joubert and myself. He +pointed out to us the unfortunate +results of the failure at Dorogobuje. +The enemy had gained a day’s march; +had forced us to abandon ammunition, +baggage, wounded: all these misfortunes +would have been avoided had +we held Dorogobuje for twenty-four +hours. General Joubert spoke of the +weakness of the troops, of their discouragement. +The marshal replied +quickly, that the worst that could have +happened was to be killed, and that a +glorious death was too fine a thing to +be shunned. For my part, I contented +myself with remarking that I had not +left the heights of Dorogobuje till I +had twice received the order.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The “bravest of the brave” could +see no terrors in death. His own +insensibility to it made him slow to +sympathise with others. A few days +later, M. de Fezensac learned the +death of M. Alfred de Noailles, who +had been one of his brother aides-de-camp +to Berthier.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He was the first friend I had lost +in this campaign, and it caused me +very deep sorrow. Marshal Ney, to +whom I spoke on the subject, told me, +for sole consolation, <em>$1</em>. In similar +circumstances he always showed the +same insensibility: on another occasion +I heard him reply to an unfortunate +wounded man, who begged to be +carried away—‘<em>$1</em>;’ +and he passed on. Most assuredly he +was neither cruel nor devoid of feeling; +but the frequency of the misfortunes +of war had hardened his heart. Penetrated +with the idea that the fate of +all soldiers is to die upon the field of +battle, he thought it quite natural they +should fulfil their destiny; and it has +been seen in this narrative that he +prized not his own life more highly +than the lives of others.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The passage of the river was defended +for twenty-four hours. Two +days later, those of the weary rearguard +who were not prevented by +frozen limbs or the cold hand of +death from rising from their ice-bound +bivouac, joyfully beheld, at half a +league’s distance, the towers of Smolensko. +Joyfully, because they had +long looked for that town as the term +of their misery. Repose and food, so +greatly needed, were there anticipated. +But there, as on every occasion during +the retreat where alleviation was hoped +for, disappointment ensued. Wittgenstein +was pressing southwards from +the Dwina, Tchitchagoff northwards +to Minsk, the Austrians had retreated +behind the Bug, and the French were +in imminent danger of being intercepted +at the Beresina. A halt at +Smolensko was impossible, and orders +were given to continue the march. +Smolensko contained large stores of +provisions; but these availed little to +the famished troops, for the general +disorganisation had extended to the +commissariat, and waste was the +result. The Guard, which arrived first +with Napoleon, received abundant +supplies of all kinds; but then came +pouring in stragglers and undisciplined +bodies; the warehouses were broken +open and plundered, and rations for +several months were squandered in a +day. When the 3d corps, after defending +the approaches to the town, +entered in its turn, the work of destruction +was at an end, and Colonel +de Fezensac could find nothing either +for his regiment or himself. But +though they had nothing to eat, they +were expected to fight; for Ney, the +indefatigable, prepared obstinately to +defend the town. On the 15th November, +a severe combat occurred in +the suburb, in which the 4th regiment +was alone engaged, and during which +its colonel received from Ney the order +that daring leader was most rarely +known to give—namely, not to advance +too far. M. de Fezensac records +this order with as much honest pride +as he does the warm eulogium which +his regiment’s conduct elicited from +the marshal. For three days Smolensko +was held, and then the 3d +corps resumed its march. Meanwhile +the Emperor, Eugene, and Davoust, +with the Guard, the 4th and 1st corps, +were hard pressed at Krasnoi, the +two latter, especially, suffering most +severely.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The Emperor, having not a moment +to lose to reach the Beresina, +saw himself compelled to abandon the +3d corps, and precipitated his march +to Orcha. During the three days’ +fighting (at and near Krasnoi,) no +information was sent to Marshal Ney +of the danger about to menace him.... +On the morning of the 18th +November, we set out from Koritnya, +and marched upon Krasnoi: on approaching +that town, a few squadrons +of Cossacks harassed the 2d division, +which headed the column. We +attached no importance to this; we +were accustomed to the Cossacks, and +a few musket-shots sufficed to drive +them away. But soon the advanced +guard fell in with General Ricard’s +division, belonging to the 1st corps, +which had remained behind, and had +just been routed. The marshal rallied +the remains of this division, and under +cover of a fog, which favoured our +march by concealing the smallness of +our numbers, he approached the enemy +until their cannon compelled him to +pause. The Russian army, drawn +up in order of battle, barred our further +passage; then only did we learn +that we were cut off from the +rest of the army, and that our sole +chance of salvation was in our despair.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We know not whence M. de Fezensac +derives his statements of numbers, +but they frequently require correction. +At Borodino, for instance, he gives, as +an exact detail of the French loss, +6547 killed, and 21,453 wounded—making +a total of about 28,000. +Alison and other historians rate it +nearly twenty thousand higher; and +certainly nothing in the events of the +battle argues it as much less than that +of the Russians, which M. de Fezensac +estimates at about 50,000—figures +confirmed by other authorities. In +like manner, he states the entire +strength of the 3d corps, when it first +entered the fire of the Russian batteries +at Krasnoi, as barely 6000 combatants, +with six guns, and a mere +picket of cavalry. This is extraordinarily +discrepant with other accounts, +which make Ney’s loss, in the immediately +ensuing engagement, to be +nearly as great as the whole number +of bayonets allotted to him by M. de +Fezensac. Doubtless it was most +difficult to ascertain numbers correctly +during that confused retreat, where +there can have been little question of +muster-rolls and morning-states, and +many seeming contradictions may be +explained, by some writers estimating +only the effective fighting men, and +others including the unarmed and +stragglers who dragged themselves +along with the columns. But we +attach no importance to differences of +this kind as regards the <cite>Journal</cite>, which +we here notice, not as a work of historical +value—a character to which it +makes no pretensions—but as the interesting +memoir of a brave gentleman +and soldier, who has written down, +modestly and unaffectedly, his own +and his regiment’s share in a most +extraordinary campaign.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Hardly had Marshal Ney withdrawn +his advanced guard from under +the enemy’s guns, when a flag of truce, +sent by General Miloradowitsch, summoned +him to lay down his arms. +All who ever knew him will understand +with what disdain the proposal +was received.... For sole reply, +the marshal made the messenger prisoner; +a few cannon-shot, fired during +this species of negotiation, serving as a +pretext; and then, without considering +the masses of the enemy and the small +number of his own followers, he ordered +the attack. The 2d division, formed +in columns by regiments, marched +straight to the enemy. Let me here +be allowed to pay homage to the devotedness +of those brave soldiers, and +to congratulate myself on the honour +of having marched at their head. The +Russians beheld them, with admiration, +marching towards them in the +most perfect order, and with a steady +step. Every cannon-ball carried away +whole files—every step rendered +death more inevitable; but the pace +was not for an instant slackened. At +last we got so near to the enemy’s +line, that the first division of my regiment, +crushed by the grape-shot, was +thrown back upon that which followed, +and disordered its array. Then the +Russian infantry charged us in its +turn, and the cavalry, falling on our +flanks, completely routed us. Some +sharpshooters, advantageously posted, +checked for an instant the enemy’s +pursuit; the division of Ledru deployed +into line, and six guns replied +to the numerous artillery of the Russians. +During this time, I rallied the +remains of my regiment upon the high +road, where the cannon still reached +us. Our attack had not lasted a quarter +of an hour, but the 2d division +no longer existed: my regiment lost +several officers, and was reduced to +two hundred men; the regiment of +Illyria, and the 18th, which lost its +eagle, were still worse treated; General +Razout was wounded, and General +Lenchantain made prisoner. The +marshal now made the 2d division +retire on Smolensko; at the end of +half a league, he turned it to the left, +across country, at right angles with +the road. The first division, having +long exhausted its strength by sustaining +the shock of the whole hostile +army, followed this movement with +the guns and some of the baggage; +those of the wounded who could still +walk dragged themselves after us. The +Russians cantoned themselves in the +villages, sending a column of cavalry +to observe us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The day declined: the 3d corps +marched in silence; none knew what +was to become of us. But Marshal +Ney’s presence sufficed to reassure us. +Without knowing what he would or +could do, we knew he would do something. +His self-confidence equalled +his courage. The greater the danger, +the more prompt was his determination; +and when once he had made up +his mind, he never doubted of success. +Thus, in that terrible hour, his countenance +expressed neither indecision nor +uneasiness; all eyes were fixed upon +him, but none dared question him. +At last, seeing near him an officer of +his staff, he said to him in a low voice: +<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em> +replied the officer.—<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em>—<em>$1</em>, said the officer. This +singular dialogue, which I here set +down word for word, revealed the +marshal’s project of reaching Orcha +by the right bank of the river, and so +rapidly as still to find there the army, +which was making its movement by the +left bank. The plan was bold and ably +conceived; it will be seen with what +vigour it was executed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“We marched across the fields, +without a guide, and the inexactness +of the maps contributed to mislead us. +Marshal Ney, endowed with that peculiar +talent of the great soldier which +teaches how to take advantage of the +slightest indications, observed some +ice in the direction we were following, +and had it broken, thinking it must be +a rivulet that would lead us to the +Dnieper. It really was a rivulet; we +followed it, and reached a village, +where the Marshal feigned to establish +himself for the night. Fires were +lighted and pickets thrown out. The +enemy left us quiet, expecting to have +us cheap the next day. Under cover +of this stratagem, the Marshal followed +up his plan. A guide was +wanted, and the village was deserted; +at last the soldiers discovered a lame +peasant; they asked him where was +the Dnieper, and if frozen. He replied, +that at a league off was the +village of Sirokowietz, and that the +Dnieper must there be frozen. We +set out, conducted by this peasant, and +soon reached the village. The Dnieper +was sufficiently frozen to be traversed +on foot. Whilst they sought a place +to cross, the houses rapidly filled with +officers and soldiers, wounded that +morning, who had dragged themselves +thus far, and to whose hurts the surgeons +could hardly apply the first +dressings; those who were not +wounded busied themselves in seeking +provisions. Marshal Ney, forgetful +alike of the day’s and the morrow’s +dangers, was buried in a profound +sleep.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Towards the middle of the night +we crossed the Dnieper, abandoning +to the enemy artillery, baggage, vehicles +of every kind, and those wounded +who could not walk. M. de Briqueville, +(aide-de-camp of the Duke of +Placentia,) dangerously wounded the +day before, passed the river on his +hands and knees; I gave him in +charge to two sappers, who succeeded +in saving him. The ice was so thin +that very few horses could pass; the +troops re-formed on the other side of +the stream. Thus far success had +attended the marshal’s plan; the +Dnieper was crossed, but we were +still fifteen leagues from Orcha. It +was essential to reach it before the +French army left; we had to traverse +a strange country, and to repel the +attacks of the enemy with a handful +of exhausted infantry, unsupported by +cavalry or artillery. The march +began under favourable auspices, with +the capture of some Cossacks, surprised +asleep in a village. At dawn on the +19th we were following the road to +Liubavitschi. We were scarcely +delayed for a moment by the passage +of a torrent, and by some Cossack +detachments which retired on our +approach. At noon we reached two +villages situated on a height, and +whose inhabitants had scarcely time +to escape, leaving us their provisions. +The soldiers were giving themselves +up to the joy occasioned by a moment +of abundance, when there was +a sudden call to arms. The enemy +was advancing, and had already driven +in our pickets. We left the villages, +formed column, and resumed our +march. But we had no longer to +deal, as heretofore, with detached +parties of Cossacks; here were whole +squadrons, manœuvring in regular +order, and commanded by General Platow +himself. Our skirmishers made +head against them; the columns accelerated +their march, making their +arrangements to receive cavalry. +Numerous as these horsemen were, +we feared them little, for the Cossacks +never ventured to charge home a +square of infantry; but soon a battery +of several guns opened fire +upon us. This artillery followed the +movements of the cavalry, upon +sledges, wherever it could be of use. +Until nightfall, Marshal Ney never +ceased to struggle against all these +obstacles, skilfully availing himself of +the least advantages the nature of the +ground afforded. Amidst the balls +which fell in our ranks, and in spite of +the Cossacks’ yells and feigned attacks, +we marched at the same pace. +Darkness approached; the enemy redoubled +his efforts. We had to quit +the road, and to throw ourselves to +the left into the woods fringing the +Dnieper. But the Cossacks already +held these woods; the 4th and 18th +regiments, under command of General +d’Henin, were directed to drive them +thence. Meanwhile the hostile artillery +took position on the further brink +of a ravine we had to pass. There +General Platow reckoned on exterminating +us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I entered the wood with my regiment. +The Cossacks retired; but +the wood was deep, and tolerably +dense, and we had to face every way +to guard against surprise. Night +came, we no longer heard anything +around us; it was more than probable +that Marshal Ney was continuing his +advance. I advised General d’Henin +to follow his movement; he refused, +lest he should incur reproach from +the marshal for quitting, without orders, +the post assigned to him. At +this moment loud shouts, announcing +a charge, were heard at some distance +in our front; giving us the certainty +that the column was continuing its +march, and that we were about to be +cut off from it. I redoubled my entreaties, +assuring General d’Henin +that the marshal, with whose way of +serving I was well acquainted, would +send him no order, because he +expected commanding officers, thus +detached, to act according to circumstances; +besides which, he was too +far off to be able to communicate +with us, and the 18th regiment had +assuredly moved on long ago. The +general persisted in his refusal; all I +obtained from him was to move us on +to the place where the 18th ought to +be, and unite the two regiments. The +18th had marched, and in its place +we found a squadron of Cossacks. +Tardily convinced of the justice of my +remarks, General d’Henin determined +to rejoin the column; but we had +traversed the wood in so many directions, +that we no longer knew our +way. The officers of my regiment +were consulted, and we took the direction +the majority thought the right +one. I will not undertake to describe +all we had to endure during that cruel +night. I had but one hundred men +left, and we were more than a league +in rear of our main body, which we +must overtake through a host of enemies. +It was necessary to march +quick enough to make up for lost time, +and in sufficient order to resist the +attacks of the Cossacks. The darkness, +the uncertainty of our road, the +difficulty of making way through the +wood, all augmented our embarrassment. +The Cossacks called to us to +surrender, and fired pointblank into +the midst of us: those who were hit +remained behind. A sergeant had his +leg broken by a carbine ball. He fell +at my side, saying coolly to his comrades—<em>$1</em> They +took his havresack, and we moved on +in silence. Two wounded officers had +the same fate. I observed with uneasiness +the impression our position +made upon the soldiers, and even upon +the officers, of my regiment. Men +who had shown themselves heroes in +the battle-field, now appeared anxious +and troubled; so true is it that the +circumstances of danger have often +greater terrors than the danger itself. +Very few preserved the presence of +mind that was then more necessary +than ever. I needed all my authority +to maintain order and prevent straggling. +An officer even ventured to say, +that we should perhaps be obliged to +surrender. I reprimanded him aloud, +and the more severely that he was +an officer of merit, which made the lesson +more striking. At last, after +more than an hour, we emerged from +the wood and found the Dnieper on +our left. We were in the right track, +therefore; and this discovery gave the +men a moment’s joy, of which I took +advantage to cheer them up, and inculcate +coolness, which alone could +save us. General d’Henin moved us +along the river’s bank to prevent the +enemy from turning us. We were far +from out of our difficulties; we knew +our way, but the plain over which we +marched permitted the enemy to fall +on us in a large body, and to use their +artillery. Fortunately it was dark, +and the guns were fired rather at random. +From time to time the Cossacks +approached with loud cries; we +stopped to drive them away with +musketry, and then set off again. +This march lasted two hours over the +most difficult ground, across ravines +so abrupt, that it required the utmost +efforts to ascend the opposite side, and +through half-frozen rivulets, where we +had water to our knees. Nothing +could shake the constancy of the soldiers; +the utmost order was preserved; +not a man left his rank. +General d’Henin, wounded by a fragment +of shell, concealed his hurt in +order not to discourage the soldiers, +and continued to command with unabated +zeal. Doubtless he may be +reproached with too obstinate a defence +of the wood, but in such difficult +circumstances error is pardonable; +and what cannot be disputed, is the +bravery and intelligence with which +he led us during the whole of this +perilous march. At last the enemy’s +pursuit slackened, and on an eminence +in our front fires were seen. It was +Marshal Ney’s rearguard, which had +halted there, and was now resuming +its march: we joined it, and learned +that upon the previous evening the +marshal had advanced against the +Cossack artillery, and forced it to +yield him passage.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Thus did the 4th regiment extricate +itself from a position seemingly +desperate. The march lasted another +hour. The exhausted soldiers required +repose, and we halted in a village +where we found some provisions. But +we were still eight leagues from +Orcha, and General Platow would +doubtless redouble his efforts for our +destruction. The moments were precious; +at one in the morning the +assembly sounded, and we set out.... +We marched unmolested +till the dawn. With the first sunrays +came the Cossacks, and soon our +road led us over a plain. General +Platow, desirous of profiting by this +advantage, advanced that sledge-artillery +which we could neither avoid +nor overtake; and when he thought +he had disordered our ranks, he commanded +a charge. Marshal Ney rapidly +formed each of his two divisions +into a square; the 2d, under General +d’Henin, being the rearmost, +was first exposed. We forced all +stragglers who still had a musket to +join our ranks; severe threats were +required to do this. The Cossacks, +but feebly restrained by our skirmishers, +and driving before them a crowd +of unarmed fugitives, strove to reach +the square. On their approach, and +under fire of the artillery, our soldiers +hastened their march. Twenty times +I beheld them on the point of disbanding +and flying in all directions, leaving +us at the mercy of the Cossacks; +but the presence of Marshal Ney, the +confidence he inspired, his calmness +in the moment of such great danger, +kept them to their duty. We reached +an eminence. The marshal ordered +General d’Henin to hold it; adding, +that we must know how to die there +for the honour of France. Meanwhile, +General Ledru marched to Jokubow, +a village on the edge of a wood. +When he had established himself +there, we marched to join him: the +two divisions took up a position, mutually +flanking each other. It was +not yet noon, and Marshal Ney declared +he would defend this village +till nine at night. General Platow +made twenty attempts to take it from +us; his attacks were constantly repulsed, +and at last, fatigued by such +a tenacious resistance, he himself took +position opposite to us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Early in the morning the marshal +had sent off a Polish officer, who +reached Orcha and described our +condition. The Emperor had left the +town the day before: the Viceroy and +Marshal Davoust still occupied it. +At nine that night we resumed our +march in profound silence. The Cossack +pickets, distributed along the +road, retired at our approach. The +march continued with much order. +At a league from Orcha, our vanguard +fell in with an advanced post, which +challenged in French. It was a division +of the 4th corps coming to our +assistance with the Viceroy. One +must have passed three days between +life and death to judge of the joy this +meeting gave us. The Viceroy received +us with lively emotion, and +warmly expressed to Marshal Ney his +admiration of his conduct. He congratulated +the generals and the two +remaining colonels. His aides-de-camp +surrounded us, and overwhelmed +us with questions on the details of +this great drama, and the part that +each of us had played in it. But time +pressed; after a few minutes we again +moved on. The Viceroy formed our +rearguard: at three in the morning +we entered Orcha. Thus terminated +this bold march, one of the most +curious episodes of the campaign. It +covered Marshal Ney with glory, and +to him the 3d corps owed its salvation; +if, indeed, the term of <i><span lang="fr">corps d’ +armée</span></i> may be applied to the 800 or +900 men who reached Orcha, remnant +of the 6000 who had fought at +Krasnoi.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>For eighteen days, over a distance of +sixty leagues, the 3d corps had formed +the rearguard. Diminished as its +numbers now were, it was no longer +available for that dangerous duty, and +it joined the main body. Scarcely +had it taken three hours’ repose in +some wretched houses of the faubourg +of Orcha, when the Russians, from +the other side of the Dnieper, set fire +to the town with shells, which were +more particularly aimed at some conspicuous +buildings, serving as provision-stores. +It was impossible to +serve out rations; at the risk of their +lives, a few soldiers brought off some +brandy and flour; but Davoust, now +in command of the rearguard, hurried +the troops’ departure, and by eight +o’clock the unfortunate 3d corps was +on the march to Borisow. A broad, +good road facilitated their progress, +and Colonel de Fezensac, no longer +occupied in repelling the enemy, was +able to investigate the state of his +regiment. Eighty men remained, out +of the 2800 that began the campaign; +eighty tattered, famine-stricken, desponding +wretches. They lived from +hand to mouth, almost by a miracle; +sometimes on flour steeped in water; +at others, with a morsel of honeycomb +or fragment of horseflesh; their sole +drink the melted snow. “At some +distance from Orcha, I fell in with M. +Lanusse, a captain of my regiment, +who had lost his sight by a shot, at +the taking of Smolensko; a sutler +belonging to his company was leading +and taking the greatest care of him. +He told me that after having been +taken and plundered by the Cossacks +at Krasnoi, he had contrived to escape, +and that he and his guide would do +their utmost to keep up with us. Soon +afterwards they were found dead and +stripped upon the road.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Bad as the state of things already +was, it became worse after the passage +of the Beresina; for the cold, +abated for a while, resumed all its +severity, and heavy snow almost +stifled the scanty fires kindled by the +unhappy fugitives. “I myself was +at the end of my resources. I had but +a horse left; my last portmanteau had +been lost at the Beresina; I had nothing +but what I stood in, and we +were still fifty leagues from Wilna, +eighty from the Niemen; but, amidst +so many misfortunes, I took little +account of my personal sufferings and +privations. Like us, Marshal Ney +had lost everything; his aides-de-camp +were dying of hunger, and I +gratefully remember that more than +once they shared with me the scanty +food they managed to procure.” On +the 29th November, during a brief +halt of the 3d corps, a confused stream +of stragglers poured by, all of whom +had to tell of a miraculous escape at +the Beresina. “I remarked an Italian +officer, who scarcely breathed, +borne by two soldiers, and accompanied +by his wife. Greatly touched +by this woman’s grief, and by the +care she lavished on her husband, I +yielded her my place at a fire the men +had lighted. It needed all the illusion +of her affection to blind her to +the inutility of her care. Her husband +had ceased to live, and still she +called and spoke to him; until at last, +no longer able to doubt her misfortune, +she fell fainting upon his +corpse.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“There would be no end to the +task,” continues M. de Fezensac, “if +one attempted to relate all the horrible, +affecting, and often incredible +anecdotes that signalised that terrible +time. A general, exhausted with +fatigue, had fallen upon the road. A +passing soldier began to pull off his +boots; the general, raising himself +with difficulty, begged him to wait +till he was dead before stripping him. +‘General,’ replied the soldier, ‘I would +willingly do so; but another would +take them; I may as well have the +benefit.’ And he continued to take +off the boots.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“One soldier was being plundered +by another; he entreated to be allowed +to die in peace. ‘Pardon me, comrade,’ +was the reply, ‘I thought you +were dead;’ and he passed on. For +the consolation of humanity, a few +traits of sublime devotion contrasted +with the innumerable ones of egotism +and insensibility. That of a drummer +of the 7th regiment of light infantry +has been particularly cited. +His wife, sutler to the regiment, fell +ill at the beginning of the retreat. The +drummer brought her to Smolensko +in her cart. At Smolensko the horse +died; then the husband harnessed +himself to the cart, and dragged his +wife to Wilna. At that town she +was too ill to go any farther, and her +husband remained prisoner with her.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“A sutler of the 33d regiment had +been brought to bed in Prussia, before +the beginning of the campaign. She +followed her regiment to Moscow, +with her little daughter, who was six +months old when the army left that +city. During the retreat this child +lived by a miracle: her sole nourishment +was black pudding made of +horses’ blood: she was wrapped in a +fur taken at Moscow, and often her +head was bare. Twice she was lost; +and they found her again, first in a +field, then in a burnt village, lying on +a mattress. Her mother crossed the +Beresina on horseback, with water to +her neck, holding the bridle in one +hand, and with the other her child +upon her head. Thus, by a succession +of marvellous circumstances, this little +girl got through the retreat without +accident, and did not even take cold.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>For many many leagues before +reaching the Niemen, the harassed +remnant of the great French army +had looked forward to that river as the +term of pursuit. The idea that the +Russians would not pass the Niemen +had taken a strong hold of the imaginations +of both officers and soldiers. +At Kowno, a stand was made by the +rearguard; no very steadfast one, +certainly; but then, as ever, Ney +proved equal to the emergency. An +earthen work, hastily thrown up, +seemed to him sufficient to check the +foe for a whole day. Here were +posted two pieces of cannon, and some +Bavarian infantry; and the marshal +sought a moment’s repose in his +quarters. But the very first discharge +of the Russian artillery dismounted +a French gun; the infantry +took to flight—the gunners were +about to follow. Another minute, +and the Cossacks might enter the +streets unopposed. Just then Ney +appeared upon the ramparts, musket +in hand. His absence had been +nearly fatal; his presence restored +the fight. The troops rallied, and +the position was held till night, when +the retreat recommenced. The bridge +was crossed, and each man, as he set +foot south of the Niemen, deemed +himself safe. Great then was the +consternation of all, when, at the foot +of a lofty hill, over which winds the +road to Königsberg, an alarm was +given, and, at the same moment, a +cannon-ball plunged into their ranks. +The Cossacks had crossed the river +on the ice, and had established themselves +on the summit of the mountain. +This fresh danger, so totally +unexpected, completed the demoralisation +of the troops. Brave spirits, +which, till then, had steadfastly held +out, lost their firmness in face of this +new calamity. There is something +very affecting in the following passage:—</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Generals Marchand and Ledru +succeeded in forming a sort of battalion +by uniting the stragglers to the +3d corps, (again on rearguard.) But +it was in vain to attempt to force a +passage; the muskets were unserviceable, +and the soldiers dared not +advance. There was nothing for it +but to remain under fire of the artillery, +without daring to take a step +backwards, for that would have exposed +us to a charge, and our destruction +was then certain. This position +drove to despair two officers, who had +been a pattern to my regiment during +the whole retreat, but whose courage +at last gave way under long physical +exhaustion. They came to me and +said, that as they were no longer able +either to march or to fight, they should +fall into the hands of the Cossacks, +who would massacre them, and that, +to avoid this, they must return to +Kowno and yield themselves prisoners. +I made useless efforts to dissuade +them, appealing to their feelings +of honour, to the courage of +which they had given so many proofs, +to their attachment to the regiment +they now proposed abandoning; and +I conjured them, if death was inevitable, +at least to die in our company. +For sole reply they embraced me +with tears, and returned into Kowno. +Two other officers had the same fate; +one was intoxicated with rum, and +could not follow us; the other, whom +I particularly loved, disappeared soon +afterwards. My heart was torn: I +waited for death to come and reunite +me to my unhappy comrades, and I +should perhaps have wished for it but +for all the ties which, at that time, +still bound me to life.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Once more Ney came to the rescue. +No accumulation of difficulties could +cloud his brow with uneasiness. Once +more his promptness and energy +saved his shattered corps. A flank +march was the means resorted to. On +the 20th December, the 3d corps +reached Königsberg. It then consisted +of about one hundred men +on foot, about as many cripples on +sledges, and a handful of officers.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Monsieur le duc,” wrote Marshal +Ney to the Duke of Feltre, Minister +of War, from Berlin, on the 23d January +1813, “I avail myself of the +moment when the campaign is, if not +terminated, at least suspended, to +express to you all the satisfaction I +have received from M. de Fezensac’s +manner of serving. That young man +has been placed in very critical circumstances, +and has always shown +himself superior to them. I commend +him to you as a true French chevalier, +(<i><span lang="fr">veritable chevalier Français</span></i>,) +whom you may henceforth consider +as a veteran colonel.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>M. de Fezensac almost apologises +for subjoining to his journal this +extract from a letter now in his +possession. He has no need to do +so. He may well and honestly exult +in such a testimonial from such a +man.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_585'>585</span> + <h2 class='c002'>THE PENITENT FREE-TRADER.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c017'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Tufnell! For the love of mercy,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Let me go for half an hour—</div> + <div class='line'>I’ll be back before that proser</div> + <div class='line in2'>Hath discussed the price of flour.