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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote section">
+<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them
+and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or
+stretching them. Higher-resolution versions of the maps and some other
+detailed illustrations may be seen by clicking <i>Hi Res</i> below them.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="cover-small" title="cover" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/cover-small.jpg" width="493" height="788" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<div class="center section">
+<p class="p4 large">THE STORY OF EXPLORATION</p>
+
+<p class="p1"><span class="small">EDITED BY</span><br>
+
+<p>J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., <span class="smcap">Sec.</span> R.G.S.</p>
+
+<h1>THE NILE QUEST</h1>
+
+<p class="p1 small">BY</p>
+
+<p>SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<figure id="i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0022.jpg" width="1290" height="1609" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="p0 floatr smaller l1">[<i>Frontispiece</i></p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Speke</span> (from a Drawing by the Author).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter center section wspace p2">
+<p class="vspace">
+<span class="xxlarge">THE NILE QUEST</span><br>
+
+<span class="smaller">A RECORD OF</span><br>
+<span class="large">THE EXPLORATION OF THE<br>
+NILE AND ITS BASIN</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2 vspace"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br>
+SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.<br>
+<span class="smaller">(<span class="smcap">President of the African Society</span>)</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS AND<br>
+PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS</i></p>
+
+<p class="p1">WITH MAPS BY J.&nbsp;G. BARTHOLOMEW</p>
+
+<figure id="i_logo" title="logo" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 7em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0025.jpg" width="390" height="403" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="p2 vspace">LONDON<br>
+<span class="larger gesperrt">ALSTON RIVERS, <span class="smcap">Limited</span></span><br>
+<span class="smcap">Arundel Street, W.C.</span><br>
+1906
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_STORY_OF_EXPLORATION">THE STORY OF EXPLORATION</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Probably</span> few of the stories that tell of the
+achievements due to the curiosity of humanity
+have a wider or more lasting interest than that which
+is concerned with the exploration of the lands and
+seas, which give feature to the face of the earth. It
+is a long story, and would be longer still, if the men
+in the remote past had left any record of their wanderings.
+Even as it is, in the scanty and perplexing
+records left behind them by ancient Egyptians, Phœnicians,
+Carthaginians, Hebrews, and even Chinese, the
+story begins more than three thousand years ago and,
+so far as the pioneer work of exploration is concerned,
+may be taken to have practically concluded with the
+end of the nineteenth century. It seems, therefore,
+an opportune time to recount the leading episodes in
+this long record of incessant human effort, in a manner
+which will appeal to, and interest, all intelligent
+readers.</p>
+
+<p>In the series of volumes, which will be issued under
+the general title “The Story of Exploration,” it will
+be sought to make the narrative circle round the personality
+of the men who had the leading share in
+carrying on the adventurous work.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the earliest journeys of which we
+have any record, the story will be carried down stage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span>
+by stage to the present day, and it is believed that,
+when complete, it will form what may be called a biographical
+history of exploration. While the work of
+geographical research in all parts of the globe will be
+seriously and adequately treated, the adventures incident
+to such research, which add human interest to it,
+will have due prominence given to them. In all cases it
+will be sought to obtain the co-operation of men who
+are recognized as authorities on the particular subjects
+with which they deal. Each volume will be profusely
+illustrated, the illustrations being selected for their
+appropriateness to the text, while every assistance will
+be given to the reader by means of carefully executed
+maps.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+J. SCOTT KELTIE.
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFATORY_NOTE">PREFATORY NOTE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> the author of this book was composing
+his recent work on the Uganda Protectorate,
+he was led through the history of its discovery into
+the general consideration of Nile exploration, since
+it was in the search for the Nile sources that the territories
+now forming the Uganda Protectorate were
+laid bare to the gaze of the civilised world. But as
+anything like a detailed review of the exploration of
+the Nile basin by the Caucasian race would have unduly
+extended a book dealing more particularly with
+Uganda, he gladly took advantage of the suggestion
+made by Dr. Scott Keltie (Editor of this series) that
+these studies should be applied to the present volume,
+which is one of a series on the history of great geographical
+discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>It is not for the author to say that his book on
+the Nile Quest will prove interesting; but he has
+striven to make it as accurate as possible, and he
+hopes it may be permanently useful as a faithful
+record of the names and achievements of those who
+solved the greatest geographical secret, after the discovery
+of America, which remained for the Caucasian’s
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+H.&nbsp;H. JOHNSTON.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">London, 1903.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter narrow1">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Editor and the Author desire to acknowledge,
+with thanks, the loan of photographs, letters, or maps
+for the illustration of this book, from Sir John Kirk,
+G.C.M.G., Mrs. Murdoch (<i lang="fr">née</i> Speke), Mr. J.&nbsp;F. Cunningham,
+Mr. W.&nbsp;G. Doggett, Mr. Theodore Tinne,
+Mr. T. Douglas Murray, Lady Baker, Mr. Oscar Neumann,
+Mr. J.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;S. Moore, Major Gwynn, Major Austin,
+Mr. J. Thomson, The African Society, Mr. S. Crispin,
+and Mr. Warry.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="toc">
+<tr class="small">
+  <td class="tdr">Chapter</td>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdr">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Dawn of Nile Exploration</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Greeks interest Europe in the Nile Question</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Abyssinians and Jews</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Islamites and Italians</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Summary of the Ancients’ Knowledge of the Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portugal and Abyssinia</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French Inquiries and D’Anville’s Maps</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bruce and the Nile: Sonnini, Browne, and Bonaparte</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muhammad Ali opens up the White Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">X.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Missionaries and Snow-Mountains</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burton and Speke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke and the Nile Quest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_125">125</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke in Uganda</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">From the Victoria Nyanza to Alexandria</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Samuel Baker and the Albert Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_174">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne and Theodor von Heuglin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth and the Basin of the Bahr-al-Ghazal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth’s Achievements and Descriptions</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley confirms Speke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Gordon and his Lieutenants.—Junker and the Nile-Congo Water-parting</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_230">230</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson, Mt. Elgon, and Kavirondo Bay</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Emin Pasha</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley discovers the Mountains of the Moon and Lake Albert Edward.—The End of Emin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German Explorers determine the Southern Limits of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Geographical Work in the Uganda Protectorate</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Eastern Basin of the Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_293">293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Geography of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_299">299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tpad">
+  <td class="tdr top"><span class="smcap">Appendix I.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Roll of Fame of those who started on the Nile Quest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_319">319</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top"><span class="smcap">Appendix II.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bibliography</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_322">322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"> </td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_329">329</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="loi">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl norpad" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Speke</span> (from a drawing by the author)
+<span class="in4 fright smaller"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="small">
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><i>Page</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">1.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile and the Pyramids</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">2.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Mountains of the Moon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">3.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Course of the Nile according to Ptolemy</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">4.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">An Arab Trader (Maskati)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">5.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dapper’s Map (Amsterdam: 1686) giving the falsified results of Portuguese explorations</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">6.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">D’Anville’s Map of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">7.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Branching <i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i> Palm</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">8.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bruce’s Map of the Nile Sources</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_80">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">9.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portrait of James Bruce</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">10.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Map of Africa by Williamson, London, 1800</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">11.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Blue Nile, twenty miles east of Fazokl</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">12.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ferdinand Werne</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">13.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Whale-headed Stork (<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">14.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">John Petherick</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">15.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Map published in Penny Magazine of 1852</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">16.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The River Sobat</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">17.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Rev. Dr. J. Ludwig Krapf</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">18.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Swahili Arab Trader</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">19.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sketch Map by Burton and Speke, 1858</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">20.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">John Hanning Speke, at the age of 17</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">21.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burton’s idea of the Nile Sources, December, 1864</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">22.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">James Augustus Grant</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_132">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">23.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Mnyamwezi Porter</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_135">135</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">24.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Hima of Mpororo near Karagwe</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">25.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke’s Tragelaph</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">26.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Ripon Falls, from the west bank</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_151">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">27.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A View in Uganda</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">28.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile at the Isamba Rapids, looking North</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">29.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ripon Falls, from Bugunga</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">30.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">View of Napoleon Gulf, from Jinja</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">31.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The last Map issued to illustrate Speke’s Theories, 1865</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">32.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke’s Handwriting</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">33.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Samuel Baker, 1865</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">34.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Native of Unyoro</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_184">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">35.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">36.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">On the Jur River: Sudd blocking the Channel</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">37.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Letter of Miss Tinne to her nephew</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">38.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Georg Schweinfurth, 1875</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">39.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Shiluks</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">40.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">“Papyrus, fifteen feet high”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">41.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Path through the Forest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">42.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth’s Map</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">43.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">44.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley’s idea of the Victoria Nyanza, 1880</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">45.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Victoria Nile flowing towards Lake Kioga</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">46.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nuërr Village, Sobat River</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">47.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson and Wilhelm Junker</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_242">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">48.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Stern-wheel Steamboat forcing its way up the Jur (Sue) or main affluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">49.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">N.E. corner of Victoria Nyanza (with Samia Hills in distance)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_247">247</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">50.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">51.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Emin Pasha</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">52.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Raphia Palms by a Central African stream</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">53.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sir Henry Stanley, G.C.B.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">54.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Shores of the Victoria Nyanza near Emin Pasha Gulf</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_262">262</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">55.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. Franz Stuhlmann</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_264">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">56.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Native of Unyamwezi from near south shores of Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_267">267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">57.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sir Frederic D. Lugard</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">58.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliott</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">59.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. Donaldson-Smith</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">60.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Cutting the Sudd</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">61.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. C. Beke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">62.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Natives of the Baro (Upper Sobat)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">63.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Colonel J.&nbsp;B. Marchand</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">64.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Gorge of the River Baro (Upper Sobat)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">65.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Berta Negroes</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_289">289</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">66.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Berta Village in the Matongwe Mountains</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_291">291</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">67.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile in Egypt</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_293">293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">68.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nubia: a “Washout” on the Sudan Railway</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_294">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">69.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Tropical Forest at Entebbe, on the northwest shores of the Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_295">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">70.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Napoleon Gulf, looking South</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_302">302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">71.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Birth of the Victoria Nile, at the Ripon Falls</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_304">304</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">72.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">On Lake Albert Edward (North-west Coast)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_305">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">73.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">In the Libyan Desert</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_315">315</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">74.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Orographical Features of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_328">328</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">75.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Land Surface Features of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_328b">328</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_NILE_QUEST"><span class="large">THE NILE QUEST</span></h2>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I"><span id="toclink_1"></span>CHAPTER I<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE DAWN OF NILE EXPLORATION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first men who entered Egypt and travelled
+up the valley of the Nile came, almost unquestionably,
+from the east, and were part of those radiations
+from the central focus of humanity, India. It
+is possible that the first men who entered the valley
+of the Nile from this direction may have been of
+so primitive, simian, and undetermined a type—so
+“Neanderthaloid”—as not to belong definitely to
+any one of the three main species of humanity. At
+that distant time, however (let us say at the end of
+the Pleistocene period or beginning of the Quaternary
+Epoch), there was undoubtedly a land connection
+over the south as well as over the north end of the
+Red Sea, joining Arabia to Ethiopia as well as to
+Egypt; and across this bridge came many types of
+Asiatic mammals, also man,—possibly in the form
+of a low Negroid, a type represented to-day (much
+changed and modified, of course) by the Congo
+Pygmies and South African Bushmen. As regards
+the history of humanity, however, the valley of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
+Nile has been divided into two very distinct parts.
+The southern half of its basin—in common with all
+Africa south of the Sahara and the fifteenth degree of
+north latitude—was peopled from the east, through
+southern Arabia, and by the Negro species in the
+main. Egypt proper and the adjoining regions of
+Arabia once lay within the domain of the Negroid
+Pygmies, but these indigenes were overwhelmed at
+a relatively early period by more or less “negrified”
+branches of the Caucasian stock coming from the
+direction of Syria or from Libya. Before the dawn
+of the historical epoch—say nine thousand years ago—an
+element in the population of Lower Egypt certainly
+showed Bushmen affinities. These steatopygous
+Bushmen were perhaps Proto-negroes, who may
+have branched off from the Nigritic stock when first
+that species reached the Mediterranean regions. This
+Bushman element in Egypt was for some time distinct,
+prior to the historical period, as the characteristic
+type of the servile class. Following on these
+dwarfish people came races bearing some slight resemblance
+to the Dravidians of India or the Brahuis of
+Baluchistan,—a somewhat Australoid stock which
+has left traces in Elam and around the shores of the
+Persian Gulf. Then came an aquiline type of nearly
+pure Caucasian stock, usually known by Egyptologists
+as the “Khafra” race. This probably arrived from
+Syria or Cyprus. But the men of the northern half of
+the Nile basin who fathered the principal, dominating
+type of ancient and modern Egyptian emigrated seemingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
+from the direction of Galaland, Somaliland, or
+Abyssinia. In these countries, or originally perhaps
+in southern Arabia, there was formed a handsome race
+mainly of Caucasian stock, but which had mingled
+somewhat considerably with the Proto-negroes and
+Dravidians in Arabia and in northeast Africa, and
+so had acquired darker skins, and hair with more or
+less tendency to curl. The men of this race, like the
+modern Somali or Gala, and the inhabitants of southern
+Arabia, grew thin and wedge-shaped beards.
+Their lips were full, their noses straight and finely
+shaped. Their degenerate descendants continue to
+exist with but little altered facial type in the Danākil,
+Somali, and Gala of the present day; but in the
+northern half of the Nile valley they became in time
+the main stock of the Egyptian population. They
+also, it would seem, profoundly modified Negro
+Africa; for while on the one hand they started out
+by a series of race movements and conquests from the
+direction of Abyssinia to invade and mould Egypt,
+on the other (though more faint-heartedly) they advanced
+in a southwesterly direction to influence Negro
+Africa. They have formed aristocracies in the countries
+round the head-waters of the White Nile. Their
+influence on the Negro races has been widespread,
+permeating, even though faintly, in a handsome physical
+type and remarkable form of language, to Zululand
+on the south and perhaps westward across the
+continent to the Congo, the Cross River, and the
+Atlantic coast. This Hamitic race (as it is called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>
+for want of a better word), which made its first
+home—and retains as its last—the highlands of
+Abyssinia and the plateaux and arid coastlands of
+Afar, Somaliland, and the Gala countries, has been
+the mainstay of Ancient Egypt, and also, together
+with its not distantly related Libyan brethren, the main
+human agent in saving the Negro from slipping back
+into the life of the anthropoid ape.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0041.jpg" width="2189" height="1633" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Nile and the Pyramids.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The valley of the Lower Nile, however, attracted
+many invasions from Europe and Asia, and from
+Libya (northwest Africa), where the dominant race
+was mainly of Iberian stock.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Dynasties rose and
+fell, often coincident with the invasion of Egypt by
+one race of conquerors after another. All these races
+(with the exception perhaps of the Hittites) belonged
+to various types of the Caucasian species. The Hittites
+possibly may have introduced a slight element of
+the Mongolian. In the earliest historical period Egypt
+and the lower valley of the Nile does not seem to have
+been markedly severed in its interracial relations from
+the far greater portion of the Nile basin which lies to
+the south of the fifteenth degree of north latitude.
+Egyptians penetrated no doubt without much difficulty
+up the Nile valley into and among the Negro tribes
+of the Central Sudan and Equatoria. The Ancient
+Egyptians may have had—must have had—a certain
+proportion of Negro or Negroid in their composition;
+beside the drop of Negro blood in their Hamitic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
+ancestors, they must have absorbed the earlier Negroid
+population of their country and have imported and
+intermarried with Negro slaves. But they were fully
+Caucasian in the vivid interest they took in nature,
+and in their desire to depict all the striking forms
+of life around them, especially when such forms had
+anything of novelty. Prof. Flinders Petrie has, I
+believe, recently discovered a vase of immeasurable
+antiquity of the “Pre-Dynastic” period in Lower
+Egypt which is incised with a delineation of the
+Kudu antelope.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Other and later relics would seem
+to show that the Egyptians were acquainted with the
+chimpanzee of the Bahr-al-Ghazal regions, the Pygmies
+who once inhabited the western part of the Upper
+Nile basin, and many forms of the Tropical African
+fauna. But after these early historical times there
+appears to have come about a severance of relations
+between Egypt and the Upper Nile, though an
+overland route to the Land of Punt (Somaliland)
+either through Abyssinia or to the west of that elevated
+region nearly always existed unclosed to traffic.
+It is noteworthy that the Ancient Egyptians themselves
+do not appear ever to have penetrated up the
+main stream of the Nile much above its junction
+with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, no doubt owing to the obstruction
+of the sudd. Their traders may have travelled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>
+into many parts of the Bahr-al-Ghazal region,
+and possibly even westward in the direction of Lake
+Chad,—westward, it may be, even across the western
+Sudan to the Niger,—yet there is not the slightest
+indication of their ever having journeyed up the
+main White Nile to the snow-mountains and the equatorial
+lakes. But they traded for thousands of years
+with the men of Punt (Somaliland) by sea and by
+land; and there is evidence to show that the peoples
+of Somaliland and Galaland (who had by repeated
+prehistoric invasions permeated the Upper Nile basin
+and left aristocracies behind them) traded anciently—say,
+in pre-Islamic times—southwestward to Lake
+Rudolf, and round Lake Rudolf to the present Turkana
+country, the neighbourhood of Mount Elgon,
+and even to the northeastern shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancient Egyptians seem to have known the
+main Nile as far as Khartum, and the Blue Nile up
+to its source in Lake Tsana. They exercised intermittently
+some kind of rule over the northern and
+western escarpment of Abyssinia, and are said to have
+sent criminals and political exiles to die of cold on
+the snowy heights of the Samien range. But they
+appear to have displayed little knowledge or curiosity
+concerning the ultimate source of the <em>White</em> Nile.
+No doubt the vast marshes and obstructions of the
+sudd which characterised the course of the Nile above
+its confluence with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the generally
+hopeless nature of this country with its utter absence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
+of anything like high land, of minerals, or of a trading
+population, discouraged the practical-minded Egyptians
+from pursuing their researches in that direction.
+The Nile itself they called <em>Hapi</em>, which was also the
+name of the Nile God. It was sometimes spoken of
+as <em>Pi Yuma</em>, or “the River.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Its valley they called
+Atr, Atur, Aur (Modern Coptic = <i>Eiōr</i>).<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Several foreign dynasties ruled over Ancient Egypt,—Arabian
+and Libyan,—and for centuries at a
+time the energies of Egypt were mainly concentrated
+on domestic work under these foreign task-masters
+or insurrections to expel the hated rulers.
+The original civilisation of Egypt rose rapidly to a
+great and wonderful height at a period which may
+be as remote, historically, as about seven thousand
+years ago. The main source of their civilisation
+seems to have been the introduction into the country
+of copper implements instead of and in addition to
+those of improved stone and flint manufacture. A
+wonderful development of pictorial art occurred concurrently
+with this brilliant rise in civilisation, and
+this early Egyptian art is of a realistic character from
+which all subsequent Egyptian pictorial or sculptured
+art has been a degeneration. At this time they easily<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
+impressed the Negroes of the south and the Libyans
+of the west with their power, and it was no doubt a
+matter of ease for Egyptian expeditions to penetrate
+into the Sudan from the countries of Abyssinia and
+Galaland. Gold and precious or gaudy stones were
+sought for in the east and southeast. Ivory, slaves,
+gums, perfumes, and strange beasts were obtained
+from the south and southwest. But no doubt Ancient
+Egyptians in their extensions of political or commercial
+influence introduced amongst the Negro tribes the
+knowledge of working metals. They also gave to
+them all those domestic animals and cultivated plants
+now existing in Tropical Africa which are not of a far
+later American or Indian origin (that is, introduced
+by the Portuguese and Arabs). By instructing the
+Negroes in this indirect manner in the arts of civilisation,
+and by spreading among them, no doubt, the
+use of metal weapons (which were probably as good
+as those used by the Egyptians themselves), there
+came a time when—to use a term once much employed
+by the European pioneer—the black men
+became “saucy” and objected to be harried, bullied,
+assessed, and exploited by the lordly Egyptian. The
+Negro race at this time, too, was becoming infiltrated
+by the same splendid stock—the Hamites—as had
+so largely composed the ruling population of Egypt.
+Here and there, no doubt, Negro tribes submitted
+willingly to be governed by Hamitic princes (as has
+been the case in Uganda and Unyoro), and, thus
+ruled, offered sharp opposition to Egyptian encroachments.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
+Egyptian interest, therefore, in the sources of
+the Nile died away, especially as in the revival of
+native Egyptian power and in the expulsion of foreign
+dynasties the thoughts of Egypt were all bent on the
+conquest and retention of Syria, Asia Minor, and
+Cyprus. These lands were more desirable in their
+eyes than the appalling wastes of the Sahara, the sun-smitten
+Sudan, the cold mountains of Abyssinia, or
+the fetid marshes of the Nile Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Almost older than the civilisation of Egypt was
+that of Mesopotamia, the reflex action of which on the
+Hamites of western Arabia and Abyssinia and on the
+inhabitants of the Nile Delta may have provoked
+the civilisation of Egypt. Empires rose, declined,
+fell, and were revived in the valleys of the Euphrates
+and the Tigris, and their influence over Arabia and
+Syria produced in those countries a stirring of commerce
+and invention and a desire for distant enterprise.