</div> + <div class='line'>Don’t you hear, he’s just beginning</div> + <div class='line in2'>To investigate the rate</div> + <div class='line'>Of the Mecklenburg quotations,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Metage, lighterage, and freight?</div> + <div class='line'>Next, I know, he’ll pass to Dantzic,</div> + <div class='line in2'>With a glimpse at Rostock wheat—</div> + <div class='line'>I have seen the whole already</div> + <div class='line in2'>In his Economic sheet.</div> + <div class='line'>See! upon the backward benches</div> + <div class='line in2'>There reposes stealthy Peel—</div> + <div class='line'>Dreaming, doubtless, that he’s smothered</div> + <div class='line in2'>In an atmosphere of meal.</div> + <div class='line'>Palmerston’s recumbent yonder—</div> + <div class='line in2'>Hawes is sleeping by the door;</div> + <div class='line'>Even Russell’s tiny nostril</div> + <div class='line in2'>Quivers with a nascent snore.</div> + <div class='line'>Let me go—nay, do not hold me</div> + <div class='line in2'>So intensely by the coat;</div> + <div class='line'>I assure you, on my honour,</div> + <div class='line in2'>I’ll be back in time to vote.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Oh, the night-winds wander sweetly</div> + <div class='line in2'>O’er my hot and throbbing brow!</div> + <div class='line'>What a contrast is the moonlight</div> + <div class='line in2'>To the scene I left just now!</div> + <div class='line'>Let me walk a little onward</div> + <div class='line in2'>Underneath the budding trees,</div> + <div class='line'>Where the faint perfume is wafted</div> + <div class='line in2'>On the pinions of the breeze:</div> + <div class='line'>Overhead a thousand starlets</div> + <div class='line in2'>Glisten in the robe of night,</div> + <div class='line'>And the earth is wrapped in slumber</div> + <div class='line in2'>With a pure and calm delight.</div> + <div class='line'>By your leave, good Master Tufnell,</div> + <div class='line in2'>I shall stay a little here;</div> + <div class='line'>You have plenty noodles yonder</div> + <div class='line in2'>Who are safe enough to cheer</div> + <div class='line'>Wilson’s dunderhead discourses,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Or the cant of Labouchere!</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>What a dolt was I to credit</div> + <div class='line in2'>All these wild free-trading schemes!</div> + <div class='line'>Cobden’s calico predictions,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Porter’s importation dreams!</div> + <div class='line'>For I loathed the mean alliance,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Even when I chose to wheel</div> + <div class='line'>In the wake of him who led us,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Pinning foolish faith to Peel.</div> + <div class='line'>Was I mad, to place my honour</div> + <div class='line in2'>In this most disgusting fix?</div> + <div class='line'>Half the world was rather crazy</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the days of Forty-six.</div> + <div class='line'>O the happy times of premiums!</div> + <div class='line in2'>O the balmy touch of scrip!</div> + <div class='line'>Would that I had sold my bargains</div> + <div class='line in2'>Ere they had me on the hip!</div> + <div class='line'>Every day a new allotment</div> + <div class='line in2'>Promised shining heaps of gold;</div> + <div class='line'>Every day the mounting market</div> + <div class='line in2'>Swelled my hopes a hundredfold.</div> + <div class='line'>I remember old Sir Robert,</div> + <div class='line in2'>With his shirt-sleeves rolled on high,</div> + <div class='line'>Lust of speculation gleaming</div> + <div class='line in2'>In his gray and greedy eye;</div> + <div class='line'>Turning sods with silver shovel,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Celebrating that event</div> + <div class='line'>With a speech on competition</div> + <div class='line in2'>At the opening of the Trent.</div> + <div class='line'>I have dined with royal Hudson,</div> + <div class='line in2'>And may dine again, perhaps,</div> + <div class='line'>Should another exaltation</div> + <div class='line in2'>Follow on this drear collapse.</div> + <div class='line'>All had drunk the wine of gambling,</div> + <div class='line in2'>All had quaffed the share champagne,</div> + <div class='line'>Wisdom’s warnings were rejected,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Prudence preached to us in vain.</div> + <div class='line'>Madness, frenzy, lust of riches,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Reigned within the minds of all,</div> + <div class='line'>That, we thought, must answer Peter</div> + <div class='line in2'>Which had served the turn of Paul.</div> + <div class='line'>If, by scorning honest labour,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Men made fortunes in a trice,</div> + <div class='line'>What might be the luck of Britain,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Casting with Free-traders’ dice?</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>I am strongly of opinion—</div> + <div class='line in2'>Looking to my country’s good—</div> + <div class='line'>That I’ve stuck by him of Tamworth</div> + <div class='line in2'>Rather longer than I should.</div> + <div class='line'>As concerning next election,</div> + <div class='line in2'>I’ve received some pregnant hints,</div> + <div class='line'>Both from country correspondents,</div> + <div class='line in2'>And the leading public prints.</div> + <div class='line'>Cultivation’s at a discount,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Rents are very slowly paid:</div> + <div class='line'>Some aver that sly Sir Robert</div> + <div class='line in2'>Has contrived to coin his spade;</div> + <div class='line'>Neither is there much progression</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the wool and cotton trade.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>What the deuce would men be after?</div> + <div class='line in2'>If those fellows had their will,</div> + <div class='line'>England would be straight converted</div> + <div class='line in2'>To a monstrous cotton-mill.</div> + <div class='line'>Everywhere would ghastly chimneys</div> + <div class='line in2'>Vomit forth their odious mist,</div> + <div class='line'>Settling, like the breath of Satan,</div> + <div class='line in2'>O’er this island of the blest;</div> + <div class='line'>When the only occupation</div> + <div class='line in2'>Would be spinning yarn and twist!</div> + <div class='line'>Spin away, my brave compatriots!</div> + <div class='line in2'>Spin as largely as you can;</div> + <div class='line'>Who shall dare to set a limit</div> + <div class='line in2'>To the sale of shirts for man?</div> + <div class='line'>Whilst the raw material’s granted,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Spin away with might and main;</div> + <div class='line'>Use the time that’s still vouchsafed you,</div> + <div class='line in2'>For it may not come again.</div> + <div class='line'>There’s a smartish kind of notion</div> + <div class='line in2'>Running in the Yankees’ head,</div> + <div class='line'>That they need not be indebted</div> + <div class='line in2'>To your kindness for their thread.</div> + <div class='line'>In the meanwhile go for cheapness,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Smite the farmers hip and thigh—</div> + <div class='line'>Making honest people bankrupt</div> + <div class='line in2'>Is the way to make them buy.</div> + <div class='line'>Starve the masses of the nation,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Drive them all into the mills;</div> + <div class='line'>Clear the plains and sweep the valleys,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Desolate the Highland hills.</div> + <div class='line'>Let the rough hard-fisted yeoman,</div> + <div class='line in2'>All too clumsy for the loom,</div> + <div class='line'>Migrate to the western prairies,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Where for labour still there’s room.</div> + <div class='line'>Let the peasant and the cottar</div> + <div class='line in2'>Quit the useless plough and spade—</div> + <div class='line'>Built for them are costly mansions,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Raised for them are rates in aid.</div> + <div class='line'>To the workhouse let them gather,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Or by theft attain the jail;</div> + <div class='line'>Honesty has bread and water,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Crime is fed on beef and ale.</div> + <div class='line'>O the glorious consummation</div> + <div class='line in2'>Of this truly Christian scheme,</div> + <div class='line'>Such as never saint or prophet</div> + <div class='line in2'>Witnessed in ecstatic dream!</div> + <div class='line'>Wasted fields and crowded cities,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Swarming streets and desert downs,</div> + <div class='line'>All the light of life concentred</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the focus of the towns!</div> + <div class='line'>Yea, exult, ye foes of England!</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the downfall of the race</div> + <div class='line'>That of yore, in fiery combat,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Met your fathers face to face:</div> + <div class='line'>For the pride of lusty manhood,</div> + <div class='line in2'>And the giant Saxon frame,</div> + <div class='line'>Never more shall be embattled</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the coming fields of fame;</div> + <div class='line'>Shrunken sinews, sallow faces,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Twisted limbs, and factory scars—</div> + <div class='line'>These shall mark your next opponents</div> + <div class='line in2'>In the European wars.</div> + <div class='line'>Not such yeomen as with Alfred</div> + <div class='line in2'>Won their freedom long ago—</div> + <div class='line'>Such as on the plain of Crecy</div> + <div class='line in2'>Triumphed o’er a worthy foe—</div> + <div class='line'>Such as drove invasion backward,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Have their homes in Britain now!</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>This at least our sons may utter,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Blushing for their fathers’ shame—</div> + <div class='line'>Brain me with a billy-roller,</div> + <div class='line in2'>If I longer play this game,</div> + <div class='line'>Either for the crimp of Tamworth,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Or his first lieutenant, Graham!</div> + <div class='line'>No, by Jove! I will not suffer</div> + <div class='line in2'>Degradation of the kind—</div> + <div class='line'>What care I for Johnny Russell,</div> + <div class='line in2'>With his hungry host behind?</div> + <div class='line'>Let them blunder on insanely,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Digging holes within the sand,</div> + <div class='line'>Thinking, like the stupid ostrich,</div> + <div class='line in2'>To escape the hunter’s hand.</div> + <div class='line'>Let them shirk the facts before them,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Comforting themselves the while,</div> + <div class='line'>That their Economic asses</div> + <div class='line in2'>Can the public ear beguile.</div> + <div class='line'>Lord! to hear the blockheads braying,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Spite of proof before their eyes—</div> + <div class='line'>“I assure the house,” quoth Wilson,</div> + <div class='line in2'>“Wheat must very shortly rise.</div> + <div class='line'>It was so-and-so at Dantzic</div> + <div class='line in2'>More than twenty years ago;</div> + <div class='line'>Therefore wait a little longer—</div> + <div class='line in2'>’Twill be up again, I know.”</div> + <div class='line'>Jolly Villiers, on the other</div> + <div class='line in2'>Hand, with exultation vows,</div> + <div class='line'>More than one-and-ninety millions</div> + <div class='line in2'>Have been plundered from the ploughs;</div> + <div class='line'>And he hopes before another</div> + <div class='line in2'>Year shall run its destined course,</div> + <div class='line'>To congratulate the public</div> + <div class='line in2'>That affairs are worse and worse.</div> + <div class='line'>I, for one, am sick and weary</div> + <div class='line in2'>Of these everlasting prigs;</div> + <div class='line'>Quite disgusted with the shuffling</div> + <div class='line in2'>Of the miserable Whigs;</div> + <div class='line'>With their impudent averments,</div> + <div class='line in2'>And their flagrant thimblerigs!</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Hark, the midnight chimes! I fancy</div> + <div class='line in2'>The palaver’s nearly over:</div> + <div class='line'>For to-night let Johnny Russell</div> + <div class='line in2'>And his colleagues rest in clover.</div> + <div class='line'>But, upon the next occasion,</div> + <div class='line in2'>When there’s talk about a tax,</div> + <div class='line'>Whether it shall weigh on foreign</div> + <div class='line in2'>Or on native British backs,</div> + <div class='line'>Master Tufnell must excuse me,</div> + <div class='line in2'>If I seek another lobby</div> + <div class='line'>Than the one that’s now frequented</div> + <div class='line in2'>By my former chief, Sir Bobby!</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_589'>589</span> + <h2 class='c002'>TENOR OF THE TRADE CIRCULARS.</h2> +</div> +<div class='lg-container-r c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><em>$1</em></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TO THE EDITOR OF BLACKWOOD’S MAGAZINE.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Sir,—That a period of severe commercial +suffering is approaching us, in +which the ruinous condition of the +agricultural classes will recoil disastrously, +not only upon the selfish +Free-trade agitators in the manufacturing +districts, but also upon the +importers of foreign produce, the +broker, the factor, the shopkeeper, +and the labourers in our towns, has +for some months been patent to all +who have dispassionately watched the +current of events, and been able to +draw correct conclusions from what is +going on before their eyes. It is not +to official tables of exports and imports +that such men look as the +indices of the nation’s prosperity. +They turn rather to <em>$1</em> of these +operations, as disclosed in our commercial +circulars; to the degree of +confidence displayed by bankers in +their dealings with their customers, +and by merchants in their transactions +with each other; to the movements +of produce in our leading +markets, and to the amount of activity +which characterises the internal trade +and the consumption of the country. +They are guided, too, very materially, +by the general feeling of merchants +and traders, expressed in their daily +communications with each other, on +‘Change, or in the intercourse of +private life. Such a mode I propose +to employ, in investigating the real +condition of the cotton manufacturing +districts of the north of England; and +the result of this investigation, which +I shall now proceed to lay before +your readers, will, I fear, dissipate +somewhat rudely the dream of prosperity +in which her Majesty’s +Ministers, and their supporters in +Parliament and throughout the country, +are just now indulging.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In pursuing such an inquiry, the +condition of the port of Liverpool, the +great mart of this portion of the kingdom, +naturally suggests itself as of +prominent interest. In this port, by the +result of our vast operations in imported +foreign and colonial produce, the +actual results of our export trade in +manufactures, and the consuming +power of the large population which +draw their supplies from it, can be +tested with considerable fairness. In +an article in your last Number, I find +a quotation from the monthly circular +of Messrs T. and H. Littledale & Co., +whom you truly designate as perhaps +the greatest brokers in the world. A +portion of this I must re-quote, in +order to enable your readers the +better to appreciate some later observations +of these gentlemen. On +the 4th of March, Messrs Littledale +wrote:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“<em>$1</em> The +serious falling off in the deliveries of +sugar, coffee, tea, and cocoa, for the two +months of this year, compared with those +of the last, but too truly confirms these +complaints, and are perhaps the most +alarming features in our present prospects. +As given in Prince’s public +prices current of the 1st inst., they stand +as follows:—</p> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <th class='c011'></th> + <th class='c013'>1850.</th> + <th class='c013'>1849.</th> + <th class='c013'> </th> + <th class='c014'>1848.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>Sugar,</td> + <td class='c012'>37,006</td> + <td class='c012'>43,408</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c014'>42,368 tons</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>Coffee,</td> + <td class='c012'>3,795,712</td> + <td class='c012'>4,907,691</td> + <td class='c013'>pounds</td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>Cocoa,</td> + <td class='c012'>450,774</td> + <td class='c012'>558,888</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>Tea,</td> + <td class='c012'>5,375,648</td> + <td class='c012'>5,502,931</td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + <td class='c014'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>The circular of this house, dated +the 4th of April, has since been published, +in which they confirm their +previous statement; and indeed show +that the condition of the country, as +tested by its consumption of imported +produce, is retrograding. We quote +the following as their summary:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“<em>$1</em>—Another month +of dull spiritless trade, as well in our produce +markets as in the manufacturing +districts of Lancashire. The demand for +consumption has somewhat improved from +exhaustion of stocks in the hands of +dealers; but we regret to find the deficiency +in deliveries of the principal +articles noticed in our circular of last +month (tea excepted) has still further +increased, which speaks ill for the internal +state of the country; in fact, <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Corn has fallen so low in value, that +<em>$1</em>. +This falls immediately on the wholesale +dealers, from them on the importing merchants, +and eventually, if no revival take +place, must act with double force on the +manufacturers in a diminished home +trade and in crippled exports, which +latter must ever depend on our power to +take the products of other countries as +returns for our manufactures. To what +class, then, are the present ruinous low +prices of grain a blessing? We emphatically +say <em>$1</em>; indeed it is quite +impossible for so large a portion of the +community as that connected with agriculture +to be depressed, and the other +portions long to continue prosperous; and +probably the best impulse we could receive, +in the present inactive state of our +colonial markets, would be an advance of +5s., to 10s. per qr., in the price of wheat. +There is no doubt, also, that the fearful +depreciation of railway property, which +appears a bottomless abyss of mismanagement +and ruin, tells cruelly on the available +resources of a very large proportion +of the people, and adds seriously to the +embarrassment of trade.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>In glancing over this circular in +detail, we find opposite nearly every +important item the words, “has +moved off at easier prices,” “is less +inquired for,” “is dull,” or some other +phrase significant of commercial depression; +yet, during the preceding +month, the stocks on hand, owing to +the prevalence of easterly winds, +which had kept a large number of +vessels windbound outside the Channel, +had received very little augmentation. +It must be borne in mind +that the dealings of this firm extend +over nearly every description of +foreign produce—certainly every large +one, timber and iron excepted;—and +that the money amount of their annual +transactions may be reckoned by many +millions sterling. Further inquiries +amongst other houses enable me to +state confidently that, with the exception +of a few trifling articles, the mass +of the produce, which is pouring into +Liverpool, arrives at an unprofitable +market. In cotton alone, amongst +the leading imports, a small margin +of profit may at present be secured, +the abundance of unemployed money +in the hands of the banks allowing the +speculators, for a short crop, to inflate +prices. Such a case, however, tells +nothing in favour of a sound state of +things. The question of most material +import is, whether either the +foreign demand, or the home consumption, +is so urgently requiring +supply, as to enable the manufacturer +of cotton goods to concede the advanced +rates demanded for the staple, +by the American grower, or the +speculator at home. Present appearances +scarcely warrant such an expectation. +The following opinion +upon the subject, given by a leading +firm in the trade, Messrs George +Holt & Co., in their circular of the +12th April, expresses the opinion of +all except the most sanguine:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“We can hardly account for this tendency +of prices,”—(they had slightly advanced +during the week)—“or lay before +our readers any new circumstances affecting +the value of the staple. No doubt +confidence in the shortness of the American +crop remains, and probably is on the +increase. We may add also that stocks +in spinners’ hands are at a low ebb. Still +<em>$1</em>”</p> + +<p class='c007'>“Depression so long in existence!” +A great majority of the public, with +the speech from the Throne, and the +prosperity-speeches of movers and +seconders of the Address before them, +imagined that the cotton districts, at +all events, were flourishing!</p> + +<p class='c008'>A later circular of the produce +market, published upon the authority +of the entire brokers of the port, exhibits +the state of the general produce +market in even a worse light than +that of Messrs Littledale, quoted +above. I append it here:—</p> + +<p class='c025'>“<span class='sc'>Liverpool Prices Current, Imports</span>, +&c. for the week ending <em>$1</em>. Arranged by a Committee of +Brokers.—<span class='sc'>T. M. Myers</span>, <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“<span class='sc'>Sugar.</span>—Holders continuing to offer +freely, there has been a fair amount of +business, but at rather lower prices; +450 hhds. B. P., of which 300 were new +Barbadoes, sold at 34s. 6d. to 41s., 3500 +bags Bengal at 34s. to 40s., 1600 bags +Khaur at 28s. 6d., and 3500 bags Mauritius +at 36s. to 36s. 6d., being a decline of +6d. to 1s. per cwt.—<em>$1</em>—180 hhds. +Porto Rico, of the new crop, sold at 40s. +per cwt. duty paid; the export demand +continues slack, and sales are only 24 +cases, 150 bags and brls. Brazil and 100 +boxes Havanna.—<span class='sc'>Molasses.</span>—The new +arrivals coming in have induced holders +of last year’s crop to take much lower +prices than have been hitherto accepted; +the sales are 500 puns. Porto Rico at +15s. 6d., 400 Cuba at 15s. 6d. to 16s., and +300 Barbadoes at 15s. per cwt.; the two +cargoes of new Porto Rico, just arrived, +have been sent to store, the importers +not being willing to accept the low price +offered by the Trade; the quotations are +reduced accordingly.—<span class='sc'>Coffee.</span>—The recent +import of Jamaica has been freely +offered, and the slight improvement that +existed ten days ago is entirely lost, +prices being now as low as ever. 80 +tierces have been sold, at 46s. 9d. to 54s. +for low to fine ordinary, and 62s. to 100s. +for low to fine middling—the latter +quotation being 15s. below the rates of +January. 100 bags native Ceylon were +sold early in the week at 52s. 6d., but +that price is not now obtainable, the +nominal value being about 48s. per cwt.—A +small parcel of Bahia Cocoa sold at +33s. per cwt.—Nothing done in <span class='sc'>Ginger</span> +or <span class='sc'>Pepper</span>, but a small lot of <span class='sc'>Pimento</span> +brought 6⅛d. per lb., being an extreme +price.—<span class='sc'>Rice.</span>—No sales of Carolina; +13,000 bags East brought 7s. 6d. for +broken, and 8s. 6d. to 9s. 9d. for low to +good white, being a decline of fully 6d. +per cwt.—<span class='sc'>Rum</span> is difficult of sale, except +at lower prices; the business consists of +200 puns. Demerara, 32 to 37 per cent +O. P. at 2s. 2d. to 2s. 4½d. per gallon.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>There is a further decline, it will be +seen, in every important article; and +the most experienced houses, I find, +are at a loss to tell at what point it +will stop. It is generally admitted +that, but for the accommodation +which the large holders can command, +there must have been a general crash +long ere this, which would have overwhelmed +half the mercantile community +in ruin. This would have reacted +fearfully upon the shopkeepers +in the interior of the country, whose +credits would have been suddenly +stopped, whilst their overdue accounts +would necessarily have been sternly +exacted. In fact the bulk of this class +at present stand upon the verge of an +abyss, into which a sudden panic may +hurry them at any moment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It will doubtless be urged that this +state of the produce market is only +temporary; that importations, having +become profitless, will be discontinued, +and the supply thus become equal to +the demand. This would be the natural +course of things under a sound +system; but no sign of cessation of +imports is at present to be seen; and +it is much to be questioned whether +any such cessation can take place, +without throwing a large portion of +our manufacturing population into +very serious distress, if not into +anarchy and outbreak. If importation +of produce is restricted, exportation +must be restricted in proportion. +The manufacturer has thrown himself +into almost total dependence upon +the foreign buyer of his wares. With a +flourishing home market for manufactures, +a glut of produce might be got +rid of without difficulty. But the same +cause—an inability of the masses to +consume—which depresses the prices +of produce, now exists equally with +respect to the home market for manufactured +goods; and to stop production +and exports, with a view to +enhance the value of the stocks of produce +already received in remittance +from the foreigner, would add another +element to the perplexity in which the +nation is plunged. This portion of +the subject, however, it is not for me +to discuss here. I only refer to it in +order to express the opinions which +are beginning to be mooted in influential +commercial circles.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In order to be enabled to state, +as much as possible upon my own +knowledge, the extent to which +the internal markets of the country +are depressed, and the consumption +of produce is declining, I have instituted +inquiries among some of the +leading houses in Liverpool, who +send travellers into the country, +and the reports given are fully as discouraging +as those given by Messrs +Littledale, as to the difficulty both of +making sales and collecting accounts. +From a gentleman connected with a +leading firm in the tea trade, I learn +that in the country over which their +travellers prosecute their business, +the orders which they receive are for +very limited quantities, and are, in +fact, demonstrative of what, in mercantile +parlance, is styled “a hand to +mouth” business. Excessive caution +and want of spirit characterise the +feelings of the retail trade everywhere.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Some of these parties, he suggests, +may have locked up a portion of their +capital in railway investments, or perhaps +lost it. Still, hand to mouth +orders—orders for a week’s instead of +a month’s consumption, would tell in +the long run, if they served to make +up the aggregate of past years. But +they do not. The consumption of this +necessary article is found to be declining; +and the objection of the +retail dealer to order as largely as +usual is accounted for, in the majority +of cases, by the inability of +the farming and middle classes to +pay their accounts as punctually as +heretofore. It must be borne in +mind, in treating of the consumption +of such an article as tea—and +I may include coffee, sugar, &c.—that +they frequently form the substitute +for the poor man’s meal. When +the consumption of tea declines, in +times acknowledged to be bad, it is +the worst sign of the condition of the +community.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another gentleman connected with +an extensive firm in the grocery trade, +gives still more discouraging accounts. +The travellers of this firm extend their +operations over the whole of the Midland +Counties and the North of England. +Their reports to their employers +are most lugubrious. For +example, one of them, a few weeks +ago, remitted home £120, whereas his +accounts due were about £1500. As +to sales, these are most difficult to +make. Consumption is gradually +and rapidly declining. Retail dealers +in the country towns complain that +the farmers no longer expend the +money they have been accustomed to +do, when visiting markets; but confine +their consumption of food more +and more to the products raised upon +their own lands. One of the travellers +of this firm journeys through the +counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, +in which for many years an +extensive trade has been carried on +in the curing of bacon and hams. +This trade he represents as now +almost extinct, or rapidly becoming so—the +parties engaged in it being unable +to compete with the importers +of the low-priced hams and bacon of +America. Of this class are the farmers +of the country which owns Sir +James Graham as their feudal lord, +and of whom that distinguished statesman +asserted, in the debate on the +Address, that they must be in a state +of plethoric prosperity, inasmuch as +he had never had his rents better paid +than at his last rent-day. The worthy +baronet forgot to say that rent is the +last debt that a tenant farmer will +omit to pay, the landlord having a +power which overrides the claims of +all other creditors. If he could have +added that his farmers’ tradesmen’s +bills had been equally well paid, he +would have imparted some information +most gratifying to the community. +Neither this house, nor any +other that I have conversed with, can +see any termination to the present +declining state of things. It is becoming +admitted, amongst the circles +with which their travellers mix, that +reductions of rent are wholly unequal +to meet the emergency of the present +crisis.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is proper that I should refer to +one trade in Liverpool which is most +prosperous—in fact, the only prosperous +one. This is the trade of the +merchants engaged in, and others +connected with, the emigration of our +fellow-countrymen, to seek a home +in foreign lands. The following are +the statistics of this trade, kindly furnished +me by a gentleman officially +connected with the shipping of emigrants +from Liverpool:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='c013'></th> + <th class='c013'> </th> + <th class='c013'>Ships.</th> + <th class='c014'>Emigrants.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Emigration in</td> + <td class='c013'>1847</td> + <td class='c013'>514</td> + <td class='c014'>128,447</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Do.</td> + <td class='c013'>1848</td> + <td class='c013'>519</td> + <td class='c014'>124,522</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Do.</td> + <td class='c013'>1849</td> + <td class='c013'>565</td> + <td class='c014'>146,162</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>During the present year the emigration +has been—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>January,</td> + <td class='c012'>6943</td> + <td class='c014'>Persons.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>February,</td> + <td class='c012'>8779</td> + <td class='c014'>„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>March,</td> + <td class='c012'>16,783</td> + <td class='c014'>„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Cabin emigrants,</td> + <td class='c012'>705</td> + <td class='c014'>„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>At the present moment, notwithstanding +the large increase in the +shipping—principally American—provided +for the trade, berths, and +these at very high prices, are most +difficult to be got, unless detention +is submitted to. Moreover, a great +change has taken place in the kind +of persons emigrating. Last year, +the same gentleman informs me, four-fifths +of the parties emigrating consisted +of substantial small farmers +from Ireland and elsewhere, and +skilled artisans from this country. +This year, a very superior class of +English farmers are leaving a land +which no longer affords them a living +in exchange for their honest industry. +The quays of Liverpool daily present +a scene, which few thinking men can +rejoice in, and which the country will +have to regret. The aged as well as +the mature, mothers with infants at +the breast, and stalwart youths and +maidens, going from vessel to vessel, +to select that particular one whose departure +from our shores will cut for +ever their connexion with the country +which they have loved, and in which +they leave behind the graves of +their fathers. It is melancholy to +think upon the misery there must be +amidst all this activity, with the momentary +absence of regret for old scenes, +and enjoyment of the new ones, into +which these poor people find themselves +thrown. Yet we cannot but +feel satisfied that they are about to +be bettered in condition by the change.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The depression complained of, as +existing in Liverpool, is by no means +confined to the classes immediately +connected with the staple commerce +of the port, but pervades all classes +of the community without exception. +The produce of half a world is stored +in the warehouses of Liverpool, or +floating in her magnificent docks. +The capital of her merchants is embarked +in every clime, and her +shipping crowds every foreign port; +yet her industrious population are +plunged in suffering and embarrassment, +and a portion of them—her +labouring classes, pressed down by +the influx of pauper competition from +the hordes of immigrants from ruined +Ireland—are continually upon the +verge of actual starvation. It is distressing +to witness the shifts to which +tradesmen are compelled to resort, +from time to time, in order to meet +engagements, and to stave off, by +sacrifices of their goods, the day of +ruin. “Selling off” announcements, +under all kinds of pretexts, meet the +eye in every direction, and yet tempt +in vain. The whole community appear +to be economising; and tardily +paid bills, and reduced expenditure +in the comforts, and even in some of +the necessities of life, is the rule, not +the exception. The extent to which +this is carried, and the suffering existing +amongst the middle classes, may +be judged of by the fact that it has +already affected the incomes of many +of the clergy of the town, by diminishing +the numbers of their congregations +and the yield of pew-rents. +In one instance which has been +mentioned to me, the income of a +clergyman, universally beloved, has +been thus cut down from £600 +a-year, to little more than half; +and this is far from being a solitary +case.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The result of this state of things is +already being felt in a strong reaction, +amongst those once the loudest in its +advocacy, against the system of Free +Trade. Doubts are freely hazarded +with respect to the soundness of a +policy which has produced such fruit; +and the question is upon the lips of +numbers,—“Where is the prosperity +which was promised to us?” If Mr +Cobden or Sir Robert Peel were to +present themselves in Liverpool at +the present moment, they would have +to answer this question, not to the +uninquiring crowds who would have +cheered their fallacies three years +ago, but to men who have reflected +deeply, and had deep cause for such +reflection. The Right Hon. Baronet, +in particular, would perhaps have to +reply to another question, and to go +a little back in the history of his political +life. He would be asked not +only, Who had benefited by his +Free-trade measures?—a difficult one +enough to answer—but what class of +the community had been aggrandised +<em>$1</em>. To this vital subject the minds +of the intelligent mercantile community +of Liverpool, of all shades of +politics, are being rapidly directed. +The Free-trader sees, in the operation +of our monetary laws, one leading +source of the evil brought upon the +country by the carrying out of his +favourite measure. He is prepared +to acknowledge that Free-trade and +a Restricted Currency are incompatible +things. And the mercantile body +of all political parties still remember +the disasters of 1847 and 1848; and +the insulting manner in which their +prayer, in the October of the previous +year, for relief from the unexampled +money pressure, which was +then prostrating the most extensive +and solvent firms, was denied by a +flippant and shallow Chancellor of the +Exchequer, although at that moment +the nation was within a few days of +bankruptcy. These things are not +forgotten; and, from the impressions +which I have been able to form, from +a close examination of popular opinion, +I should not be surprised to see the +influential community of Liverpool +throwing politics and party to the +winds, and uniting their efforts to +procure a relief from the monstrous +system which at present withers and +strangles in its grasp the industry +of England—which tempts us one +day, by its lavish kindness, to erect +vast structures of commercial enterprise +and usefulness; and the +next day dashes them into wrecks +before our eyes, to be scrambled +for by greedy extortioners and selfish +usurers.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is the fear of this power which, +to a great extent, is at the present +moment paralysing the enterprise of +the commercial communities, which +would otherwise have succeeded in +neutralising a portion at least, but +certainly only a portion, of the ruinous +effects of Free-trade. A few +years ago, no community embarked +more largely in those railway investments, +so strongly recommended to +them by the fosterer of the system, Sir +Robert Peel, than the mercantile +people of Liverpool. The extent to +which such investments were encouraged +by the lavish offer of banking +facilities to merchants and others, +may be judged of by the fact, that +the Directors of one Liverpool Bank +were, a few weeks ago, compelled to +acknowledge to their shareholders, +that nearly the whole of their subscribed +capital was advanced upon +railway stock; and that their Rest, +amounting to £100,000, had entirely +disappeared. This species of security +is now, by the caution with +which capitalists act, rendered totally +unavailable for the purpose of raising +money, when required for legitimate +commercial purposes. Hence the +timid apprehension with which men, +thus situated, regard the accumulation +of stocks of produce, for which +no remunerative market at present +offers itself; and the consumption of +which is so obviously on the decline. +Hence also the pressure to sell, when +they see cargo after cargo pouring in +to augment those stocks; the unwillingness +to part with funds, for which +the shopkeeper and the tradesman +are eagerly longing, to enable them +to sustain their tottering credit; and +that total suspension of all internal +enterprise and improvement, which +is driving so many thousands of our +skilled workmen to other countries, +and the labourer to that desolate +resort for the very poor—the Union +Workhouse. To the attempt to carry +out a Free-trade, involving the holding +of large stocks of produce and +extended operations in foreign markets, +with a currency artificially restricted +by the last Banking Act +of Sir Robert Peel, and further +restricted by the caution with which +bankers are now conducting their +business, since the severe warning +inflicted upon them in 1847, is +attributable not only the commercial +depression already noticed, but also +that fearful sacrifice of realised capital, +which has taken place from the +decline in the saleable value of railway +shares, and which, in Liverpool +alone, has rendered hundreds of once +wealthy men comparatively poor +ones, and brought many, in the +decline of their days, to a condition +lower than that even in which they +began the world.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Such is the condition generally of +the mercantile community of Liverpool—that +port of all others in the +kingdom which was most largely to +be benefited by the advent of the +Free-trade system. From the apex to +the base of the social fabric all is uncertainty, +fear, and suffering, too intense +any longer to be concealed from +the most superficial observer; and the +crisis has not yet been reached. The +reaction has still to come from the +manufacturing districts, which, up to +within the past few months, in the +enjoyment of a moderate amount of +activity, caused by a temporary revival +of the export demand, are only +now beginning to feel the results of +the system which, in their selfishness, +they invented for their own aggrandisement, +at the expense of the industry +of the whole empire.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The avowed object of the Free-trader +was to stimulate the export trade in cotton +goods, which it was always boasted +was the most valuable to the manufacturer. +So far as regards the quantity +of the raw material consumed for +the export trade, this is an undisputed +fact; but that the amount of skill and +labour employed in it is equal to that +expended upon goods consumed in the +home market is not true. In order to +arrive at an idea of the relative value +of the two trades, it will be necessary +for me to bring before the reader a +few figures and authorities. In the +excellent <cite>Commercial Glance</cite>, compiled +for many years by the late Mr John +Burn of Manchester, and now continued +by his son, the following statement +was given, as the mode in which +the cotton spun in 1845 was disposed +of. I take that year as being one of +great prosperity in the home market, +and as showing the state of things antecedent +to the introduction of free +trade in corn.</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr><th class='c010' colspan='3'><span class='sc'>Statement of the Cotton Spun in England and Scotland in 1845, and of the quantity of Yarn produced, showing also how the quantity spun in England was disposed of.</span></th></tr> + <tr> + <th class='c003'></th> + <th class='c026'> </th> + <th class='c027'>Lbs.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Total cotton consumed, in lbs.,</td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'>555,527,283</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Allowed for loss in spinning, 1¾ oz. per lb.,</td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'>60,760,796</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Total yarn produced in England and Scotland,</td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'>494,766,487</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Deduct spun in Scotland in 1845,</td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'>27,737,022</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'><hr></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Total spun in England in 1845,</td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'>467,029,465</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'> </td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='c003'></th> + <th class='c029'>Lbs.</th> + <th class='c028'> </th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Exported in yarn during the year,</td> + <td class='c026'>131,937,935</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Exported in thread do.,</td> + <td class='c026'>2,567,705</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Exported in manufactured cotton goods,</td> + <td class='c026'>302,360,687</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Estimated quantity of yarn sent to Scotland and Ireland,</td> + <td class='c026'>10,734,859</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Exported in mixed manufactures, consumed in cotton banding, healds, candle and lamp wick, waddings, socks, calender bowls, paper, umbrellas, hats, and loss in manufacturing goods,</td> + <td class='c026'>31,655,230</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'>Balance left for home consumption and stock, 1st January</td> + <td class='c026'>87,773,049</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'><hr></td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'>467,029,465</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c003'> </td> + <td class='c026'>===========</td> + <td class='c028'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>I have the most perfect confidence +in the correctness of Mr Burn’s calculations, +being personally acquainted +with that gentleman, and knowing the +excellent sources from which he derives +his information, and the care +which he devotes to the accuracy of +all his facts. The result to which the +above statement leads is, that the consumption +of raw cotton in goods sold +in our home markets is 18·36 per cent +only, upon the total quantity of yarn +spun in England. This, a superficial +observer will say, is a very trivial +quantity for our boasted home consumption. +Let us see, however, in +what stage of manufacture, and in +what description of goods, the cotton +taken off by foreign markets principally +consists. In the first place, +131,937,935 lbs., or 28 per cent of the +total cotton spun, was exported, as +shown in the table above, in the shape +of yarn, an article but one remove +from the raw material, and the manufacture +of which employs machinery +principally, and leaves only a small +margin of profit to the country. With +respect to the description of goods, in +the manufacture of which for the +foreign market the remainder of the raw +material is consumed, little difficulty +is felt by persons acquainted practically +with the subject. Mr M‘Culloch, +in his <cite>Dictionary of Commerce</cite>, +page 456 of the edition of 1847—the +latest I have before me—remarks upon +the facts as striking, that, notwithstanding +the superiority of our machinery, +and this branch thus being +one in which we most greatly excel +our foreign rivals, the proportion of +fine to coarse yarns spun has materially +decreased; and that, in fact, the +actual quantity of fine yarns has decreased, +whilst the total consumption of +cotton has quadrupled during the last +twenty-five years. That the quantity +has decreased to this extreme extent +may well be doubted, although the +cheapening which has taken place in +silk and other fabrics during this period +has, we know, to a great extent +caused the disuse, for home consumption, +of many once highly prized +articles of the cotton manufacture. +We may accept, however, the admission +of Mr M‘Culloch, as bearing +upon the quality of those goods which +are taken off by the foreign trade, and +of which the great increase in the +manufacture must consist. These are, +confessedly, the coarse, heavy fabrics, +into the manufacture of which the +<em>$1</em> amount of skill and labour +enters. We approach then, from this +point, to a view of the comparative +value to the country of the home and +the export trade in cotton goods. In +the same work, Mr M‘Culloch estimates +the total annual value of the +cotton manufacture of the kingdom +at £36,000,000 sterling, of which +£10,000,000 is put down for the cost +of the raw material, £17,000,000 for +wages, and £9,000,000 for profits, +wages of superintendence, and cost of +machinery, coals, &c. I am a little +inclined to believe that this calculation +is underdrawn, the leaning of +the author being to exaggerate the +importance of the export trade, the +declared value of which in 1845 was +£26,119,231, leaving a little under +£10,000,000 as the consumption +of the home market, or about two-fifths +of the consumption of the foreign. +In estimating the value to the +country, however, of the home trade, +we have a right to take into consideration +the fact that the great component +material of the goods which +we consume at home consists of labour; +for, whilst the proportion of the +raw material consumed in the home +trade was little over one-fifth of that +consumed in the foreign, the value of +the goods was two-fifths.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Admitting, however, Mr M‘Culloch’s +version of the case to be correct, +but at the same time bearing in mind +the fact of his being a somewhat prejudiced +authority, let us apply the +figures given to the present condition +of the manufacturing interest. The +average quantity of cotton taken +weekly from Liverpool for consumers’ +use, was, from 1st of January to 12th +of April 1849, 29,475 bales. It has +been this year, up to the same date, +23,176 bales—a falling off of 6299 +bales weekly, or a little above a fifth of +the preceding year’s importations. Perhaps +a portion of this decline in apparent +consumption may be accounted for by +the fact that the stock in the hands of +spinners has, to a considerable extent, +been allowed by them to become exhausted, +through their unwillingness +to pay the advanced prices recently +demanded for the raw material. With +respect to the prudence of this policy, +and its probable effect in still further +increasing the embarrassment of +affairs, I shall have something to say by +and by; at present, the question which +presses is—In what market has this +decreased consumption occurred? The +answer must be—In that market which +pays for the greatest amount of labour +expended upon the manufacture of +cotton goods—in the home market. +I have not within my reach the most +authentic record of the Cotton Trade, +for the period up to which I should +desire to extend my inquiries—viz., +<cite>Burn’s Commercial Glance</cite>, which is +only made up half yearly. I have, +however, before me this gentleman’s +<cite>Monthly Colonial Circular</cite>, dated +March the 18th, in which I observe a +considerable increase in the exports +of plain calicoes, printed and dyed +calicoes, and cotton yarn to the following +markets, with a few exceptions, +for the first two months of the present +year:—Calcutta, Bombay (increase in +printed and dyed and in yarn, and +small decrease in plain only); Madras +(considerable increase in plain and +printed and dyed, and small decrease +in yarn); Singapore and Manilla +(small decrease in printed and dyed +and in yarn only); Batavia (large increase +in all kinds); Hong Kong and +Canton (large increase in plain, and +small decline in printed); Shanghae +(trade removed to other Chinese ports +in which there is a large increase): +Australian Colonies (increase in all +kinds); Mauritius (stationary); Cape +of Good Hope (increase in all); Coast +of Africa (decline in all); Jamaica +(decrease in plain and increase in +printed); Honduras (increase); other +West Indian ports (decrease); Cuba +and St Thomas (both increase); +French West Indies (increase in +printed and small decline in plain); +Brazils (large increase); Chili and +Peru (large decrease); Colombia (decrease); +River Plata (considerable +decrease); Mexico (increase in plain, +and decrease in printed); British +North America (season for shipments +not commenced); and United States +(increase in both printed and plain, +and a large business done, the shipments +for the two months being upwards +of half of the entire quantity +exported in 1849.) Compared with +the average of the same period of the +preceding three years, there is an increase +to nearly every market. With +respect to the shipments to European +markets, I cannot speak with precision +as to quantities, from the circumstance, +which I have named, of the accounts +not having been yet made up. From +the monthly return from the Board of +Trade, however, it appears that a +general increase has taken place in the +declared value of cotton manufactures +to all markets, the amount being in +1850, £3,264,350 for the two months, +against £2,837,300 last year. There +is a very trifling decline in the export +of yarns. From my own observation, +I should augur that the increase has +extended over March, to the United +States and the markets of the Pacific +especially—an unusual stimulus having +been given to the consumption of +these markets by the Californian discoveries. +By the bye, I ought to mention, +in connexion with the increase +in the declared value of our exports +this year, the fact that, owing to the +advance in the price of the raw material, +the value of goods exported will +be rated higher than last year. To +some extent, however, the severe +winter of this year preventing the +early opening of the navigation of the +rivers of the north of Europe, as compared +with the mild season last year, +may be a set-off. The Mediterranean +trade, and the operations of +the Greek houses, have also been +limited by our petty quarrel in this +part of Europe.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Assuming, however, the actual +quantity of cotton consumed by the +Export Trade to have been equal to +that consumed last year up to this +period, and allowing for 40,000 bales, +alleged by spinners to have been +drawn from their own stocks instead +of the Liverpool market, <em>$1</em>. When it is +considered that these goods consist of +the finer fabrics, in which the greatest +amount of labour is employed, and +upon which the largest percentage of +profit is realised, whilst those consumed +in the foreign markets are sold +at the lowest margin of profit, and +when exported frequently result in +heavy losses to the shipper, the extent +of the sacrifice made by the manufacturing +community, in their mad adoption +of a policy which has destroyed +the Home market, may readily be +seen.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The correctness of these calculations +has been borne out by the +general character of the Home Trade +during the past four months, in which +stagnation, and difficulty in accomplishing +sales to consumers and retailers +throughout the country, early +manifested themselves. In the month +of January, strong hopes were entertained, +by the majority of the houses +engaged in this branch of the business, +that the worst of the embarrassment +which had so long hung over the +cotton manufacturing districts had +passed over; and that a wholesome +and active trade was before them. +The circulars of the month of February, +and the reports given week by +week in the local journals published +in the manufacturing districts, resumed +their gloomy statements; and +the home demand, it became clear, +had returned to its previous lethargic +state. From communications entered +into with some of the country +houses, I have derived intelligence +respecting the result of their operations, +almost precisely similar to those +sent home by the representatives of +produce houses as given above. The +country buyers who come to the market +display an entire want of their +accustomed spirit, and buy sparingly +an inferior class of goods to those +which they have been, in former +years, in the habit of consuming. The +universal complaint of these parties, +and of commercial travellers engaged +in the Home Trade, is of declining +consumption and ill-paid accounts, +especially throughout the purely agricultural +districts. One circumstance +has tended in some measure to prevent +the trade becoming absolutely +ruinous—viz., the fact that cotton +fabrics are now resorted to by many +classes from motives of economy. The +farmer’s and the tradesman’s wife and +daughters make a fashion of necessity, +and substitute printed cotton dresses +for more expensive articles. A cotton +shirt supplies moderately well the +place of a linen one. Articles of elegance +and luxury, however, even of +this material, are complained of as +most difficult of sale. In some of the +large towns, a few houses are doing a +fair business in heavy fabrics, such as +fustians, moleskins, and other articles +worn by the artisans and other working +classes; and in some fancy goods +of the same description for the middle +classes. This fact, however, is in a +great measure an <em>$1</em> of the declining +condition of the country generally, +the articles in question being +worn, in a majority of cases, as substitutes +for the more costly woollen +fabrics. Moreover, no profit accrues +to the manufacturer from these goods, +their production at existing rates of +the raw material being, on the contrary, +attended with absolute loss.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The retail trade in the manufacturing +towns themselves, represented as +being in such a satisfactory condition, +is anything but good, a considerable +portion of the population being employed +only two or three days in the +week, and the whole having been compelled +during the past two or three +years to submit to reduction of wages, +as the price of their boasted boon of +Free-trade. This is particularly the +case in the districts of Rochdale, +(John Bright’s district,) Heywood, +Bury, Middleton, &c. The effect of +preceding years’ short-time working +is still severely felt, last year having +been the only one since 1846—when +we had the boasted measure of Sir +Robert Peel, and the “heavy blow +and great discouragement” was inflicted +upon British agriculture and +our sugar-growing colonies—that the +manufacturing population have been +fully employed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Such being the acknowledged condition +of the home market for manufactured +goods, the question naturally +presents itself—what has been the result, +so far as profit is concerned, of +the operations generally of the manufacturing +community during the past +four months? In reply to this question, +it will be very easy to prove that +thus far, in the present year, they have +been the reverse of remunerative. +The following extract from the circular +of Messrs M‘Nair, Greenhow, and +Irving, of Manchester—one of the best +published, although putting rather the +best face upon things—dated the 31st +of December last year, will show the +prospects with which manufacturers +entered upon the present year:—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r c017'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span class='sc'>Manchester</span>, <em>$1</em>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c015'>“Exactly twelve months ago we represented +the transactions of the closing +month as having been almost unprecedented +in extent, considering the season +of the year; and to-day we are happy to +have in our power to communicate a +pretty similar statement with regard to +the present month, repeating what we +have often remarked, that <em>$1</em> in +ordinary years is generally marked by +dulness and inactivity.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The position of the market, as indicated +in our last (monthly) circular, continued +for about ten days afterwards +gradually acquiring greater force and depression, +and accompanied with a decline +in the value of many descriptions of +cloth and twist. At that period, from a +very prevalent belief that the commencement +of the new year would be characterised +by improvement, an active and vigorous +demand for export and the home +trade ensued, which has, notwithstanding +the interruption of the holiday season, +continued up to the present time, rendering +the stocks of all kinds of light goods, +as well as of some numbers of mule twist, +exceedingly light, and placing many +manufacturers and spinners under contract +for some time hence.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Another authority, Messrs Hollinshead, +Tetley, & Co., an old-established +cotton firm of Liverpool, who are +generally in the possession of the best +information, remarked upon the prospects +of the district in their circular +of the first of January as follows:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Prospects for the general trade of the +country, at least as regards the principal +articles of export, more particularly cotton +fabrics, were perhaps never more promising; +and it is evident that the late disturbing +causes, political and social, in +Europe and India, with the effects produced +upon other countries, reducing the +consumption of cotton to 22,230 weekly +in 1847, and 27,602 in 1848, (previously +upwards of 30,000 bales weekly,) created +a vacuum which has not been filled up by +the increased consumption of 30,512 bales +weekly in the present year; indeed it +would seem that this large quantity (and +it has been proportionately great in other +cotton manufacturing countries) has only +been sufficient to supply the increasing +wants of the world, as we no longer hear +of glutted markets, but the report is of +light stocks almost everywhere. And +when we take into consideration the low +price of all articles of food, corn particularly, +(a questionable advantage, perhaps, +when unnaturally low, if the home market +is to be considered of any value,) the +great abundance of money, its low value, +not exceeding, perhaps, 2½ per cent per +annum in the London market, with a +larger amount of gold, &c. (£17,000,000) +in the Bank of England than was ever +known before, it is evident that a great +stimulus may be given to the trade of the +country, and that with the disfavour +shown to railway property it is most +likely the usual effects will follow—viz., +extensive speculation and greatly enhanced +prices of all articles of import, +and of cotton in particular.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The whole of the trade circulars, +indeed, both from Liverpool and Manchester +houses, expressed similar +views with respect to the prospects of +the present year; and seemed to expect +an increase in the aggregate manufactures +of the country. In reviewing +the actual state of things which has +taken place, I would direct your attention +particularly to the fact of spinners +and manufacturers being “under +contract” at this period, as stated in the +first circular from which I have quoted. +Such contracts could only have been +entered upon, consistently with prudence +at least, in the anticipation of +a continuance of the then existing +prices of the raw material, or upon +the assurance of a stock already in +hand. To a considerable extent spinners +did hold stock sufficient for the +fulfilment, profitably, of a portion of +their contracts, as is shown by the circumstance +that they have, since the +commencement of the year, worked up +about 40,000 bales of cotton more +than they have drawn from the Liverpool +market. That in the majority of +cases, however, the stocks held were +only sufficient to complete a portion +of the contracts entered into is a fact +which is quite beyond dispute; and +these parties have consequently been +driven into the market to purchase +the raw material at the ruling prices of +the day. In order to ascertain their +position, it will be necessary to trace +the relative prices of cotton and of +goods during the interval between +December 1849 and the present time. +Up to the commencement of that +month, the prices of the raw material +had been gradually rising; and the +almost universal complaint of spinners +and manufacturers had been of the +unwillingness of buyers to pay a proportionate +advance upon goods. +Thus, on the 1st of June last year, the +price of fair bowed cotton was 4¼d. +per lb., from which it advanced gradually, +owing to reports of a short +yield of the crop in America, until on +the 1st of January this year it stood at +6⅜d., being an advance of 2⅛d. per lb. +The price of best seconds water twist, +No. 20 was on the 1st of June 6¾d., +and on the 1st of January 8¼d. The +price of best second mule, No. 40, +was at the same dates respectively +8½d. and 10½d. We had therefore—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Advance</td> + <td class='c011'>upon cotton, .</td> + <td class='c011'>2⅛d.</td> + <td class='c014'>per lb.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Do.</td> + <td class='c011'>upon yarn, No. 20,</td> + <td class='c011'>1½d.</td> + <td class='c014'>„</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c013'>Do.</td> + <td class='c011'>upon yarn, No. 40,</td> + <td class='c011'>2d.</td> + <td class='c014'>„</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c008'>This was obviously a losing trade; +and it is acknowledged that, during +the whole of this period business was +only profitably carried on by the fortunate +few who had laid in stocks at +the low prices. On the 1st of February +the highest price was attained, +fair bowed cotton being quoted at 6⅞d., +with No. 20 yarn at 8¾d., and No. 40 +at 11¼d.—being an advance of ½ on +the raw material, ½d. on the No. 20 +yarn, and ¾d. on No. 40. To counteract +the upward tendency of the market, a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_600'>600</span>resort to the working of short time +was resolved upon, principally by the +spinners of coarse numbers; and the +consumption was thus materially reduced, +spinners and manufacturers +drawing upon their stocks on hand, +and thus keeping out of the markets +for the raw material. A gradual decline +in the price of cotton was the result—goods, +however, sharing in the +depression; and on the 1st of April +fair bowed was quoted at 6⅛d., or ¾d. +per lb. lower than in February. No. +20 yarn, the stocks having been +reduced by short-time working, had +declined only <a id='t600'></a>½d. per lb.; No. 40, however, +had fallen to the same extent as +cotton. There was therefore no +increase of prosperity brought about +thus far by the short-time movement, +the price of goods remaining at the +same unsatisfactory point as compared +with the raw material.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At this date, Messrs Robert Barbour +and Brother of Manchester, in +their monthly circular, speak as follows +with respect to the general trade +of the cotton manufacturing districts:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“We have to report a very dull and +unsatisfactory state of business in this +district during the month. There has +been a gradual decline in prices varying +from 2½ to 7½ per cent, so that some +kinds of goods can now be bought fully +10 to 12 per cent under the rates which +were demanded in January. These reduced +quotations have induced some parties +to enter the market, but still the +demand has been much under the average +of what is usually experienced at this +season of the year. The working of +‘short time’ is now generally adopted +by the producers of coarse yarn and heavy +goods, and several large mills continue +closed. The drooping tendency of some +descriptions of the finer fabrics has been +slightly counteracted during the last week +by more favourable intelligence from Calcutta +and China; still, however, our market +is unsteady, and it is more than +usually difficult to form any idea of what +is likely to be the future course of prices.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“In the goods market a general quietness +has prevailed throughout the month, +buyers acting with extreme caution, purchasing +only in small parcels for the supply +of their more pressing wants: prices, +consequently, have been irregular, and +some considerable sales have been made +by needy manufacturers at very low +rates.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The dulness here spoken of is particularly +observable in the staple articles +consumed by the home trade. +Messrs Barbour and Brother state +that—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“36-inch shirtings have participated in +the general depression, and stocks are +beginning to accumulate. 