+The Phœnicians, who were originally an Arab
+people of the Persian Gulf, forced their way across
+the barren wastes of northern Arabia to the coasts
+of Syria, leaving behind, however, colonies of bold
+navigators at the northern end of the Persian Gulf.
+The Phœnicians, by the building of more seaworthy
+boats, and probably by the development of sails, soon
+traversed the Mediterranean in all directions, passed
+out through the Straits of Gibraltar, and even found
+their way to Britain long before Julius Cæsar. Their
+most noteworthy action in connection with Africa
+perhaps was the founding of Utica in 1100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
+Carthage in 820 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, these settlements being made at
+no great distance from each other in that projection
+of North Africa which constitutes the modern state
+of Tunis. The Carthaginian successors of the Phœnicians
+carried on the work of discovery along the
+north and west coasts of Africa until, in the memorable
+voyage of Hanno, they had penetrated as far
+south in that direction as the existing colony of Sierra
+Leone. The Phœnicians as bold navigators were enlisted
+in the service of one of the last Egyptian sovereigns
+of a real Egyptian dynasty,—Neku, son of
+Psametik I., who succeeded to the throne of Egypt in
+611 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Evidently by this time the overland routes
+to the regions of the Upper Nile and even to Somaliland
+had been closed by hostilities with the Ethiopians
+and Negroes. A Phœnician expedition was
+directed to sail down the Red Sea and along the coast
+to the Land of Punt and the unknown territory beyond.
+According to tradition, this expedition sailed
+round the whole continent of Africa and passed
+through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean,
+reaching Egypt from that direction.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt, in her several thousand years of history,
+had been many times conquered by foreign races or
+the leaders of foreign armies, and had sometimes endured
+the domination of strangers for five hundred
+years at a time, though Egyptian art, tradition, and
+religion either survived concurrently alongside the
+habits and customs of the less civilised rulers, or
+ended by Egyptianising the stranger. But there was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
+to come a time when the independence of Egypt was
+to disappear, when the Egyptian language was to
+cease to be dominant, when, in fact, the Egypt of the
+Pharaohs and the Pyramids, of the Hieroglyph and
+the Mummy, of Ra and Aphis, Osiris, Isis, and Horus
+was to disappear—perhaps for ever; for the potent
+race that had so long held aloft a brightly-lighted
+lamp of civilisation has been so changed and degraded
+by the infusion of Persian, Arab, Greek, Italian,
+Negro, Circassian, Turkish, French, and Maltese
+blood, so often decimated by wars, famines, and diseases,
+and renewed with the tainted blood of mercenary
+armies, that, though the residuum of the
+population may still offer great facial resemblances
+to the vanished Egyptian type, the majesty of demeanour,
+the brilliant mental endowments of the old
+race have gone, and the rulers of Egypt to-day under
+the indifferent English are the descendants of Slavs
+and Turks, Arabs, Armenians, and Circassians.</p>
+
+<p>A ruler of Egypt, a usurper named Aahmes, had
+been raised to the kingship over Egypt by a soldier’s
+mutiny. He had legitimised his position by marrying
+a granddaughter of Psametik I. Carrying out a
+series of successful expeditions, he once more opened a
+way to the commerce of Nubia and the Upper Nile.
+He intervened in the affairs of Asia Minor to support
+a small state there against encroachments by
+the Persian conqueror Cyrus. The son of Cyrus the
+Great, whom we know as Cambyses, but whose real
+name was probably in Persian Kambujiya, resolved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
+to punish Egypt for this interference. Aahmes, whom
+the Greeks called Amasis, died before he could resist
+the invasion, and his son, Psametik III., lost his
+throne and the independence of Egypt in the battle
+of Pelusium. Cambyses became the conqueror, and
+was crowned the legitimate King of Egypt. He
+seems to have been an erratic and cruel conqueror,
+but, like Nero, somewhat fantastically interested in
+science and exploration. He sent one great expedition
+into the Libyan Desert which was never heard
+of again, and is supposed to have perished in the
+sand; and he led a great army himself up the Nile
+with some vague intention of conquering the Ethiopians.
+His soldiers, however, had marched only a
+small distance into the desert when their commissariat
+failed, and many perished, while others became
+cannibals in their mad hunger. This disaster put a
+stop to any further efforts on the part of the Persian
+Overlords of Egypt. For nearly two hundred years
+Persia maintained her hold over Egypt, though for
+brief intervals native dynasties arose in this part
+and that part and flickered for a time in a state of
+semi-independence. Then happened one of the great
+events in the history of Egypt and of the development
+of Africa,—an event which may be paralleled by the
+descent on Egypt of Napoleon Bonaparte two thousand
+one hundred and thirty-one years later: Alexander
+the Great, continuing his war against the Persian
+Empire, attacked that power in Egypt and won the
+day. Alexander left in charge in Egypt one of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
+generals (who was perhaps also his illegitimate half-brother),
+Ptolemy. After his death Ptolemy refused
+to acknowledge the claims of Alexander’s posthumous
+son, and made himself King of Egypt. He thus
+founded a Greek dynasty in that country which lasted
+till the advent of the Cæsars and expired in the person
+of the world-famed Cleopatra.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><span id="toclink_14"></span>CHAPTER II<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE GREEKS INTEREST EUROPE IN THE NILE QUESTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> second division of the Caucasian species
+of man (the Iberian being the first) was the
+Aryan,—a race of golden-haired, pink and white
+complexioned people, with eyes that are blue, gray,
+or violet.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The Aryans first came into Greece as
+barbarians and destroyers, but were soon conquered
+by the preceding Iberian Mykenæan civilisation, on
+which they built up that Hellenic art and knowledge
+which are the foundations of European civilisation
+at the present day. This Hellenic spirit first made
+itself felt in Africa through the Greek colonies of the
+Cyrenaica. Greece, when it became conscious of a
+world beyond its peninsulas and islands, was strongly
+drawn towards Africa. The power of Egypt long
+withstood attempts at Greek colonisation, though in
+quite early days Hellenic or Hellenised Europeans
+were employed by the rulers of Egypt as mercenary
+soldiers. Therefore, following the line of least resistance,
+Greece planted her first African colonies between
+Egypt on the east and the settlements of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
+Phœnicians (Carthage) on the west. Due west of
+the narrow coast belt of Egypt is a remarkable projection
+of North Africa into the Mediterranean,—the
+modern Barka, the ancient Cyrenaica. This projection
+has been, several times in geological history, a
+series of islands in a larger Mediterranean, or it has
+grown into a bridge connecting Greece with Africa.
+The land now rises to heights of three thousand feet,
+and there is a sufficiency of rainfall in ordinary seasons
+to nourish a vegetation not much less rich than that of
+southern Italy. South of the Cyrenaica lies the Sahara
+Desert in its most aggravated form of well-nigh impassable
+sand dunes. No Greek expedition that we
+know of ever succeeded in crossing the Sahara from
+Cyrenaica and reaching the Sudan; but Greek influence
+and inquiries were dimly felt in Phazania (Fezzan) to
+the southwest, and the existence and prosperity of these
+Greek colonies in North Africa aroused the interest
+of the Greeks in matters of African exploration. In
+about 457 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Herodotus (a native of Halicarnassus,
+a Hellenised state in Asia Minor under Persian rule)
+visited Egypt, which from 650 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> onwards had been
+more or less thrown open to Greek enterprise by
+Psametik I. Herodotus himself travelled up the Nile
+as far as the First Cataract, and collected with some
+industry information from Egyptians and travelled
+Greeks as to the regions which lay beyond. From
+these he learned that the origin of the Nile was unknown,
+but that the river might come from the far
+west, from the region where we now know Lake Chad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
+to be; that there was a civilised city of Ethiopians in
+the great bend of the Nile at Meroe (Merāwi of to-day),
+and that beyond this nothing certain was known
+of the Nile course. Aristotle—the great Greek
+philosopher, who was born in northern Greece in
+384 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—wrote on African discovery and recorded
+the news that to the southwest of the Nile were
+Pygmy races who frequently warred with the “cranes”
+(? ostriches).</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 276 was born at Cyrene, in North Africa,
+Eratosthenes, a Greek geographer, who was made
+Librarian at Alexandria. From the information he
+collected and collated (supplied, no doubt, by Greek
+traders) he, first of all known geographers, sketched
+out with fair accuracy the course of the Nile and its
+two great Abyssinian affluents as far south as the
+modern Khartum. He hinted at the lake sources and
+first mentioned the Nubians.</p>
+
+<p>It was the conquest of Egypt from Persian domination
+by Alexander the Great which really did more to
+extend Greek commerce and civilisation and the use
+of the Greek language over eastern Africa and western
+Asia than has even been done at a far later date
+in other parts of the world for German commerce,
+knowledge, and the German language by the unification
+of Germany under Bismarck, William I., and
+William II. Greek explorers visited the Nile as far
+south as the junction of the Astapus (Blue Nile), and
+Greek settlements were made on the island of Sokotra,
+and possibly at other points near the mouth of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+Red Sea. Greek traders even visited the East African
+coast as far as Pangani, opposite Zanzibar. The
+Greeks revealed India to Europe, and the commerce
+which sprung up there through Greek agencies on the
+Persian Gulf and the Red Sea gave unwilling navigators,
+in those days before steam force, some acquaintance
+with the eastern coast of Africa as far
+south as Zanzibar.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the Greeks in all these regions were (as subsequently
+happened with the Portuguese) but the followers
+of the Arabs and Phœnicians. Some impulse,
+kindred in origin, no doubt, to the evolution of the
+Phœnicians, had created an ancient civilisation in
+southern and western Arabia which perhaps reached
+its climax in the lofty, well-watered, and fertile country
+of Yaman. Much of southern Arabia, however,
+several thousand years ago, was less arid than at the
+present day. The rainfall was greater, and the already
+civilised inhabitants industriously preserved the
+precious water by dams for purposes of irrigation.
+This civilisation may be briefly styled Himyaritic or
+Sabæan,—perhaps the last name is the more comprehensive.
+These Sabæan Arabs of south and southwest
+Arabia, separately or in conjunction with their
+Phœnician cousins, pursued their search for metals
+down the east coast of Africa, along which they made
+settlements which are probably the sites of most of the
+modern emporiums of commerce on the same coast.
+They had reached the mouth of the Zambezi and ascended
+that river, and had penetrated as far south as,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
+let us say, Delagoa Bay. It was perhaps their exploration
+of the Zambezi which led them to discover alluvial
+gold in the vicinity of that river, though they afterwards
+found a shorter route to the gold fields by
+way of Sofala. In this way they forestalled by some
+twenty-five hundred years modern Rhodesian enterprise,
+and gold was worked in the regions to the
+south of the Lower Zambezi and a little to the north
+of that river by Arabs or people of allied language
+and race almost continuously from an approximate
+period of three thousand years ago down to the arrival
+of the Portuguese at the beginning of the sixteenth
+century of this era. In the days before the
+appalling religious disunion brought about by the
+conflicts between Christianity and Islam there was
+no bitter feeling against the European on the part
+of the Arab, and Greek adventurers and traders appear
+to have penetrated freely up the Nile, and to
+have worked cordially with the Sabæan Arabs whom
+they found established at various points between India
+on the one hand and Zanzibar and the Red Sea on the
+other. The Greek colony on the island of Sokotra no
+doubt traded industriously with the opposite coast of
+Somaliland.</p>
+
+<p>Rome displaced Greece in Egypt in the same way
+that Greece had displaced Persia, and that Persia had
+closed the five thousand years of fighting between
+Libyan, Gala, Arab, and Nubian. In 168 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Rome
+extended her protection over Egypt. In 30 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Egypt
+became a Roman province. When the Romans really<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
+took over the administration of the land, they too, like
+the Galas, Persians, and Greeks before them, and the
+French, Turks, and English after them, began to be
+interested in the quest for the Nile sources. Each
+newly-arrived race of Caucasian conquerors in Egypt
+has felt the same interest. But much of the exploring
+and recording work under Roman rule was done
+by Greeks. Strabo, a native of Amasia in Pontus,
+on the southern shore of the Black Sea, who was
+born somewhere about 50 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, became, when quite
+a young man, a geographer of the Roman world.
+He accompanied in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 24 Ælius Gallus, the Roman
+Governor of Egypt, on a journey up the Nile as far
+as Philæ (beyond Assuan and the First Cataract).
+Pliny the Elder, writing some fifty years after the
+birth of Christ, shows us that just before and just
+after that event Greek explorers (mainly from Asia
+Minor) had been busy on the Nile above the First
+Cataract and perhaps south of Khartum. These were
+Bion, Dalion, and Simonides. Aristocreon and Basilis
+are also mentioned as authorities on Nile exploration,
+but not necessarily explorers themselves. Simonides,
+above mentioned, lived for five years in Meroe. Dalion
+is thought to have penetrated up the river some distance
+beyond Khartum. The “Meroe” which is so
+constantly mentioned by Greek and Roman writers
+from Herodotus to Ptolemy, was a name given
+originally to an important and flourishing city on
+the south or left bank of the Nile in Dongola,—the
+modern Merāwi. This place was also known<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
+as Napata (Egyptian, Nepet), and was the residence
+of Ethiopian (Abyssinian, Gala, Nubian)
+kings. Later the name Meroe was also applied to a
+place on the right bank of the Nile about one hundred
+miles south of that river’s confluence with the
+Atbara. This is probably where the Greek Simonides
+stayed and beyond which Dalion travelled. Finally,
+the term Meroe was applied to the “Island” (peninsula)
+formed by the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the
+White Nile, a region formerly of great fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Nero, though the Beast of the Apocalypse,
+had a certain genial interest in geography. He
+despatched—or caused to be despatched—an expedition
+under two centurions in about the year 66 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+to discover, if possible, the source or sources of the
+White Nile. Before dealing with Egypt the Romans
+had taken over control of the old Greek colonies of
+the Cyrenaica and on the coast of Tripoli. This had
+led (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 19) to their having extensive relations with
+the Berber kingdom of Fezzan, with whom and with
+the Tawareq people of Garama to the south they maintained
+friendly relations. Through this friendly co-operation
+a Roman expedition under Septimus Flaccus
+had in the year 50 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> (perhaps) reached to some
+trans-Saharan place like Bilma. Much later, about
+150 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, another expedition under Julius Maternus
+joined forces with the friendly Berber King of Garama,
+and actually travelled to the vicinity of Lake Chad,
+or, as some think, to the oasis of Air or Asben farther
+to the west. It was a country which they called Agisymba,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
+and abounded in rhinoceroses. From this expedition
+the Romans derived some inkling of the
+possibilities, beyond the sandy wastes and sun-smitten
+rocks of the Sahara Desert, of a fertile Sudan, populated
+with an excellent material for slaves. But a
+hundred years earlier they had realised the enormous
+difficulties which attended any enterprise (in the days
+before camels were used in Africa) across the Sahara
+Desert, and this gave them an added desire to follow
+up the Nile and ascertain its practicability as a waterway
+into Negro Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Nero’s two centurions were passed on by Roman
+prefects to friendly Nubian chiefs, one of whom ruled
+the principality of Meroe along the main Nile between
+Atbara and the Blue Nile confluence. Furnished with
+boats which they later exchanged for dug-out canoes,
+they appear to have ascended the Nile above Fashoda,
+and possibly above the confluence between the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the Kir or White Nile. At any rate they
+got far enough south to come in contact with the Great
+Marsh which extends from the vicinity of Fashoda to
+the frontiers of the Uganda Protectorate. Their passage
+was stopped by the accumulation of water vegetation
+which we now know as the “sudd.” Some writers
+on ancient geography believe that the two centurions
+penetrated as far south as the sixth degree of north
+latitude, or the verge of the Bari country. At any rate
+they got well into the land of the naked Nile Negroes.
+Their discouraging reports seem to have put an end to
+any further Roman enterprise in the matter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p>
+
+<p>Greek traders in Egypt prospered greatly under the
+peace imposed by the Roman Empire. Their commerce
+with Arabia, East Africa, and India grew to
+a wonderful development in the first century after
+Christ. About 77 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> was published by a Greek of
+Alexandria the celebrated “Periplus of the Red Sea,”
+a pilot’s manual not unlike the modern Admiralty
+“sailing directions.” This “Periplus” shows us that
+the Greeks by the middle of the first century knew the
+Zanzibar coast very well under the name of Azan or
+Azania.</p>
+
+<p>Among these Greek merchants trading with India
+was one Diogenes, who, on returning from a voyage
+to India in about 50 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, landed on the East African
+coast at Rhaptum (Pangani or the mouth of the river
+Rufu?). Thence, he said, he “travelled inland for a
+twenty-five days’ journey, and arrived in the vicinity
+of the two great lakes and the snowy range of mountains
+whence the Nile draws its twin sources.” As
+nothing is recorded about his return journey, it is more
+probable that he merely conversed on the coast with
+Arab settlers and traders who told him that at a distance
+of twenty-five days’ march in the interior began
+a series of great lakes from two of which were derived
+the twin sources of the White Nile; that farther to
+the south of the most western of these two lakes was
+a range of mountains of great altitude covered with
+snow and ice, and named for their brilliant appearance
+of white the Mountains of the Moon. The Nile, he
+was told, united its twin head-streams at a point to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
+the north of these two great lakes, and then flowed
+through marshes until it joined the River of Abyssinia
+(the Blue Nile), and so reached the regions of
+the known.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_23" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0222.jpg" width="1959" height="1256" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Mountains of the Moon: a Glimpse on one of Ruwenzori’s highest Peaks.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This story was told by Diogenes to a Syrian geographer
+called Marinus of Tyre, who published it in
+his geographical works in the first century of the
+Christian era. The writings of Marinus of Tyre disappeared,
+probably with the dispersal of the Alexandrian
+Library, but fortunately for us at the present
+day all that portion of them dealing with the sources
+of the Nile was quoted almost <i lang="la">in extenso</i> by another
+geographer, Claudius Ptolemæus, a Greek-Egyptian,
+born at Ptolemais in the Delta of the Nile, and resident
+at Alexandria (perhaps in connection with the
+celebrated Library). Ptolemy (as he is currently and
+incorrectly called) wrote in about the year 150 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+and therefore to Ptolemy is commonly attributed the
+first clearly expressed theory as to the main origin of
+the White Nile, the twin lakes (Victoria and Albert),
+and the great snowy range called the Mountains of
+the Moon (Ruwenzori).<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> Neither Marinus of Tyre
+nor Claudius Ptolemæus was the first person to hint
+at this origin of the Nile. Besides Eratosthenes and
+Pliny there are indications in various records of the
+two centuries before Christ that the idea of the White<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
+Nile issuing from two great lakes and passing through
+a vast marshy region before it reached Ethiopia was
+vaguely known. The idea had perhaps even reached
+the ears of Cambyses and of such of the earlier Ptolemies
+as may have cared for geographical speculations.
+The bearers of the news would undoubtedly have been
+men of the Gala (Abyssinian, Somali, Cushite) race,
+who at that distant period of time seem to have freely
+penetrated through the lands of the brutish and unarmed
+Negroes. No doubt many a Greek adventurer
+in passing along the east coast of Africa brought back
+tidings similar to those of Diogenes, but his grain fell
+among the rocks, and the only definite record of the
+existence of this theory as to the Nile’s origin is
+the story of Diogenes preserved through the industry
+of Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemæus of
+Alexandria.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_24" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0261.jpg" width="1624" height="2068" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Course of the Nile, according to Ptolemy.</span></p>
+
+<p>From the oldest version of Ptolemy’s Map in existence, about 930 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, preserved
+in Mount Athos Monastery.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The recording of travellers’ tales as to the twin
+lake sources of the main Nile stream and the existence
+of a great snowy range called the Mountains of
+the Moon was not the only contribution made by
+Claudius Ptolemæus to Nile geography. The Egyptian
+Greek indeed was a geographical giant compared
+with any of his predecessors, nor was the height of his
+knowledge concerning the geography of Europe, Asia,
+and Africa reached and passed until the fifteenth century
+of the present era, some twelve hundred years
+after his death. The results of the later Crusades, intercourse
+with the Arabs, and the journeys of Marco
+Polo and other enterprising Venetians had brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
+in some cases confirmation of Ptolemy’s theories, had
+corrected some of his errors, and had filled up gaps
+in his information. But as regards the geography of
+Africa more especially, Ptolemy remained ostensibly
+the great authority until the end of the fifteenth century,
+although, as already mentioned in a footnote,
+the latest editions of Ptolemy’s maps (the latest ascribed
+to Ptolemy was published about 1485) show
+that the geographers at the closing part of the fifteenth
+century, consciously or unconsciously, touched
+up Ptolemy’s work by later information received from
+Arabs, Italians, and Turks. Ptolemy discussed with
+much detail the whole course of the Nile so far as it
+lay to any extent within the regions of the known.