66-reeds, 7¾ +lb., have receded in value 6d. to 9d. per +piece, having been sold in February at 8s. +to 8s. 4½d., whilst now they are worth +only 7s. 6d. to 7s. 9d.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Again:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Domestics T cloths and stout long +cloths continue neglected, notwithstanding +the curtailed production, and can now +be bought on easier terms. Average qualities +of domestics have been sold at 9d. +per lb., which is by no means remunerative +to the maker.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The concluding paragraph of the +circular is very decisive as to the comparatively +profitless nature of the manufacture:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Cotton has now declined about 1d. +per lb. during the last three months. It is +still, however, much higher than is warranted +by the prices which can be obtained +for the manufactured article. Indeed, +<em>$1</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Since the date of the circular containing +these gloomy accounts, an +important change has taken place, +and the tide has set in strongly +against the manufacturing community. +Immediately subsequent to its +publication, the arrival of the American +mail-steamer brought news confirmatory +of the anticipations of a +short crop of cotton, and prices immediately +advanced, leaving the spinners +and manufacturers to recruit their +exhausted stocks at a further loss, as +compared with the prices of goods. +On the 5th of April, the receipts of +cotton at the ports of America were +shown to be 310,000 bales less than +at the same period of the preceding +year; whilst the stock computed to be +held in Liverpool was 511,000 bales, +as compared with 447,300 bales held at +the same date in 1849, or only 63,700 +bales more than last year, although +spinners had decreased their consumption +by 6300 bales per week, and taken +40,000 bales from their own stocks. +The total crop of the United States, +which had been estimated in the beginning +of the year at from 2,250,000 +to 2,300,000 bales, was only estimated +in the advices by the steamer +at 2,100,000 bales.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I fear that, to some readers, these +statistics may be rather tedious. +They are necessary, however, to +enable us fully to understand the position +in which this important branch +of the manufactures of the country, +and the large population dependent +upon it, have been placed by the intelligence +brought by another later +mail from the United States, which +arrived in the Mersey on the morning +of the 16th ult. I have stated that +the estimates formed of the probable +crop in America, at the beginning of +the year, varied from 2,250,000 to +2,300,000 bales. These had been +reduced, up to the arrival of the +steamer in the first week of April, to +2,100,000 bales. With this progressive +decline going on in the amount of +the crop, as estimated by competent +judges upon the spot, and with the +fact of decreased receipts at the American +ports before their eyes, the spinners +of this country have, with few +exceptions, resolutely refused to give +credit to the representations made to +them, and kept further exhausting +their stocks on hand, or buying only +to supply their immediate wants. The +arrival of the Niagara, however, has +put the question at rest, and not only +confirmed the statements as to the +crop being a short one, but established +the fact that it is likely to be much +shorter than was by anybody anticipated. +The following is the startling +disclosure made by Mr T. J. Stewart +of New York, one of the best authorities +in the United States, upon the +subject, in his circular of the 2d +ult.:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The crop proves to be a short one—and +if measured by the ability of the +world to consume, the shortest one since +’41–’42. The falling off in the receipts +regularly exceeds the progressive estimate +I made some time since, and on +which I made up my table of 2,100,000 +bales. It will close <em>$1</em>. How far below, I cannot at present +say, but the interior of the country +is exhausted of supplies to so great a +degree, that it is evident that such a figure +is totally impracticable.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>The decrease in the stocks arrived +at the ports of America is put down +by him now at 470,000 bales. Of +this very insufficient crop of less than +2,000,000 bales—that of the preceding +year, I may remark, was 2,728,000—Mr +Stewart reminds us that <em>$1</em>. This, of itself, is a +somewhat startling fact, and proves +the rapid strides which America is +making toward depriving this country +of its manufacturing pre-eminence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is obvious, from the above circumstances, +that the American planters, +and the holders of cotton in that +country and in Liverpool, have the +manufacturer at this moment within +their grasp, and will be enabled to +extort from his necessities still higher +prices than those which have for +months past rendered his business a +losing one. The stocks of cotton held +in the manufacturing districts are unprecedentedly +light, and those of goods +have been of late considerably reduced. +But can an advance be secured +on the manufactured article, corresponding +with that demanded for the +raw material? Few people believe +this to be practicable. With the exception +of a little temporary activity +in the demand of goods for the East +Indian market, towards the middle of +last month, the gloomy feeling existing +in every branch of the trade had +deepened, and the demand for nearly +every article perceptibly lessened. +The accounts received by export +houses from foreign markets are not +of a character to encourage further +operations; and the demand for the +home trade remains very limited. In +broad terms, <em>$1</em>. With respect to the foreign +trade, the worst feature is the falling +off in the demand from the United +States, to which I showed that, in the +first two months of this year, we had +shipped goods equal to the one half of +last year’s exports. The returns for +these shipments may be expected to +be very unsatisfactory. On this subject, +the last steamer (the Niagara) +brought the following report:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“The spring trade of New York <em>$1</em>. Early in January +there was an unusually active demand. +High prices were obtained, and +large sales were made; since then business +had fallen off, and <em>$1</em>. The stock of +British and other foreign dry goods was +not large, but the demand was small.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>From this market, expectations of +the most sanguine character had been +previously indulged in, which are thus +rudely dashed to the ground.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As yet the manufacturing community, +stunned by the conviction which +has been forced upon them of their +desperate position, have formed no +definite resolution as to the course to +be pursued. For a week or two longer, +it is possible that a portion of them +may make further fruitless efforts to +keep down the market for the raw +material, which will now be held by +speculators, aided by the abundant +funds in the hands of bankers, with +the certainty of ultimately realising +higher rates. In the opinion of parties +acquainted intimately with the +whole circumstances of the trade, the +only available course for spinners is +to decrease consumption still further, +by an extension of the system of +working short time, or by closing a +considerable portion of the mills altogether. +Profitable working, even +without an increase in the price of +the raw material, is out of the question, +with markets in their present +depressed condition. But with such +an advance as must be paid, if even +the present reduced rate of consumption +is to go on, the business would +be perfectly ruinous.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is painful to reflect upon the +severe suffering which must be entailed +upon the operative and middle +classes, throughout the manufacturing +districts, by a general suspension of +operations, or even by an increase of +short-time working. These classes, +greatly reduced as their wages have +been during the past two years, have +not, I may repeat, recovered as yet +from the effect of the suspension of +manufacturing activity to which they +were forced in 1847 and 1848; and are +consequently in a much worse position +to be thrown again upon their own +resources. The neatly furnished cottage +no longer remains to be dismantled +for the purpose of providing +food for their families. The little +savings’ bank hoards disappeared in +those years, and have not since been +replaced. A few employers, no doubt, +may be disposed to allow to their +hands a pittance sufficient to provide +against actual deprivation; but it is +to be feared that the mass will act +with no such humane considerateness. +Another result of such a course must +be still farther to decrease the consumption, +and depress the prices, of +our large stocks of imported produce, +and thus to inflict heavy losses upon +their holders.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is to me perfectly clear, and the +fact is tacitly admitted by a large +portion of the community engaged in +mercantile and manufacturing pursuits, +that a most trying and fearful +crisis is at hand; and that the present +summer will not end without her +Majesty’s Ministers, and the Free +Trade party, being compelled to acknowledge +that the speech from the +Throne, and the representations of +prosperity made by them at the +opening of Parliament, were, if not +deliberate perversions of the truth, at +all events most ill-considered and +hasty. We had in February last, it +is now evident, no such thing as even +prosperous manufactures, or a healthy +state of commerce. Whilst these representations +were being made, and +agricultural pursuits alone pointed to +as being in a state of temporary depression, +the leading manufacture of +the country was being carried on +without profit, and our merchants and +traders were feeling the ground shake +beneath their feet. It is of no use, +however, to refer to the past. The +questions for the nation now to consider +are—first, What is it which has +brought about this general prostration +of the country? and next, Where is +the remedy to be applied? It is idle +for the Free-traders to point any +longer to potato rots, to railway +manias, or to high prices of cotton, as +the cause of the failure of their predictions +of coming general prosperity. +The truth is palpably before the world +that the foreign trade, stimulate it as +we may, will not employ the industry +of the country; and that a prosperous +home trade is indispensably necessary +to render the foreign trade a profitable +one. It is equally idle to tell us that +the present state of things is only temporary, +and that a different result of +our recent policy will be attained by +and by. In what direction are we to +look for the change? Is any new +world about to be discovered? Is +there a single outlet to be found for +our manufactures, which we cannot +close up in a month? I confess that +I cannot discern a gleam of hope for +the future, or a prospect of the restoration +of this great nation to its wonted +prosperity, except in a total reversal +of the legislation of the past few +years, by which, and by which alone, +has been caused that prostration of its +industry and enterprise, which we are +now witnessing on every side—in our +own once happy land, and throughout +the length and breadth of that vast +colonial empire, once the pride of +Great Britain, and the envy of the +world, but now her shame, ruined +and robbed as it has been by the legislation +of designing or incapable statesmen. +With our agricultural population +fast sinking into pauperism and +insolvency, or taking flight from our +shores, as from those of an infected +land, to fertilise with their capital and +enterprise other soils, which own protective +governments and a kindred +people; with the landed aristocracy of +the kingdom, and squirearchy and the +yeomen, stripped of half their possessions—the +baronial hall no longer +distributing its hospitality to thousands, +and pinching poverty and thrift +marking the household arrangements, +where of old there was plenty, a cup +for the needy, and consolation and +succour for the afflicted; with the +middle classes in our towns forced +down in the social scale, and hovering +over the gulf of insolvency and ruin, +and the labourer turned out, a desperate +man, to wrest with the strong +hand the food which we deny him the +means to purchase, whilst we mock +him with its cheapness—the manufacturing +body will strive in vain for the +consummation of that object which, +in their selfishness, they proposed to +themselves as the result of the boasted +Free-trade policy—viz. the setting up +of their houses over those of the time-honoured +names of the land. Blindly +and madly they have detached the +handful of snow from the summit of +the mountain; with mocking jeers of +hideous and idiotic glee, they have +seen its gathering bulk, and watched +its progress as it rolled, prostrating +the cottage and the farmstead, and +spreading devastation over the vineyard +and the waving corn; and they +stand now shuddering at the mighty +avalanche which is thundering above +the tall chimney and the smoky town, +and will shortly involve themselves +in the general calamity and devastation. +Yes, the fears of these men are +at length beginning to be effectively +roused by the contemplation of the +work of their own hands. I say +<em>$1</em>, because the day of retribution +is only now coming upon them, +and making itself felt. The philosophers +of the loom and spindle talk +now “with bated breath” of the +efficacy of their universal specific. +There are doubting anxious faces on +‘Change, gloomy greetings as they +meet in the streets, and idle hands in +the once busy salerooms and warehouses. +Many, whose voices were +lately loud in cheering the flattering +tales and sophistries of their Cobdens +and Brights—some of those even +whose subscriptions enabled the former +to buy his Woodland farm, and +whose votes and influence hoisted the +blustering Quaker into a seat in the +Legislature, are now ready to acknowledge, +in private, that “there is some +mistake;” that they have, perhaps, +gone too far; and that, after all, Free +Trade is “only an experiment.” +Alas! it is one whose fatal effects +will have to be deeply deplored, and +from which the country will not recover +for years to come. A quarter +of a century of toil will scarcely replace +the capital which has been swept +away, up to the present period. More +remains to be swept away; but now +it will be the capital of the authors of +the calamity.</p> + +<p class='c008'>And this portion of these philosophers +are busily and eagerly striving +to persuade the farmer that he is foolishly +nervous under the apprehension +of permanent low prices; and that +these have now reached the level at +which the foreigner can no longer +supply us profitably. Unfortunately, +whilst they are sagely assuring the +world of this fact, grain and flour keeps +steadily pouring into our ports, at still +further reduced prices; and additional +evidence is daily being afforded of the +total ignorance of the subject displayed +in their statistics and calculations: +supplies are reaching us daily from +countries which were left altogether +out of the catalogue of those from +whose growers we were led to anticipate +competition. Thus from France, +a country which it was always said was +not able to grow sufficient for its own +consumption, the receipts at the port +of Liverpool during two weeks, in +which alone the quantity is quoted +separately, were as follows:—</p> + +<table class='table1'> + <tr> + <th class='c011'></th> + <th class='c011'> </th> + <th class='c014'>French flour.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>Week ending</td> + <td class='c011'>March 19,</td> + <td class='c030'>6000 barrels.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c011'>April 9,</td> + <td class='c030'>6166</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011' colspan='2'>and 2419 American.</td> + <td class='c030'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c031'>And from that country, and the whole +of the ports of the North of Europe, +distant from us by only a few days’ +sail—by a voyage made in less time +than the average consumed in those +made from port to port on our own +coasts—supplies will continue to come, +at rates with which the British grower +can never hope to compete. In fact, +the farmer of the North of Europe may +in future be treated as a British subject—enjoying +all the immunities of +one, without contributing towards his +burthens. He is nearer the London +or the Liverpool markets than a Norfolk +or a Lincolnshire farmer; and +that he frequently pays less for the +conveyance of his produce than it +will be seen from the following table, +which contains the rates actually paid +in Liverpool by importing houses +during the years beginning in 1847 to +this year, such farmer pays:—</p> + +<table class='table2'> + <tr><td class='c010' colspan='10'><span class='sc'>Coasting</span> and <span class='sc'>Foreign Freights</span> of <span class='sc'>Wheat</span> to <span class='sc'>Liverpool</span>.</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt blt c032'> </td> + <td class='bbt c032'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='bbt blt c032'></th> + <th class='bbt c032'> </th> + <th class='bbt blt c034' colspan='2'>1847.</th> + <th class='bbt blt c034' colspan='2'>1848.</th> + <th class='bbt blt c034' colspan='2'>1849.</th> + <th class='bbt blt brt c034' colspan='2'>1850.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th class='blt c032'></th> + <th class='c032'> </th> + <th class='blt c034' colspan='2'>Per quarter.</th> + <th class='blt c034' colspan='2'>Per quarter.</th> + <th class='blt c034' colspan='2'>Per quarter.</th> + <th class='blt brt c034' colspan='2'>Per quarter.</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='blt c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='blt c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='blt c033'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='brt c033'><em>$1</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>From</td> + <td class='c032'>Stettin,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>5 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0 to</td> + <td class='c033'>2 9</td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Dantzig,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Rostock,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>6 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Hamburg,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0 to</td> + <td class='c033'>3 6</td> + <td class='blt c033'>4 0 to</td> + <td class='c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 9</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Rotterdam,</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 0 to</td> + <td class='c033'>1 9</td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 9</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Antwerp,</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 0 to</td> + <td class='c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6 to</td> + <td class='c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 3 to</td> + <td class='brt c033'>1 0 !</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Bremen,</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 3 to</td> + <td class='c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Bruges,</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>Ghent,</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'>„</td> + <td class='c032'>New York, (last rates,)</td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>3 0</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032' colspan='2'><em>$1</em></td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Colchester,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Woodbridge,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 9</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Salcombe,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 0</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Kingsbridge,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 0</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Lynn,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 6</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 1</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'> </td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='blt c032'> </td> + <td class='c032'>Ipswich,</td> + <td class='blt c033'>2 3</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 9</td> + <td class='c033'> </td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 9 to</td> + <td class='c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='blt c033'>1 6</td> + <td class='brt c033'> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='bbt blt c032'> </td> + <td class='bbt c032'>Yarmouth,</td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'>2 1</td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'>1 10</td> + <td class='bbt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt blt c033'> </td> + <td class='bbt brt c033'> </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class='c031'>Yet the freight on wheat was to be +a sufficient protection for the farmer!</p> + +<p class='c008'>I must here, sir, leave the subject +to your own powerful pen. I have +given you the facts as I have collated +them from the most authentic sources, +and the observations which I have +made personally; and they have more +than confirmed the impressions with +which I entered upon this inquiry.— +have the honour to be, &c.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_605'>605</span> + <h2 class='c002'>ALISON’S POLITICAL ESSAYS.<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c018'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h2> +</div> + +<p class='c007'>The collection of scattered periodical +essays, especially such as are of +a strictly political character, is an +adventure far more perilous to the +reputation of an author than the +issue of any single work deliberately +planned, and laboriously executed in +the closet. The historian, dealing +solely with the records of the past, +reviving or recreating pictures which +have long ago appeared upon the ancient +canvass, may without difficulty +arrange his scattered portraits and +groups in such an order, that they +shall impress the public mind with a +feeling of absolute novelty. A historical +paradox, if ingeniously conceived +and plausibly conveyed, is +sure to command attention. The +fickleness of the Athenians was by +no means idiosyncratic to that volatile +nation. All men weary of hearing +the same phrase and the same +judgment invariably repeated. They +suspect the justice of Aristides, or +the perfidy of Crookback Richard, on +account of the unanimous verdict, +and are by no means displeased when +any daring casuist steps forward, +armed with a tolerable array of +proof, to detract from the rigid virtue +of the one, or to palliate the vices of +the other. In truth, the materials of +all history are so various and conflicting +in their character, that an +artist of consummate skill, who is +withal not over-scrupulous, may +easily pass off fictions under the disguise +of broad reality. Historical +sketches, therefore, which relate to +past events, may be viewed in the +light either of lively episodes or of +profound commentaries; and their +republication, after a term of years, +can in no way affect the soundness of +the author’s judgment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>To republish criticisms, especially +such as relate to the works of cotemporaries, +is certainly a more delicate +task. It is easy to comment upon an +author whose works have been long +before the public, and frequently and +diligently scanned. High criticism +may discover beauties or detect faults +which have escaped the notice of less +keen and scrutinising observers; but, +in the aggregate, certainly in the majority +of cases, the broad opinion +which has been expressed by others +is allowed to remain unchallenged. The +influence of previous judgment invariably +sways the critic. None are rash +enough to deny the genius of Shakspeare; +at the same time, nothing is +more certain than that, were another +Shakspeare to arise amongst us at +this moment, there would be no kind +of unanimity as to his deserts. In +all ages and in all countries this has +been the rule. Personal spite, unacknowledged +and possibly unperceived +envy, party difference of +opinion, disparity of station, prejudice +of education—all these, in their +turn, have passed, like so many +clouds, between the sun of living +genius and the critics who surveyed +its orbit. Nor ought we to overlook the +fact that, in many instances, meteors +have been mistaken for suns, and the +eyes of the critic been dazzled by a +glare, to which his own willing imagination +lent at least one half its brilliancy. +Therefore it is that contemporary +criticism, when republished in +an abiding form, rarely satisfies the +expectation of the reader. His own +judgment has been formed, apart +from the considerations and prejudices +which are so apt to beset the critic; +and he conceives an unfavourable impression +of the literary acuteness of +the writer, when he finds a gross +discrepancy between the older and the +later estimate.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But far more trying to an author +is the republication of political essays, +composed during the progress of great +national events. This branch of +composition is peculiar to our own +age, in which periodical literature is +so marked and eminent a feature. +Pamphleteering is of venerable date. +Sir Thomas More, Milton, Marvell, +Swift, and Defoe, were all notable +pamphleteers; but periodical writing, +in the highest sense of the term, +is the invention of the present century. +That great and influential organs +of public opinion, ranking among +their contributors the men of the +highest intellect and the most laborious +acquirements, should have been +established in our time, marks not +only the development of the influence +of the press, but the importance +of the events which such men are imperatively +summoned to discuss. It +marks even more, for it has established +a power beyond the boundaries +of the old constitution, which, as it is +used or misused, cannot fail to affect +materially the destinies of Great +Britain.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Every political treatise referring to +events which have engrossed the attention +of the day, either as modifications +or as changes of our social system, +must be valuable in later years. +It must necessarily recommend or +condemn measures on account of +their probable operation in the time +to come; it must in some degree be a +prophecy, or else it is practically +worthless. The politician studies the +past merely as his guide for the +future. If he is learned, wise, and at +all an adept in the science which he +professes—than which no other is of +so momentous an import—he will +consider past history as the barometer +which must guide him in predicating +the approach either of a tempest or a +calm. Temporary clamour or occasional +obstruction will not lead him +to forsake clear principles of action, or +to recommend a grand constitutional +remedy in the case of a trifling local +disease. He must look forward +beyond the sphere of immediate +action—resolute in this belief, that +one false step, however small, may +upset the equilibrium of the State. +Expediency, the modern idol, finds +little favour in the eyes of the true +and sagacious statesman. He tests +measures by their intrinsic value, +regardless of the “pressure from +without;” and he looks upon Parliamentary +majorities as of less +moment than the maintenance of the +real interests of his country.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If we apply these remarks to our +later political history, and to the conduct +of those men whom circumstances +have elevated to the highest +stations in Government, we shall at +once perceive that the first great +principles of practical statesmanship +have been abandoned. The welfare +and integrity of the Empire has been +made a subsidiary object to the +triumph of party ambition; and +accordingly, <span class='fss'>CONSISTENCY</span>, that grand +test of a politician’s sincerity and +soundness, is the very quality which +is wanting. To consistency, indeed, +neither Lord John Russell nor Sir +Robert Peel, for many years the rival +chiefs of party, can lay the slightest +claim. They have been playing a +long, and, doubtless, an interesting +game, with the map of Britain and +its dependencies before them as a +chess-board: they have directed the +whole of their energies to giving +checkmate to one another; and with +this view they have again and again +altered the relative positions of king +and queen, bishops, knights, castles, +and pawns. To counteract the last +move of his adversary was the great +object of each of these ingenious +players. It was a pretty trial of +dexterity and finesse; but we trust, +for the sake of the chessmen, that the +match is finally concluded. Talent +of this kind may, indeed, be available +when it is necessary to contend with +a foreign adversary; but it is worse +than mischievous when practised +systematically at home.</p> + +<p class='c008'>To have surveyed the political events +of the last twenty years with a calm +and dispassionate eye—to estimate +the consequences of each concession +to popular clamour, and each move +for party purposes—to form inductions +as to the future from the indelible +history of the past—to trace the +causes of social misery and disquiet +to their remote and recondite source—to +discern the coming cloud of +adversity in the midst of apparent +abundance—required more than common +thought, learning, sagacity, and +prescience; and the man who has +done all this, cannot fail to be ranked, +in the estimation of those whose judgment +is of real value, among the first +masters of political and economic +science. Many brilliant commentaries +upon passing events, which at +the first blush were received as absolute +oracles of wisdom, have utterly +failed in their predictions, and are +now consigned to oblivion. They +failed—if from no other cause, at least +assuredly from this—that they flowed +from the pens of partisans, whose whole +energies were devoted to the advancement +of themselves and their faction. +Party spirit, indeed, has of late years +almost entirely overshadowed that +patriotism which was once our +highest boast. Truth may be spoken +of an opponent—and very often +more than truth; but it is seldom +expressed with regard to the political +conduct of those whom men are accustomed +to regard as their friends. +Private motives are allowed to interfere +with the more rigorous functions +of the censor; the moralist is +changed into the apologetic rhetorician; +the judge becomes the interested +advocate.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Were the present crisis of our political +history less momentous than it +truly is—were not the great and +final struggle for a return to the principles, +by means of which our national +greatness was achieved, so near at +hand—we might, from motives and +considerations easily appreciable, have +left this volume of Mr Alison’s collected +political essays without any special +notice. For a long period of years, +embracing the most important changes +which have been made in the institutions +and relations of this country, +Mr Alison has been a constant contributor +to the Magazine, adopting his +own views, enforcing his own opinions, +without reference to the distinctions +of party or the position of individual +statesmen. We believe that, in some +respects, the attitude of the Magazine +has differed from that assumed by any +periodical publication in the country. +It has never been the organ of a Party, +and never subservient to a Government. +Many times we have been +compelled to differ from those whose +political opinions have been thought +most closely to approximate to our +own; and never have we hesitated to +express that difference in clear and +unambiguous terms, knowing that a +true and honourable conviction never +ought to be concealed, or can be without +affecting the integrity of those who +entertain it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The present publication sufficiently +discloses the part which Mr Alison +has taken in the political discussions +which have arisen during that eventful +period. They are valuable to the +rising generation for two especial +reasons. In the first place, they are +a faithful record of the impressions +which passing events made upon the +mind of a highly-gifted, generous, and +independent man, the object of whose +life was apart from those pursuits +which inflame the passions, whilst +they warp the judgment, of the mere +partisan. In the second place, they +will enable the reader to trace, step +by step, the innovations which modern +Liberalism has made upon the older +limits of the constitution; and to estimate +the consistency of those who at +one time affected to be the opponents +of that Liberalism, and at another, +whether through weakness, or treachery, +or ambition, came forward to +assist in its blind and infatuated progress.