+He described the approximate outline of its course
+about as far as the present site of Berber, which district
+he describes as the Greater Primis, a name
+which Sir E.&nbsp;H. Bunbury takes to be identical with
+the locality of Primnis<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> rumoured by Strabo. Above
+this point Ptolemy applies the name of Meroe (so
+often attributed to settlements or districts in Dongola)
+to that great peninsula which is so nearly enclosed
+between the Atbara, the main and the Blue
+Niles. Ptolemy indeed, and most writers of earlier
+and later days, believed this district to be an actual
+island.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> The junction of the Blue and the White<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
+Niles is wrongly placed by Ptolemy in latitude 12°
+north, instead of 15° 40′, and from this point southwards
+Ptolemy’s proposed latitudes of places on the
+White Nile became increasingly incorrect, so that by
+him the Nile system was carried a little too far to the
+south of the equator. South of the site of modern
+Khartum Ptolemy had but little information to go
+upon, other than the account of the Centurions’
+voyage; but from such suggestions as he could obtain,
+together with the story of Diogenes, he guessed that
+the twin sources of the White Nile joined their streams
+into one river at 2° north latitude. This junction described
+with the knowledge of later days would be
+equivalent to the exit of the Nile from Lake Albert, the
+real latitude of this point being 2° 25′—an uncommonly
+good guess on Ptolemy’s part. Ptolemy, however,
+imagined nothing quite like Lake Albert, but
+thought that the waters coming respectively from the
+two great equatorial lakes effected their junction at a
+point some two hundred and fifty miles north of the
+western lake source (Lake Albert); for he surmises
+that this lake lies approximately under the sixth degree
+of south latitude (its southernmost extremity is in
+1° 10′ north of the equator). His hypothetical Lake
+Victoria lies under or extends to the seventh degree
+of south latitude, instead of no farther than about
+3° 30′ south. Ptolemy, however, was careful to discriminate
+between the lake sources of the White
+Nile and the lake (Tsana) from which the Blue
+Nile issues in the highlands of Abyssinia. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
+sheet of water he calls definitely Coloe, and states
+that it is the source of the river Astapus (or Blue
+Nile). It is thought that Strabo also made allusion
+to Lake Tsana under the name of Psebo. It is probable
+that both Strabo and Ptolemy heard of this
+lake source of the Astapus or Blue Nile from Greek
+traders who had penetrated Abyssinia; for, during
+the first centuries after Christ, Axum (then called
+Auxuma) had become an important trading-centre
+which was reached from Adulis (Adulis being a port
+on the Red Sea not far from the modern Masawa).
+Ptolemy’s location of Lake Tsana, however, like the
+equatorial lakes, is too far to the south. His sketch
+of the main course of the Atbara (Astaboras) on the
+one hand, and of the Blue Nile (Astapus) on the
+other, would not be very incorrect, but for the fact
+that he makes these streams unite somewhere in the
+latitude of Khartum and then separate again, their
+northern separation enclosing the island of Meroe.
+The Græcicised names of Astapos (Blue Nile) and
+Astaboras (Atbara) were recorded before the days
+of Ptolemy by Eratosthenes, but were not applied in
+the same definite way to the Blue Nile and the Atbara.
+Eratosthenes sometimes applies the name of Astapos
+to the main stream of the Nile and not specially to
+the Blue Nile. He also mentions that the main stream
+of the Nile is called Astasobas. It is evident that in
+these words we have corruptions of local names, possibly
+derived from Nubian, or it may be from Hamitic
+languages. Astaboras needs but little identification<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
+with the Atbara. Astapus (Greek = Astapos) is not
+clearly recognizable under the modern Abyssinian
+name of the Blue Nile,—Abai. The second part of
+Astasobas certainly recalls the name Sobat, which
+besides being applied by the Sudanese Arabs to the
+Baro or Sobat is also sometimes given by them or by
+the Nile Negroes to the main course of the White
+Nile south of Khartum. Asta may have been some
+Ethiopian term meaning “river.”</p>
+
+<p>The present writer is unable to understand why that
+able geographer, Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein, has doubted
+the identification of Ruwenzori with Ptolemy’s Mountains
+of the Moon. It must be obvious, when all facts
+are considered, that Ruwenzori was the principal germ
+of this idea. The Greek traders at Rhapta (Pangani)
+no doubt had some idea of the existence of Kilimanjaro,
+but it is doubtful whether either the single dome
+of Kilimanjaro or the gleaming pinnacle of Kenia
+would impress the imagination so strongly as the whole
+brilliant range of Ruwenzori’s four or five snow-peaks
+and thirty miles of glaciation. On such occasions, as
+when this range is visible from a distance, and broadside
+on, the dark blue forested slopes merge into the
+morning mists of the lowlands, leaving the splendid
+phantasmagoria of cream-coloured snow and gray rock
+floating in the sky like an exaggerated lunar landscape.
+Ptolemy places this range, as he does his lakes, too
+far to the south, and associates it more with the
+modern country of Unyamwezi than with the region
+between the two lakes Albert and Victoria. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
+no doubt then, as in Speke’s day, Ruwenzori and
+Lake Albert were reached by Greek adventurers, by
+Sabæan Arabs, or by natives who served as intermediaries,
+by way of the established trade route through
+Unyamwezi. This word, which means “the Land of
+the Moon,” appears to be rather old for a Bantu place
+name: Unyamwezi indeed seems in the history of
+Bantu migrations to have played an important part,
+and to have been one of those many sub-centres from
+which great dispersals of the Bantu races took place.
+Indeed the Zulus (who were probably the dreaded
+Mazimba or Bazimba spoken of by the Portuguese)
+seem to have halted in their cannibal days in Unyamwezi
+before they descended on South Africa in the
+sixteenth century. Ruwenzori is not, after all, such
+a very long journey to the northwest of Unyamwezi,
+and it is very possible that the returning travellers,
+having stated that they reached the Nile sources and
+these wonderful snow-mountains through the Land of
+the Moon thus caused this lunar name to be applied
+by Ptolemy to the Ruwenzori range.</p>
+
+<p>Though not an explorer, Ptolemy stands (for his
+age) in the highest rank of Nile geographers; but
+he had to wait something like seventeen hundred and
+forty years before Sir Henry Stanley, by his discovery
+of the Semliki, the Ruwenzori snow-range, and the
+last problems of the Nile sources, did justice to that
+remarkable foreshadowing of the main features of
+the Nile system due to the genius of the Alexandrian
+geographer.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><span id="toclink_30"></span>CHAPTER III<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ABYSSINIANS AND JEWS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> race of the Greek kings who ruled over
+Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great
+and until 30 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and later, again, the Byzantine
+Emperors of Eastern Rome did much to implant Hellenic
+civilisation and the use of the Greek language
+in Egypt, and their influence extended over Abyssinia,
+where the kings of Ethiopian race (Gala dashed with
+Arab and Jew) admired and imitated them in much the
+same manner as the second Emperor of the French
+was admired and imitated by the lesser potentates of
+Germany. The history of Abyssinia—if it is to be
+written with regard to truth—is still obscure. This
+country of lofty mountains and temperate climate is
+bordered on the east by the land of Afar, an inhospitable
+desert inhabited by fierce Hamites (Danākil).
+On the south its mountains are connected by plateaux
+and ridges with the highlands of East Africa, but are
+separated by much arid and parched country from the
+regions of the modern Uganda protectorate. On the
+west the mountains of Abyssinia descend in terraces to
+the plains of the central Nile. Here the torrid climate
+is that of the Sudan, but the country is better watered
+by the rivers which rise in Abyssinia, and by a fairly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
+regular rainfall. On the extreme north the Abyssinian
+mountains almost overhang the coast of the Red Sea,
+and are no doubt visible in clear weather from the
+opposite Arabian shore. The mountains of Yaman
+are remarkably similar in many points to those of
+Abyssinia, and the people of Yaman when they were
+seized with a desire to emigrate in search of fresh homes
+were no doubt drawn to this distant land of mountains
+just visible in the west. Originally no doubt Abyssinia
+was peopled by the same dwarf Bushman race as that
+which formed the lowest stratum of all the African
+populations. Then a portion of the country came into
+the possession of the big black Negroes who still
+inhabit its western flanks. These again are superseded
+and partially absorbed by the superior race of
+the Hamites, the ancestors of the Gala, Somali, and
+Ancient Egyptian. This Hamite race of Caucasian
+stock with some Negroid intermixture forms the basis
+of the Abyssinian population at the present day. But
+in the early days of Sabæan enterprise—say four
+thousand to three thousand years ago—Abyssinia was
+conquered by Sabæan Arabs from Yaman. At many
+subsequent periods Abyssinia and Yaman (the Red
+Sea acting as no barrier) were governed by the same
+dynasty, and when Yaman came under Persian influence
+that influence also penetrated Abyssinia. In
+this manner Abyssinia early developed a trade with
+India, and even served as an emporium for the introduction
+of Indian wares into Egypt on the one hand
+and the remote parts of eastern equatorial Africa on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
+the other. The Queen of Saba (Sheba) is no doubt
+in many respects a legendary personage, but if she
+had any real historical existence she is another instance
+of an Arab ruler who governed both Abyssinia
+and Yaman. She may or may not have visited Solomon,
+but there is no doubt that in the time of that
+Jewish king some intercourse was kept up between the
+kingdom of Israel in its brief flicker of power and prosperity,
+and the coasts of the Red Sea and southern
+Arabia. After the smashing up of the Hebrew state
+by the Assyrians there are good reasons for assuming
+that a number of the dispersed Israelites migrated
+to Abyssinia, as no doubt they did to other parts
+of the Sabæan Empire. Jewish monotheism always
+had a certain fascination (in the days before Christianity
+and Islam) for the peoples of Arabia and
+of Mauritania. This influence was most felt after
+the final destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans and
+the subsequent dispersal of the Jews in all directions.
+Several princes in southwestern Arabia adopted the
+Jewish faith, more or less, and the Jewish settlers in
+Abyssinia also appear to have acted as missionaries
+in converting the savage, nominally Semitic, partly
+Gala rulers of Abyssinia to the principles of the Jewish
+faith, into which they wove Jewish legends, such as
+the glory and power of Solomon. A similar influence
+impressed on the Arab mind the Solomon of the
+legends. The real son of David was no doubt an
+unimportant Semitic prince who borrowed a little civilisation
+from his Phœnician, Egyptian, and Sabæan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
+neighbours. But the Greek influence emanating from
+Egypt displaced for a time the Persian and Jewish
+culture in Abyssinia. In the northern parts of that
+(then) collection of Arab and Gala kingdoms, Greek
+began to be used as a second language, the speech of
+the Court itself being a foreign tongue (Ge’ez), derived
+from the Himyaritic or some early south Semitic
+language.</p>
+
+<p>Auxuma—the modern Auxum—in the kingdom
+or province of Tigre (northeastern Abyssinia) and
+near the more modern town of Adua, became an
+important trade centre, frequented by many Greek
+merchants, some of whom seem to have occasionally
+returned to their homes in Egypt by way of the
+Atbara and the Nile. Others forestalled the Portuguese
+by entering into trade relations or actually
+undertaking journeys which revealed to them the existence
+of Lake Tsana and the upper waters of the
+Blue Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Byzantine Greek, who
+traded with India in the early part of the sixth century
+of our era, called at the port of Adulis (near
+Masawa) in 520 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> He discovered at this place a
+monument which contained two separate inscriptions.
+The monument was apparently one erected at the
+orders of Ptolemy III. (Philadelphus), who reigned
+in Egypt from 285 to 247 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> This Ptolemy led and
+sent expeditions which made a partial conquest of the
+coast regions of northern Abyssinia, and added to
+the Egyptian Empire of that day a good deal of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
+what now constitutes the modern Italian colony of
+Eritrea.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
+
+<p>On the same monument some four hundred and
+seventy years later, in about 127 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, a Semitic
+Abyssinian king (possibly Ela-Auda) recorded in
+turn his own victories and extensions of rule. These
+conquests seem to have done much to carry the Abyssinian
+(Semitic as distinct from Hamitic) arms as
+far south as the ninth degree of north latitude. Other
+indications would show that from this time onwards
+to about the tenth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Abyssinian influence
+and conquests extended southward intermittently to
+the vicinity of Lake Rudolf (the northern end of that
+lake). Owing to these conquests, Christianity was
+carried as far south as the modern province of Kaffa,
+and northwestwards along the course of the Blue Nile
+to the site of the modern Khartum; for at one time
+Abyssinian suzerainty or rule extended almost to the
+verge of Kordofan on the west.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+<p>The introduction of Islam among the Somalis,
+among some of the Gala tribes, and all round the north
+and west of Abyssinia in the centuries that followed the
+eleventh, checked any further spread of Christianity,
+and limited—even curtailed—the political aspirations
+of Abyssinia. In the sixteenth century a Muhammadan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
+ruler—Muhammad Granye—arose in the Danākil
+country (Tajurra Bay), and practically smashed the
+Ethiopian Christian power in Abyssinia, which did
+not recover from the ravages of these Muhammadan
+(Arab and Somali) armies for a century or more.
+Soon after the wars of Muhammad Granye the heathen
+Galas<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> from the south and southwest entered Abyssinia
+in force, and it was a long time before the Semitic
+rulers of that country could bring them under control.
+The arrival of the Portuguese (to be described in the
+next chapter) gave a fillip to the power of the Christian
+Semites of Abyssinia, mainly through the introduction
+of guns and gunpowder. It is possible,
+indeed, that at different times after the commencement
+of the Christian era Abyssinian raiders may
+have ridden south on their slave, ivory, and cattle-hunting
+expeditions as far as the vicinity of Mount
+Elgon. At the present day their raiders come almost
+to the frontiers of Busoga, for there is no tsetse fly
+in all the district between Abyssinia and the Victoria
+Nyanza; therefore, as the Abyssinians have possessed
+horses for several thousand years, there has been little
+to stop their making rapid expeditions into the Land of
+the Blacks. In this way they may have raided and
+traded as far south as the Victoria Nyanza and as
+far west as the White Nile, bringing back with them
+for the edification of the Greeks stories of the Great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+Lakes and Snow-mountains, and assisting, perhaps, to
+distribute over the lands now comprised within the
+Uganda Protectorate those remarkable blue Egyptian
+beads of unknown antiquity which have been referred
+to by the present writer in his book, “The Uganda
+Protectorate,” as being some slight indication of
+ancient trading relations between the countries of the
+Great Lakes and those under the dominion of Egypt.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><span id="toclink_37"></span>CHAPTER IV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ISLAMITES AND ITALIANS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> Egypt had become part of the Byzantine
+dominions, all interest in the Nile sources
+had died away, and men’s minds were mainly centred
+on religious controversies of greater or less violence.
+Greek Christianity penetrated to Abyssinia
+and south of Abyssinia to countries not far from
+the north end of Lake Rudolf. Most of the Nubian
+kingdoms became nominally Christian, and Christianity
+was the religion of the people on the Nile banks as
+far south as the confluence of the Blue and White
+Niles. It is thought by the missionaries of the White
+Fathers’ Mission to Uganda that the sign of the
+cross and the idea of baptism, with one or two
+other practices found in the old heathen religions of
+Unyoro and Uganda, may have reached those countries
+from Abyssinia. Greek and Arab Christians in
+the first six centuries of the Christian era certainly
+penetrated to the East African coast, but after the
+official adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empire
+all mundane knowledge began to decay. Christianity
+inspired a contempt for science, and the only ideas
+of geography which floated about the world were
+connected with the wanderings of propagandists or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+pilgrimages to the shrines of saints. Arab enterprise,
+moreover, in these sad centuries suffered a curious
+eclipse. Far to the south, in Zambezia, no doubt the
+invasion of the country by the earlier and later sections
+of the Bantu Negroes brought about the destruction
+of Sabæan power; and the somewhat degenerate
+successors of the Sabæans from the south coast of
+Arabia only occupied the coast emporiums dotted
+along the littoral from Somaliland to Sofala.</p>
+
+<p>Then came one of the great landmarks of the
+world’s history, a movement productive of a little
+good and some harm to civilisation. Christianity had
+first been organised as a socialistic religion, grafting
+on to the beautiful and indisputable precepts of its
+Founder the reaction of poor, ignorant, starved, and
+enslaved people against the unmoral philosophy, unequal
+wealth, and excessive materialism of the time.
+It then grew to be a somewhat dismal faith, taking no
+heed of the beauty of this world and of mundane
+opportunities for happiness; and above all it waged
+an active warfare with sexuality, not merely curbing
+immorality, but (wisely or unwisely) opposing polygamy
+and advocating celibacy. The Arab and the
+North African were not ripe for such a faith, and
+Judaism had already biassed them against the polytheistic
+tendencies of Greek Christianity. Muhammad,
+the prophet of western Arabia, founded on a
+basis of phallic worship and animistic belief the
+third great Semitic religion—Islam. His teaching
+was a direct challenge to Christianity, and soon became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
+iconoclastic in every sense of the word. Though the
+Persian, Syrian, and Iberian elements of the Arab
+Empire for a time revived and perpetuated in somewhat
+grotesque aspect the science of Greece, the art
+of Persia, and the lore of India, the Muhammadan
+religion sealed most parts of Africa to European and
+Christian research. It is true, however, that the conquests
+of Islam enabled Arabs to penetrate further
+into the interior of tropical Africa than before,
+though from the dawn of civilisation they had been
+the most constant explorers of the eastern part of
+that continent.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs began to mention names connected with
+the Niger and the western Sudan to the geographers
+of Italy and Sicily. Under the impulse of Islamic,
+Persian, and Arab colonies the east coast of Africa and
+the north coast of Madagascar came partially under
+Muhammadan rule in the tenth and eleventh centuries,
+the Arabs there carrying on almost continuously the
+commercial enterprise founded by their predecessors
+and brothers, the Phœnicians and Sabæans. Invasion
+after invasion crossed from Arabia, and passed over
+the lowlands surrounding Abyssinia to the central
+Sudan; or higher up, through Egypt, to Mauritania.
+But the Arabs who crossed the Nile in the latitudes of
+Khartum and Assuan made no attempts to follow the
+White Nile, the Blue Nile, or the Bahr-al-Ghazal to
+their sources,—left in fact all the Nile basin above the
+confluence of the Blue and White rivers absolutely
+untouched and unexplored. Egypt itself came under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
+Arab rule in 640 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and subsequently formed an
+independent principality under the Fatimite Khalifs.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusades brought French, Germans, and English,
+Aragonese and Flemings to the Delta of the
+Nile in more or less disastrous expeditions against
+the Saracen power,—a power which was fast becoming
+that of the Turk. A curious relic of these
+crusading days in the Nile Delta is or was (for
+the present writer is not aware if they still exist)
+several Spanish (originally Aragonese) monasteries,
+which were established with the consent of the Muhammadan
+rulers of Egypt in order to mitigate the
+woes of Christian captives and to arrange terms for
+their release.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_40" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0402.jpg" width="1275" height="1978" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Arab Trader (Maskati).</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Venice, however,—which had somewhat held aloof
+from the religious ardour of the Crusades in order
+to build up a great commerce with the Muhammadan
+East,—Venice became during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the great neutral go-between for the
+trade of India, Persia, Egypt, Arabia, and Syria with
+the Byzantine Empire and the rest of Europe. Venetians
+(in Arab dress, of course) ran less risk than
+other Europeans when travelling in Egypt in the
+days before the Portuguese discoveries. Through
+the Venetians Europe became acquainted with several
+strange African beasts which were brought from
+the Sudan for public exhibition in Muhammadan
+Egypt, and in this way European interest in the
+sources of the Nile was occasionally revived. It is
+remarkable to reflect that the name of Venice will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
+probably never die out (as far as etymology is
+concerned) in the very heart of Africa. In the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and perhaps later,
+Venice manufactured in her arsenals improved types
+of guns. She also acted as an intermediary in exchanging
+muskets (manufactured elsewhere in Europe)
+with the Arabs and Turks, who at that time could not
+construct these firearms for themselves. Thus the
+Turks and Arabs became accustomed to call any improved
+type of musket a “Venetian” (Bunduqi).<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
+In this way the name of the most beautiful city in
+the world has penetrated beyond the explorations of
+any European into the very heart of Africa, as it has
+also circulated through all the Muhammadan East.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><span id="toclink_42"></span>CHAPTER V<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">A SUMMARY OF THE ANCIENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF THE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> next page in the history of the Nile Quest
+is marked by the coming of the Portuguese;
+but before we proceed to consider what effect this
+movement had on the revelation of Africa to the
+knowledge of the Caucasian species, let us sum up
+briefly the purport of the foregoing <span class="locked">chapters:—</span></p>
+
+<p>1. The lands through which the Nile flows were
+inhabited some ten thousand years ago—let us say
+at a guess—by Pygmies in the north, east, and
+southwest, and elsewhere by big black Negroes, these
+types being offshoots from the original Negro Asiatic
+stem.</p>
+
+<p>At some such period as ten thousand years ago
+northeast Africa was repeatedly invaded from Arabia
+by a branch of the Caucasian race—the Hamites—which
+in Arabia had absorbed a certain proportion
+of early Negro and Dravidian<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> blood. About the
+same time in Egypt itself there were invasions of
+other Caucasian immigrants; some perhaps of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
+Dravidian stock still met with in Baluchistan and
+India, and others of Libyan (Iberian, Algerian) race.
+There had also been early minglings between the big
+black Negroes on the Central Nile and Hamite invaders
+which had resulted in further hybrids such as
+the Nubians or “Ethiopians.” These Ethiopians constantly
+invaded and raided Egypt, thus mingling with
+the Caucasian Egyptians, but also at other times
+acted as middlemen between civilised Egypt and the
+utterly barbarous countries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+the Sudan; they brought to Egypt knowledge of
+the Pygmies and such of the bigger beasts of Africa
+as had become extinct in Egypt before the arrival of
+intelligent man. Through these Nubians the Egyptians
+occasionally had glimmering ideas as to the
+sources of the White Nile.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Egyptians kept up a fairly constant communication
+with Abyssinia and Somaliland by sea
+and overland. They had a fair knowledge of the
+geographical features of Abyssinia and of the origin
+and source of the Blue Nile. Moreover, through the
+ancestors of the Galas and Somalis they came slightly
+into contact with the peoples of Lake Rudolf and the
+Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Greeks, who began to travel in Egypt five
+hundred years before Christ, expressed some curiosity
+about the origin of the Nile, and communicated
+this inquiring spirit to the Romans. This resulted
+for a time in the knowledge of the White Nile as
+far south as Fashoda.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p>
+
+<p>4. The Arabs of western and southern Arabia very
+early in the history of civilisation developed a culture
+scarcely inferior to that of the Egyptians, and entered
+into trading and colonising relations with Abyssinia
+and Somaliland, and with the East African coastlands
+as far south as the modern Rhodesia. From their
+settlements on the Zanzibar coast (such as Mombasa)
+they probably journeyed inland on trading expeditions,
+or else the natives, who came to trade with
+them at the coast, gave them geographical information.
+In one or other way they learnt the existence of great
+lakes and snow-mountains. These stories the Arabs
+passed on to inquiring Greeks as far back as two
+thousand years ago; and an account which was an
+uncommonly near guess at the truth was given to the
+reading world during the first two centuries after the
+birth of Christ by writers on geography like Marinus
+of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemæus of Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>5. This was the high-water mark of knowledge
+concerning the sources of the White Nile for something
+like eighteen hundred years. Information on
+the subject in the interval began to grow less rather
+than more. The stories of the Nile lakes were,
+however, revived after the Arab invasions of northeast
+Africa in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and were communicated to the European world of
+the Renaissance through the intermediary of the Saracen
+writers of Sicily, the theologians of Rome, and
+the merchants of Venice.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><span id="toclink_45"></span>CHAPTER VI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">PORTUGAL AND ABYSSINIA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Portugal</span> was created by the crusading spirit.
+The King of Castile, who had become the leading
+prince in the northern half of Spain, despatched
+a young Burgundian adventurer, Count Henry, to advance
+on the Douro from Galicia (in the northwest
+corner of the Spanish peninsula) and to drive the
+Moors into the sea,—either the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Straits of Gibraltar. Count Henry drove them at
+any rate half-way down that western coastland of
+the Spanish peninsula which we now call Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a>
+Lisbon was only eventually conquered from the
+Moors by the help of a large party of English volunteers
+who stopped to aid in this struggle with the
+Moslem while on their way to a Crusade in the Holy
+Land. Steadily, bit by bit, Count Henry and his
+successors, the kings of Portugal, drove the Moors
+southward into and out of the little province of Algarve,
+and then, flushed with continuous success,
+crossed the Straits, attacked them in Morocco, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
+added a large part of the present Empire of Morocco
+to the possessions of the Portuguese Crown.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> These
+brilliant successes awoke a great spirit of discovery in
+Portugal,—a spirit fomented and encouraged by that
+noble and far-sighted man, Prince Henry the Navigator,
+who had himself shared in the Morocco wars.
+Rapidly the limits of the Portuguese explorations extended.
+First they rounded Cape Bojador on the
+northwest coast of Africa. Then they reached Sierra
+Leone, the gold coast, Benin (where they powerfully
+affected native art and industry), the Niger Delta, the
+Cameroons, the Congo, Angola, and the Cape of Good
+Hope. Once having passed this promontory, whence
+they had once retired baffled, their great navigator,
+Vasco da Gama, carried on the exploration of the
+coasts of Africa eastward and northward to Mombasa
+and thence to India. Succeeding vessels explored
+the Red Sea, and the expeditions they conveyed attempted
+to get into touch with Abyssinia, where, according
+to the rumours brought home by crusaders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
+and Italian merchants from Egypt, there lay a
+Christian country ruled by a pious monarch, John
+the Priest.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> But before ever Vasco da Gama had
+rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese,
+by contact with the Moors, had heard of Arab settlements
+on the East Coast of Africa, and of the insular
+character of the great continent. Their government,
+therefore, in 1486 despatched on a journey to Egypt,
+India, and eastern Africa Pero de Covilhaõ to spy out
+the land.</p>
+
+<p>This was a very risky journey in those days when
+the jealousy of Venice was added to the fanaticism
+of the Moslems. But Pero de Covilhaõ fulfilled his
+mission. He visited Egypt, the Red Sea, and India.
+He then, on his return journey, touched at many of
+the Arab ports on the East African coast. Finally he
+disembarked at Masawa, and travelled to Abyssinia,
+the first intelligent European to enter that country for
+a very long period of time,—the first, in fact, since
+the Greek merchants and missionaries who traded and
+travelled under the Byzantine Empire. The King of
+Abyssinia was so delighted with the advent of this
+white man, yet so suspicious of his country’s motives,
+that he was detained as an unwilling guest in Abyssinia
+for several years, and died when on his way
+home. But the Portuguese fleet came to Masawa in
+1520 with an embassy which remained in the country
+of Abyssinia for six years. In this embassy were
+the priests Bermudez and Francisco Alvarez. Alvarez<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
+afterwards (about 1550) wrote an interesting account
+of Abyssinia, describing more especially the province
+of Tigre, and alluding to the Atbara (there known
+as the Takaze) as the main Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Bermudez became for a time the primate or patriarch
+of Abyssinia. The Jesuit missionaries, for the
+most part Portuguese, strove hard to replace the corrupt
+Greek Christianity of the country by the Latin
+rite. This action not unnaturally set up against them
+a strong body of opponents in the native Abyssinian
+priesthood. For a time, however, the civilisation they
+introduced, and their trading connection with India,
+made a great impression on the king and chieftains
+of Ethiopia, until, as will be seen later on, the country
+became suspicious of Portuguese intentions, observing
+the facility with which parts of East Africa, India,
+and the shores of the Persian Gulf had been conquered
+and occupied by the Portuguese. But before
+this jealousy was to culminate in the expulsion of the
+Portuguese from Abyssinia one hundred years later,
+the Christian rulers of that country were forced to
+appeal to Portugal for help and armed intervention.
+As already mentioned in Chapter V., an attack on
+Abyssinia had been made by a Muhammadan chieftain
+of the Danakil country,—Muhammad Granye,
+or Muhammad the Lame. This man was probably
+of Somali race, and ruled the country round about
+Tajurra Bay,—the French Somaliland of to-day. In
+alliance with the Arabs and Turks, he not only created
+the Somali kingdom of Adel, but ravaged the greater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
+part of Abyssinia. His policy was distinctly anti-Christian,
+and it is conceivable that he might have
+extinguished for ever the Christian Semite rule over
+Abyssinia but for the intervention of the Portuguese.
+The Emperor David, about 1530, managed to send
+emissaries (probably Jesuit priests) to Lisbon to implore
+the assistance of the King of Portugal. The
+result was that Dom Estevaõ da Gama (son of the
+celebrated Vasco<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a>) as Portuguese Admiral entered
+the Red Sea with the Portuguese fleet, and landed
+at Masawa four hundred Portuguese under the command
+of his brother Christophoro da Gama. The
+Portuguese brought with them firearms, with which
+apparently the Muhammadan invaders of Abyssinia
+were at first unprovided. They threw into the
+struggle with the Somalis and Arabs all the crusading
+ardour with which their ancestors had driven
+the Moors out of Portugal. Christophoro da Gama
+was a heroic figure, a very paladin. He excited the
+admiration of his Somali opponent, who at one stage
+of the struggle offered him a safe conduct to the coast
+and the means of departing from Abyssinia worth all
+the honours of war. Nevertheless, the four hundred
+Portuguese inflicted reverse after reverse on the thousands
+that followed the banner of Muhammad Granye,
+who at that time was practically master even of the
+mountainous regions of Abyssinia. Some of the
+Portuguese went to the assistance of the fugitive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
+Emperor of Abyssinia. Those that remained under
+Christophoro da Gama, despite the constant defeats
+they inflicted on superior numbers, gradually found
+themselves isolated and vastly outnumbered. The
+Turks had taken alarm at Portuguese successes, and
+had sent to Muhammad Granye’s assistance a train
+of artillery, while two thousand Arabs with muskets
+crossed over from Mokha and joined the Somalis.
+Thus reinforced, Muhammad Granye attacked the
+Portuguese entrenched camp, which he ultimately
+carried, when the unfortunate Christophoro da Gama
+had one arm broken and his knee shattered. A few
+of the Portuguese escaped and joined the Abyssinians,
+but most of them were slaughtered by Muhammad
+Granye. Christophoro da Gama, however,
+though wounded, managed with ten of his men to
+escape on horseback to a forest. Here he was captured
+by Muhammad Granye, who, after inflicting
+much torture on him, offered, in admiration of his
+bravery, to set him at liberty and assist him to return
+to India, if only he would abjure Christianity.
+The blazing indignation with which he answered this
+proposal so enraged Muhammad Granye that he struck
+off his head with a sword. The body of Dom Christophoro
+was then cut into quarters and his remains
+buried in separate places. Ultimately, however, the
+bones are supposed to have been gathered together
+by Roman Catholic Abyssinians, and some seventy
+years later the skull of the martyr was thought to
+have been found by Jeronimo Lobo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Portuguese who escaped slaughter at
+the hands of Muhammad Granye was Pedro Leon,
+who had been body-servant to Christophoro da Gama.
+Assisted by the advice of this little band of Portuguese
+heroes, the Emperor of Abyssinia at last made
+a successful stand against the Muhammadan invader.
+In the furious battle which ensued, the Portuguese
+directed all their energies against that part of the
+Somali army where Muhammad Granye was commanding.
+Pedro Leon, filled with a holy rage, singled
+out the Somali king from amongst his men, and shot
+him through the head with a musket. Muhammad
+Granye did not die at once, but managed to escape
+for some distance from the battlefield, being always,
+however, resolutely followed on horseback by Pedro
+Leon. At last Muhammad fell down dead, and Leon,
+having satisfied himself of the fact, cut off one of his
+ears to prove to the Emperor of Abyssinia that it was
+he who had avenged Dom Christophoro. After the
+death of their leader the Muhammadan forces melted
+away, and Christian Abyssinia slowly recovered from
+the greatest crisis in its fortunes prior to the Italian
+invasion of 1896.</p>
+
+<p>In 1615<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> a notable advance in Nile exploration was
+made. Father Pedro Paez was shown by the Abyssinians
+the sources of the Blue Nile on the Sagada or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
+Sakala Mountain in the western part of the province
+of Gojam. Paez mentions that the river, before it
+enters Lake Tsana, is styled the Jemma, a term which
+scarcely differs from its name at the present day. He
+also alludes to, though he does not describe very carefully,
+Lake Tsana.</p>
+
+<p>In 1622 Father Jeronimo Lobo left Lisbon and proceeded
+to Goa, whence, after staying for more than
+a year, he started for Abyssinia. News had reached
+the Portuguese at Goa, from such of the missionaries
+as remained in Abyssinia, that the Emperor of that
+country had decided to join the Roman Church. A
+pressing demand was made for more Portuguese missionaries
+to strengthen this conversion, and the missionaries
+were advised to enter Ethiopia by way of
+the river Nile, through Dongola and Sennar. Unfortunately
+the secretary to the missionaries in Abyssinia
+mixed up the word Dancala (Dongola) with the
+country of the Danakil (on the Red Sea),<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> and advised
+the Jesuits at Goa to land at Zeila (Somaliland),
+and make their way through the Danakil country to
+Abyssinia. It was attempted to carry out this unfortunate
+advice. The eight missionaries who started
+from Goa were to divide into two companies, one
+to go to Zeila, and the other to land at Melinda
+(Malindi) on the Zanzibar coast, and thence make
+their way overland to Abyssinia,—rather a “large
+order” at that date (to use modern slang). Those
+that went by sea to Zeila were seized by the Turks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
+though finally released at the intercession of the Emperor
+of Abyssinia, who bribed the Turkish Pasha
+with the present of a zebra.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> The other four missionaries,
+among whom Lobo was one, were again
+divided into two lots. Two of the fathers that were
+to attempt entering southern Abyssinia from Somaliland
+were duly landed at Zeila. A Muhammadan chieftain
+who was styled king of the country (probably in
+the neighbourhood of Tajurra Bay) seized these unfortunate
+missionaries and threw them into prison.
+In spite of the entreaties of the Emperor of Abyssinia,
+this Muhammadan chieftain (some relation of
+the Muhammad Granye who had been killed by the
+Portuguese when he invaded Abyssinia seventy years
+previously) finally had the Jesuits beheaded.</p>
+
+<p>Father Lobo and a companion were conveyed by a
+Portuguese ship to the island of Lamu on the Zanzibar
+coast. Thence with great difficulty they made their
+way in a boat along the coast to the mouth of the
+Juba River, where they came into contact with the
+“Galles,”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> probably the existing Ogadein Somalis.
+These boisterous people soon made it apparent to the
+missionaries that any journey overland from Kismayu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
+to Zeila and Abyssinia was an impossibility; so, after
+many hardships, they eventually made their way back
+to Mombasa and India.</p>
+
+<p>In 1625<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Lobo and his companion once more
+started for Abyssinia, and this time sailed past Sokotra
+Island and Cape Guardafui, and finally landed
+at Baylur (Bailul), a port opposite Mokha, on the
+coast of the little known Danakil country. Here they
+received a very friendly reception, owing to the precautions
+taken by the Emperor of Abyssinia; and the
+two Portuguese missionaries actually made their way
+through the country of the fierce Danakil and across
+the salt deserts and blazing steppes of that inhospitable
+region, which along the same route has probably
+never since been traversed by Europeans. “Our
+clothes tattered, and our feet bloody,” they climbed the
+Abyssinian mountains, rejoicing at the cool temperature,
+running water, and singing birds, and at length
+reached the Jesuit settlement of Fremona.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> After undergoing
+many risks and dangers owing to the hostility
+with which the Abyssinians of Tigre regarded
+the Latin Christianity introduced by the Jesuits, Lobo
+started for the kingdom of Damot, which is in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>
+southern part of Abyssinia proper, between the Blue
+Nile and Lake Tsana. Prior to his crossing the Blue
+Nile, he had paid a ceremonial visit to the Emperor
+of Abyssinia. He mentions that the Blue Nile (which
+he not unnaturally considers to be the main stream)
+is called by the Abyssinians Abavi. This may be an
+older form than Abai, and is perhaps a little nearer to
+the Hellenised Astapus. The Blue Nile, he found, as
+his predecessor Paez had declared, takes its rise on the
+declivity of a mountain called Sakala (Sagada), some
+distance to the south-southwest of Lake Tsana. The
+source of the Blue Nile he describes as follows: “This
+spring, or rather these two springs, are two holes,
+each about two feet in diameter, a short distance from
+each other. One is about five feet and a half in
+depth.... The other, which is somewhat less, has
+no bottom. We were assured by the inhabitants that
+none had ever been found. It is believed here that
+these springs are the vents of a great subterranean
+lake, and they have this circumstance to favour their
+opinion: that the ground is always moist, and so soft
+that the water boils up under foot as one walks upon
+it. This is more remarkable after rain, for then the
+ground yields and sinks so much that I believe it is
+chiefly supported by roots of trees that are interwoven
+one with another.” Father Lobo declares that the infant
+Blue Nile (which bears the name of Jimma) only
+enters Lake Tsana<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> on the southwest to leave that lake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
+not far from its entry, turning abruptly to the east and
+south. It crosses Lake Tsana only at one end, “with
+so violent a rapidity that the waters of the Nile may
+be distinguished through all the passage, which is six
+leagues.” Fifteen miles from the point where the Nile
+leaves Lake Tsana it “forms one of the most beautiful
+waterfalls in the world,” under which Father Lobo
+rested himself “for the sake of the coolness.” He was
+charmed “with the thousand delightful rainbows which
+the sunbeams painted on the water in all their shining
+and lovely colours. The fall of this mighty stream
+from so great a height makes a noise which may be
+heard from a considerable distance, and the mist rising
+from this fall of water may be seen much further than
+the noise can be heard.” Father Lobo notes that at
+the cataracts which succeeded this splendid fall there
+was a bridge of timber (logs) over which the whole
+Abyssinian army had recently passed, but he goes on
+to state that the Emperor had since built a bridge of
+one arch in the same place, for which purpose masons
+were imported from India. This stone bridge was the
+first erected in Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>Father Lobo makes a truthful observation regarding
+the source of the Nile floods, believing them to
+arise rather from the excessive rainfall on the high
+mountains of Abyssinia than from the melting of the
+snows in the summer. He declares, in fact, that he
+only saw snow on the Samien and Namera mountains,
+and in small quantity.</p>
+
+<p>As to the country of Damot, to the south of Lake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
+Tsana, in which he was sent to reside for a time, he
+expatiates enthusiastically on its beauty, fertility, and
+perfect climate. He also describes here—first of all
+Europeans—the wild banana, or Ensete, the name of
+which he declares means “the tree for hunger,”
+though it is difficult to understand, from our subsequent
+knowledge of the wild banana and from Father
+Lobo’s description, how it can be used as an article of
+food, as its fruit is almost inedible, while the leaves
+and watery trunk are quite unfit for food.</p>
+
+<p>But Lobo’s residence in Damot was not lengthy, as,
+owing to the jealous suspicions of the Abyssinians, he
+was sent back to reside with the rest of the Jesuits
+in Tigre. Their settlement of Fremona, where some
+hundred Portuguese priests and seminarists were established,
+was attacked by the Abyssinians. The Portuguese
+defended themselves bravely, and for a time
+there was a truce. The friendly Emperor of Abyssinia
+had died, and the subsidiary chiefs all believed
+that Portugal intended to invade and annex Abyssinia.
+The prowess of the four hundred Portuguese who in
+the preceding century had, as the allies of the Abyssinians,
+completely routed the Muhammadan invaders,
+made them feel that a few thousand Portuguese warriors
+would soon add Abyssinia to the Portuguese Empire.
+At this juncture the Portuguese sent a strong
+expedition to chastise the Sultan of Tajurra who had
+killed the missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>After attempting to flee from Abyssinia and make
+their way to the coast of the Red Sea, the whole of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
+Portuguese colony of Fremona was handed over to
+the Turks at Masawa, and by them sent to Suakin.
+They underwent cruel sufferings at the hands of the
+Turks, but some of the missionaries, including Father
+Lobo, were allowed to ransom themselves, and return
+in a ship to India. Here Lobo endeavoured to induce
+the Viceroy of Portuguese India to send an expedition
+against the Turks of Suakin in order to release the
+priests that were left in their hands; but the viceroy
+declined to take this step without the consent of the
+Portuguese Government. Accordingly Father Lobo
+started for Lisbon, was shipwrecked on the coast of
+Natal, fell into the hands of the Dutch, but in spite of
+his extraordinary hardships, and difficulties wellnigh
+insurmountable, actually returned to Portugal; whence
+he went to plead at Rome the cause of Latin Christianity
+in Abyssinia. The missionaries left in the
+hands of the Turks at Suakin were eventually ransomed,
+and returned to India. The few Portuguese
+missionaries who for one cause or another were left
+in Abyssinia were all killed by the Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_58" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0582.jpg" width="1600" height="2112" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0582_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Dapper’s Map (Amsterdam, 1686).</span></p>
+  <p>Giving the falsified results of Portuguese explorations in East Africa.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Portuguese contact with Abyssinia, the Portuguese
+conquest of Zanzibar and long occupation of Mombassa
+very naturally led to this people acquiring in
+their intercourse with Arabs and Abyssinians some
+idea of the geography of inner Africa,—ideas which
+were added to by the information collected on the
+West Coast. Nevertheless, strange to say, they were
+less correct in their surmises than Claudius Ptolemæus.