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Perhaps the most interesting papers +in the present volume are those which +refer to the memorable and exciting +era of the Reform Bill. They are not +only interesting, but highly instructive +in a constitutional point of view, as +showing the utter disregard of the +Whig faction to the maintenance of +that political framework which, when +in power, they affect to worship with +almost superstitious veneration. +Never, probably, was there a period +in our history when the passions of +the populace were more dexterously +and deliberately excited by men of +high station, and by no means contemptible +intellect. Treason was +then in vogue: sedition openly encouraged. +Most of us can recollect the +ugly and ominous emblems which +were paraded through the streets of +the larger towns, and the violence +with which every one supposed to be +hostile to the popular measure was +assailed. Haughty aristocrats, like +the late Earl Grey, condescended to +treat with Jacobin clubs and political +unions; the physical power of the +masses was appealed to as an argument +of irresistible weight, and Whig +officials were privy to the plan of a +projected Birmingham insurrection. +The voice of reason was entirely stifled +amidst the general democratic howl, +and all suggestions as to a modification +of the grand electoral scheme +were treated with fierce hostility. +The framers of the measure had no +wish that its details should be narrowly +sifted, or submitted to the test +of principle. There was a deep meaning +in the phrase, which at that time +passed into a proverb, “The Bill—the +whole Bill—and nothing but the Bill!” +No other method of reform, however +large and comprehensive, would have +suited the junta who then deemed +themselves secure of an interminable +lease of power. And why? Because +any other measure which might have +embraced the claim of the Colonies to +a share in the Imperial representation, +would have interfered with their special +project of lowering the landed +interest, and giving a decided preponderance +in Parliament to the votes of +the urban population.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are far from wishing to maintain +that the spirit which animated +the councils of the Conservative leaders +of the day was in all respects the +most prudent; or that they did not to +a certain extent accelerate the movement +by withholding minor concessions, +which might have been gracefully +and advantageously given. But +in justice to them it must be remembered, +that they had a great principle +to contend for—a principle too little +understood then, and perhaps only +now becoming generally appreciated on +account of the pernicious effects which +have resulted from its violation. The +older Representative system of Great +Britain might appear to the casual +eye artificial, unequal, and therefore +unjust; but it had this grand and wholesome +advantage, which we look for in +vain in its successor, that, by means +of it, not only were the great classes +of the community at home adequately +represented, but our fellow-subjects of +the Colonies could, and did, exercise a +direct influence within the walls of St +Stephen’s. To allow this influence to +be encroached on, however covertly +or plausibly, seemed tantamount to +an abandonment of the principle by +which the Conservative party had +been guided throughout; and subsequent +events have shown that no +exaggerated estimate was formed of +the tendencies of democratic rule. +This conviction of the prospective +danger of the Reform measure to the +integrity of the British Empire was, +we know, the main cause of that early, +though perhaps injudicious, resistance +to the extension of the electoral suffrage, +which finally gave way before +the impulse added to popular excitement +by the example of foreign revolution. +As regarded the welfare of +our Colonies, the Reform Bill was +virtually a death-blow. It laid the +foundation for a rapid succession of +measures, selfish in their tendency +and grossly impolitic, which have +already gone far to pervert the loyal +feelings of the Colonists, by teaching +them that the mother country has +decided upon a policy altogether injurious +to their interests as subjects of +the British Crown. They have had +no voice, no direction in the legislative +enactments which have since +that time so deeply affected their +prosperity; they have been governed +rather as tributaries than as portions +of the Empire; and their complaints +have been too often treated with +undisguised contumely, or, at best, +with haughty indifference. Our +opinion as to the importance of the +maintenance of our Colonial dominions, +and the imminent necessity which +exists of securing that maintenance +by giving them some effective +voice in the legislative councils of +Great Britain, has been repeatedly +expressed. No other step will suffice +to stay the tide of disaffection; and +happy will it be for all of us, if the +practical refutation of the Free-trade +delusion, now becoming every day +more obvious and acknowledged, shall +lead to such prudent measures, with +regard to our dependencies, as may +again consolidate into one great and +united mass, inspired by the same +feelings and actuated by the same +interests, the scattered elements of +British greatness and renown.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But apart altogether from Colonial +considerations, the Reform Bill has +been productive of the most serious +consequences to the internal economy +of this country. Under its benign +operation the National Debt, instead +of being diminished, is augmented; +whilst, at the same time, by a system +of ruinous cheapness, induced by the +free admission of foreign produce to +compete in the home market with our +own, incomes have been lowered by +nearly a half, and the means of paying +the increased taxation have been +proportionably curtailed. We do +not believe that the Whigs, while +straining every energy to carry the +Reform Bill, meditated the possibility +of any such results. We have their +own statements—at least those of +Lords Melbourne and John Russell—to +the contrary; and even were it +otherwise, we are not disposed to +attribute to that party so great a +share of political prescience, as to +assume that they foresaw the consequences +of their own deliberate act.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It was, however, foreseen by others. +In 1831, Mr Alison, arguing from +historical precedents, predicted that +the natural effect of the passing of the +Reform Bill would be the repeal of +the Corn Laws.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“When it is recollected,” wrote he, “that +300 English members of the Reformed +house are to be for the boroughs, and only +150 for the counties, it may easily be anticipated +that this effect is certain. And in +vain will the House of Peers strive to +resist such a result: their power must +have been so completely extinguished before +the Reform Bill is past, that any resistance +on their part would be speedily +overcome.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“This first and unavoidable consequence +of this great change will at once +set the manufacturing classes at variance +with the agricultural interest; and then +will commence that fatal war between +the different classes of society, which has +hitherto been only repressed by the +weight and authority of a stable, and, in +a certain degree, hereditary government, +composed of an intermixture of the representatives +of <em>$1</em> interests. When it +is recollected that wheat can be raised +with ease in Poland at prices varying +from 17s. to 20s. a quarter, and that it +can be laid down on the quay of any +harbour in Britain at from 33s. to 40s., +it may easily be anticipated what a revolution +in prices will, in the <em>$1</em>, +be effected by this measure. We say in +the <em>$1</em> instance—for nothing seems +clearer than that the <em>$1</em> effect will +be, by throwing a large portion of British +land out of cultivation, and in its stead +producing a more extensive growth of +grain on the shores of the Vistula, to +restore the equilibrium between the supply +of corn and its consumption, and, by +means of destroying a large portion of +British agriculture, raise the prices again +to their former standard.”</p> + +<p class='c015'>We have lately been favoured, from +certain quarters, with ingenious disquisitions +touching the probable future +price of grain in this country—disquisitions +to which we by no means +object, as, apart altogether from their +truth or their falsity, they manifest a +growing uneasiness as to the possibility +of maintaining the Free-trade +system for many months longer. We +may perhaps be allowed to take some +credit to ourselves for having effected +this change in the tone and sentiments +of gentlemen who, not long ago, were +clamorous in their praise of cheap food +and diminished agricultural prices. +In our January Number, by the aid of +the most intelligent, skilful, and experienced +agriculturists of Scotland, +we proved, beyond the power of refutation, +that no British farmer could +stand his ground against the present +influx of foreign corn, and that no +possible reduction of rent, short of its +annihilation, would enable him to meet +the deficiency. We were met, as +might naturally be expected, by the +double weapons of rancorous abuse +and deliberate falsification.<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c018'><sup>[6]</sup></a> But these +having utterly failed in their purpose, +our antagonists have since changed +their ground altogether, and are now +attempting to argue, against the experience +of each successive week, that +the present fall of prices is merely +temporary, and that wheat must +again rise to something like its former +level. How long they may continue +in their endeavours to propagate this +fresh delusion we know not. They +cannot mislead the farmers, at whose +door ruin is at present knocking with an +unmistakeable sound. The only men +they can mislead are their unhappy +dupes, who have been taught to believe +that the prosperity of Britain depends +solely upon one of the weakest, most +unstable, and most precarious of its +manufactures.</p> + +<p class='c007'>In the same article from which we +have just quoted, Mr Alison wrote as +follows:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Now, the misery arising from the +reduction of the resources of the farmer +could not be confined to his own class in +society; it would immediately and +seriously affect the manufacturing and +commercial interests. The great trade +of every country, as Adam Smith long ago +remarked, is between the town and the +country: by far the greatest part of the +produce of our looms is consumed by those +who, directly or indirectly, are fed by the +British plough. Not the haughty aristocrat +only, who spends his life in luxurious +indolence among his hereditary trees, but +the innumerable classes who are maintained +by his rents and fed by his expenditure—the +numerous creditors who draw +large parts of his rents through their +mortgages, and live in affluence in distant +towns upon the produce of his land—the +farmers, who subsist in comparative +comfort on the industry which they exert +on his estates—the tradesmen and artisans, +who are fed by his expenditure or +the wants of his tenantry—all would suffer +alike by such a change of prices as should +seriously affect the industry of the cultivators. +Every shopkeeper knows how +much he is dependent on the expenditure of +those who directly or indirectly are maintained +by the land, and what liberal purchasers +landlords are, compared to those +who subsist by manufactures; and it is +probable that the first and greatest sufferers +by the repeal of the Corn Laws would be +many of those very persons whose blind +cry for Reform had rendered it unavoidable.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Now, the discouragement of British +agriculture consequent on a free-trade in +corn would be <em>$1</em>, although the +benefit to the inhabitants of towns could +only be temporary. After the destruction +of a large portion of British agriculture +had been effected, by the immense inundation +of foreign grain, prices would rise +again to their former level, because the +monopoly would then be vested in the +hands of the foreign growers; and the +bulky nature of grain renders it <em>$1</em> +impossible to introduce an <em>$1</em> supply +of that article by sea transport. But the +condition of British agriculture would +not be materially benefited by the change; +because prices would rise <em>$1</em> in consequence +of the British grower being, +for the most part, driven out of the field; +and could be maintained at a high level +only by his being <em>$1</em> from an extensive +competition with the foreign cultivator. +Should the British farmers, recovering +from their consternation, recommence the +active agriculture which at present maintains +our vast and increasing population, +the consequence would be, that prices +would immediately fall to such a degree, +as speedily to reduce them to their +natural and unavoidable state of inferiority +to the farmers of the Continent.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“In considering this subject, there are +two important circumstances to be kept +in view, proved abundantly by experience, +but which have not hitherto met with +the general attention which they deserve.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The first of these is, that, in agriculture—differing +in this respect from +manufactures—the introduction of machinery, +or the division of labour, can +effect <em>$1</em> in the price +of its produce, or the facility of its production; +and perhaps the best mode of +cultivation yet known is that which is +carried on by the greatest possible application +of human labour, in the form of +spade cultivation. The proof of this is +decisive. Great Britain, with the aid of +the steam-engine, can undersell the +weavers of Hindostan with muslins manufactured +out of cotton grown on the +banks of the Ganges; but it is undersold +in its own markets by the wheat-grower +on the banks of the Vistula, or in the +basin of the Mississippi. It is in vain, +therefore, for a state like England, burdened +with high prices and an excessive +taxation—the natural consequence of +commercial opulence—to hope that its +industry can, in agriculture as in manufactures, +withstand the competition of +the foreign grower. Machinery, skill, +and capital can easily counteract high +prices in all other articles of human consumption: +in agriculture, they can produce +no such effect. This is a law of +nature which will subsist to the end of +the world.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The second is, that a comparatively +small importation of grain produces a +prodigious effect on the prices at which +it is sold. The importation of a tenth +part of the annual consumption does not, +it is calculated, lower prices a tenth, but +<em>$1</em>—and so on with the importation +of smaller quantities. This has always +been observed, and is universally acknowledged +by political economists. Although, +therefore, the greatest possible importation +of foreign grain must always be a +part only of that required for the consumption +of the whole people, yet still +the effect upon the current rate of prices +would be most disastrous. The greatest +importation ever known was in 1801, +when it amounted, in consequence of the +scarcity, to an <em>$1</em> part of the +annual consumption; but the free introduction +of much less than that quantity +would reduce the price of wheat in the +first instance, in an ordinary year, to 45s. +the quarter.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The repeal of the Corn Laws, therefore, +is calculated to inflict a <em>$1</em> +wound on the agricultural resources of +the empire, and permanently injure all +the numerous classes who depend on that +branch of industry, and confer only a +<em>$1</em> benefit, by the reduction of +prices, on the manufacturing labourers. +The benefit is temporary, and mixed up, +even at first, with a most bitter portion of +alloy; the evil lasting, unmitigated by +any benefit whatever.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>We are now in the course of enduring +that precise phase of suffering, +arising from the repeal of the Corn +Laws, which was predicted by Mr +Alison more than eighteen years ago; +and it is solely from the extent of that +suffering that we are inclined to form +a better augury for the future than +we could have ventured to have done +in the course of the bygone year. +Three months have not passed since, +at the opening of Parliament, the +Whig Ministry with unparalleled audacity +ventured to congratulate the +country on its general prosperous +condition! Themselves indeed they +might congratulate, that, by means of +an income and property tax, imposed +under false pretences by a former +Premier, the public revenue was still +sufficient to meet its ordinary engagements; +but what other ground of +congratulation there was, no host of +witnesses could tell. Could they +venture to congratulate the country +<em>$1</em> on the state of the manufacturing +districts? Has this little interval of +three months, at a time of universal +peace and unparalleled cheapness, +sufficed to change universal prosperity +into widespread and acknowledged +depression? Not so. The depression +had begun long before—it commenced +so soon as falling prices +warned the agricultural consumers of +the fate which was in store for them; +and if Ministers did not know this, +they are utterly unfit to retain their +places longer. The continuance of +that depression can be only measured +by the existence of the Free-trade system. +If that is allowed to go on, and +if there be indeed, as is now the common +cant of the Liberal journalists, no +possibility of retracing our steps, the +next move will be one of plunder. +No foreign trade can compensate for +the tithe of the loss sustained by the +depreciation of property at home. +That cheapness which means nothing +else than curtailment of individual +profits, from the highest to the lowest, +cannot possibly coexist with expensive +government and enormous taxation. +The public creditor will be +marked for the next blow; and his +situation is the more precarious from +the peculiar monetary history of the +country, and the first important measure—pity +also that it had not been +the last!—which Sir Robert Peel was +instrumental in carrying through the +House of Commons.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are not only hopeful but sanguine +as to the power of Great Britain +in extricating herself from a difficulty, +not transient as before, but settled in +its character, because we believe that +the downfal of a wretched, presuming, +and ignorant faction cannot be much +longer delayed. We have been +cursed, for many years back, by the +predominance of a race of quacks, impostors, +sham economists, and political +adventurers, who, through favour of +the Reform Bill, have forced their +way into Parliament, after having +failed in the ordinary occupations of +trade, and have succeeded in palming +their crude and pestilential doctrines +upon Ministers too occupied with +individual ambition to care much for +the public welfare. Does any one +believe that such men have any interest +in maintaining the public credit, +or that they would not, did an opportunity +occur, attempt to defraud the +creditor, as they have already succeeded +in diminishing the means of +the debtor? Surely a thoughtful +review of the political events which +have occurred within the last five +years is enough to remove any lingering +credulity on this point. We do not +ask any one to adopt our views, or to +accept our construction. Let him deliberately +reflect upon the language of +these men in 1845, when the political +and commercial fever was at its height—when +private individuals were persuaded +that they might rear fortunes +without the drudgery of industry, and +when statesmen were preparing to +recommend the same false principle +for the general guidance of the nation. +How the upstart economists swaggered, +strutted, and cackled then! Not +a whit less incompetent and treacherous, +as guides in their own path, than +were the mushroom clerks and pimpled +adventurers of the Stock Exchanges +in another, they stood forth +like so many political John Laws, +proclaiming that unbounded wealth, +increased demand for labour, and +endless influx of capital would be the +immediate result of their magnificent +free-trading schemes. They had +figures and blue-books, returns, calculations +and balance-sheets, painfully +concocted by plodding theorists, ready +at hand to back up their asseverations, +and to satisfy the doubts of the most +sceptical. This is peculiarly an age +in which men are befooled by figures. +A century ago, it was enough that a +statement should pass from writing +into print, and be included in the +columns of a journal, in order to secure +its currency as a point of popular belief. +The increase of journalism has in +some respects remedied this, most +men being now alive to the fact that +typography possesses no peculiar immunity +from falsehood. But figures +are—or at least were a few years ago—untainted +in their reputation. Few +people were cautious enough to resist +a tempting calculation. It never entered +into their heads to suppose that +there lay gross error, radical fallacy, +and often deliberate fraud, in the imposing +array of cyphers which were +ostentatiously paraded for their inspection. +If half-a-dozen unscrupulous +swindlers determined to start a railway, +nothing more was required to +secure a rush for the scrip, than a +summary of phantom traffic, exhibiting +a clear return of some fifteen or +twenty per cent after deduction of +the working expenses. We all know +what has been the result of that widespread +infatuation. In precisely the +same manner did the economists concoct +their accounts, when they issued +their Free-trade prospectus. Less +honest, or perhaps more daringly +fraudulent than the railway projectors, +they did not propose to grant +any compensation for the land at all, +but their traffic tables were undoubtedly +an arithmetical <em>$1</em>! +Two millions per week of clear gain was +about the smallest estimate; and to +this result various persons, whose previous +biography, now that they have +emerged as public characters, might +be interesting, pledged their valuable +reputations!</p> + +<p class='c008'>That they imposed upon the leaders +of party, as well as upon a large section +of the nation, is no matter of +marvel. Statesmen are not exempt +from folly, imprudence, or delusion, +any more than private persons. One +may be cold, selfish, and greedy; +another rash, unscrupulous, and obstinate; +but, as there are few fish which +will not take a bait, so there seem to +be few modern statesmen proof against +the temptation of altering their policy, +if, by doing so, they believe that they +can secure possession of an unlimited +lease of power. In the present case +the bait was dexterously spun between +the two rivals, and the anxiety +of both to secure it was so +great, that neither took the precaution +of examining curiously into the +nature of its actual texture.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There is hardly a man in the country, +from the peer to the artisan, who +is not asking himself at this moment, +what he has gained by Free-trade. +So far as the agricultural interest is +concerned, there is no dubiety on the +point. The landlord is dunned for +reduction of rent, is discontinuing his +improvements, reducing his establishment, +and setting his house in order +for an altered style of living. The +tenant is wellnigh ruined, furious +that he has been betrayed, economising +labour as he best can, or seriously +meditating emigration. The labourer +finds his wages reduced, his small +comforts curtailed or abolished, work +scarce, and the workhouse at no great +distance. Let them all take comfort. +According to our hopeful economists, +this is a mere “transition state of +suffering.” What the next state is to +be, no prophet of them all can foretell. +Meantime certain Solons advocate +a wholesale emigration—rather a +strange panacea for a nation about to +be so prosperous!</p> + +<p class='c008'>Go to the towns or the manufacturing +districts, and ask how they are prospering. +The cotton trade is threatening +to shut up. The travellers are +returning disconsolate to their employers +with the news that orders are +every day becoming more scarce, and +money payments even scarcer. There +is no joy or exultation now in Leeds +or Bradford. The journeymen operatives +are combining against the slop +system. The <cite>Morning Chronicle</cite> +harrows up the feelings of its readers, +by tearful tales of the misery and +destitution which prevails throughout +the large towns of the empire, and no +human being can deny the truth of +the appalling statements. Scottish +philanthropists, on their midnight +visits to the wynds of Edinburgh, are +struck with amazement at the squalor +and vice which they encounter, and +not less with the shoals of destitute +creatures who are hurrying, with perverse +infatuation, from the free open +country to the fated atmosphere of a +loathsome city garret. They want to +check the stream, and drive the current +back again. But whither? In +the country there is no work for these +people. Machinery has forced the +hand-loom from the villages; Free +Trade is reducing the wages of the +spade to nothing. From the Western +Highlands, and from Ireland, those +who have money enough left to secure +a passage on ship-board are emigrating +by thousands—it is, we are told +by a correspondent, the briskest trade +in Liverpool. Those who have no +money left are trooping to the towns, +with the prospect before them of a +fate which might rend the heart of the +most callous. Who would wish to be +a statesman, if for the consequences +of all his deeds he must be held accountable +hereafter?</p> + +<p class='c008'>Ask the master-manufacturers +themselves how they are getting on, +now that they have succeeded in their +darling scheme of securing cheap +food, and paralysing the home trade? +You may ask if you will, but you will +hardly obtain an answer, save through +the medium of the trade circulars, all +filled with dismal forebodings. Were +another Cobden testimonial to be proposed +just now, the subscriptions +would scarcely purchase many shares +in the most depreciated of the lines.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Ask the gentlemen of the railway +interest, what cause is in operation to +crush down their traffic and annihilate +their dividends? They will tell +you to a man that it is the universal +agricultural depression. Ask the +iron-masters how they are thriving? +At this moment they are trembling +for the stability of their colossal +fortunes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is utterly impossible that this +state of matters can continue much +longer. If we do not reverse our +mad and desperate policy—and that +soon—the pressure of taxation, still +retaining its former money-level, +whilst the production which contributes +to it is depreciated by a half, +will become so unendurable, that any +remedy, however desperate, will find +numerous advocates; and amongst +the foremost and most clamorous of +these will be the leading sham economists. +The stateliest ship, when the +water is gaining upon her hold, must +perforce part with her guns—the +parallel case is being practically exhibited +just now, by the efforts of the +financial reformers to get rid of our warlike +establishments. If we cannot part +with our defences, we must do without +something else. There is in the +mean time a talk of reducing salaries, +paring down judicial emoluments, +and retrenching diplomatic expenses. +Lord John Russell, with no very +good grace, has been forced to refer +these matters to a committee, for the +evident purpose of securing the longest +possible period of delay. But the +tax-gatherer will not be idle in his +function, and still the clamour will +increase. Superfluities will go first—but +no surrender of superfluities +will meet the exigency. Men, when +pressed to the last extremity, become +reckless of their personal obligations; +and we have already heard from various +quarters intimations that, if the +land is to be permanently depreciated, +the creditor who has lent his money +on the security of that land must be +prepared to share the burden of the +loss with the owner. There is a +smack of wild justice in this, not at +all unpalatable to the taste of a burdened +debtor. Sir Robert Peel’s +favourite question, “What is a +pound?” will be argued afresh, after a +fashion little likely to secure the approval +of the original propounder of +the query. We shall be told, truly +enough, that the pound is the mere +conventional representation of a certain +amount of produce; and a very +large body of men will begin to talk +of paying off their debts, both private +and public, upon a principle which, if +once adopted, would destroy the whole +credit of the country. Three years +ago, Mr Doubleday demonstrated +that, if the repeal of the Corn Laws +should have the effect of reducing the +price of wheat on the average to 4s. +or 4s. 6d. per bushel, only two courses +are left—either to repeal the taxes +down to five-and-twenty millions at +most; or to alter the currency law of +1819, and reduce the value of money +to half the present value. We have +now almost touched the mark.</p> + +<p class='c008'>All this was clearly foreseen and +foreshadowed by Mr Alison, in his +memorable paper of 1831; and we +beg of our readers to peruse with attention +the following extract, as of +primary importance at the present +juncture of affairs:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Such a change of prices might be +innocuous, if individuals and the public +could begin on a new basis, and there +were no subsisting <em>$1</em>, +which must be provided for at a reduced +rate of incomes. But how is such a +state of things to go on, when individuals +and the State are under so many engagements, +which cannot be averted without +private or public bankruptcy? This is +the question which, in a complicated +state of society such as we live in, where +industry is so dependent on credit, is +the vital one to every interest.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“There is hardly an individual possessed +of property in the country who is not +immediately or ultimately involved in +money engagements. The landlords are +notoriously and proverbially drowned in +debt, and it is calculated that <em>$1</em> +of the produce of the soil finds its way +ultimately into the pocket of the public +or the private creditor. Farmers are all +more or less involved in engagements +either to their landlords or to the banks +who have advanced their money; merchants +and manufacturers have their bills +or cash-accounts standing against them, +which must be provided for, whatever +ensues with regard to the prices of the +articles in which they deal; and private +individuals, even of wealthy fortunes, +have provisions to their wives, sisters, +brothers, or children, which must be made +up to a certain money amount, if they +would avert the evils of bankruptcy. +Now, if the views of the Reformers are +well founded, and a great reduction is +effected in the price of grain, and consequently +in the money-income of every +man in the kingdom, through the free +trade in corn, how are these undiminished +money-obligations to be made good out +of the diminished pecuniary resources +of the debtors in them? Mr Baring +has estimated that the change in +the value of money, consequent on the +resumption of cash-payments, altered +prices about 25 per cent; and everybody +knows what widespread, still existing, +and irremediable private distress <em>$1</em> +change produced. What, then, may be +anticipated from the far greater change +which is contemplated as likely to arise +from a free-trade in grain?</p> + +<p class='c015'>“But, serious as these evils are, they +are nothing in comparison with the +dreadful consequences which would result +to <em>$1</em> from the change, and +the widespread desolation which must +follow a serious blow to the national +faith.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“It is well known with what difficulty +the payment of the annual charge of the +National Debt is provided for, even under +the present scale of prices; and how +much those difficulties were increased by +the change of prices, and the general +diminution of incomes, consequent on +the resumption of cash-payments. Indeed, +such was the effect of that change +that, had it not been counterbalanced by +a very great increase, both of our +agricultural and manufacturing produce +at the same time, it would have rendered +the maintenance of faith with the +public creditor impossible. Now, if such +be the present state of the public debt, +even under the unexampled general +prosperity which has pervaded the empire +since the peace, and with all the +security to the public faith which arises +from the stable, consistent, and uniform +rule of the British aristocracy, how is the +charge of the debt to be provided for +under the diminished national income +arising from the much hoped-for change +of prices consequent on the Reform Bill +and repeal of the Corn Laws, and the +increased national impatience, arising +from the consciousness of the power to +cast off the burden for ever?—Great and +reasonable fear may be felt, whether, +under any circumstances, the maintenance +of the national faith inviolate is practicable +for any considerable length of +time: no doubt can be entertained that, +under a Reform Parliament, and a free +trade in grain, it will be impossible.