+The maps of the Nile and the geography of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>
+inner Africa which they formed on the reports of
+their explorers and missionaries were altogether misleading.
+Their delineation of the whole interior of
+the western half of Africa bears absolutely no correspondence
+to actuality in geographical features; moreover,
+they were so ignorant of the simplest principles
+of hydrography as to make one lake give rise to several
+great rivers.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> The only element of truth in all their
+guesses at the inner waterways of Africa lay in their
+delineation of Abyssinia. They put down with some
+likeness to actuality the Blue Nile, and they named
+correctly the principal countries that lie to the south
+of Abyssinia proper. But this contribution was vitiated
+by the exaggerations regarding distances,—exaggerations
+perpetrated chiefly by map-makers,—so
+that the Blue Nile and its tributaries, and such provinces
+as Gojam, Kaffa, Shoa, etc., instead of lying
+a considerable distance north of the equator, were
+dragged far to the south of the line, and these features
+were even made to encroach on the basin of the
+Congo. A good idea of the extent of Portuguese
+knowledge and fable concerning the geography of
+inner Africa may be obtained from a glance at the
+celebrated Vatican map of Africa which, from information
+derived from the Portuguese and from the
+Abyssinian converts, was painted on one of the
+panels of a gallery at the Vatican in the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p>
+
+<p>Several Portuguese adventurers were despatched in
+the sixteenth century across Africa from west to east
+to strike the Nile, but they were never heard of any
+more. Credit must be given to the Portuguese Jesuits
+for amassing much accurate knowledge regarding the
+scenery, people, and products of Abyssinia. There is
+a wonderfully interesting and very beautiful piece of
+tapestry in the Governor’s Palace at Valletta (Malta),
+which it is supposed was executed early in the eighteenth
+century from the information supplied by the
+Portuguese Jesuits. The characteristic fauna and
+flora, domestic animals, houses, and natives of Abyssinia
+are portrayed in this tapestry with great fidelity
+to nature. Later in the eighteenth century Portugal
+began to take up with some earnestness the scientific
+exploration of such African territories as remained to
+her after the revolt and the attacks of the East Coast
+Arabs, but these journeys and their results do not
+come within the scope of the present volume. Portuguese
+influence over Abyssinia had disappeared by the
+end of the seventeenth century, and almost all that
+remains of it is the name which the civilised world
+applies to this country. In the southeastern part of
+this powerful African state is the river Hawash, or
+Habash, which attempts to reach the Red Sea but
+finally expires in the barren sands of the Danakil
+country. The name of this river had been applied
+by the Arabs to the Semiticised people living north
+and west of its course. “Habash, Habshi”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
+transmuted through the Portuguese speech to Abessi,
+Abessim, Abessinia. This in time was further misspelt
+in French and English as Abyssinie, Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>The Turks had always viewed with a great deal of
+jealousy and anger the attempts of Portugal to establish
+herself as mistress of the navigation of the Red
+Sea, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea.
+Consequently the Turks occupied and held Masawa,
+and drove away Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries from easy contact with Abyssinia,
+which between 1633 and 1769 was only visited by
+one European, a French doctor named Poncet (1698).</p>
+
+<p>Several Abyssinian converts of the Portuguese missionaries
+who had become devotedly attached to the
+Roman Catholic form of the Christian faith had proceeded
+to Italy for further instructions. Indeed, all
+through the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
+centuries Abyssinians constantly journeyed to
+Italy. They were able to traverse the Muhammadan
+countries of Nubia and Egypt very easily, either disguised
+as Copts or affecting to be Muhammadans.
+From the ports of Egypt they easily made their way
+to Venice or to Naples as traders. Four of these
+Christian Abyssinians, one of them known as Gregory,
+were established at Rome in the middle of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>At Erfurt in Saxony was born, in 1624, the celebrated
+Ludolf, whose real name was Hiob Leutholf.
+Ludolf at an early age exhibited a remarkable talent
+for acquiring languages, and he had a special bent for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
+the Semitic tongues. Having been entrusted with a
+secret mission to Rome by the Swedish Ambassador
+at Paris, Leutholf, or Ludolf, encountered in Rome
+these four Abyssinians. He spent three years in enthusiastically
+studying Amharic, and also the older
+liturgical tongue of Ethiopia, the Gez or Ge’ez. By
+the help of these Abyssinians he compiled a grammar
+of the Amharic, and dictionaries of that tongue and
+of the Ge’ez. He also wrote a history of Ethiopia;
+but, above all (as far as this book is concerned), he
+did important work in elucidating the geography of
+the northeastern portion of the Nile basin, and the
+information he received from Gregory and the other
+Abyssinians he carefully collated with the works of
+the Portuguese Jesuits. Although Ludolf never visited
+even Egypt, he did a great deal to assist the
+map-makers of his time to delineate the course of the
+Blue Nile and of the Atbara with its various affluents.
+Ludolf passed a good many years of his life in the
+diplomatic service of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha. Curiously
+enough, he not only visited England repeatedly,
+but became an Anglophil, and desired to establish
+trading connections between England and Abyssinia.
+The troubles consequent on James II.’s reign, and
+the jealous opposition of the Coptic Church in Egypt
+baulked his scheme, which was much taken up in high
+quarters in England, and which might, if it had been
+carried out, have strangely anticipated events in northeast
+Africa by establishing British influence in Egypt
+and Abyssinia at the end of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p>
+
+<p>Attracted towards the mystery of the Nile and of
+the so-called Christian civilisation of Abyssinia, that
+Duke of Saxe-Gotha who had taken Ludolf into
+his diplomatic service caused another Saxon, named
+Michael Wansleb (born at Erfurt), to learn Amharic
+first of all from Ludolf, and then to go to Abyssinia.
+Here he was expected to explore, and also to collect
+liturgies and other books likely to throw light on the
+Abyssinian version of Christianity, which the Duke
+believed would be found to be in harmony with
+Lutheranism. Wansleb never succeeded in getting
+to Abyssinia, but journeyed for some distance up the
+Nile and wrote on the subject of Egypt, publishing
+also in London, between 1661 and 1671, a number
+of Abyssinian liturgies and dissertations on the Amharic
+language.</p>
+
+<p>In 1668 the then recently founded Royal Society in
+England took up the question of the Portuguese explorations
+of the Nile sources, and ordered that the
+translation of a Portuguese manuscript by Sir Peter
+Wyche should be printed and published. This little
+work is described as “A Short Relation of the River
+Nile, etc.: Writings by an Eye-witness who lived
+many years in the Abyssine Empire.” Sir Peter
+Wyche probably did little else than translate and
+collate what seemed to him the most interesting extracts
+from the works of Paez and Lobo. These
+works were seemingly written first of all in Portuguese,
+but were never printed in that language. Paez’
+manuscript was translated into Latin and published<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
+at Rome in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher.
+The Portuguese manuscript of Jeronimo Lobo was
+translated at length into English, and published in
+London by the Jesuit father F. Balthazar Tellez.
+Seemingly, however, this book was issued either in
+a Portuguese or a Latin version at Lisbon in 1670.
+It was translated into French from the original Portuguese
+manuscript by M. Le Grand in the early part
+of the eighteenth century, and this translation, with
+some additional matter, was rendered into English
+and published in London in 1735.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Society’s paraphrase of which Sir Peter
+Wyche was author contains no new matter, but its date
+is worthy of remark,—1668. It would seem as though
+Sir Peter Wyche had had access to Lobo’s manuscript,
+or to the joint works of Lobo and Paez, before
+the actual publication of Lobo’s book in 1670. It is
+further remarkable as showing the intelligent interest
+taken in these geographical questions at that day by
+the cultivated classes in England.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII"><span id="toclink_65"></span>CHAPTER VII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">FRENCH INQUIRIES AND D’ANVILLE’S MAPS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Towards</span> the close of the seventeenth century
+Louis XIV. of France had begun to make the
+influence of his country widely felt in the Mediterranean,
+though before his time Richelieu had cast an
+eye over the Levant with the idea of supporting
+French commerce. Louis XIV. even entered into an
+alliance with Turkey, in which he cut rather a foolish
+figure, but which at any rate enabled him to send
+Frenchmen to report on the trade of Egypt. It is
+stated that the result of these inquiries was a scheme
+for the conquering and colonising of Egypt which
+was laid before that monarch and remained in the
+archives of the French government until it caught
+the attention of Napoleon Bonaparte when he rose
+to power. Louis XIV. either did not notice the project
+or put it aside; but nevertheless, during half of
+the seventeenth and the whole of the eighteenth century
+Frenchmen were beginning to interest themselves
+in the exploration of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the Nile.
+When the Portuguese missionaries were irrevocably
+expelled from Abyssinia, or were slaughtered in that
+country by Abyssinians, or died under the hands of
+the Turks of Masawa or Suakin, it was suggested to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
+the Pope that perhaps French missionaries might prove
+more acceptable to Ethiopia. Not a few Roman Catholic
+Abyssinians found their way to Rome during the
+seventeenth century, where, as we know, they imparted
+very valuable information to the learned Saxon philologist
+Ludolf. These Ethiopians seem to have conveyed
+the idea to the Papal Court that it was not so
+much Roman Christianity that was objected to as the
+political ambitions of the Portuguese. But later on
+in the seventeenth century <em>any</em> missionaries teaching
+the Latin rite had become unacceptable to the Abyssinians,
+and the project of sending French Capuchins
+to take the place of the Portuguese Jesuits came to
+nothing. But the Emperor of Abyssinia had one
+reason for regretting the expulsion of the Jesuits,—an
+expulsion to which he personally was less favourable
+than were his powerful vassal chiefs of Tigre and
+Amhara,—he had relied on the Portuguese Jesuits
+for medical treatment.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the seventeenth century an agent of
+the then ruler of Abyssinia was suffering from stone,
+and stood in urgent need of a good surgeon. His
+agent in Egypt (Haji Ali) was instructed to inquire
+for the services of a European who could operate, and
+at first endeavoured to find one amongst the Franciscan
+missionaries, who were Italians. But the Consul
+of France at Alexandria, hearing of this, resolved to
+obtain the post for a French physician, and eventually
+Jacques Charles Poncet, a surgeon from the Franche
+Comté, was engaged, and it was decided that he should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
+journey to Abyssinia accompanied by Father Brèvedent,
+a French Jesuit. They reached the country of
+Sennar in 1699. Soon afterwards Father Brèvedent
+died, but Poncet succeeded in reaching Abyssinia, and
+afforded medical assistance to the Emperor. But his
+arrival in the country, together with the rumour that
+he was being followed by French Jesuit priests (who
+as a matter of fact were massacred in Egypt), so
+aroused the animosities of the Abyssinian clerics that
+he was hurried out of the country, and returned to
+Europe (Rome) in 1700. Notwithstanding his experiences,
+he mixed himself up with the intrigues of an
+Abyssinian agent and a priest at Rome for the despatch
+of French missionaries to Abyssinia. The Pope was
+prudent in the matter, and determined to find out
+the truth by a Maronite priest, Gabriel, whom he
+despatched from Cairo. Poncet, however, returned
+to Egypt in 1703, was joined by a Jesuit, and set
+out for Jidda in Arabia, but the mission came to
+grief. He quarrelled with the Abyssinian envoy,
+Murat, whose pretensions to represent the Abyssinian
+government were probably mythical, but who had
+accompanied Poncet to Italy. Poncet never succeeded
+in returning to Abyssinia, but instead drifted away to
+Persia and died at Ispahan.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIV. now took the matter up, urged to interference
+in the affairs of Abyssinia by the French
+Consul at Alexandria. He decided to despatch a mission
+to Ethiopia to open up diplomatic relations with
+the Christian Emperor. Janus de Noir, le Sieur du<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
+Roule, was appointed envoy and placed at the head
+of this mission. The consent of the Turkish government
+was given to the passage through Egypt. The
+expedition left France at the end of 1703, and after
+a stormy voyage of four months (!) landed at Alexandria.
+Thence it pursued its way to Cairo, and so
+on up the Nile and the Blue Nile to the country of
+Sennar, a region at that time to a great extent under
+Abyssinian political influence. Here the cupidity and
+suspicion of the local chieftain were aroused. The
+mission was attacked, and M. du Roule was massacred.
+The Emperor of Abyssinia expressed perfunctory
+regrets, and then, to use a modern phrase,
+“the incident was closed,” Abyssinia being in such
+an unattackable position as to make any French reprisals
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Here perhaps may be mentioned a curious attempt
+at Nile exploration which in an indirect way was
+connected with French enterprise at this period. The
+failure of M. du Roule to reach Abyssinia made a
+great impression on the mind of a Frenchman named
+Joseph le Roux, Count of Desneval. This nobleman
+had been in the Danish navy for many years, leaving
+that service in 1739 with the rank of Rear Admiral.
+All this time he had been giving his attention with
+laborious stupidity to the Nile problem, and was convinced
+that he “had found the proper key to enter
+these regions,” by studying in Denmark the reports
+of unsuccessful travellers. Accordingly, in 1739, he
+started with his wife for Cairo, accompanied by Lieutenant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
+Norden, a Dane. None of the party knew a
+word of Arabic. The expedition first got into trouble
+at Cairo through the haughty manners of the Countess,
+who, becoming involved in a street row, slashed
+at the people right and left with a pair of scissors.
+Count Desneval penetrated some distance into Nubia,
+and his lieutenant, Norden, went as far (possibly) as
+Berber, which he mentions under its older name of
+Ibrim. But the Count was obliged to turn back, and
+Norden was imprisoned by the Turkish Governor, and
+barely escaped to Egypt with his life. The Count then
+resolved on an extraordinary expedition. He decided
+to obtain a commission from Spain and start with a
+fleet of ships to circumnavigate Africa, enter the Red
+Sea, and so proceed to Abyssinia. But becoming involved
+in the war which was then raging between
+Spain and England, his ship was captured by the
+British, and he was sent as a prisoner of war to
+Lisbon, where his projects of Nile exploration came
+to an end.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch in the seventeenth century, and some of
+the Rhenish geographers of western Germany, had
+published remarkable maps of Africa, but with the
+exception of the west and south, these maps, in so
+far as the Nile basin was concerned, were based on
+the information presented to the world by the Portuguese
+Jesuits Alvarez, Paez, and Lobo, and on the
+interesting information concerning the geography of
+Abyssinia collected by the Saxon philologist Ludolf
+when communing in Italy with the Abyssinian envoys.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
+These maps, as already related, did injustice to the
+Portuguese by enormously exaggerating the area of
+Abyssinia. In fact, Abyssinian geography was extended
+by these Dutch interpreters of Portuguese
+travel notes far into the south and west of Africa,
+so that Abyssinian place names such as Gojam,
+Kaffa, Enarea, and the lakes and rivers of Abyssinia
+were pushed down to the vicinity of the Zambezi, and
+right across the Congo basin. These maps, however,
+continued to maintain European interest in African exploration,
+while the French consuls in Egypt and early
+British travellers in that country began to transmit information
+(derived for the most part from Copts and
+Circassians) regarding the main course of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>In 1772 a French cartographer of a much higher
+order than had hitherto appeared—D’Anville—published
+a notable map of Africa, in which he cleared
+away much of the fantastic geography which the
+Dutch and Germans had developed from the explorations
+of the Portuguese. D’Anville’s map of Africa
+marks an important stage in the exploration of the
+Nile basin, as it approaches the maps of to-day much
+more than any previous chart. The outline of the
+African coast is given more correctly than heretofore,
+while D’Anville brushes away the exaggerations of
+Dutch and Portuguese cartographers, who had gradually
+extended the geography of Abyssinia till they
+had connected with the Nile all the main rivers of
+Africa in an absurd system of natural canalisation.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_70" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0702.jpg" width="1693" height="2301" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0702_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">D’Anville’s Map of the Nile Basin.</span></p>
+  <p>(Published 1729; Revised 1772.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville was born at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
+Paris in 1697. From his boyhood he devoted himself
+to the study of geography, and met with considerable
+encouragement from the learned societies of
+Paris and from the Court. D’Anville’s geography of
+Abyssinia was mainly based on the information collected
+by the Portuguese missionaries and by Ludolf.
+The result is so strikingly like the map subsequently
+constructed by Bruce as the result of his explorations,
+that it shows how very much information had already
+been collected by the Portuguese. The last edition of
+this map bears the date 1772, a date which is one
+year before Bruce could make the result of his explorations
+known. Were these dates not certain, it
+would almost have seemed as if D’Anville had obtained
+access to Bruce’s information and used it in
+his geography of Abyssinia. A great mistake in
+D’Anville’s map, however, is made in the delineation
+of the course of the Nile in its great Dongola
+bend. Here the Nile is made to approach the Red
+Sea at least a hundred miles nearer than is the case.
+There is a fairly correct suggestion of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+(which is named) and the Bahr-al-Arab. The
+White Nile above the confluence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+is indicated more timidly. Its course passes through
+a somewhat vague lake, which may be due to a rumour
+of Lake Albert. Beyond this lake the sources of the
+White Nile are divided, and made to flow from two
+lakelets ten degrees north of the equator. To the
+south of these ultimate sources is the range of the
+Mountains of the Moon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span></p>
+
+<p>On D’Anville’s map may be seen for the first time
+several modern place and river names connected with
+the Nile, such as Shendi (spelled Shanedi) and Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+Such other terms as Sennar, the Boran
+Gala tribe, and the Shankala Negroes are also given;
+but these were first mentioned by the Portuguese and
+by the Abyssinian teachers of Ludolf one hundred
+years earlier. There is also a hint at the Unyamwezi
+country south of the Victoria Nyanza under the name
+of Moenemuji, though this also was first mentioned
+by the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>D’Anville, who followed to some extent the Sicilian
+maps of the eleventh century in his delineation of the
+Nile and inner Africa, made the opposite mistake to
+Ptolemy and the Portuguese. They carried the main
+Nile and the geography of Abyssinia many degrees
+too far to the south. D’Anville placed the sources
+of the Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal something like
+ten degrees too far to the north. At the same time
+his map marked a considerable advance in the correct
+delineation of Nile geography as well as in that of
+the Niger and the Zambezi.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span id="toclink_73"></span>CHAPTER VIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BRUCE AND THE NILE: SONNINI, BROWNE, AND BONAPARTE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">At</span> the beginning of the eighteenth century there
+was a decline in Muhammadan fanaticism which
+in the preceding centuries had so zealously guarded the
+portals of African discovery. This was partly due to
+the increase of friendliness and commercial relations
+between England and France on the one hand and the
+Turkish Empire on the other. Consuls were established
+to safeguard the interests of British merchants
+in the tributary Turkish states of Barbary and in
+Egypt. Another stimulus to friendly relations was
+the coffee trade. Coffee had been introduced from
+Turkey into Europe in the seventeenth century. By
+the beginning of the eighteenth the demand for it in
+the civilised countries of northern and central Europe
+became so great that British and French ships began
+to ply on the Red Sea and in the Levant merely for
+the transport of coffee from the ports of southern
+Arabia to Suez, and thence (<i lang="la">via</i> Alexandria) to
+France and England. It became possible for Frenchmen
+and Englishmen to travel in Turkish Egypt without
+undue risk of maltreatment, especially if they
+obtained permission to do so through their consuls.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p>
+
+<p>Almost the first English traveller to start on the
+Nile quest in the eighteenth century was Richard
+Pococke, a learned divine (Doctor of Laws and Fellow
+of the Royal Society), who afterwards became
+Bishop of Meath. Pococke was remarkable for his
+knowledge of Greek. He travelled a great deal in the
+Levant between 1737 and 1740, and made at least two
+journeys to Egypt, during which he followed the Nile
+up to the First Cataract. At that period the description
+of the journey from England to Egypt has a
+rather modern sound. The traveller proceeds without
+much difficulty overland from Calais to Leghorn,
+and from this Tuscan port sails round Sicily to Alexandria,
+sometimes to Rosetta.</p>
+
+<p>The book in which Pococke describes his adventures
+and researches<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> is also in advance of its times,
+and in printing and illustrations might well have been
+credited to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+Pococke devoted himself mainly to making plans and
+drawings of Egyptian monuments, Coptic churches,
+and Muhammadan mosques. He collected a great
+many Greek inscriptions (amongst others, the interesting
+Greek and Latin sentences scratched on the
+legs of Memnon), and besides many plans and drawings
+of buildings which illustrate his book, are some
+excellent pictures of plants characteristic of Egypt.
+Especially noteworthy are the botanical drawings of
+the branching Hyphæne palm. These etchings would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
+not be out of place in the most modern work on
+Africa. Pococke ascended the Nile to the First Cataract,
+then the limit of Turkish rule.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_75" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0741.jpg" width="1681" height="1319" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Branching</span> <i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i> <span class="smcap">Palm</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Taken from interior of Nasr Fort (R. Sobat).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One amusing feature in Pococke’s sumptuous volumes
+is the number of dedications to British statesmen
+and notabilities of that date. The book in general is
+dedicated to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,
+“Groom of the Stole to His Majesty George II.” His
+careful map of the Nile from the First Cataract to the
+Mediterranean is dedicated to Lord Carteret, “First
+Secretary to the King.” The map of Cairo and its
+environs (a very interesting one with reference to the
+modern growth of the city) is inscribed to the Earl of
+Stafford. These dedications, however, seem to foreshadow
+a growing interest on the part of English
+noblemen in the problem of the Nile,—an interest
+which, as will now be shown, played such a part in
+the expedition of Bruce.</p>
+
+<p>James Bruce was the first of the great group of
+notable British explorers who between them in a century
+and a half have laid bare to the world nearly
+every notable feature in the geography of the Nile
+basin. This remarkable Scotchman was born at Kinnaird
+House, Stirlingshire, in 1730. He was the son
+of a land-owner, and was educated at Harrow. Soon
+after leaving school he was put (against his will) into
+the wine trade with Spain and northern Portugal. In
+this pursuit he visited Galicia and the northwest coast
+of the Spanish peninsula. His trade, never very successful,
+was interrupted by the war with Spain, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
+broke out in 1758. Bruce conceived a plan for landing
+a British force at Ferrol, in Galicia, and to prosecute
+this idea he obtained an introduction to the Earl
+of Halifax, then president of the Board of Trade.
+George Montagu Dunk, second Earl of Halifax, was
+a widely read man,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> who took an interest in many
+subjects, amongst others the mystery of the Nile. He
+is a curious link in that chain of persons who have
+contributed efforts toward the revelation to the civilised
+world of the whole course of this wonderful river.
+Lord Halifax brushed aside the scheme for landing a
+force at Ferrol as unnecessary and impracticable. But
+he began to consult Bruce about the Nile Quest, as
+a man who had travelled considerably about Europe
+even at that period—his travels having been undertaken
+to assuage the grief caused by the loss of his
+wife. Bruce took up the matter with energy. Lord
+Halifax, therefore, secured for him the appointment of
+consul at Algiers, with the idea that this place and post
+would enable Bruce to prepare for the exploration of the
+Nile by learning Arabic and acquiring information concerning
+the interior of Africa. Apparently the consulate
+at Algiers in those days was not harassed with
+any restrictions regarding residence; indeed, Bruce’s
+consular duties appear to have been merely nominal,
+for he was only a year at Algiers, and spent it in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
+study of Arabic and Turkish.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> In 1763 Bruce started
+on a remarkable tour through Tunis and Tripoli, in
+which he drew and measured (with the aid of a professional
+Italian draughtsman) the wonderful Roman
+ruins in those countries. He then extended his journeys
+to the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus, and explored
+Syria and Palestine. The greater part of the
+drawings which he made of buildings in all these
+Mediterranean lands are now stored in the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>At last, in the summer of 1786, Bruce landed at
+Alexandria, accompanied by the Italian artist-assistant,
+Balugano. He ascended the Nile as far as Assuan.
+Then, crossing the desert to the Red Sea coast, he
+took ship and sailed to Jiddah, the port of the Hajaz.
+After four months spent on the coast of Arabia, where
+apparently he met with no fanaticism, he sailed over
+to Masawa, the port of Abyssinia, and from this point
+travelled to the then capital, Gondar in Tigre. The
+Emperor of Abyssinia received him with great favour,
+gave him military rank, and enabled him to reach the
+course of the Blue Nile, which Bruce always held to
+be the main stream. Striking the Blue Nile in the
+country of Gojam near its exit from Lake Tsana, Bruce
+crossed the stream by its masonry bridge and travelled
+due west of the source of the river in the western
+part of Gojam. Bruce fixed with approximate correctness
+the latitude of the source of the Blue Nile on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
+Sagada Mountain, and also the longitude, by observation
+of the first satellite of Jupiter. The latitude he
+fixed at 10° 55′ 25″, the longitude at 36° 55′ 30″ east
+of Greenwich. The present writer is not aware that
+any subsequent observations have much upset these
+computations of Bruce’s. The latitude of the Blue
+Nile source is, therefore, approximately 11° north.
+As the Jesuits guessed it at 12°, they were not so
+much out in a surmise which, after all, was based on
+nothing but vague dead reckoning, and one cannot
+sympathise with Bruce when he sneers at them for
+their error. Bruce, in fact, was very bitter against
+the memory of Paez and Lobo when he learned from
+D’Anville that these missionaries had preceded him
+as discoverers of the Blue Nile sources. He admits
+the genuineness of Paez’ reports, but endeavours to
+show that Lobo merely copied Paez’ description, and
+did not himself visit the sources of the Blue Nile. In
+this contention I think he is unjust. There is certainly
+a great deal of correspondence between the accounts
+of Paez and Lobo, but Lobo enters into more detail
+than Paez, and as, after all, he is describing the same
+features, it is hardly surprising that his description
+should so closely parallel that of the man who preceded
+him by some ten years. As there is no doubt
+that Lobo was in the country round about Lake Tsana
+in the year 1625 or 1626, it would be surprising if
+he had not attempted to see the sources of the famous
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce brings out as strongly as the Jesuits the fact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
+that the river Jimma, which rises on Sagada Mountain,
+flows with a strong observable current in a circular
+course through the southern part of Lake Tsana.
+Lake Tsana, indeed, would seem to be nothing but a
+huge volcanic crater which has been filled up by the
+Blue Nile. He calculates the approximate altitude of
+these sources at forty-eight hundred and seventy feet.
+Near the village of Sakala or Sagada is a marsh at
+the bottom of the Mountain of Gish. In this marsh
+there is a hillock of a circular form a few feet above
+the surface of the marsh, a more or less artificial altar
+raised by the people to the sources of their Nile. In
+the middle of this hillock is a hole, artificially made,
+or at least enlarged by the hand of man, and kept clear
+of grass or other aquatic plants. The water in it is
+perfectly pure and limpid, but has no ebullition or
+motion of any kind observable on its surface, though
+it overflows into a shallow trench running round the
+mound and entering the water in an eastward direction.
+The principal fountain of the Blue Nile is only
+about three feet across. Ten feet distant from this
+first source is another, only eleven inches broad. This
+would seem to be the deepest of the three sources, and
+the one which was pronounced unsoundable by Lobo.
+The water from these fountains is good, tasteless, and
+intensely cold.</p>
+
+<p>Following by land the course of the Blue Nile
+down stream till he reached the confluence with the
+White Nile at the site of Khartum, Bruce then turned
+northwards and descended the main Nile to Berber.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
+From this point he travelled across the Nubian desert
+to Korosko, which place he reached with the greatest
+difficulty, very many dying from thirst on the way.
+Having been obliged to abandon his caravan in the
+desert, he started back from Korosko with fresh
+camels and guides, and recovered his baggage from
+the desert. Bruce’s journeys in Abyssinia and along
+the course of the Nile had occupied him nearly three
+years, from the middle of 1770 to the beginning of
+1773. From Alexandria he made his way to Marseilles
+during a brief interval of peace between England
+and France. The cultivated Frenchmen of that
+day received him with the greatest kindness and
+<i lang="fr">empressement</i>, and he spent some time in Paris conferring
+with Buffon and other scientific men. But
+in Paris he learned to his great chagrin that he was
+not the original discoverer of the source of the (Blue)
+Nile. D’Anville, the great map-maker, was able to
+prove to him that Lake Tsana and the main course of
+the Bahr-al-Azrak had been made known to Europe
+by the journeys of the Jesuit priests Paez and Lobo.
+Moreover this geographer attempted to convince Bruce
+that the Blue Nile was not the main stream, and that
+the mystery of the Nile sources remained at least two-thirds
+unexplored. It is curious, in fact, to reflect
+that D’Anville, by his industrious gathering up of all
+floating information, especially from French consuls in
+Egypt, was far more correct in his delineation of the
+Nile basin than Bruce himself, though D’Anville had
+published his map a year before Bruce’s arrival in Paris.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_80" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0801_map.jpg" width="1415" height="1926" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0801_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Bruce’s Map of the Nile Sources.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span></p>
+<p>On account of this chagrin, or for other reasons,
+Bruce delayed<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> the publication of his travels for seventeen
+years after his return to England. They were
+not published (in five volumes) until 1790. Strange
+to say, Bruce’s admirable work, though so truthful<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a>
+and convincing as one reads it now, was received with
+universal incredulity in Great Britain. Among the
+stories selected for special derision was the account
+constantly repeated by Bruce of the Abyssinian custom
+of bleeding cattle and drinking their blood, and,
+still more, of cutting raw flesh off the living animal,
+which is then turned out to graze (or at least that is
+the flippant rendering of the contemporary critic). As
+a matter of fact, these customs had been already reported
+by the Jesuits from one to two hundred years
+previously, nor is there any reason to suppose that
+Bruce departed from the exact truth in describing contemporary
+Abyssinian customs. A hundred years later
+East African travellers like New, Von der Decken,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
+Joseph Thomson, and the author of this book, noticed
+similar customs as regards blood-drinking on
+the part of the Masai and the Bantu races of Kilimanjaro
+and Kikuyu. The same writers constantly
+make allusion to the love of raw flesh on the part of
+most of the East African pastoral races, many of
+whom are more or less related to the Galas in blood
+(the foundation of the Abyssinian population is Gala).
+The actual truth about the cutting of steaks from the
+living animal seems to be this. It was sometimes customary
+(even if the custom has wholly died out at the
+present day) to slaughter a beast by degrees. The
+great arteries and the vital parts were avoided, and
+the palpitating, hot flesh was cut off strip by strip and
+devoured. But in all probability the creature was not
+as a general rule expected to live long after part of its
+flesh was removed. It was generally finished within
+two or three hours. Bruce, if I remember rightly,
+only relates one instance where, after two pieces of
+flesh had been removed from the buttocks of a cow,
+the skin was fastened up over the wound and the
+creature was driven on a little further to be finished
+on a later occasion. A summarised extract from
+Bruce’s travels gives a vivid description of the way
+the Abyssinians feasted on raw <span class="locked">meat:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“In the capital, where one is safe from surprise at all
+times, or in the country villages, when the rains have
+become so constant that the valleys will not bear a horse
+to pass them, or that men cannot venture far from home
+through fear of being surrounded by sudden showers in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
+the mountains; in a word, when a man can say he is safe
+at home, and the spear and shield are hung up in the hall,
+a number of people of the best fashion in the villages, of
+both sexes, courtiers in the palaces or citizens in the town,
+meet together to dine between twelve and one o’clock.
+A long table is set in the middle of a large room, and
+benches beside it for a number of guests who are invited.
+Tables and benches the Portuguese introduced amongst
+them, but bull hides spread upon the ground served them
+before, as they now do in the camp and country.</p>
+
+<p>“A cow or bull, one or more, as the company is numerous,
+is brought close to the door and its feet strongly
+tied. The skin that hangs down under its chin and throat
+is cut only so deep as to arrive at the fat, of which it
+totally consists, and by the separation of a few small
+blood-vessels six or seven drops of blood only fall upon
+the ground. They have no stone bench or altar upon
+which these cruel assassins lay the animal’s head in this
+operation. The author, indeed, begs their pardon for
+calling them assassins, as they are not so merciful as to
+aim at the life, but, on the contrary, to keep the beast
+alive till he is nearly eaten up. Having satisfied the
+Mosaic law, according to their conception, by pouring
+these six or seven drops upon the ground, two or more
+of them fall to work. On the back of the beast, and on
+each side of the spine they cut skin deep; then, putting
+their fingers between the flesh and the skin, they begin to
+strip the hide of the animal half-way down his ribs, and
+so on to the buttock, cutting the skin wherever it hinders
+them commodiously to strip the poor animal bare. All
+the flesh on the buttocks is then cut off, and in solid,
+square pieces, without bones, or much effusion of blood;
+and the prodigious noise the animal makes is a signal for
+the company to sit down to table.</p>
+
+<p>“There are then laid before every guest, instead of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
+plates, round cakes (if they may be so called) about twice
+as big as a pancake, and something thicker and tougher.
+It is unleavened bread of a sourish taste, far from being
+disagreeable, and very easily digested, made of a grain
+called teff. It is of different colours, from black to the
+colour of the whitest wheat bread. Three or four of these
+cakes are generally put uppermost for the food of the
+person opposite to whose feet they are placed. Beneath
+these are four or five of ordinary bread and of a blackish
+kind. These serve the master to wipe his fingers upon,
+and afterwards the servant as bread for his dinner. Two
+or three servants then come, each with a square piece of
+beef in their bare hands, laying it upon the cakes of teff
+placed like dishes down the table, without cloth or anything
+else beneath them. By this time all the guests have
+knives in their hands, and their men have large crooked
+ones, which they put to all sorts of uses during the time
+of war. The women have small clasped knives, such as
+the worst of the kind made at Birmingham, sold at a
+penny each. The company are so ranged that one man
+sits between two women; the man with his long knife
+cuts a thin piece, which would be thought a good beefsteak
+in England, while you see the motion of the fibres
+yet perfectly distinct and alive in the flesh. No man in
+Abyssinia, of any fashion whatever, feeds himself or
+touches his own meat. The women take the steak and
+cut it lengthways about the thickness of a little finger, then
+crossways into square pieces something smaller than dice.
+This they lay upon a piece of the teff bread strongly powdered
+with black pepper, or Cayenne pepper, and mineral
+salt; they then wrap it up in teff bread like a cartridge.</p>
+
+<p>“In the mean time, the man having put up his knife,
+with each hand resting on his neighbour’s knee, his body
+stooping, his head low and forward, and mouth open very
+like an idiot, he turns to the one whose cartridge is first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
+ready, who stuffs the whole of it into his mouth, which is
+so full that he is in constant danger of being choked.
+This is a mark of grandeur. The greater the man would
+seem to be the larger piece he takes in his mouth; and the
+more noise he makes in chewing it the more polite he is
+thought to be. They have indeed a proverb that says,
+‘Beggars and thieves only eat small pieces or without
+making a noise.’ Having despatched this morsel, which
+he does very expeditiously, his next female neighbour
+holds another cartridge which goes the same way, and so
+on till he has finished. He never drinks till he has finished
+eating; and, before he begins, in gratitude to the fair
+one that fed him, he makes up two small rolls of the same
+kind and form; each of his neighbours open their mouths
+at the same time, while with each hand he puts their
+portion into their mouths. He then falls to drinking out
+of a large handsome horn; the ladies eat till they are
+satisfied, and then all drink together. A great deal of
+mirth and jokes goes round, very seldom with any mixture
+of acrimony or ill-humour.</p>
+
+<p>“During all this time the unfortunate victim at the
+door is bleeding indeed, but bleeding little. As long as
+they can cut off the flesh from his bones they do not
+meddle with the thighs or the parts where the great
+arteries are. At last they fall upon the thighs likewise,
+and soon afterwards the animal, bleeding to death, becomes
+so tough that the cannibals, who have the rest of it
+to eat, find it very hard work to separate the flesh from
+the bones with their teeth, like dogs.</p>
+
+<p>“In the mean time those within are very much elevated;
+love lights all its fires, and everything is permitted
+with absolute freedom. There is no coyness, no delays,
+no need of appointments or retirement to gratify their
+wishes; there are no rooms but one, in which they sacrifice
+both to Bacchus and to Venus.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p>
+
+<p>Bruce’s travels are as well worth reading to-day
+as they were in 1790. A somewhat conveniently
+abridged edition was published in the same year
+(1790) as the five volumes appeared, but all who
+are taking up the subject of Abyssinia seriously are
+advised to work their way through the original five
+volumes. A sumptuously illustrated edition in eight
+volumes appeared after the author’s death, in 1805.
+Bruce was received with some honour at court on
+his return, but was awarded no special distinction.
+Dr. Johnson, amongst others, denounced the brilliant
+young Scotch traveller as an unscrupulous romancer;
+Horace Walpole pronounced his volumes “dull and
+dear.” Just as the African Association sprang into
+being and directed its efforts toward the rehabilitating
+of Bruce’s character as a truthful writer, Bruce
+himself died in the most disappointing manner by
+falling down the stairs at his house and breaking his
+neck. His death was occasioned by over-politeness.
+He was rushing from his study to the hall in order
+to be able to escort a lady to her carriage.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce was really a great traveller, an accurate observer,
+a splendid sportsman,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> and a far-sighted “Imperialist.”
+In 1775 he conceived the need of the English
+rulers of India controlling the Egyptian route,
+and actually obtained from the Turkish authorities
+in Egypt a concession for the English on the shores
+of the Red Sea.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_86" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0861.jpg" width="1359" height="2045" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Portrait of James Bruce.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p>
+<p>As has been already mentioned, Bruce had been
+accorded a magnificent reception by the scientific men
+of France. Buffon especially was incited by Bruce’s
+stories to urge the French government in the direction
+of Nile exploration. Buffon had become interested
+in a young man native to Alsace, Sonnini de
+Manoncourt. Sonnini was born at Lunéville in 1751.
+He was the son of a Roman court official who had
+followed King Stanislas of Poland to his residence in
+Lorraine. Sonnini, the younger, who had travelled in
+French South America, had conceived the idea of a
+journey through Africa from north to south, from the
+Gulf of Sidra in Tripoli to the Cape of Good Hope.
+This scheme, however, when recommended to the
+French Foreign Office official who then had charge of
+the French establishments in the Levant, was deemed
+impracticable, and Sonnini was invited to restrict his
+attempts to a careful exploration of the Nile from
+Rosetta southward to the limits of Egyptian rule.
+His travels did not extend much beyond Assuan, but
+he brought back a great deal of detailed information
+about Upper Egypt, its fauna, flora, and the habits
+and customs of its population along the banks of the
+Nile. Sonnini’s work will always remain a useful
+book of reference. For the period at which he
+wrote he took a great interest in the question of the
+geographical distribution of mammals. He attempted
+to collect information regarding the gradual disappearance
+from civilised Egypt of the great fauna.
+In this he followed the inspiration of Buffon. According<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+to Sonnini and Buffon, hippopotamuses only
+became extinct in the Lower Nile near the Mediterranean
+as late as 1658. Two hippopotamuses were
+killed at Damietta in 1600 by an Italian surgeon
+named Federigo Zeringhi.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>Nearly a hundred years before Cecil John Rhodes
+was brooding in his studies at Oriel College over
+the advance of British South Africa toward the
+equatorial regions, that same college at Oxford was
+nurturing other dreams of African exploration in
+the mind of William George Browne, a Londoner
+by birth (1768), who at seventeen became an undergraduate
+at Oriel. Browne was fired by reading
+Bruce’s “Travels,” and a year after those five volumes
+were published, when he was only twenty-three
+(1791), he started for Alexandria, which he reached
+after a month’s journey from England (not a bad
+record for those days). Egypt proper prior to the
+descent of the French under Napoleon must have
+been fairly free from Muhammadan fanaticism and
+distrust of Europeans in the second half of the eighteenth
+century. Not a few travellers—French,
+Italian, and English—were able to circulate in the
+dominions governed by the Mameluks. Browne first
+of all visited the oasis of Siwah. He spent a year
+and a half on this journey, and examined the whole of
+Egypt proper and the peninsula of Sinai. Being at
+Assiut in March or April, 1793, he heard of the caravan
+which, until quite recently, left that place annually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
+to travel across the desert to Darfur. Following
+the same route, and in a measure attaching himself
+to the caravan, he reached Darfur after a journey
+of considerable difficulty. Here he found himself
+amongst such fanatical Muhammadans that he was
+practically a prisoner, and it was only by invoking
+the aid and sympathy of the Turkish authorities in
+Egypt that he induced the Sultan of Darfur to allow
+him to return. Even then he was not allowed to
+carry out his project of striking the White Nile from
+the direction of Darfur, and thence crossing into
+Abyssinia. He was obliged to return along the caravan
+route to Assiut. He then continued his travels in
+the direction of Syria, and arrived in London in 1798.
+After publishing an account of his travels, he again
+left England for the Levant. In 1812 he started for
+Persia with the intention of exploring Central Asia.
+Between Tabriz and Teheran his caravan was attacked
+by robbers, and he was killed.</p>
+
+<p>The part of his book which deals with Egypt and
+Darfur is excellent, much in advance of his age and
+very “modern” in its accuracy, definiteness, and absence
+of gushing enthusiasm. Equally remarkable for
+the age is the soundness of his orthography in spelling
+local names and in transcribing dialects. Browne’s
+work still remains an authority on Darfur.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century closed with some advance
+in the direction of the Nile Quest. At any rate interest
+in the Nile problem had revived in Europe.