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>We forbear quoting the picture +which our author has drawn of the +awful consequences which must instantly +follow on a crash of the +national credit—not because we consider +it in any degree overcharged, +but because we are now satisfied that +the country is alive to its danger. We +are too well accustomed to the braggadocio +of modern journalism to attach +much weight to the expiring +vociferations of men who have done +their utmost to lead us into the present +dilemma; and who now, finding +themselves powerless to advise, are +vainly attempting to keep up a delusion +which the experience of each +succeeding week is dissipating with +extraordinary rapidity. The most talented +of the Free-trading journals virtually +confess that the experiment has +altogether failed. They are not able +to point out one single iota of advantage +which has resulted from it, beyond +the purely supposititious one +that, for a time, it secured the tranquillity +of Great Britain. This is at +best an ignoble argument in behalf +of a bad measure; but we believe it +to be utterly without foundation, inasmuch +as there probably never was a +great question agitated in which less +interest was evinced by the masses of +the nation than in that of the Corn +Laws. But we should be sorry, indeed, +to rank the loyalty of the British +people so low, or to suppose that +the crown of these realms rested upon +so weak a foundation, as the adoption +of such a view as this must necessarily +infer. The journals to which we +allude are by no means unconscious +of the loss which we have incurred, +or of the danger in which we presently +stand. The insane boast of Mr Villiers, +at the opening of the session, +that a depreciation of ninety-one millions +had taken place in the annual +produce of British labour, found no +echo in the columns of our more +sharp-sighted contemporaries. They +are now attempting to show that this +calculation was an utter mistake; that +importations are gradually diminishing; +and that prices must necessarily +rise. Most glad should we be if their +views upon this subject were sound; +but, unfortunately, stern experience +points to a different result. We complain, +and that with perfect justice, +that they will not face the difficulty, +and tell us what is to be done, supposing +prices remain as they are. +Agricultural quackery has done its +utmost, and has been extinguished +by the shout of general derision. No +man in his senses believes that production +can be artificially stimulated, +or the earth so manured as to yield +double crops to supply the frightful +deficiency in the annual balance-sheet +of the farmer. Both arms of husbandry +are shattered. Cattle-feeding +has been made, by Sir Robert Peel’s +tariff, as profitless as tillage; and all +countries have been invited, and are +availing themselves of the invitation, +to inundate our markets with their +produce. Under such a state of +things, what hope is there of recovery—what +chance of manufactures reviving, +so long as the best customers +for manufactures are borne down? +Are they not borne down? Let us see. +The depreciation of food was stated +by Mr Villiers at £91,000,000. The +whole land rental of the United Kingdom +is, according to a late statistical +authority, £58,753,615. Let us suppose +that rents are reduced by one-third—a +reduction which, considering +that mortgages and public burdens still +remain undiminished, will cripple the +means of most of the proprietors in +the kingdom—and the rental will fall +to about £39,169,000. Still there will +remain a loss of nearly £52,000,000 +annually, to be borne by the tenantry; +in other words, low prices will +have to that extent affected their +power of purchase. The real case is +even stronger than the hypothetical +one, because the farmers, who constitute +the larger consuming body, are +at present receiving no such remission +of rent. Of £178,000,000, the estimated +amount of British manufactures, +we export £58,000,000, and +there remain for home consumption +goods to the value of £120,000,000. +Upon the sale of these depends not +only the prosperity, but the existence +of the manufacturers; and yet people +are astonished that their wares do +not go off as formerly! How, in the +name of common sense, can they be +expected to go off, when no margin +of profit is left, in his own trade, to +the great consumer? What these +reasonable gentlemen anticipate is +this—that the proprietor shall have +no surplus from his rent, or the farmer +any remuneration from his toil +and capital; and yet that they shall +continue to purchase all articles of +manufacture as before!</p> + +<p class='c008'>We observe that a contemporary +journal, which naturally feels rather +sore on the subject of the Corn Laws, +has twitted Mr Alison with a failure +of prophecy, in not having allowed for a +sufficient lapse between the passing of +the Reform Bill and the notable era +when the lion and the lamb coalesced—when +Sir Robert Peel finally became +a convert to the dazzling discoveries +of Mr Cobden. Our respected brother +seems to think that Mr Alison must +feel disappointed that the march of +democracy has been so slow; that the +avatar of Free-trade was so long in +coming; and that our fields were not, +several years ago, abandoned by the +disappointed husbandman. For the +satisfaction of the kindly critic, we +shall quote the following passage, +penned in 1832, immediately after +the passing of the Reform Bill, and +then, perhaps, refresh his memory as +to the manner in which the later measure +was carried:—</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Dark and disastrous, however, as is +the future prospect of the British empire, +we do not think its case hopeless, or that, +after having gone through the degradation, +distraction, and suffering which +must follow the destruction of the Constitution, +it may not yet witness in the +decline of its days some gleams of sunshine +and prosperity. The laws of nature +have now come to aid the cause of order; +its usual suffering will attend the march +of revolution; experience will soon dispel +the fumes of democracy; the reign +of Political Unions, of Jacobin Clubs, +and tricolor flags, must ere long come to +an end; the suffering, anxiety, and distress +consequent on their despotic rule, +the suspension of all confidence, and the +ruin of all credit, must consign them to +the dust, amidst the execrations of their +country, if they are not subverted by the +ruder shock of civil warfare and military +power. The distress, misery, and stagnation, +in every branch of industry, +already consequent on the Reform Bill, +have been so extreme, that they must +long ago have led to its overthrow, not +only without the resistance, but with +the concurrence, of all the Reformers +who are not revolutionists, had it not +been for the delusion universally spread +by the revolutionary journals, that the +existing distress was not owing to Reform, +but to the resistance which it had +experienced, and that the danger of +revolution, great in the event of the +measure being thrown out, was absolutely +nugatory in the event of its being +passed. These two sophisms have alone +carried the bill through the resistance +it experienced from the property, education, +and talent of the country, and +blinded men’s eyes to the enormous evils +which not only threatened to follow its +triumph, but attended its progress. But +these delusions cannot much longer be +maintained. Reform is now victorious: +the bill is passed unmutilated and unimpaired; +and its whole consequences +<em>$1</em>. When it is discovered +that all the benefits promised from it are +a mere delusion; that stagnation, distress, +and misery have signalised its +triumph; that trade does not revive with +the contracted expenditure of the rich, +nor confidence return with the increased +audacity of the poor; that the ancient +and kindly relations of life have been +torn asunder in the struggle, and the +vehemence of democracy has provided +no substitute in their stead; that interest +after interest, class after class, is successively +exposed to the attacks of the +revolutionists, and the ancient barrier +which restrained them is removed: the +eyes of the nation must be opened to +the gross fraud which has been practised +upon it. Then it will be discovered that +the aristocratic interest, and the nomination +boroughs, which supported their +influence in the Lower House, were the +real bulwark which protected all the +varied interests of the country from the +revolutionary tempest, and that every +branch of industry is less secure, every +species of property is less valuable, every +enterprise is more hazardous, every disaster +is more irretrievable, when its +surges roll unbroken and unresisted into +the legislature.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“It is upon this very circumstance, +however, that our chief, and indeed our +only hope of the country is founded. +Hitherto the great body of the middle +classes have stood aloof from the contest, +or they have openly joined the reforming +party. They were carried away by the +prospect of the importance which they +would acquire under the new Constitution, +and did not perceive that it was +their own interests which were defended, +their own battle which was fought, their +own existence which was at stake, in +the contest maintained by the Conservative +party. Now the case is changed. +The old rampart is demolished, and, +unless these middle ranks can create +a new one, they must be speedily themselves +destroyed. From the sole of their +feet to the crown of their head, the +middle classes of England at present +stand exposed to the revolutionary fire; +every shot will now carry away flesh +and blood. Deeply as we deplore the +misery and suffering which the exposure +of these unprotected classes to the +attacks of revolution must produce, it +is in the intensity of that suffering, +in the poignancy of that distress, that +the only chance of ultimate deliverance +is to be found. Periods of suffering are +seldom, in the end, lost to nations, any +more than to individuals; and it is years +of anguish that expiate the sin, and tame +the passions, of days of riot and licentiousness.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The Constitution, indeed, is destroyed, +but the men whom the Constitution formed +are not destroyed. The institutions which +protected all the classes of the state, the +permanent interests which coerced the +feverish throes of democracy, the conservative +weight which steadied all the +movements of the people, are at an end; +the peril arising from this sudden removal +of the pressure which hitherto regulated +all the movements of the machine is extreme, +but the case is not utterly hopeless. +It is impossible at once to change +the habits of many hundred years’ growth; +it is difficult in a few years to root out +the affections and interests which have +sprung from centuries of obligation; it +is not in a single generation that the +virtues and happiness, fostered by ages +of prosperity, are to be destroyed. As +long as the British character remains unchanged; +as long as religion and moral +virtue sway the feelings of the majority +of the people; as long as tranquil industry +forms the employment of her inhabitants, +and domestic enjoyments constitute +the reward of their exertion,—the cause +of order and civilisation is not hopeless. +Revolutions, it is true, are always effected +by reckless and desperate minorities in +opposition to opulent and indolent majorities; +but it is the ennobling effect of +civil liberty to nourish a spirit of resistance +to oppression, which outstrips all the +calculations of those who ground their +views upon what has occurred in despotic +monarchies.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>And so it happened. The reaction +throughout the country was complete. +The Conservative party rallied; and +rallied so effectively, that, with many +converts in its ranks, and the rising +youth of the new generation to back it, +a great majority in the House of Commons +was secured, and the leadership +intrusted to the hands of one who, in +despite of previous lapses, appeared +at that time to have earned the distinction +by his zeal, and who gained +it by the force of his protestations. +Had the leader been true to the cause +which he then professed, we should +have been spared the ungracious duty +of commenting upon a solemn treachery, +to which history affords no +parallel, and the memory of which +will live long after the grave has closed +above the head of the principal delinquent. +How was it possible that such +an event could fail again, for a time, +to disunite a party, formed out of the +ruins of the old one by a rapid and +indiscriminate conscription? That +dependence and faith which high and +chivalrous spirits are so ready to place +in one beneath whose colours they +have fought—the ready trustingness +of youth—the great prestige which +surrounds the name of a veteran and +successful statesman—the belief in +his superior sagacity—the recollection +of blandishments and flattery, so +prized by the young when proceeding +from the lips of honoured age,—all +these things combined to break up +the Conservative party, and to place +the reins of government once more in +the hands of the eager Whigs. Perhaps +it is better so. There is no risk +now of a second betrayal, whatever +may be the future fortunes of the +Country Party; and on the head of +him who caused the social change let +the whole consequences rest. England’s +political annals have at least +gained one character more by the act. +The future historian who shall chronicle +the transactions of the last five +years, whatever be his creed or his +politics, will speak with veneration +and honour of <span class='sc'>Lord George Bentinck</span>, +for whose early fate more +honest tears were shed, than have +often been paid as a tribute to the +patriot who has fallen in battle, the +defender of his country’s cause.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have not left ourselves much +room to glance at the three interesting +papers in this volume, on the +subject of the two French Revolutions +of 1830 and 1848. They will be read +with profound attention by thousands +who may have passed them over +cursorily in their anonymous original +form; because Mr Alison’s profound +and intimate knowledge of the working +of French diplomacy, of the turbulent +and dangerous element which +lies, like molten lava, beneath the +surface of French society, and of the +secret causes of those outrages which, +from time to time, have shaken that +unhappy country, must needs give an +additional assurance of their value. +It is curious to observe how entirely +the speculations of the author, as to +the consequences which might arise +from the first of those sudden revolutions, +are borne out by the marvellous +issue of the second. The falsity +of the system which made the stability +of a government and the existence of +a dynasty mainly depend upon the +doubtful adherence, and still more +doubtful valour, of a civic National +Guard, was clearly pointed out and +exposed at the time when the Liberal +press of England was loud in its +approbation of the citizen soldiers +who had violated their oaths, and the +citizen king, who, more fortunate than +his worthless father, had succeeded in +supplanting his kinsman and rightful +sovereign.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Of the numerous delusions,” wrote +Mr Alison in 1831, “which have overspread +the world in such profusion during +the last nine months, there is none so +extraordinary and so dangerous as the +opinion incessantly inculcated by the +revolutionary press, that the noblest virtue +in regular soldiers is to prove themselves +traitors to their oaths; and that a +<em>$1</em> is the only safe and constitutional +force to which arms can be +intrusted. The troops of the line, whose +revolt decided the three days in July in +favour of the revolutionary party, have +been the subject of the most extravagant +eulogium from the Liberal press throughout +Europe; and even in this country, the +Government journals have not hesitated +to condemn, in no measured terms, the +Royal Guard, merely because they adhered, +amidst a nation’s treason, to their +honour and their oaths.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Hitherto it has been held the first +duty of soldiers to adhere, with implicit +devotion, to that <em>$1</em> which is the +foundation of military duties. Treason +to his colours has been considered as +foul a blot on the soldier’s scutcheon as +cowardice in the field. Even in the most +republican states, this principle of military +subordination has been felt to be the +vital principle of national strength. It +was during the rigorous days of Roman +discipline, that their legions conquered +the world; and the decline of the empire +began at the time that the Prætorian +Guards veered with the mutable populace, +and sold the empire for a gratuity +to themselves. Albeit placed in power +by the insurrection of the people, no men +knew better than the French Republican +leaders that their salvation depended on +crushing the military insubordination to +which they had owed their elevation. +When the Parisian levies began to evince +the mutinous spirit in the camp at St +Menehould in Champagne, which they +had imbibed during the license of the +capital, Dumourier drew them up in the +centre of his intrenchments, and, showing +them a powerful line of cavalry in front, +with their sabres drawn, ready to charge, +and a stern array of artillery and cannoneers +in rear, with their matches in +their hands, soon convinced the most +licentious that the boasted independence +of the soldier must yield to the dangers +of actual warfare. ‘The armed force,’ +said Carnot, ‘is essentially obedient;’ +and in all his commands, that great man +incessantly inculcated upon his soldiers +the absolute necessity of implicit submission +to the power which employed them. +When the recreant Constable de Bourbon, +at the head of a victorious squadron of +Spanish cavalry, approached the spot +where the rearguard, under the Chevalier +Bayard, was covering the retreat +of the French army in the valley of +Aosta, he found him seated, mortally +wounded, under a tree, with his eyes +fixed on the cross which formed the hilt +of his sword. Bourbon began to express +pity for his fate. ‘Pity not me,’ said +the high-minded Chevalier; ‘pity those +who fight against their king, their +country, and their oath!’</p> + +<p class='c015'>“These generous feelings, common +alike to republican antiquity and modern +chivalry, have disappeared during the +fumes of the French Revolution. The +soldier who is now honoured is not he +who keeps, but he who violates his oath; +the rewards of valour are showered, not +upon those who defend, but on those who +overturn the government; the incense of +popular applause is offered, not at the +altar of fidelity, but at that of treason. +Honours, rewards, promotion, and adulation, +have been lavished on the troops of +the line, who overthrew the government +of Charles X. in July last; while the +Royal Guard, who adhered to the fortune +of the fallen monarch with exemplary +fidelity, have been reduced to <em>$1</em> from the bounty of strangers in a +foreign land. A subscription has recently +been opened in London for the most destitute +of these defenders of royalty; but +the Government journals have stigmatised, +as ‘highly dangerous,’ any indication +of sympathy with their fidelity or +their misfortunes.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“If these ancient ideas of honour, +however, are to be exploded, they have +at least gone out of fashion in good company. +The National Guard who took up +arms to overthrow the throne, have not +been long of destroying the altar. During +the revolt of February 1831, <em>$1</em>, +the emblem of salvation, was taken down +from all the steeples in Paris by the +citizen soldiers, and the image of our +Saviour effaced, by their orders, from +every church within its bounds! The +two principles stand and fall together. +The Chevalier ‘without fear and without +reproach’ died in obedience to his +oath, with his eyes fixed on the Cross; +the National Guard lived in triumph, +while their comrades bore down the venerated +emblem from the towers of Notre +Dame.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Singular was the retribution which +awaited France. The “Ulysses” of +Europe, as he has been styled—the +old, crafty, insincere, penurious, yet +plausible and half-sagacious man, +sate in apparent peace upon his +throne for wellnigh eighteen years, +negotiating alliances, maintaining a +fair outward character, pandering to +popularity, identifying himself with +the <em>$1</em>, and identifying his +sons with the army—and all this to +fall at last before the worst planned +and most poorly contrived insurrection +which was ever attempted in the +streets of a European capital. Surrounded +by his citizens, the citizen +king went down. We know now, +from the revelations of De la Hodde +and others, what was the true nature +and commencement of that beggarly +conspiracy. We know that a few +hundred suspected and ill-organised +Socialists, along with a handful of +newspaper editors, not two of whom +possessed sufficient personal courage +to lay hand on a loaded musket, contrived +to overawe Paris, to bully the +redoubted National Guard, and to send +poor old Ulysses again upon his +travels, without much chance of finding +a second imperial Ithaca. Farce +and tragedy are here so closely interwoven +that it is wellnigh impossible +to separate their texture. The dethronement +of such a king may be a +grand European disaster, but it militates +nothing against the principle +or the sanctity of royalty. It was +but a simple Presidency gone a-begging. +The King of the Bourse or the +Railway Monarch had about them +nearly as much of that divinity which +should surround the royal character +as Louis Philippe, the chosen of the +shopkeepers, and the veteran dabbler +in the funds. No true greatness, no +high nobility of soul, elevated him to +the throne of France—ignoble beyond +all precedent was the manner in which +he was compelled to leave it. The +retreat of Charles X. was a triumph +compared with his panic-stricken and +unfollowed flight.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following are Mr Alison’s remarks +upon the last of these Revolutions. +The reader will not fail to +observe the extreme similarity between +the two astounding Revolutions, +and the precise nature of the +cause which enabled both of them to +be successfully carried through by an +otherwise contemptible rabble.</p> + +<p class='c009'>“Who is answerable for this calamitous +Revolution, which has thus arrested +the internal prosperity of France, involved +its finances in apparently hopeless embarrassment, +thrown back for probably half +a century the progress of real freedom in +that country, and perhaps consigned it to +a series of internal convulsions, and +Europe to the horrors of general war for +a very long period? We answer without +hesitation, that the responsibility rests +with two parties, and two parties only—the +King and the National Guard.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The King is most of all to blame, for +having engaged in a conflict, and, when +victory was within his grasp, allowing it +to slip from his hands from want of resolution +at the decisive moment. It is too +soon after these great and astonishing +events to be able to form a decided opinion +on the whole details connected with +them; but the concurring statements from +all parties go to prove that on the <em>$1</em> +day the troops of the line were perfectly +steady; and history will record that the +heroic firmness of the Municipal Guard +has rivalled all that is most honourable in +French history. The military force was +immense; not less than eighty thousand +men, backed by strong forts, and amply +provided with all the muniments of war. +Their success on the first day was unbroken; +they had carried above a hundred +barricades, and were in possession +of all the military positions of the capital. +But at this moment the indecision of the +King ruined everything. Age seems to +have extinguished the vigour for which +he was once so celebrated. He shrank +from a contest with the insurgents, paralysed +the troops by orders not to fire on +the people, and openly receded before the +insurgent populace, by abandoning Guizot +and the firm policy which he himself +had adopted, and striving to conciliate +revolution by the <i><span lang="fr">mezzo termini</span></i> of +Count Molé, and a more liberal cabinet. +It is with retreat in the presence of an +insurrection, as in the case of an invading +army; the first move towards the rear is +a certain step to ruin. The moment it +was seen that the King was giving way, +all was paralysed, because all foresaw +to which side the victory would incline. +The soldiers threw away their muskets, +the officers broke their swords, and the +vast array, equal to the army which +fought at Austerlitz, was dissolved like +a rope of sand. Louis Philippe fell without +either the intrepidity of the royal +martyr in 1793, or the dignity of the +elder house of Bourbon in 1830; and if it +be true, as is generally said, that the +Queen urged the King to mount on horseback +and die as ‘became a King’ in +front of the Tuileries, and he declined, +preferring to escape in disguise to this +country, history must record, with shame, +that royalty perished in France without +the virtues it was entitled to expect in +the meanest of its supporters.</p> + +<p class='c015'>“The second cause which appears to +have occasioned the overthrow of the +monarchy in France, is the general, it +may be said universal, defection of the +National Guard. It had been openly announced +that 20,000 of that body were +to line the Champs Elysées <em>$1</em> +on occasion of the banquet; it was +perfectly known that that banquet was +a mere pretext for getting the forces +of this Revolution together; and that the +intention of the conspirators was to +march in a body to the Tuileries after it +was over, and compel the King to accede +to their demands. When they were called +out in the afternoon, they declined to act +against the people, and by their treachery +occasioned the defection of the troops of +the line, and rendered farther resistance +hopeless. They expected, by this declaration +against the King of their choice, +the monarch of the barricades, to secure +a larger share in the government for +themselves. They went to the Chamber +of Deputies, intending to put up the +Duchess of Orleans as Regent, and the +Count of Paris as King, and to procure a +large measure of reform for the constitution. +What was the result? Why, that +they were speedily supplanted by the rabble +who followed in their footsteps, and who, +deriding the eloquence of Odillon Barrot, +and insensible to the heroism of the +Duchess of Orleans, by force and violence +expelled the majority of the deputies from +their seats, seized on the President’s +chair, and, amidst an unparalleled scene +of riot and confusion, subverted the Orleans +dynasty, proclaimed a Republic, and +adjourned to the Hotel de Ville to name +a Provisional Government!...</p> + +<p class='c015'>“Here, then, is the whole affair clearly +revealed. It was the timidity of Government, +and the defection of the National +Guard, which ruined everything,—which +paralysed the troops of the line, encouraged +the insurgents, left the brave Municipal +Guards to their fate, and caused +the surrender of the Tuileries. And what +has been the result of this shameful treachery +on the part of the sworn defenders +of order—this ‘<em>$1</em>’ prætorian guard +of France? Nothing but this, that they +have destroyed the monarchy, ruined industry, +banished capital, rendered freedom +hopeless, and made bankrupt the +State! Such are the effects of armed men +forgetting the first of social duties, that +of fidelity to their oaths.”</p> + +<p class='c007'>Of the other papers contained in +this volume, that on the subject of +“the British Peerage,” written at a +time when certain worthy fellows out +of doors seemed to be determined that +crown, mitre, and coronet should go +together into one blazing bonfire, +similar to that which lately received +the state chair of Louis Philippe—and +when certain peers within testified +their respect for the dignity and privileges +of their order, by doing their +best to have it swamped by new creations—will +especially challenge notice +as a stately, dignified, and elaborate +composition. Other essays, such as +those on Crime and Transportation, +Ireland, the Navigation Laws, and +the Commercial Crisis of 1837, evince +the care and attention which Mr Alison +has bestowed on the leading topics +of economy and government with +which modern statesmen are inevitably +compelled to grapple. Of their +intrinsic merit we shall say nothing. +They have often been cited as the +ablest expositions of the peculiar views +which they advocate, and all of them +bear the impress of a mind earnest in +its convictions, and thoroughly practical +in its tendency. Mr Alison does +not, like too many writers of the day, +content himself with finding out what +is faulty, or defective, or radically +vicious in any branch of our social +economy—he indulges in no vague +and pointless declamation; but while +he lays bare the wound, distinctly and +emphatically inculcates the proper +remedy. Many persons there are, of +course, who will not subscribe to his +doctrines, but we believe there are +very few who will question the sincerity +or deny the philanthropy of his +views. And when it is considered +that the three massive volumes, of +which this is the first, were composed +at intervals of short respite from the +toil of an engrossing profession, and +form but a small portion of the literary +labours of the author, it may be questionable +which is most to be wondered +at—the largeness of his information, +or the unwearied energy of his mind.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These certainly are not the columns +in which this work of Mr Alison can +be discussed with absolute impartiality, +nor is the writer of this article +free from a pardonable bias. Where +affection, veneration, and gratitude +for many wholesome lessons, conveyed +with a kindliness which has made those +lessons still more valuable, are warm +at the heart, criticism is impossible; +and it would be absurd and false to +feign that we approach this book with +any idea of fulfilling the critical +function. Yet thus much may we +be allowed to say, that for integrity +of purpose, honesty of design, +clear and unvarying adherence to +principles, laboriously sought for and +conscientiously adopted—for the virtue +and total absence of selfishness +which distinguish the patriot, and for +the grace and accomplishment which +adorn the scholar and the gentleman, +it would be difficult to find within +the four seas that encircle Britain +a superior to the author of these +Essays, and of the famous History +of Europe.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_621'>621</span> + <h2 class='c002'>OVID’S SPRING-TIME<br> <span class='large'>FROM THE TRISTIA.</span></h2> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c017'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>For once the zephyrs have removed the cold:</div> + <div class='line in2'>One year is over, and a new begun.</div> + <div class='line'>So short a winter, I am daily told,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Never yet yielded to this northern sun.</div> + <div class='line'>I see the children skipping o’er the green,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Plucking the faint unodorous violet,</div> + <div class='line'>A gentle stranger, rarely ever seen.</div> + <div class='line in2'>With other flowers the mead is sparsely set—</div> + <div class='line'>Brown birds are twittering with the joy of spring:</div> + <div class='line in2'>The universal swallow, ne’er at rest,</div> + <div class='line'>Aye chirping, glances past on purple wing,</div> + <div class='line in2'>And builds beneath the humble eaves her nest.</div> + <div class='line'>The plant, which yester-year the share o’erthrew,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Looks up again from out the opening mould;</div> + <div class='line'>And the poor vines, though here but weak and few,</div> + <div class='line in2'>Some scantling buds, like ill-set gems, unfold.</div> + <div class='line in52'>W. E. A.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_622'>622</span> + <h2 class='c002'><span class='blackletter'>Dies Boreales.</span></h2> +</div> +<p class='c007'>No. VII.</p> + +<p class='c008'>CHRISTOPHER UNDER CANVASS.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>$1</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='sc'>Scene</span>—<em>$1</em> <span class='sc'>Time</span>—<em>$1</em> <span class='fss'>A.M.</span></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='sc'>North—Talboys.</span></p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Perturbed Spirit! why won’t you rest? What brings thee here?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Seward snores.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why select Seward?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I do not select him—he selects himself—singles himself out from the whole +host; so that you hear his Snore loud over that of the Camp—say rather +his Snore alone—like Lablache singing a Solo in a chorus.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>It must be Buller.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Buller began it——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>List! How harmonious in the hush the blended Snore of Camp and Village! +How tuned to unison—as if by pitch-pipe—with the dreamy din of our +lapsing friend here, who by and by will awake into a positive Waterfall.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Snore of either army stilly sounds. At this distance, the Snore disposes +to sleep. Seward must have awakened himself—there goes Buller——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Where?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Shriller than Seward—quite a childish treble—liker the Snore of a female—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Females never snore.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>How do you know? I won’t answer for some of them. Lionesses do—not +perhaps in their wild state—but in Zoological Gardens.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not quite so loud, Chanticleer—you will disturb my people.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Disturb your people! Why, he has already stirred up the Solar System.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The Cock that is the Trumpet of the Morn,</div> + <div class='line'>Doth, with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat,</div> + <div class='line'>Awake the God of Day.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>Taking the distance of the Earth from the Sun, in round numbers, at Ninety-Five +Millions of Miles, pretty well for a bird probably weighing some six +pounds not merely to make himself heard by the God of Day, but by one +single crow to startle Dan Phœbus from his sleep, and force him <em>$1</em> +to show his shining morning face at Cladich.