+The publication at the beginning of the century, in an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
+English translation from the Portuguese, of the travels
+undertaken by the Jesuit Fathers in Abyssinia,—the
+fact that an English statesman (Lord Halifax) under
+the second George made it possible for Bruce to start
+on his great journeys, and, lastly, the creation of the
+African Association, testified to the commencement of
+this interest in England. In France the question had
+been receiving attention from the end of the seventeenth
+century, but mainly for political reasons. It
+had occurred to Louis XIV. and to the ministers of
+his successor that Egypt, so loosely held by the Turk,
+would be an admirable base from which to effect the
+conquest of India. These ideas were not lost on
+Napoleon Bonaparte, and the eighteenth century closes
+with the invasion of Egypt by the French, an event
+as wonderful to the full and as far-reaching in its results
+as the conquest of the same country by the Greeks
+under Alexander the Great 2131 years previously.
+Alexander’s conquest of Egypt from the Persians, or
+rather from the several native Egyptian dynasties who
+were ruling under Persian suzerainty, put an end to
+the régime of Ancient Egypt and Hellenised the countries
+of the Lower Nile and of Abyssinia. The invasion
+of Napoleon Bonaparte broke the power of the
+Moslem, and prepared the way for the administration
+of Egypt by Europeans and Christians. Rome profited
+by the exploits of the Macedonians; England has succeeded
+to the task which was begun with such amazing
+brilliance by Frenchmen.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_90" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0901_map.jpg" width="1570" height="2299" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0901_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Map of Africa by Williamson, London, 1800.</span></p>
+  <p>Giving results of Browne’s journey to Darfur, French exploration of lower Nile,
+     and much Arab information from Egypt, North Africa, and Senegambia.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX"><span id="toclink_91"></span>CHAPTER IX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">MUHAMMAD ALI OPENS UP THE WHITE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1807 Jacotin published at Paris an “Atlas de
+l’Égypte,” which gave a fairly accurate survey
+of the Nile from the Delta to Assuan. This Atlas
+gave the results of the geographical work done by
+the French army of occupation. The splendid volumes
+which illustrated the other scientific results of
+Napoleon’s venture were not published until the Bourbons
+had been restored to the throne of France. They
+aroused, however, great interest in the valley of the
+Nile, especially by the account they gave of its remarkable
+fauna. This interest was felt as much in
+England as in France; one of the first English travellers
+to explore the Nile (as far as Korosko) after
+the close of the Napoleonic war was the Hon. Charles
+Leonard Irby, who, with James Mangles (both of
+them naval commanders), travelled in Egypt in 1817–1818.
+When Egypt had settled down under the iron
+rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the French, who had
+begun to conceive the idea of supporting the power
+of that adventurer, and so once more gaining control
+over Egypt, began to resume their interest in Nile
+exploration. In 1819 a Frenchman named Frederic
+Caillaud (of Nantes), who had been in Egypt under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
+the Napoleonic régime, returned under the patronage
+of Louis XVIII. and explored the main Nile as far
+south as the present site of Khartum, and gave the
+first accurate account of one of the several Meroes,
+namely, that ancient Ethiopian capital which is situated
+on the right bank of the Nile about one hundred
+miles south of the confluence of the Atbara. Caillaud
+and his companion Letorzec also accompanied a military
+expedition under Ibrahim Pasha. This expedition
+(which resulted in the founding of Khartum<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a>
+in 1823) explored the Blue Nile for a considerable
+distance,—as far as Fazokl. French interest in Nile
+exploration was to continue later on more merged in
+the service of the Egyptian government. But British
+efforts in this direction had not been lacking in the
+early part of the nineteenth century. A young Swiss,
+John Ludwig Burckhardt, born in French Switzerland
+in 1784,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> and a student of two German universities,
+came to England in 1806 with a letter of introduction
+to Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>
+This Association accepted his proposals for African<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
+exploration. Burckhardt then set himself to study
+first in London and then at Cambridge, and during
+his residence in England attempted in the thoroughgoing
+Teutonic manner to inure himself to hardships
+by exposing himself to cold, fatigue, and hunger in
+many fashions. After his three years’ residence in
+England he left for Malta, and reached Aleppo in October,
+1809. Here he thoroughly mastered Arabic, the
+contents of the Koran, and much else that appertained
+to the practice of the Muhammadan religion and the
+administration of its law. In 1812 he started from
+Cairo with the intention of journeying across the
+desert to Fezzan, but, changing his plans, followed
+the Nile to Korosko, and thence travelled across the
+Nubian Desert to Berber and Shendi. From this last
+place he travelled to Suakin and to Jiddah. From
+Jiddah he made (the first of all European Christians)
+the pilgrimage to Mecca. Returning again to Cairo
+and preparing once more to start for Fezzan and the
+Niger, he was seized with an illness of which he died
+at Cairo. His journeys had resulted in the collection
+of eight hundred volumes of Oriental manuscripts, all
+of which he sent to Cambridge University. All the
+works of this brilliant traveller and profound Orientalist
+were published after his death.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_93" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0921.jpg" width="1681" height="1317" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Blue Nile, Twenty Miles east of Fazokl.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1827 Adolphe Linant (Bey), a Belgian, who subsequently
+called himself Linant de Bellefonds, took
+service under the British African Association,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> ascended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
+the White Nile (first of all Europeans, so far
+as we know, since Dalion the Greek), and reached a
+point (Al Ais) nearly one hundred and fifty miles
+south of Khartum.</p>
+
+<p>But the next great blow at the Nile mystery was
+to be struck by the orders of the Pasha of Egypt.
+Muhammad<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Ali was the native of a little Vlach
+(Wallach) town or settlement in Albania called Cavalla.
+In appearance he might at any time have been
+mistaken for a Frenchman of eastern France, a German,
+or an Englishman. He was born in 1768, and
+was adopted as a son by the Governor of the town,
+who, as a reward for his bravery as a soldier, gave
+him his daughter in marriage. His three eldest sons,
+Ibrahim, Tusun, and Ismail, were born in Albania.
+In 1801 he was sent to Egypt with the rank of a
+major, rising soon to be colonel. When the French
+had evacuated Egypt, the Turks endeavoured to gain
+direct control over the country by attacking the power
+of the Mameluks or Circassian soldiery who had really
+ruled in the name of the Turks. In 1803 the British
+evacuated Egypt, and gradually the situation resolved
+itself into a struggle for power between the Albanian
+soldiery under Muhammad Ali and the Turks. The
+Albanians allied themselves at first with the Mameluk
+or Circassian party, the former rulers. At length,
+after a civil war lasting for two years, the Turkish
+government appointed Muhammad Ali to be Governor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>
+of Egypt. In 1807 the British attempted to reoccupy
+Egypt, and took possession of Alexandria. This action
+temporarily united Muhammad Ali with his enemies,
+the Circassian Beys. The British expedition
+ended in disaster and withdrawal. At last, by means
+of treachery and an appalling massacre, Muhammad
+Ali got rid of the Circassian party and became the
+undisputed master of Egypt. He then assisted the
+Porte to put down the Wahabi revolt in Arabia.
+These expeditions resulting in many military successes,
+the ambition of Muhammad Ali grew, and
+he desired to create for himself a perfectly disciplined
+army. To this end he decided to employ his disaffected
+troops who were opposed to innovations in discipline
+in conquering the Sudan. He commenced with
+Nubia, Dongola, and Sennar. From the Sudan were
+brought back numbers of the sturdy Negroes, who
+were drilled into some kind of disciplined force by
+French officers at Assuan. Then came the war with
+Turkey, which nearly resulted in Muhammad Ali capturing
+Constantinople. But this led to the intervention
+of Europe, and the ambition of Muhammad Ali
+was confined within the limits of Egypt and the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 the ruler of Egypt despatched the first important
+conquering and exploring expedition up the
+White Nile. It was accompanied by a French officer,
+Thibaut,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> who had become a Muhammadan. This expedition
+reached as far south as north latitude 6° 30′.
+In 1841 a second expedition, which was accompanied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
+by two Frenchmen (D’Arnaud and Sabatier), and by
+a German, Ferdinand Werne, reached the vicinity of
+Gondokoro in north latitude 4° 42′. Werne wrote an
+interesting and scientific account of this second expedition.
+His map of the White Nile from Khartum to
+Gondokoro is a remarkably good piece of work. A
+third expedition under the same Turkish commander
+(Selim Bimbashi), and accompanied by D’Arnaud,
+Sabatier, and Thibaut also reached Gondokoro. All
+these expeditions were made in sailing boats, and those
+that reached farthest were stopped by the same obstacles,—the
+rapids at Gondokoro.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as 1820 steamers had been introduced
+onto the Nile between the Delta and the First Cataract,
+mainly through French enterprise. Some of
+these steamers even plied between Cairo and Korosko.
+In 1846 the first steamboat was put together on the
+White Nile above Khartum. In 1845 a Frenchman
+(Brun-Rollet) ascended the White Nile in a sailing
+vessel and founded a trading post in the Kich country.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_96" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0961.jpg" width="1128" height="1480" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Werne.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Between 1827 and 1830 a German, Prokesch von
+Osten, had made a correct survey of the Nile between
+Assuan and Wadi Halfa, and in the later forties
+this survey was continued under Baron von Müller
+as far south as Ambukol in Dongola. During the
+forties great interest concerning the Egyptian Sudan
+had arisen in Austria. Austria was not suspected of
+political views in the direction of Egypt, and therefore
+no doubt Muhammad Ali and his successors were more
+disposed to encourage Austrian missionaries than those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
+of France or England. The Pope created a Bishop
+of Khartum in 1849, and Austrian missionaries<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> had
+founded stations on the White Nile as far distant
+as Gondokoro by 1850, in which year Dr. Ignatz
+Knoblecher, an Austrian missionary, extended his explorations
+a few miles beyond Gondokoro to Mount
+Logwek. A little, very little, information was collected
+as to the course of the Nile above that seventy miles
+of rapids which cuts off the navigation of the river
+between Nimule on the south and Gondokoro on the
+north. A vague story was collected from the Bari
+to the effect that this great river came from a considerable
+distance southwards and issued from a lake.
+This, no doubt, was a correct hint as to the existence
+of Lake Albert Nyanza. But at this point the information
+stopped.</p>
+
+<p>In other directions progress had been made in Nile
+exploration. Besides the Austrian Roman Catholic
+Mission,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> which established stations chiefly in the
+Kich and Bari countries on the White or Mountain
+Niles, the rapid opening up of the waterways into the
+heart of Africa soon attracted pioneers of exploration,
+traders, and adventurers of several European<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
+nationalities. Far ahead of the European and the
+Turk, however, went the Nubian (the native of
+Dongola) and the Arab of Upper Egypt. These
+men were the real pioneers of European exploration,
+since they served as guides and transport agents to
+the Europeans who followed along the routes they
+opened up. These Nubians started a far-reaching
+trade in slaves, and were guilty of many barbarities.
+They made such a deep impression on the minds of
+the Negroes in the Nile basin from the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+to Uganda that to this day the natives of the Egyptian
+Sudan are called “Nubi” or Nubian, even though
+they be black Negroes from the equatorial regions.
+The Nubian slave-traders laid the foundation of the
+Sudanese regiments which were to serve Egypt and
+England in subduing and controlling Eastern Equatorial
+Africa. As the Mountain Nile (thus the main
+stream is called, south of its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal)
+led through excessively swampy, despairing
+countries, and did not reach the habitable land
+until it entered the Bari country near the rapids of
+Gondokoro, most of the exploring enterprise for fifteen
+years, between 1840 and 1860, preferred to follow
+the more easily navigable streams which unite to
+form the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western tributaries
+of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pioneers in Nile exploration at this stage
+was the forerunner of the intelligent tourist, Mr. Andrew
+Melly, a member of a Liverpool family, though
+born at Geneva. Mr. Melly actually started for Khartum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
+and the White Nile accompanied by his wife, two
+sons, and a daughter. His main object seems to have
+been that of natural history collecting. He took insufficient
+measures for living with health in a tropical
+climate; fever attacked him on his return journey,
+and he died near Shendi on his way back from Khartum.
+His son George wrote a book in two volumes
+describing Khartum and the Nile between that place
+and the First Cataract. This book was mainly based
+on the father’s journal. The expedition seems to have
+been well equipped. The provisions were furnished by
+Fortnum and Mason, who even in that early period
+(1849–1850) supplied tinned salmon.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the long roll of European martyrs to
+African fever in the opening up of the Sudan was
+Herr Baumgarten, a Swiss mining engineer, educated
+in Austria, who died at Khartum in 1839 after returning
+with Muhammad Ali, who at that period had
+penetrated as far south as Al Ais, in the Shiluk country.
+Brun-Rollet, a Frenchman, was perhaps the first
+European trader to establish himself on the White
+Nile. He ceased trading, however, in 1850, after having
+established posts as far south as the Bari country.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 the mission station of Gondokoro was
+founded by Knoblecher and Vinci of the Austrian
+Mission. A short distance beyond Gondokoro, on the
+west bank of the Nile, near the modern Belgian station
+of Rejaf, is a little stony hill called by the Bari
+Logwek. This hill was the extreme point reached by
+the third expedition despatched from Khartum at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
+orders of Muhammad Ali in 1841, and afterwards by
+the Austrian missionary, Knoblecher, in 1848. Here
+the White Nile, approached from the north, became unnavigable
+owing to the rapids which obstruct the course
+of the stream during its thousand-feet fall from Dufile
+to Gondokoro. For a long time Logwek (remarkable
+as being the first high and stony land which is met
+with in ascending the White Nile after the many hundred
+miles’ journey through the marshes) formed the
+limit of European discovery coming from the north.</p>
+
+<p>About 1843 or 1844 D’Arnaud, one of the Frenchmen
+who accompanied the exploring expeditions of
+the Egyptian government, published a map of the
+White Nile which carried the course of the river as
+far south as 4° 42′ north latitude. Towards the end
+of the forties further explorations were made from
+time to time west of the White Nile by a Frenchman,
+De Malzac, who at the time of his death at Khartum,
+in 1859 (?), was compiling a work on the Fauna of
+the White Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_100" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1002.jpg" width="1381" height="1806" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Whale-Headed Stork</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1845 a Welsh<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> mining engineer named John
+Petherick entered the service of Muhammad Ali, the
+Pasha of Egypt. He was employed for some years
+in examining the countries of Upper Egypt, the coast
+of the Red Sea, and Kordofan for coal and other
+minerals, apparently with little or no success. In his
+interesting work, “Egypt, the Sudan, and Central
+Africa,” he has left us, amongst other things, a remarkably
+interesting account of Kordofan at the end<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
+of the forties of the last century, some twenty-five
+years after its conquest by the Turks from the mild
+rule of Darfur.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> In 1848 Muhammad Ali died, and
+Petherick quitted the service of the Egyptian government.
+Trade in the Sudan had now ceased to be a
+government monopoly, partly owing to the efforts of
+the English Consul-General at that time. Petherick
+therefore resided at El Obeid in Kordofan for five
+years as a trader in gums and other produce. In
+1853 he resolved to go in for the ivory trade on the
+White Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This great western
+feeder of the Nile was beginning to be opened up
+by the Nubian traders already referred to. For six
+years Petherick traded for ivory and explored some
+of the great rivers which flowed into the Bahr-al-Ghazal,—chiefly
+the Jur and the Yalo or Rōl. During
+the course of his explorations he was the first
+European (unless De Malzac preceded him) to reach
+the Nyam-nyam country (Mundo). He made some
+remarkable discoveries in natural history,—the splendid
+<i class="taxonomy">Cobus maria</i> or Mrs. Gray’s Waterbuck, and the
+<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i> or Whale-headed Stork. Petherick’s
+skins of the <i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps</i> which he gave to the British
+Museum in 1859 were the only specimens in that collection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
+for more than forty years, until they were reinforced
+by the first Whale-headed Storks obtained
+on the Victoria Nyanza, which were sent home by
+the author of this book. Petherick also captured and
+brought to Europe a young hippopotamus. [It is interesting
+to observe in his first book, “Egypt, the
+Sudan,” etc., published in 1859, that the classification
+of his bird collections is made by Dr. P.&nbsp;L.
+Sclater, then and until recently Secretary to the Zoölogical
+Society.] Petherick’s return to Europe with a
+recital of such wonders obtained for him considerable
+attention. He married in the early part of 1861, and
+was invited to take charge of a relief expedition to be
+sent up the Nile to meet Captain Speke and Grant,
+who were to attempt descending the Nile from its supposed
+source at the north end of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_102" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1021.jpg" width="1148" height="1591" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">John Petherick.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>During the latter period of Petherick’s experiences
+on the Nile (in 1858), he had been appointed consular
+agent for the British government at Khartum. In
+1861, before starting to return to the Sudan, he was
+given the rank of consul. He left England in 1861
+with his wife and with an English youth named
+Foxcroft, who accompanied him as bird-stuffer and
+natural history collector.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> In 1861 he despatched to
+Gondokoro, to await the arrival of Speke and Grant,
+an expedition under the Turks and Arabs, with boats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
+full of supplies. Petherick and his wife, accompanied
+by Dr. Murie (who had joined them from England)
+and by Foxcroft, then spent some years exploring the
+western affluents of the Nile which unite in the Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+In this way they revisited the Nyam-nyam
+country. Petherick seems to have been partly trading
+and partly collecting information on the slave-trade
+and prosecuting Maltese slave-traders; and these investigations
+seem to have rather taken his attention
+from one of the objects of his mission, which was to
+insure a proper relief to Speke and Grant. How far
+he was to blame in the matter it is difficult to determine.
+People in England seem to have doubted the
+effectiveness of his methods to insure this relief, and
+amongst others who thought it necessary to forestall
+Petherick was Mr. (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker,
+who, in 1862–1863, got ahead of the Pethericks (then
+deciding to go in person to the relief of the explorers),
+and actually arrived at Gondokoro in time to afford
+much needed assistance to the exhausted travellers.
+Speke appears to have considered that Petherick had
+not acted up to the assurance he had given to the Royal
+Geographical Society, who intrusted him with the expenditure
+of the relief fund. This criticism, together
+with the bitter animosity aroused by Petherick’s prosecution
+of slave-traders and reports on the misgovernment
+of Egyptian officials, cost him the confidence of
+the Foreign Office, and in 1864 his consulate was abolished.
+It was actually alleged by some of his enemies
+that he himself carried on a trade in slaves,—an allegation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
+for which there does not seem to have been the
+slightest foundation. In 1865 the Pethericks returned
+to England. Petherick’s second book (“Travels in
+Central Africa”) was not published until 1869. It
+is impossible, after careful observation and a more
+than thirty years’ interval, to avoid the impression
+that Petherick was treated by his country with some
+ingratitude. He did a great deal to increase our
+knowledge of the Nile basin and its remarkable
+fauna. His collections of beasts, birds, and fishes
+enriched the British Museum. He took a number of
+astronomical observations in order to fix important
+points on the White Nile and in the region of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal. He died in 1882.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 a French Egyptian official, Clot Bey, engaged
+as private secretary a young French doctor of
+medicine, Alfred Peney. For something like fifteen
+years Dr. Peney carried on official medical work in
+Egypt. He was gradually led, however, towards Nile
+exploration through his official visits to Khartum, the
+Blue Nile, and Kordofan. He was intensely interested
+in ethnology and in the study of the Nile Negroes.
+French influence in Egypt during the fifties
+was in the ascendency. De Lesseps and the various
+officials who served France as agents and consuls-general
+at Cairo had known how to secure the concession
+for the Suez Canal. They became jealous
+that France should also secure for her citizens the
+glory of having discovered and traced the course and
+the sources of the Upper Nile. This blue ribbon of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+geographical discovery was already being sought for
+by Germans and Englishmen. Dr. Peney especially
+was continually urging his superiors in Cairo to organise,
+or induce the Viceroy Said to organise, a Nile
+research expedition under French auspices. But the
+choice by the French agent of a leader for this enterprise
+fell most unfortunately. Hanging about Cairo
+was a Frenchman of a type not infrequently met with
+at Levantine courts during the first eight decades of
+the nineteenth century. This was the Count d’Escayrac
+de Lauture. Men of this description were either
+Royalist refugees, or the sons of such, or they were
+Napoleonic noblemen who had got into financial or
+social difficulties. D’Escayrac, however, appears to
+have been an amiable dilettante, who had some pretensions
+to be an Egyptologist. But he was utterly
+unsuited to lead an expedition into Central Africa.
+He was elderly, vain, pompous, and extravagant. The
+viceroy, wishing that the expedition should not be too
+exclusively French, ordered d’Escayrac to recruit part
+of his personnel in England, Germany, and Switzerland.