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Out of Science, we seldom think of the vastness of the System of the Universe. +Our hearts and imaginations diminish it for the delight of love. In +our usual moods we are all Children with respect to Nature; and gather up +Stars as if they were flowers of the field—to form a coronet for Neæra’s hair.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>What ailed poor dear Doctor Beattie at Cocks in general? I never could +understand the Curse.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in18'>“Proud harbinger of Day,</div> + <div class='line'>Who scarest my visions with thy clarion shrill,</div> + <div class='line'>Fell Chanticleer! who oft hath reft away</div> + <div class='line'>My fancied good, and brought substantial ill!</div> + <div class='line'>Oh, to thy cursed scream discordant still</div> + <div class='line'>Let Harmony aye shut her gentle ear;</div> + <div class='line'>Thy boastful mirth let jealous rivals spill,</div> + <div class='line'>Insult thy crest, and glossy pinions tear,</div> + <div class='line'>And ever in thy dreams the ruthless fox appear.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>You Poets, in your own persons, are a savage set.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I am not a Poet, sir; nor will I allow any man with impunity to call me so.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>But Doctor Beattie was, and a Professor of Moral Philosophy to boot, at +Aberdeen or St Andrews, or some other one of our ancient Universities—for +every stone-and-lime building in Scotland is ancient; and. goodness me! +hear him cursing cocks, and dooming the whole Gallic race to every variety +of cruel and ignominious deaths, in revenge for having been disturbed from +his morning dreams by a Gentleman with Comb and Wattles crowing on his +own Dunghill, in red jacket, speckled waistcoat, and grey breeks, the admiration +of Earochs and How-Towdies.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Doctor Beattie was a true Poet—and had an eye and an ear for Nature. +Yet now and then he shut both—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Hence the scared owl on pinions grey</div> + <div class='line in2'><em>$1</em>;</div> + <div class='line'>And down the lone vale sails away</div> + <div class='line in2'>To more profound repose.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>I have seen that Stanza quoted many thousand times as exquisite. It is criminal. +An owl was never heard, scared or unscared, to “break from the +rustling boughs.” Silently as a leaf he leaves his perch; you hear no rustle, +for he makes none—any more than a ghost.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Nor are the other lines good—for they present the image of a long rectilinear +flight, which that of an owl in no circumstances is; and, in a fright, +he would take the first blind shelter.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Poets seldom err so—yet I remember a mistake of Coleridge’s about that +commonest of all birds, the Rook.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“My gentle-hearted Charles! when the last Rook</div> + <div class='line'>Bent its straight path along the dusky air</div> + <div class='line'>Homewards, I blest it! deeming its black wing</div> + <div class='line'>(Now a dim speck, now vanishing in light)</div> + <div class='line'>Had crossed the mighty orb’s dilated glory,</div> + <div class='line'>When thou stood’st gazing; or, when all was still,</div> + <div class='line'><em>$1</em>; and had a charm</div> + <div class='line'>For thee, my gentle-hearted Charles, to whom</div> + <div class='line'>No sound is dissonant which tells of life!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>There is much silliness in the Sibylline Leaves. For Charles read Charlotte. +’Tis more like Love than Friendship—effeminate exceedingly; and, +“no sound is dissonant which tells of life,” reminds one of the Sunday Jackasses +on Blackheath.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>“‘<em>$1</em>’ Some months after I had written this line,” says Coleridge +in a note, “it gave me pleasure to find that Bartram had observed the +same circumstance of the Savanna Crane. ‘When these birds move their +wings in flight, their strokes are slow, moderate, and regular; and even when +at a considerable distance, or high above us, we plainly hear the quill-feathers; +their shafts and webs, upon one another, creak as <em>$1</em>.’” That a Rook may fly “creaking” when moulting, +or otherwise out of feather, I shall not take upon me to deny; but in +ordinary condition, he does not fly “creaking.” Coleridge was wont, in his +younger days, to mistake exceptions for general rules. In such a case as this, +a moment’s reflection would have sufficed to tell him that there could not have +been “creaking” without let or hindrance to flight—and that the flight +of a rook is easy and equable—“The blackening train o’ craws to their repose.” +What creaking must have been there! But Burns never heard it.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>One Burns, as an observer of nature, is worth fifty Coleridges.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not an arithmetical question. Why, even dear Sir Walter himself occasionally +makes a slip in this way.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Beneath the broad and ample bone,</div> + <div class='line'>That buckled heart to fear unknown,</div> + <div class='line'>A feeble and a tim’rous guest</div> + <div class='line'>The field-fare framed her lowly nest!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>The Field-fare is migratory—and does not build here; in Norway, where it +is native, it builds in trees—often high up on lofty trees—and in crowds.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I believe, sir, they have been known to breed in this country—and perhaps +here they build on the ground.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Don’t be nonsensical. Our Great Minstrel knew wood-craft well; and +hill-craft and river-craft; yet in his fine picture of Coriskin and Coolin,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The wildest glen but this can show</div> + <div class='line'>Some touch of nature’s genial glow:</div> + <div class='line'>On high Benmore green mosses grow,</div> + <div class='line'>And heath-bells bud in deep Glencroe,</div> + <div class='line'>And copse on Cruachan Ben;</div> + <div class='line'>But here, above, around, below,</div> + <div class='line'>In mountain or in glen,</div> + <div class='line'>Nor tree, nor shrub, nor plant, nor flower,</div> + <div class='line'>Nor aught of vegetative power</div> + <div class='line'>The weary eye may ken.</div> + <div class='line'>For all is rocks at random strewn,</div> + <div class='line'>Black waves, bare crags, and banks of stone,</div> + <div class='line'>As if were here denied</div> + <div class='line'>The summer’s sun, the spring’s sweet dew,</div> + <div class='line'>That clothe with many a varied hue</div> + <div class='line'>The bleakest mountain’s head;”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>would you believe it, that he introduces Deer—<em>$1</em> Deer!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Call it not vain, they do not err</div> + <div class='line'>Who say that, when the Poet dies,</div> + <div class='line'>Mute nature mourns her worshipper,</div> + <div class='line'>And celebrates his obsequies;</div> + <div class='line'>Who say tall cliff and cavern lone</div> + <div class='line'>For the departed bard make moan;</div> + <div class='line'>That mountains meet in crystal rill,</div> + <div class='line'>That flowers in tears of balm distil;</div> + <div class='line'>Through his loved groves that breezes sigh,</div> + <div class='line'>And oaks in deeper groan reply,</div> + <div class='line'>And rivers teach their rushing wave</div> + <div class='line'>To murmur dirges round his grave.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And there the Last Minstrel should have ceased. What follows spoils all—fanciful, +fantastic—not imaginative, poetical. The Minstrel is at pains to let +us know that</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Mute nature does <em>$1</em> mourn her worshipper!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>that not</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in16'>“O’er mortal urn</div> + <div class='line'>These things inanimate can mourn.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>What, then, is the truth? To explain the mystery of flowers distilling tears +of balm, we are told that</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The maid’s pale shade, who wails her lot,</div> + <div class='line'>That love, true love, should be forgot,</div> + <div class='line'>From rose and heather shakes the tear</div> + <div class='line'>Upon the gentle Minstrel’s bier—”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>The Phantom Knight shrieks upon the wild blast—and the Chief, from his +misty throne on the mountains, fills the lonely caverns with his groans—while +his</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Tears of rage impel the rill!</div> + <div class='line'>All mourn the minstrel’s harp unstrung,</div> + <div class='line'>Their name unknown, their praise unsung!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>Had Sir Walter been speaking in his own person he never would have written +thus—nor thus contradicted and extinguished the Passion in the stanzas you +so feelingly recited. But he puts the words into the lips of an old Harper +improvising at a Feast—on which occasion anything will pass for poetry—even +to the mind of the true Poet himself—but, believe me, it is sheer nonsense—and +by power of contrast recalls Wordsworth’s profound saying—</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“The Poets, in their elegies and lays</div> + <div class='line'>Lamenting the departed, call the groves—</div> + <div class='line'>They call upon the hills and streams to mourn</div> + <div class='line'>And senseless rocks; nor idly; for they speak</div> + <div class='line'>In these their invocation, with a voice</div> + <div class='line'>Obedient to the strong creative power</div> + <div class='line'>Of human passion. Sympathies there are</div> + <div class='line'>More tranquil, yet perhaps of kindred birth,</div> + <div class='line'>That steal upon the meditative mind,</div> + <div class='line'>And grow with thought. Beside yon spring I stood,</div> + <div class='line'>And eyed its waters till we seemed to feel</div> + <div class='line'>One sadness, they and I. For them a bond</div> + <div class='line'>Of brotherhood is broken; time has been</div> + <div class='line'>When, every day, the touch of human hand</div> + <div class='line'>Dislodged the natural sleep that binds them up</div> + <div class='line'>In mortal stillness; and they ministered</div> + <div class='line'>To human comfort.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Are all these the Cladich Cock and his echoes? No, surely. Farm crows to +Farm, from Auchlian to Sonnachan. You might almost believe them bagpipes. +And so it is—that is a bagpipe. On which side of the Loch? Why, on +neither—beg pardon—on both; forgive me—on the Water;—incredible—in +the Camp! No snore can long outlive that—the People are up and doing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In my mind’s eye I see women slipping easily into petticoats—men laboriously +into breeches——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>My more Celtic imagination sees chiefly kilts. But pray, may I ask again, +Talboys, what brought you here at this untimeous hour of the Morn?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I feel that I ought to apologise for my unwelcome intrusion on your privacy, +sir; but on my honour I believed you were in the Van. Yesterday I was so +engrossed by you and Shakspeare, that during our colloquy I had not a moment +to look at the Wren’s Nest.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Its existence is believed in by few of the natives. I know no such place +for a murder. There would be no need to bury the body—here at this Table +he might be left sitting for centuries—a dead secret in a Safe.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>No need to bury the body! You have no antipathy, I trust, sir, to me?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>We are not responsible for our antipathies——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I allow that—but we are for every single murder we commit; and though +there may be no need to bury the body, murder will spunk out——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>We are willing to run the risk. What infatuation to seek the Lion in his +Den—the Wren in his Nest! Sit down, sir, and let us have, in the form of +dialogue, your last speech and dying words on Othello.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Hamlet, sir?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Othello.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Romeo and Juliet?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Othello.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Well—Lear let it be.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Mind what you are about, Talboys. There are limits to human forbearance. +Swear that after this morning’s breakfast you will never again utter the +words Othello—Iago—Cassio—Desdemona——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I swear. Meanwhile, let us recur to the Question of Short and Long +Time.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>When Shakspeare was inditing the Scenes of the “Decline and Fall”—“The +Temptation”—“The Seduction”—or whatsoever else you choose to call +it—the Sequence of Cause and Effect—the bringing out into prominence and +power the successive <span class='sc'>Essential Movements</span> of the proceeding transformation +were intents possessing his whole spirit. We can easily conceive that they +might occupy it absolutely and exclusively—that is to say, excluding the +computation and all consideration of actual time. If this be an excessive +example, yet I believe that a huddling up of time is a part of the poetical state; +that you must, and, what is more, may, crowd into a Theatrical or Epic Day, +far more of transaction between parties, and of changes psychological, than +a natural day will hold—ay, ten times over. The time on the Stage and in +Verse is not literal time. Not it, indeed; and if it be thus with time, which +is so palpable, so selfevidencing an entity, what must be the law, and how +wide-ranging, for everything else, when we have once got fairly into the Region +of Poetry?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The usefulness of the Two Times is palpable from first to last—of the +Short Time for maintaining the tension of the passion—of the long for a +thousand general needs. Thus Bianca must be used for convincing Othello +very potently, positively, unanswerably. But she cannot be used without supposing +a protracted intercourse between her and Cassio. Iago’s dialogue with +him falls to the ground, if the acquaintance began yesterday. But superincumbent +over all is the <em>$1</em> that Iago begins the +Temptation, and that Othello extinguishes the Light of his Life all in +one day.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And observe, Talboys, how this concatenation of the passionate scenes +operates. Marvellously! Let the Entrances of Othello be four—A, B, C, D. +You feel the close connexion of A with B, of B with C, of C with D. You +feel the coherence, the nextness; and all the force of the impetuous Action and +Passion resulting. But the logically-consequent near connexion of A with C, +and much more with D, as again of B with D, you <em>$1</em>. Why? When +you are at C, and feeling the pressure of B upon C, you have lost sight of the +pressure of A upon B. At each entrance you go back one step—you do +not go back two. The suggested intervals continually keep displacing to +distances in your memory the formerly felt connexions. This could not so +well happen in real life, where the relations of time are strictly bound upon your +memory. Though something of it happens when passion devours memory. But +in fiction, the conception being loosely held, and shadowy, the feat becomes +easily practicable. Thus the Short Time tells for the support of the Passion, +along with the Long Time, by means of virtuous instillations from the hand or +wing of Oblivion. From one to two you feel no intermission—from two to +three you feel none—from three to four you feel none; but I defy any man to +say that from one to four he has felt none. I defy any man to say honestly, +that “sitting at the Play” he has kept count from one to four.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>If you come to that, nobody keeps watch over the time in listening to +Shakspeare. I much doubt if anybody knows at the theatre that Iago’s first +suggestion of doubt occurs the day after the landing. I never knew it till you +made me look for it—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>For which boon I trust you are duly grateful.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>’Tis folly to be wise.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why, Heaven help us! if we did not go to bed, and did not dine, which of us +could ever keep count from Monday to Saturday! As it is, we have some of +us hard work to know what happened yesterday, and what the day before. +On Tuesday I killed that Salmo Ferox?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>No—but on Wednesday I did. You forget yourself, my dear sir, just like +Shakspeare.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay, Willy forgets himself. He is not withheld by the chain of time he +is linking, for he has lost sight of the previous links. Put yourself into +the transport of composition, and answer. But besides, every past scene—or +to speak more suitably to the technical distribution of the Scenes, in our +Editions—every past <em>$1</em>, (which different occupation, according to the technicality of the +French Stage, of the Italian, of the Attic, of Plautus, of Terence, constitutes +a Scene)—every such past marked moment in the progress of the Play has +the effect for the Poet, as well as for you, of protracting the time in retrospect—throwing +everything that has passed further back. As if, in travelling fifty +miles, you passed fifty Castles, fifty Churches, fifty Villages, fifty Towns, +fifty Mountains, fifty Valleys, and fifty Cataracts—fifty Camels, fifty Elephants, +fifty Caravans, fifty Processions, and fifty Armies—the said fifty +miles would seem a good stretch larger to your recollection, and the five +hours of travelling a pretty considerable deal longer, than another fifty miles +and another five hours in which you had passed only three Old Women.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>My persuasion is, sir, that nobody alive knows—of the auditors—that the first +suggestion of doubt and the conclusion to kill are in one Scene of the Play. I +do, indeed, believe, with you, sir, that the goings-out and re-enterings of +Othello have a strangely deluding effect—that they disconnect the time more +than you can think—and that all the changes of persons on the stage—all +shiftings of scenes and droppings of curtains, break and dislocate and dilate +the time to your imagination, till you do not in the least know where you +are. In this laxity of your conception, all hints of extended time sink in +and spring up, like that fungus which, on an apt soil, in a night grows to a +foot diameter.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>You have hit it there, Talboys. Shakspeare, we have seen, in his calmer +constructions, shows, in a score of ways, weeks, months; that is therefore +the true time, or call it the historical time. Hurried himself, and hurrying +you on the torrent of passion, he forgets time, and a false show of time, to the +utmost contracted, arises. I do not know whether he did not perceive this +false exhibition of time, or perceiving, he did not care. But we all must see +a reason, and a cogent one, why he should not let in the markings of protraction +upon his dialogues of the Seduced and the Seducer. You can conceive +nothing better than that the Poet, in the moment of composition, seizes +the views which at that moment offer themselves as effective—unconscious or +regardless of incompatibility. He is whole to the present; and as all is +feigned, he does not remember how the foregone makes the ongoing impracticable. +Have you ever before, Talboys, examined time in a Play of Shakspeare? +Much more, have you ever examined the treatment of time on the +Stage to which Shakspeare came, upon which he lived, and which he left?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>A good deal.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not much, I suspect.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why, not at all—except t’other day along with you—in Macbeth.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>He came to a Stage which certainly had not cultivated the logic of time +as a branch of the Dramatic Art. It appears to me that those old people, +when they were enwrapt in the transport of their creative power, totally forgot +all regard, lost all consciousness of time. Passion does not know the clock +or the calendar. Intimations of time, now vague, now positive, will continually +occur; but also the Scenes float, like the Cyclades in a Sea of Time, at +distances utterly indeterminate—Most near? Most remote? That is a Stage +of Power, and not of Rules—Dynamic, not Formal. I say again at last as at +first, that the time of Othello, tried by the notions of time in <em>$1</em>, or tried, if +you will, by the type of prosaic and literal time, is—<span class='sc'>Insoluble</span>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>To the first question, therefore, being What is the truth of the matter? the +answer stands, I conceive without a shadow of doubt or difficulty, “The time +of Othello is—as real time—<span class='fss'>INSOLUBLE</span>.”</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>By heavens, he echoes me!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Or, it is proposed incongruously, impossibly. Then arises the question, +How stood the time in the mind of Shakspeare?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I answer, I do not know. The question splits itself into two—first, +“How did he <em>$1</em> the time?” Second, “How did he conceive it in +the progress of the Play?” My impression is, that he projected extended +time. If so, did he or did he not know that in managing the Seduction he +departed from that design by contracting into a Day? Did he deliberately +entertain a double design? If he did, how did he excuse this to himself? +Did he say, “A stage necessity, or a theatrical or dramatic necessity”—namely, +that of sustaining at the utmost possible reach of altitude the tragical passion +and interest—“requires the precipitation of the passion from the first breathing +of suspicion—the ‘Ha! Ha! I like not that,’ of the suggesting Fiend to the +consecrated ‘killing myself, to die upon a kiss!’—all in the course of fifteen +hours—and this tragical vehemency, this impetuous energy, this torrent of +power I will have; at the same time I have many reasons—amongst them the +general probability of the action—for a dilated time; and I, being a magician +of the first water, will so dazzle, blind, and bewilder my auditors, that they +shall accept the double time with a double belief—shall feel the unstayed +rushing on of action and passion, from the first suggestion to the cloud of +deaths—and yet shall remain with a conviction that Othello was for months +Governor of Cyprus—they being on the whole unreflective and uncritical +persons?”</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And, after all, who willingly criticises his dreams or his pleasures?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And the Audience of the Globe Theatre shall not—for “I hurl my dazzling +spells into the spungy air,” and “the spell shall sit when the curtain has fallen.” +Shakspeare might, in the consciousness of power, say this. For this is that +which he has—knowingly or unknowingly—done. Unknowingly? Perhaps—himself +borne on by the successively rising waves of his work. For you +see, Talboys, with what prolonged and severe labour we two have arrived at +knowing the reality of the case which now lies open to us in broad light. +We have needed time and pains, and the slow settling of our understandings, +to unwind the threads of delusion in which we were encoiled and entoiled. +If a strange and unexplained power could undeniably so beguile us—a possibility +of which, previously to this examination, we never have dreamt, how +do we warrant that the same dark, nameless, mysterious power shall not +equally blind the “Artificer of Fraud?” This is matter of proposed investigation +and divination, which let whoever has will, wit, and time, presently +undertake.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why, we are doing it, sir. He will be a bold man who treats of Othello—after +Us.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Another question is—What is the Censure of Art on the demonstrated +inconsistency in Othello? I propose, but now deal not with it. Observe that +we have laid open a new and startling inquiry. We have demonstrated the +double time of Othello—the Chronological Fact. That is the first step set in +light—the first required piece of the work—<em>$1</em>. Beyond this, we have +ploughed a furrow or two, to show and lead further direction of the work in +the wide field. We have touched on the gain to the work by means of the +duplicity—we have proposed to the self-consciousness of all hearers and +readers the psychological fact of their own unconsciousness of the guile used +towards them, or of the success of the fallacy; and we have asked the solution +of the psychological fact. We have also asked the Criticism of Art on the +government of the time in Othello—supposing the Poet in pride and audacity +of power to have designed that which he has done. Was it High Art?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay—was it High Art?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I dare hardly opine. Effect of high and most defying art it has surely; but +you ask again—did he know? I seem to see often that the spirit of the Scene +possessed Shakspeare, and that he fairly forgot the logical ties which he had +encoiled about him. We know the written Play, and we may, if we are +capable, know its power upon ourselves. There <em>$1</em> the Two Times, the Long +and the Short; and each exerts upon you its especial virtue. I can believe +that Shakspeare unconsciously did what Necessity claimed—the impetuous +motion on, on, on of the Passion—the long time asked by the successive +events; the forces that swayed him, each in its turn, its own way.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Unconsciously?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Oh heavens! Yes—yes—no—no. Yes—no. No—yes. What you will.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Willingly my jaws I close,</div> + <div class='line'>Leave! oh! leave me to repose.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Consciously or unconsciously?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Talboys, Longfellow, Perpetual Præses of the Seven Feet Club, we want +Troy, Priam, Achilles, Hector, to have been. Perhaps they were—perhaps +they were not. We must be ready for two states of mind—simple belief, +which, is the temper of childhood and youth—recognition of illusion with self-surrender, +which is the attained state of criticism wise and childlike. At +last we voluntarily take on the faith which was in the goldener age. The +child believed; and the man believes. But the child believes <em>$1</em>; and the +man who perceives how <em>$1</em> is a shadow, believes <em>$1</em> beyond. <em>$1</em> he +believes in play—<em>$1</em> in earnest. The child mixed the two—the tale of the +fairies and the hope of hereafter. Union, my dear Boys, is the faculty of the +young, but division of the old. I speak of Shakspeare at five years of age; +not of Us, whom, ere we can polysyllable men’s names, dominies instruct how +to do old men’s work and to distinguish.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>My dear sir, I do so love to hear your talkee talkee; but be just ever so +little a little more intelligible to ordinary mortals—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>You ask what really happened? The Play bewilders you from answering—accept +it as it rushes along through your soul, reading or sitting to hear and +see. The main and strange fact is, that these questions of Time, which, reading +the Play backwards, force themselves on us, never occur to us reading +straight forwards. Two Necessities lie upon your soul.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Two Necessities, sir?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Two Necessities lie upon your soul. You cannot believe that Othello, +suspecting his Wife, folds his arms night after night about her disrobed bosom. +As little can you believe that in the course of twelve hours the spirit of +infinite love has changed into a dagger-armed slayer. The Two Times—marvellous +as it is to say—take you into alternate possession. The impetuous +motion forwards, in the scenes and in the tenor of action, which belong to the +same Day, you feel; and you ask no questions. When Othello and Iago speak +together, you lose the knowledge of time. You see power and not form. You +feel the aroused Spirit of Jealousy: you see, in the field of belief, a thought +sown and sprung—a thought changed into a doubt—a doubt into a dread—a +dread into the cloud of death. Evidences press, one after the other—the +spirit endures change—you feel succession—as cause and effect must succeed—you +do not compute hours, days, weeks, months;—yet confess I must, +and confess you must, and confess all the world and his wife must, that the +condition is altogether anomalous—that a time which is at once a day of the +Calendar and a month of the Calendar, does not happen anywhere out of +Cyprus.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>It has arisen just as you say, sir—because Two Necessities pressed. The +Passion must have its torrent, else <em>$1</em> will never endure that Othello shall +kill Desdemona. Events must have their concatenation, else—but I stop at this +the incredible anomaly, that for <cite>Othello</cite> himself you require the double time! +You cannot imagine him embracing his wife, misdoubted false; as little can +you his Love measureless, between sunrise and sunset turned into Murder.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Even so.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>My dear sir, what really happened?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Oh! Talboys, Talboys. Well then—<em>$1</em> that Othello killed her upon the +first night after the arrival at Cyprus. The Cycle could not have been so +run through.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>How then in reality did the Weeks pass?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>That’s a good one! Why, I was just about to ask you—and ’tis your indisputable +duty to tell me and the anxious world—how.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I do not choose to commit myself in such a serious affair.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Suppose the framing of the tale into a Prose Romance. Surely, surely, +surely, no human romancer, compounding the unhappy transactions into a +prose narrative, could, could, could have put the first sowing of doubt, and +the smothering under the pillows, for incidents of one day. He would have +made Othello for a time laugh at the doubt, toss it to the winds. Iago would +have wormed about him a deal slowlier. The course of the transactions in the +Novel would have been much nearer the course of reality.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>In Cinthio’s Novel—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Curse Cinthio.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>My Lord, I bow to your superior politeness.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Confound Chesterfield. My dear friend, Reality has its own reasons—a +Novel its own—and its own a Drama. Every work of art brings its own +conditions, which divide you from the literal representation of human experience. +Ask Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. Every fine art exercises its +own sleights.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>In the Novel, I guess or admit that they would have been a month at +Cyprus ere Iago had stirred. What hurry? He would have watched his +time—ever and anon would have thrown in a hundred suggestions of which we +know nothing. Let any man, romancer or other, set himself to conceive the +Prose Novel. He cannot, by any possibility, conceive that he should have +been led to make but a day of it. Ergo, the Drama proceeds upon its own +Laws. No representation in art is the literal transcript of experience.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The question is, what deviations—to what extent—does the particular Art +need? And why? The talked Attic Unity of Time instructs us. But +Sophocles and Shakspeare must have one view of the Stage, in essence. You +must sit out your three or four hours. You must listen and see with expectation +<em>$1</em>, like a bow drawn. To which intent Action and Passion must +press on.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Compare, sir, the One Day of Othello to the Sixteen Years of Hermione! +There, intensest Passion sustained; here, the unrolling of a romantic adventure. +Each true to the temper imposed on the hearing spectator.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Good. The Novel is not a Transcript—the Play is not a Transcript. Ask +not for a Transcript, for not one of those who could give it you, will. A +<em>$1</em> and demand—and we have it in Othello.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And put up we must with Two Times—one for your sympathy with his +tempest of heart—one for the verisimilitude of the transaction.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Think on the facility with which, in the Novel, Iago could have strewn an +atom of arsenic a day on Othello’s platter, to use him to the taste; and how, +in the Play, this representation is impossible. Then, the original remaining +the same, each manner of portraiture <em>$1</em>, and each, after <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Did not Shakspeare know as much about the Time which he was himself +making <em>$1</em>, as much and more?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I doubt it. I see no necessity for believing it. We judge him as we judge +ourselves. He came to his Art as it was, and created—improving it—from +that point. An Art grows in all its constituents. The management of the +Time is a constituent in the Art of “feigned history,” as Poetry is called by +Lord Bacon. But I contend that on our Stage, to which Shakspeare came, +the management of Time was in utter neglect—an undreamed entity; and I +claim for the first foundation of any Canon respective to this matter, acute +sifting of all Plays <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not so very many—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Nor so very few. Shakspeare took up the sprawling, forlorn infant, dramatic +Time. He cradled, rocked, and fed it. The bantling throve, and crawled +vigorously about on all-fours. But since then, thou Tallometer, imagine +the study that <em>$1</em> have made. Count not our Epic Poems—not our Metrical +Romances—not our Tragedies. Count our Comedies, and count above all our +Novels. I do not say that you can settle Time in these by the almanac. +They are the less poetical when you can do so; but I say that we have with +wonderful and immense diligence studied the working out of a Story. Time +being here an essential constituent, it cannot be but that, in our more exact +and critical layings-out of the chain of occurrences, we have arrived at a +tutored and jealous respect of Time—to say nothing of our Aristotelian lessons—totally +unlike anything that existed under Eliza and James, as a +general proficiency of the Art—as a step gained in the National Criticism.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay, it must be difficult in the extreme for us so to divest ourselves of our +own intellectual habits and proficiency as to take up, and into our own, the +mind of that Age. But, unless we do so, we are unable to judge what might +or might not happen to any one mind of that age; and when we affirm that +Shakspeare must have known what he was doing in regard to the Time of +Othello, we are suffering under the described difficulty or disability—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why, Talboys, you are coming, day after day, to talk better and better +sense—take care you do not get too sensible—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>We must never forget, sir, that the management of the Time was on that +Stage a slighted and trampled element—that what Willy gives us of it is +gratuitous, and what we must be thankful for—and finally, that he did not +distinctly scheme out, in his own conception, the Time of Othello—very far +from it.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I verily believe that if you or I had shown him the Time, tied up as it is, +he would have said, “Let it go hang. They won’t find it out; and, if they +do, let them make the best, the worst, and the most of it. The Play is a good +Play, and I shall spoil it with mending it.” Why, Talboys, if Queen Elizabeth +had required that the Time should be set straight, it could not have been +done. One—two—six changes would not have done it. The Time is an +entangled skein that can only be disentangled by breaking it. For the fervour +of action on the Stage, Iago could not have delayed the beginning beyond +the next day. And yet think of the Moral Absurdity—to begin—really as if +the day after Marriage, to sow Jealousy! The thing is out of nature the +whole diameter of the globe. His project was “after a time t’ abuse Othello’s +ear,” which is according to nature, and is <em>$1</em> the impression made—strange +to say—from beginning to end. But the truth is, that the Stage three +hours are so soon gone, that you submit yourself to everything to come within +compass. Your Imagination is bound to the wheels of the Theatre Clock.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Yet, in our conversation on Macbeth, you called your discovery an “astounding +discovery”—and it is so. The Duplicity of Time in Othello is a hundred +times more astounding—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And the discovery of it will immortalise my name. I grieve to think that +the Pensive Public is sadly deficient in Imagination. I remember or invent +that she once resisted me, when I said that “Illusion” is one constituent +of Poetry. Illusion, the Pensive Public must be made to know, +is <span class='fss'>WHEN THE SAME THING IS, AND IS NOT</span>. Pa—God bless him!—makes +believe to be a Lion. He roars, and springs upon his prey. He at once +believes himself to be a Lion, and knows himself to be Pa. Just so with the +Shakspeare Club—many millions strong. The two times at Cyprus <em>$1</em>; +the reason for the two times—to wit, probability of the Action, storm of the +Passion—<em>$1</em>; and if any wiseacre should ask, “How do we manage to +stand the <em>$1</em> together-proceeding of two times?” The wiseacre is answered—“We +don’t stand it—for we know nothing about it. We are held in a confusion +and a delusion about the time.” We have effect of both—distinct knowledge +of neither. We have suggestions to our Understanding of extended time—we +have movements of our Will by precipitated time.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>We have—we have—we have. Oh! sir! sir! sir!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Does any man by possibility ask for a scheme and an exposition, by +which it shall be made luminous to the smallest capacity, <em>$1</em> we are able +distinctly all along to know, and bear in mind, that the preceding transactions +are accomplished in a day, and at the same time and therewithal, +distinctly all along to know and bear in mind that the same transactions +proceeding before our eyes take about three months to accomplish? Then, +I am obliged—like the musicians, when they are told that, if they have +any music that may not be heard, Othello desires them to play it—to +make answer, “Sir, we have none such.” It is to ask that a deception +shall be not only seemingly but really a truth! Jedediah Buxton, and Blair +the Chronologist, would, “sitting at <em>$1</em> play,” have broken their hearts. +You need not. If you ask me—which judiciously you may—what or how +much did the Swan of Avon intend and know of all this astonishing legerdemain, +when he sang thus astonishingly? Was he the juggler juggled by +aërial spirits—as Puck and Ariel? I put my finger to my lip, and nod on +him to do the same; and if I am asked, “Shall a modern artificer of the +Drama, having the same pressure from within and from without, adopt this +resource of evasion?” I can answer, with great confidence, “He had better +look before he leap.” If any spectator, upon the mere persuasion and power +of the Representation, ends with believing that the seed sown and the harvest +reaped are of one day, I believe that he may yet have the belief of extended +time at Cyprus. I should say by <em>$1</em>! Or if you wish this more intelligibly said, that he shall +continually <em>$1</em> the past notices. Once for all, he shall <em>$1</em> that the <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Inquire, sir, what intelligent auditors, who have not gone into the study, +have thought; for that, after all, is the only testimony that means anything.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Well, Talboys, suppose that one of them should actually say, “Why, upon +my word, if I am to tell the truth, I did take note that Iago began ‘abusing +Othello’s ear’ the day after the arrival. I did, in the course of the Play, +gather up an impression that some good space of time was passing at Cyprus—and +I did, when the murder came, put it down upon the same day with the +sowing of the suspicion, and I was not aware of the contradiction. In short, +now that you put me upon it, I see that I did that which thousands of us do +in thousands of subjects—keep in different corners of the brain two beliefs—of +which, if they had come upon the same ground, the one must have annihilated +the other. But I did not at the time bring the data together. <em>$1</em>”</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Assume, sir, for simplicity’s sake, that Shakspeare knew what he was doing.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Then the Double Time is to be called—an Imposture.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Oh, my dear sir—oh, oh!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>A good-natured Juggler, my dear Talboys, has cheated your eyes. You +ask him to show you how he did it. He does the trick slowly—and you see. +“Now, good Conjuror, <em>$1</em>.” “I can’t. I cheat you by +doing it quickly. To be cheated, you must <em>$1</em> see what I do; but you must +<em>$1</em> that you see.” When we inspect the Play in our closets, the Juggler +does his trick slowly. We sit at the Play, and he does it quick. When you +see the trick again done the right way—that is quick—you cannot conceive +how it is that you no longer see that which you saw when it was done +slowly! Again the impression returns of a magical feat.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I doubt, if we saw Othello perfectly acted, whether all our study would +preserve us from the returning imposture.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I will defy any one most skilful theatrical connoisseur, even at the tenth, +or twentieth, or fiftieth Representation, so to have followed the comings-in and +the goings-out, as to satisfy himself to demonstration, that interval into +which a month or a week or a day can be dropped—<em>$1</em>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>When do you purpose publishing this your “astounding Discovery?”</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not till after my death.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I shall attend to it.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>In comparing Shakspeare and the Attic Three, we seem to ourselves, but +really do not, to exhaust the Criticism of the Drama. Is Mr Sheriff Alison +right, when he said that the method of Shakspeare is justified only by the +genius of Shakspeare? That less genius needs the art of antiquity? Our +own art inclines to a method between the two; and we should have to account +for the theatrical success, during a century or more, of such Plays as the +Fair Penitent, Jane Shore, &c.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Why, sir, does Tragedy displace often from our contemplation, Comedy? +Not when we are contemplating Shakspeare. To me his method, in reading +him, appears justified by the omnipotent Art, which, despite refractoriness, +binds together the most refractory times, things, persons, events <em>$1</em>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Most true. We feel, in reading, the self-compactness and self-completeness +of each Play. Thus in Lear—</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>In Lear the ethical ground is the Relation of Parent to Child, specifically +Father and Daughter. If the treatment of that Relation is full to your satisfaction, +that may affect you as a Unity. Full is not exhaustive; but one part +of treatment demands another. Thus the violated relation requires for its +complement the consecrated relation.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>In Hamlet?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The ethical ground in Hamlet, sir, is the relation of Father and Son, very +peculiarly determined, or specialtied. Observe, sir, how the <em>$1</em> relation +between Father and Daughter, the <em>$1</em> between Father and Son occurs in +Polonius’s House. Here, too, a slain Father—a part of the specialty. Compare, +particularly, the dilatory revenge of Hamlet, and the dispatchful of +Laertes. Again, the relation of Gertrude the Mother and Hamlet the Son—so +many differences! And the strange discords upon the same relation—my +Uncle-Father and Aunt-Mother—the tragic grotesque.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Eh?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Then in Lear the House of Gloster counterparts Lear’s. And compare the +ill-disposed Son-in-law Cornwall, and the well-disposed Son-in-law Albany. +The very Fool has a sort of <em>$1</em> relation to Lear—“Nuncle”—and “come +on, my Boy.” At least the relation is in the same direction—old to young—protecting +to dependent—spontaneous love to grateful, requiting love, and an +intimate, fondling familiarity. Compare in Hamlet, Ophelia’s way of taking +her father’s death—madness and unconscious suicide—the susceptible girl,—and +the brother’s to kill the slayer, “to cut his throat i’ the church”—the energetic +youthy man, <i><span lang="la">ferox juvenis</span></i>—fiery—full of exuberant strength;—all variations +of the grounding thought—relation of Parent and Child.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Of Othello?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The moral Unity of Othello can be nothing but the Connubial Relation. +How is this dealt with? Othello and Desdemona deserve one another—both +are excellent—both impassioned, but very differently—both frank, +simple, confiding—both unbounded in love. But they have married against +the father’s wish—privily, and—he dies—so here is from another sacred quarter +an influence thwarting—a law violated, and of which the violation shall be +made good to the uttermost. So somebody remarks that Brabantio involves +the fact in the Nemesis, “She has deceived her Father, and may thee.” Then +the pretended corrupt love of her and Cassio is a reflection in divers ways of +the prevailing relation—for a corrupt union of man and woman images <i><span lang="la">ex +opposito</span></i> the true union—and then it comes as the wounding to the death. +Again, Rodrigo’s wicked pursuit of her is an imperfect, false reflection. And +then there is the false relation—in Cassio and Bianca—woven in essentially +when Iago, talking to Cassio of Bianca, makes Othello believe that they are +speaking of Desdemona. Then the married estate of Iago and Emilia is +another image—an actual marriage, and so far the same thing, but an +inwardly unbound wedlock—between heart and heart no tie—and so far not +the same thing—the same with a difference, exactly what Poetry requires. +Note that this image is also participant in the Action, essentially, penetratively +to the core; since hereby Iago gets the handkerchief, and hereby, too, the +knot is resolved by Emilia’s final disclosures and asseverations sealed by her +death. Observe that each husband kills, and indeed stabs his wife—motives +a little different—as heaven and hell.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The method of Shakspeare makes his Drama the more absolute reflection +of our own Life, wherein are to be considered two things——</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>First—if the innermost grounding feeling of all our other feelings is and +must be that of Self—the next, or in close proximity, Sympathy with our +life—then by the overpowering similitude of those Plays to our lives—of the +method of the Plays to the method of our life—that Sympathy is by Shakspeare +seized and possessed as by no other dramatist—the persuasion of reality being +immense and stupendous. Elements of the method are, the mixture of comic +and tragic—the crossing presentment of different interests—presentment +of the same interests from divided places and times—multiplying of agents, +that is number and variety—being of all ranks, ages, qualities, offices—coming +in contact—immixt in Action and Passion. This frank, liberal, unreserved, +spontaneous and natural method of imitation must ravish our sympathy—and +we know that the Plays of Shakspeare are to us like another world of our +own in its exuberant plenitude—a full second humanity.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Opposed to this is the severe method of the Greek Stage—selecting and +simplifying.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Of the modern craftsmen, to my thinking Alfieri has carried the Attic severity +to the utmost; and I am obliged to say, sir, that in them all—those Greeks +and this Italian—the severity oppresses me—I feel the rule of art—not the +free movement of human existence. That I feel overpoweringly, only in +Shakspeare.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Alfieri says that the constituent Element of Tragedy is Conflict—as of +Duty and Passion—as of conscious Election in the breast of Man and Fate.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>He does—does he?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>There is Conflict—or Contrast—or Antithesis—the Jar of two Opposites—a +Discord—a Rending—in Lear; between his misplaced confidence and its +requital—between his misplaced displeasure and the true love that is working +towards his weal. And, again, between the Desert and the Reward of Cordelia—with +more in the same Play.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Schiller says of Tragic Fate,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c035'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in8'>“The great gigantic Destiny</div> + <div class='line'>That exalts Man in crushing him.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c031'>Welcker has, I believe, written on the Fate of the Greek Tragedy, which I +desire to see.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Are Waves breaking against a Rock the true image of Tragedy?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Hardly; any more than a man running his head against a post, or stone +wall is. The two antagonistic Forces, Talboys, must each of them have, or +seem to have, the possibility of yielding; the Conflict or Strife must have a +certain play. Therefore I inquire—Is the Greek Fate the most excellent of +Dramatic means? and is the Greek Fate inflexible? And, granting that the +Hellenic Fate is thoroughly sublime and fitting to Greek Tragedy, and withal +inflexible—does it follow that Modern Tragedy must have a like overhanging +tyrannical Necessity?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>No.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>No. The Greek Tragedy representing a received religious Mythology, we +may conceive the poetical, or esthetical <em>$1</em> of a Fate known for unalterable, +to have been tempered by the inherent Awe—the Holiness. There is a +certain swallowing-up of human interests, hopes, passions—this turmoiling, +struggling life—in a revealed Infinitude. Our Stage is human—built on the +Moral Nature of Man, and on his terrestrial Manner of Being. It stands +<span class='pageno' id='Page_638'>638</span><em>$1</em> the Heavens—<em>$1</em> the Earth. In Hamlet, the Ghost, with his command +of Revenge, represents the Impassive, Inflexible—with a breath +freezing the movable human blood into stillness—everything else is in +agitation.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Say it again, sir.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Beg my pardon and your own, fully and unconditionally, Talboys, this very +instant, for talking slightingly of the Greek Drama.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Not guilty, my Lord. Of all Dramas that ever were dramatised on the +Stage of this unintelligible world, the Greek Drama is the most dramatic, saving +and excepting Shakspeare’s.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay, wonderful, my dear Talboys, to see the holy affections demonstrated +mighty on the heathen Proscenium. Antigone! Daughter and Sister. Or +in another House, Orestes, Electra.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Macbeth murders a King, who happens to be his kinsman; but Clytemnestra +murders her husband, who happens to be a King—the profounder and +more interior crime.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>We see how grave are the undertakings of Poetry, which engages itself to +please, that it may accomplish sublimer aims. By pleasure she wins you +to your greater good—to Love and Intelligence. The heathen Legislator, +the heathen Philosopher, the heathen Poet, looks upon Man with love and +awe. He desires and conceives his welfare—his wellbeing—<span class='sc'>his Happiness</span>.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And the Poet, you believe, sir, with intenser love—with more solemn awe—with +more penetrant intuition.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I do. And he has his way clearer before him.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Legislator, sir, will alchemise the most refractory of all substances—Man. +His materials are in truth the lowest and grossest, and most external +relations of Man’s life.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>They are.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And these he would, with instrumentality of low, gross, outward means, +subjugate or subdue under his own most spiritual intuitions.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>A vain task, my dear Talboys, for an impossible. He must lower his +intuition—his aim—to his means and materials. The Philosopher walks in a +more etherial region. Compared to the Legislator, he is at advantage. But +he has his own difficulties. He must <em>$1</em>!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>He might as well try, sir, to trace outline, and measure capacity of a mist +which varies its form momently, and, without determinate boundary loses +itself in the contiguous air. His work is to define the indefinite.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And then he comes from the Schools, which in qualifying disqualify also—from +the Schools of the Senses—of the Physical Arts—of Natural Philosophy—of +Logical, Metaphysical, Mathematical Science. These have quickened, +strengthened, and sharpened his wit; they have lifted him at last from emotions +to notions; but—Love is understood by loving—Hate by hating—and +only so! Sensations—notions—<span class='sc'>Emotions</span>! I say, Talboys, that in all these +inferior schools you may understand a part by itself, and ascend by items +to the Sum, the All. But in the Philosophy of the Will, you must from the +centre look along the radii, and with a sweep command the circumference. +You must know as it were Nothing, or All.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay, indeed, sir; looking at the Doctrines of the Moral Philosophers, you +are always dissatisfied—and why?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Because they contradict your self-experience. Sometimes they speak as +you feel. Your self-intelligence answers, and from time to time, acknowledges +and avouches a strain or two; but then comes discord. The Sage +stands on a radius. If he looks along the radius towards the circumference, +he sees in the same direction with him who stands at the centre; but in every +other direction, inversely or transversely. Every work of a Philosopher gives +you the notion of glimpses caught, snatched in the midst of clouds and of +rolling darknesses. The truth is, Talboys, that the Moral Philosopher is in the +Moral Universe a schoolboy; he is gaining, from time to time, information by +which, if he shall persevere and prosper, he shall at last understand. Hitherto +he but prepares to understand. If he knows this, good; but if the schoolboy +who has mastered his Greek Alphabet, will forthwith proceed to expound +Homer and Plato, what sort of an <em>$1</em> may we not expect? Rather, +what expectation can approach the burlesque that is in store!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>All are not such.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Moral Sage may be the Schoolboy in the Magisterial Chair. With +only this difference, that he of the beard has been installed in form, and the +Doctor’s hat set on his head by the hand of authority. But the ground of +confusion is the same. He will from initial glimpses of information expound +the world. He will—and the worst of it is that—he must.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>A Legislator, a Philosopher, a Poet, all know that the stability and welfare +of a man—of a fellowship of men—is Virtue. But see how they deal with +it.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Don’t look to me, Talboys; go on of yourself and for yourself—I am a +pupil.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Legislator, sir, can hardly do more than reward Valour in war; and +punish overt crime. The Philosopher will have Good either tangible, like an +ox, or a tree, or a tower, or a piece of land; or a rigorous and precise rational +abstraction, like the quantities of a mathematician. For Good, <em>$1</em>, go to the Poet. For Good—for Virtue—<em>$1</em>, go to the +Poet.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Philosopher separates Virtue from all other motions and states of the +human will. The Poet loses or hides Virtue in the other motions and states +of the human will. Orestes, obeying the Command of Apollo, avenges his +Father, by slaying his Mother, and her murderous and adulterous Paramour. +So awfully, solemnly, terribly—with such implication and involution in human +affections and passions, works and interests and sufferings, the Poet demonstrates +Virtue.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>And we go along with Orestes, sir; the Greeks did—if our feebler soul +cannot.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Yes, Talboys, we do go along with Orestes. He does that which he <em>$1</em> +do—which he is under a moral obligation to do—under a moral necessity +of doing. Necessity! ay, an <a id='t638'></a>Αναγκη—stern, strong, adamantine as that +which links the Chain of Causes and Events in the natural universe—which +compels the equable and unalterable celestial motions beheld by our +eyes—such a bounden, irresistible agency sends on the son of the murdered, +with hidden sword, against the bosom that has lulled, fed, <em>$1</em> him!—<span class='sc'>He +must.</span></p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Love, hate, horror—the furies of kinned shed blood ready to spring up +from the black inscrutable earth wetted by the red drops, and to dog the heels +of the new Slayer—of the divinely-appointed Parricide! So a Poet teaches +Virtue.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Ay, even so; convulsing your soul—convulsing the worlds, he shows you +<span class='sc'>Law</span>—the archaic, the primal, sprung, ere Time, from the bosom of Jupiter—<span class='sc'>Law</span> +the bond of the worlds, <span class='sc'>Law</span> the inviolate violated, and avenging her +Violation, vindicating her own everlasting stability, purity, divinity.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Divine Law and humble, faithful, acquiescent human Obedience! Obedience +self-sacrificing, blind to the consequences, hearing the God, hearing the +Ghost, deaf to all other Voices—deaf to fear, deaf to pity!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Now call in the Philosopher, and hear what he has to preach. Something +exquisite and unintelligible about the Middle between two Extremes!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Shade of the Stagyrite!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The pure Earth shakes crime from herself, and the pure stars follow their +eternal courses. The Mother slays the children of a brother for the father’s +repast. And the sun, stopt in the heavens, veils his resplendent face. So +a Poet inculcates Law—Law running through all things, and binding all +things in Unity and in Sympathy—Law entwined in the primal relations of +Man with Man. To reconcile Man with Law—to make him its “willing +bondsman”—is the great Moral and Political Problem—the first Social need +of the day—the innermost craving need of all time since the Fall. The Poet +is its greatest teacher—a wily preceptor, who lessons you, unaware, unsuspecting +of the supreme benefit purposed you—done you—by him, the Hierophant +of Harmonia.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>You ordered me, sir, some few or many hours ago—some Short or Long +Time since—to swear that after this Morning’s Breakfast I would never more +so much as confidentially whisper into a friend’s ear the words—Othello! +Desdemona! And I swore it. I am now eager to swear it over again; but +I begin, sir, to entertain the most serious apprehensions that that time will +never arrive.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>What time?</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'><em>$1</em> Breakfast. We have been sitting here, sir, <em>$1</em> Breakfast for ages, +in the Wren’s Nest. During our incubation, what a succession of changes +may there not have been in Europe! Revolution on Revolution—blood poured +out like water——Hark, the Tocsin!</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NORTH.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The Gong.</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>TALBOYS.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The <em>$1</em> Gong! The tremulous thunder meets an answering chord +within me. Six o’Clock in the Morning—and no victuals have I gorged since +Eleven Yestreen. Good-by to the Wren’s Nest—the very Cave of Famine. +This is Turkey-egg—Goose-egg—Swan-egg—Ostrich-egg day. I see Buller +eyeing open-mouthed, with premeditating mastication, my pile of muffins. +Gormandising sans Grace. Take care you don’t trip, sir, over the precipice—’twould +be an ugly fall—into the basin. Now we are out of danger. But +don’t skip, sir—don’t skip—till we emerge—on the open ground—then we +may dance among the daisies.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_640'>640</span> + <h2 class='c002'>LETTER FROM MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM NAPIER.</h2> +</div> + +<div class='lg-container-r c019'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>Clapham, London</span>, <em>$1</em>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'><span class='sc'>Sir</span>,—The writer of the article headed “<cite>The Ministerial Measures</cite>,” in your +Magazine, has been so complimentary to me that I feel ashamed of pointing +out an error.</p> + +<p class='c008'>He says I wrote my History on <em>$1</em>. Had he said <em>$1</em>, I should not have winced, though I really endeavoured to write it +on the principles of truth and knowledge of the subject. But for Whig principles! +God save the mark!—I never thought of them save to censure; and +really my History is throughout, by implication, and in many places directly, +condemnatory of the Whigs’ policy, and of their extreme arrogance, and +presumptuous, erroneous views of the Peninsular War.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I trust the writer will, therefore, acquit me of any such foolish, factious +design as writing a history upon Whig principles.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I remain, Sir, your obedient Servant,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>W. Napier</span>, <em>$1</em>.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'><em>$1</em></p> + +<p class='c009'>[We gladly give place to the gallant General’s communication. The writer +of the article in question meant simply to convey his impression, that the able +and eloquent History of Sir William Napier was not constructed on <em>$1</em> +principles; and consequently, that the letter which he embodied in his paper +was to be regarded as the testimony of a political opponent.]</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c019'> + <div><em>$1</em></div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class='c036'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. <cite>Correspondence respecting the demands made upon the Greek Government, and +respecting the Islands of Cervi and Sapienza.</cite> Presented to both Houses of Parliament, +by command of Her Majesty. February 1850.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Protestant heresy.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. This is now the case in Germany.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. <cite>Journal de la Campagne de Russie en 1812.</cite> Par M. <span class='sc'>de Fezensac</span>, Lieutenant-General. +Librairie Militaire, Paris 1850.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. <cite>Essays; Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous.</cite> By <span class='sc'>Archibald Alison, LL.D.</span> +Author of “The History of Europe,” &c. Three vols. 8vo. William Blackwood & +Sons, Edinburgh and London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Vide the <cite>Economist</cite> newspaper of January 19, 1850.</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c005'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c006'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr> + <th class='c013'>Page</th> + <th class='c013'>Changed from</th> + <th class='c014'>Changed to</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c012'><a href='#t600'>600</a></td> + <td class='c011'>declined only ½ per lb.; No. 40, however,</td> + <td class='c030'>declined only ½d. per lb.; No. 40, however,</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c012'><a href='#t638'>638</a></td> + <td class='c011'>of doing. Necessity! ay, an Αναζκη—stern, strong, adamantine as that</td> + <td class='c030'>of doing. Necessity! ay, an Αναγκη—stern, strong, adamantine as that</td> + </tr> +</table> + + <ul class='ul_1'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75515 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2025-02-10 00:40:39 GMT --> +</html> + diff --git a/75515-h/images/cover.jpg b/75515-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c272f82 --- /dev/null +++ b/75515-h/images/cover.jpg |