+This was done, but the expedition never left
+Cairo for the Upper Nile. D’Escayrac made himself
+perfectly ridiculous by strutting about in a fantastic
+uniform, trailing a long sabre. His expensive scientific
+instruments were badly packed, and arrived at
+Cairo injured. The whole expedition was dissolved,
+owing to the bitter dislike which d’Escayrac inspired
+among his staff. The only incident in the whole of
+Count d’Escayrac’s preparations which shows him to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
+have been in any way enterprising or intelligent, was
+his desire to secure good photographic views of the
+Upper Nile and its natives. He had provided the
+expedition with the best apparatus which could be
+obtained at that period (1856). It is curious to note
+that in the criticisms of his plans published at the
+time, the critics animadvert more bitterly on the
+extravagance of spending one hundred pounds on
+photography than on any other supposed mistake in
+d’Escayrac’s preparations.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Albert Peney was to have been medical officer
+to the expedition. When it was dissolved, he started
+off for the White Nile on his own account, attaching
+himself, whenever opportunity offered, to such caravans
+as those of Andrea de Bono, the Maltese. Peney
+made a remarkably good map (most interesting to
+place on record as showing subsequent changes in the
+course of the Nile) between Bor and a place which he
+calls Nieki, which was situated on the Mountain Nile
+very near to the present site of Fort Berkeley. Peney,
+hearing rumours of great rivers to the west, crossed
+the range of hills which flanks the western bank of the
+Mountain Nile in the Bari country, and thus reached
+the river Yie or Yeï. This river, as we know now,
+flows northwest nearly parallel to the main Mountain
+Nile, and joins that river some distance before its
+junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal. But Peney exaggerated
+the importance of this stream, and confused
+it with the accounts he heard of the many great
+rivers that united to form the Bahr-al-Ghazal. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
+his map he actually makes the Yie an effluent of the
+White Nile, issuing from the main stream not far
+from the present post of Nimule, and flowing northwestwards
+until it enters the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He
+thus transformed the whole region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+into an enormous island encircled by two
+branches of the Nile. Peney further visited the country
+to the east of Gondokoro, and was probably the first
+explorer to mention the name Latuka. This country
+he rightly designates Lotuka. Latuka is the incorrect
+version given to the world by Emin Pasha. The <em>Lo</em>
+in this word is really the masculine article met with
+in so many of the Masai group of languages to which
+the tongue of Latuka belongs. The root <em>tuka</em> (which
+should be properly spelled and pronounced <em>tukă</em>) is
+evidently a racial name widespread among that Negroid
+group resulting from an ancient intermixture
+of the Gala with the Negro, from which groups the
+Latuka, Turkana, Masai, Nandi, and Elgumi descend.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Peney died of blackwater fever in July, 1861,
+at a point on the Nile near Fort Berkeley. Andrea
+de Bono was with him at his death, and records the
+characteristics of the disease from which Dr. Peney
+died. Since the idea has been started that blackwater
+fever is quite a new disease in these regions, it is interesting
+to know that from all accounts several of the
+earliest European pioneers from 1848 to 1861 appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
+to have died of this malady whilst exploring the Upper
+Nile.</p>
+
+<p>About the time that Peney was exploring the Mountain
+Nile, another Frenchman, Lejean, was surveying
+with some correctness the Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary, of
+which he published a map in 1862.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_108" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1081_map.jpg" width="1758" height="1895" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1081_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Map published in Penny Magazine of 1852.</span></p>
+  <p>Which gives results of Nile exploration up to that date.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Not only Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans,
+but Italians and Maltese had by this time appeared
+as explorers, traders, and naturalists on the White
+Nile and its tributaries.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> Some of these came as members
+of the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission. Perhaps
+out of jealousy of Austria, or with the idea of
+spreading North Italian trade and influence, the then
+Kingdom of Sardinia appointed Signor Vaudet (apparently
+a Piedmontese trader) Sardinian proconsul
+at Khartum. Vaudet invited out his two nephews,
+the brothers Poncet (one of whom published a book
+on the White Nile in 1863). Vaudet was killed by
+the Bari tribe near Gondokoro about 1859. This Bari
+people, now so much diminished by famine and by the
+raids of the Sudanese slave-traders and Dervishes, was
+a far more serious bar to the prosecution of exploration
+up the Mountain Nile in the direction of the great
+lakes than the rapids above Gondokoro. The Bari,
+no doubt, were wronged by the Europeans and Nubians,
+but they were nevertheless responsible for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
+death of not a few European explorers. But for
+their determined hostility, there is little doubt that
+the earlier French, Italian, German, and English pioneers
+would have found their way to Lake Albert
+long before its discovery by Baker. Indeed Giovanni
+Miani, a Venetian, got as far south as Apuddo,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> if
+not farther, in the prosecution of his search for the
+rumoured lake. Miani subsequently explored the regions
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the headwaters of the
+streams rising in the Nyam-nyam country. He it was
+who, first of all explorers, brought back those rumours
+of a watershed beyond the Nile system, with a great
+river (the Welle) flowing to the west.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to have been little, if any, international
+jealousy in this wonderful field of exploration between
+1840 and 1860. Khartum was the rendezvous, the
+principal depot of the Europeans, and throughout all
+these years was under a Turkish governor. Life in
+Khartum between 1850 and 1860 was by no means
+devoid of attractions. Several of the Europeans
+who made it their headquarters brought out their
+wives with them. Others were married to handsome
+Abyssinian women. The houses of Egyptian
+style were comfortable and cool. The place swarmed
+with strange new beasts and birds; indeed, nearly
+every house included a menagerie in one of its
+yards. A great slave-market brought before the
+eyes of astonished and interested Europeans nearly all
+the principal Negro types from as far west as Wadai<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
+and Darfur, from the confines of Abyssinia on the east,
+from the lands of the naked Nile Negroes on the south;
+stalwart, lighter-coloured, bearded Nyam-nyam cannibals
+from the southwest, coal-black Madi, here and
+there an Akka Pygmy, thin-shanked Dinka and Shiluk,
+sturdy Bongo, and handsome Gala. “There ain’t no
+Ten Commandments” might with some justice have
+been said of society at Khartum. At any rate it
+was much untrammelled as regards the more wearisome
+conventions of civilised life. Nobody inquired
+if M. Dubois was legally married to Mme. Dubois,
+and perhaps the treatment of the doubtful Mme.
+Dubois as a respectable married woman by blue-eyed
+strait-souled Mrs. Jones ended by Mme. Dubois
+becoming legally united to her spouse later on at
+Cairo, and finishing the rest of her life as a happy
+and perfectly respectable person. The air was full
+of wonderment. Improvements made year by year
+in firearms resulted in marvellous big-game shooting.
+Though there were bad fevers to be got in the Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+the climate of Khartum itself was not necessarily
+unhealthy. The post seems to have arrived
+across the desert on camels at least once a month.
+The tyranny, social and administrative, of the British
+military officer and his dame was not to come for
+many years; the “smart” hotel was absent; provisions
+were good, plentiful, and cheap. Those are times that
+the African explorer of to-day looks back upon with
+something like a sigh.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_111" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1102.jpg" width="1536" height="1254" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The River Sobat.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X"><span id="toclink_111"></span>CHAPTER X<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">MISSIONARIES AND SNOW-MOUNTAINS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Down</span> to 1858 all that Europe knew of the Nile
+basin was this: The course of the Blue Nile
+had been mapped to some extent from its source in
+Lake Tsana; and the travels of Rüppell (1830–1831)
+(the great German naturalist), of another German,
+Joseph Russegger, of the D’Abbadies (the great
+French surveyors), of Sir William Cornwallis Harris
+(who was sent on a mission to Shoa), Théophile
+Le Febvre, Mansfield Parkyns (1840–1845), H.
+Dufton, and C.&nbsp;T. Beke had cleared up a good
+many blank spaces in the geography of Abyssinia and
+of the various affluents of the Nile flowing from
+the snow-mountains of that African Afghanistan in
+the direction of the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the
+Sobat. The Sobat had been explored for a hundred
+miles or so, as far as steamers could penetrate.
+The White Nile had been surveyed from Khartum
+to the junction of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. South of
+that point, under the name of Mountain Nile, it
+and some of its branches, such as the Giraffe River,
+had also been explored, and the River of the Mountains,
+as the Upper White Nile is called by the Arabs,
+had been ascended to a little distance south of Gondokoro.
+The Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western feeder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+of the Nile, and several of its more important affluents,
+such as the Jur, had been made known, and the
+existence of the Nyam-nyam cannibal country ascertained.
+But the ultimate sources of the Nile stream
+were still undiscovered. This problem was now to be
+attacked from two very different directions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 the Church Missionary Society had resolved
+to attempt the evangelisation of Abyssinia,
+and sent missionaries to the northern part of that
+country. Amongst these missionaries, in 1840, was
+a Würtemberg student named Ludwig Krapf, sent
+to prospect in northern Abyssinia. But the Abyssinians
+eventually resented this missionary enterprise,
+and Krapf and some others were expelled from the
+country in 1842.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_112" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 17em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1122.jpg" width="1030" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rev. Dr. L. Ludwig Krapf.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Hearing good accounts of the more genial nature
+of the Zanzibar Arabs and of their Maskat ruler,
+Krapf journeyed down the East Coast of Africa and
+visited the Sayyid of Zanzibar (Majid); he obtained
+permission from this Arab viceroy<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> to settle at Mombasa
+and establish a Christian mission there. Krapf
+was soon joined by John Rebman (another Würtemberger).
+Both were well-educated men, who had been
+trained at Tübingen, at Basle, and in Rebman’s case
+at an English missionary college. They acquired a
+knowledge of Arabic, and soon added to it an intimate
+acquaintance with several African tongues. Their intercourse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
+with the Arabs and the Negroes at Mombasa
+and its vicinity soon opened their ears to remarkable
+stories of the unknown interior. Already the Arabs
+were pushing farther and farther inland from these
+ports on the Zanzibar coast, and some of them had
+reached Lake Tanganyika, while they had also heard
+rumours of the Victoria Nyanza. The natives further
+told the missionaries of the wonderfully high mountains
+distant from ten to thirty days’ march from the
+coast, the tops of which were covered with “white
+stuff.” By 1850, through the agency of the Church
+Missionary Society, Rebman and Krapf were able to
+report from their own observation the existence of
+snow-mountains nearly under the equator, Rebman
+having discovered Kilimanjaro in 1848, while in the
+following year Krapf not only confirmed this discovery,
+but pushed his way far enough inland to catch a
+glimpse of Mount Kenya, the distance of which from
+the coast he underestimated. The missionaries also
+sent to Europe about the same time stories of a great
+inland sea. They had gathered up the reports of Lake
+Nyasa, Tanganyika, and the Victoria Nyanza, and
+had imagined these separate sheets of water to be
+only parts of a huge, slug-shaped lake as big as the
+Caspian Sea. They also reported the separate existence
+of Lake Baringo. These stories they illustrated
+by a map (Erhardt and Rebman) published in 1855.
+Their stories of snow-mountains in equatorial Africa
+only drew down on them for the most part the ridicule
+of English geographers, among whom was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
+wearisome person, Mr. Desborough Cooley, who published
+fine-spun theories based on a fantastic interpretation
+of African etymology; but their stories were
+believed in France, and they were awarded a medal
+by the Paris Geographical Society. They also impressed
+an American poet, Bayard Taylor, who in
+1855 wrote some stirring lines on <span class="locked">Kilimanjaro:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indentq">“Remote, inaccessible, silent, and lone—</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Who from the heart of the tropical fervours</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Liftest to heaven thine alien snows.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0">These stories from the missionaries revived the interest
+in Ptolemy’s Geography. The Nile lakes were
+once more believed in, especially as the discovery of
+Kenya and Kilimanjaro appeared to confirm the stories
+of the Mountains of the Moon. This idea indeed was
+additionally favoured by the fact that the missionaries
+often referred to their hypothetical lake as the Sea
+of Unyamwezi, which name they rightly explained
+as meaning (we know not why) the “Land of the
+Moon.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI"><span id="toclink_115"></span>CHAPTER XI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BURTON AND SPEKE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Nile</span> exploration from the north had stopped in
+1851 at the rapids south of Gondokoro. It
+was now felt that the problem should be attacked from
+other directions. In 1839 the British government had
+formally annexed Aden at the southwestern corner of
+Arabia as a coaling station for ships plying between
+Suez and India. Aden is opposite the Somali coast,
+and has been for many centuries the outpost of civilisation
+with which the Somali have traded. It was
+impossible to possess Aden long without desiring to
+become acquainted with the character of the African
+coast across the gulf, especially as Aden depended so
+much on Somaliland for its supplies of meat, grain,
+and fodder, and the ostrich feathers, ivory, and skins
+sold in the Aden bazaars. Aden was, and is still,
+under the government of India, and officers of the
+Indian army soon found their way across to Somaliland
+on authorised or unauthorised surveys. Among
+these was Lieutenant Cruttenden, who collected some
+new information about the sterile country beyond the
+coast. In 1854 a remarkable man came to Aden as
+an officer in the Indian garrison,—Lieutenant Richard
+Francis Burton, fresh from his wonderful journey as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
+a pilgrim to Mecca. Burton induced the authorities
+to support him in a project for entering inner East
+Africa through Somaliland, and thus perhaps striking
+at the sources of the Nile. Another explorer in the
+bud, Lieutenant John Hanning Speke, reached Aden
+soon afterwards, and obtained permission to join Burton’s
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst waiting for a time thought to be favourable
+for travelling southwards into the Ogadein country,
+Burton went off alone on a remarkably plucky
+journey to the mysterious city of Harrar, to-day a
+frontier town of Abyssinia. Harrar, lying to the
+south of that Rift valley, which can be traced after
+a few interruptions from the Gulf of Tajurra right
+down into British and German East Africa, was a
+walled city inhabited by a Semitic people, or rather
+a people still retaining the use of a Semitic dialect
+akin to those of Abyssinia and South Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>Speke did a good deal to increase our knowledge
+of the remarkable fauna of Somaliland, but the
+Burton-Speke expedition into that country got no
+great distance inland, and ended in disaster, owing
+to the suspicions of the Somali. The expedition was
+attacked close to the seashore at Berbera. One of
+the party, Lieutenant Stroyan, was killed. Speke was
+severely, and Burton slightly wounded. Speke is of
+opinion that much of this disaster was due to the mismanagement
+of Burton. He considers that if, when
+the expedition was first organised, instead of fussing
+about mysterious visits to Harrar and waiting for this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
+thing and that thing, the whole expedition had started
+off boldly for the interior, the Somali would have had
+no time to cultivate suspicion, and would have opposed
+no resistance. It is quite conceivable that Speke
+was right, and that if the expedition had started with
+promptitude it might have reached the confines of Shoa
+or the Gala country in the direction of modern British
+East Africa. As it was, the attack on Burton’s expedition
+closed for some thirty years any attempt at
+penetrating the mysterious country of the Somali,
+with its remarkable mammalian fauna and its as yet
+unexplained ruins.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_117" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1182.jpg" width="1285" height="1966" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Swahili Arab Trader.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Burton’s attention was now drawn to the stories of
+the Mombasa missionaries. With some difficulty he
+obtained from the Foreign Office, the East India Company,
+and the Royal Geographical Society funds to
+equip an expedition which should start from the Zanzibar
+coast in search of the great lake. As Speke had
+lost over five hundred pounds worth of private property<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
+in the disaster which fell on the Somali expedition,
+Burton invited him to join this new expedition as his
+lieutenant. Burton had been distracted for a time
+from this idea by the Crimean War, but when peace
+was declared, he obtained the sanction of the Geographical
+Society to his plans, and started with Speke
+for India to smooth the difficulties placed in his way
+by the Indian government. At the very end of 1856
+the explorers reached Zanzibar. While the expedition
+was being organised at Zanzibar, Burton and
+Speke visited Pemba, Mombasa, and the mission station
+ten miles in the interior. Fired by the stories
+of the snow-mountains and the rumour of the great
+lake of Ukerewe,<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> Speke proposed that they should
+bring their expedition to Mombasa and start for the
+lake by way of Kilimanjaro. The Masai, however,
+were raiding the country right up to within ten miles
+of Mombasa, and in consequence Burton was afraid
+to take this route. The explorers visited the mountainous
+country of Usambara, which is close to the coast,
+and then returned to Zanzibar. The original instructions,
+however, of the Royal Geographical Society
+(which had found the bulk of the funds) had been:
+“The great object of the expedition is to penetrate
+inland, from Kilwa or some other place on the East
+Coast of Africa, and make the best of its way to
+the reputed Lake of Nyasa.” Burton found, however,
+that the Arabs of Kilwa were strongly opposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
+to white men penetrating the interior in that direction.
+He therefore decided to choose the line of least
+resistance at Bagamoyo, and go along the now beaten
+track of the Arabs to Ujiji. When Burton and Speke
+reached Unyamwezi (Kaze) at the close of 1857, they
+were received with much kindness and courtesy by the
+Zanzibar Arabs established there, especially by Sheikh
+Snay, who had been the first Arab to reach Uganda.
+Snay promptly cleared up the mystery of the missionaries’
+great lake, telling the explorers that it was
+three different lakes (Nyasa, Tanganyika, and Victoria)
+rolled into one. The Arabs had also heard
+through the Banyoro rumours of European vessels
+travelling up the White Nile to the Bari country.
+Burton was continually prostrated with fever during
+this stay in Unyamwezi, so that the command of the
+expedition and the solution of its difficulties temporarily
+devolved on Speke. The main trouble, as on
+all these expeditions, was with the question of transport.
+It was very difficult to obtain porters to proceed
+in any direction north or west of Unyamwezi.
+At last they induced a number of their paid-off men
+who had accompanied them through the coast lands
+to rejoin and convey the loads as far as Ujiji. In
+that way Burton and Speke discovered Lake Tanganyika,
+and Speke thought (wrongly) that in the great
+tilted plateau which they ascended on the east, and
+from which they looked down on the beautiful blue
+waters of the lake, he had discovered the Mountains
+of the Moon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
+
+<p>After a somewhat half-hearted exploration of the
+northern portion of Tanganyika in an Arab dau,
+during which they heard and partially verified the fact
+that no river flowed out of Tanganyika on the north,
+but that the Rusizi flowed <em>into</em> the lake<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> in that direction,
+they returned to Ujiji, and from this point made
+their way back to Kaze in Unyamwezi. Here Burton
+again became ill. Speke with some difficulty obtained
+from him permission to travel northwards in search
+of the Lake of Bukerebe. Burton yielded his consent
+reluctantly, and appears to have given but grudging
+assistance in the shape of men and guides. Full of
+energy, however, Speke gathered together a caravan,
+which crossed Unyamwezi and Usukuma, and on the
+30th of July, 1858, he saw the Mwanza creek, one
+of the southernmost gulfs of the Victoria Nyanza.
+The extremity of this he named “Jordans
+Nullah.”<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Travelling northwards along this creek,
+on August 3d (1858), early in the morning, Speke
+saw the open waters of a great lake with a sea horizon
+to the north. Much of the horizon was shut in
+by great and small islands, but Speke detected through
+their interstices the vast extent of open water which
+stretched to the north.</p>
+
+<p>He realised to the full the wonder of his discovery,
+and the obvious probability that this mighty lake would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
+prove to be the main headwaters of the White Nile.
+Even Speke, however, failed to appreciate then or subsequently
+the full extent of the Nyanza’s area. He
+only guessed its breadth at over one hundred miles,
+and its length from north to south at under two hundred.
+Speke inquired from the natives the name of
+this freshwater sea, and they replied “Nyanza,” which
+in varying forms such as Nyanja, Nyasa, Mwanza,
+Kianja, Luanza (according to prefix), is a widespread
+Bantu root for a large extent of water,—a river or a
+lake. To this term Speke added the name of Victoria
+after the Queen of England. The following extract
+from his book, “What Led to the Discovery of the
+Source of the Nile,” gives his first impressions of the
+great <span class="locked">lake:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The caravan, after quitting Isamiro, began winding
+up a long but gradually inclined hill [which, as it bears no
+native name, I shall call Somerset] until it reached its
+summit, when the vast expanse of the pale blue waters
+of the Nyanza burst suddenly upon my gaze. It was
+early morning. The distant sea-line of the north horizon
+was defined in the calm atmosphere between the north
+and the west points of the compass; but even this did not
+afford me any idea of the breadth of the lake, as an archipelago
+of islands, each consisting of a single hill, rising
+to a height two hundred or three hundred feet above
+the water, intersected the line of vision to the left; while
+on the right the western horn of the Ukerewe Island cut
+off any further view of its distant waters to the eastward
+of north. A sheet of water—an elbow of the sea, however,
+at the base of the low range on which I stood—extended
+far away to the eastward, to where, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
+dim horizon, a hummock-like elevation of the mainland
+marked what I understood to be the south and east angle
+of the lake. The important islands of Ukerewe and
+Mzita, distant about twenty or thirty miles, formed the
+visible north shore of this firth. The name of the former
+of these islands was familiar to us as that by which this
+long-sought lake was usually known. It is reported by
+the natives to be of no great extent, and though of no
+considerable elevation, I could discover several spurs
+stretching down to the water’s edge from its central ridge
+of hills. The other island, Mzita, is of greater elevation,
+of a hog-backed shape, but being more distant its physical
+features were not so distinctly visible.</p>
+
+<p>“In consequence of the northern islands of the Bengal
+Archipelago before-mentioned obstructing the view, the
+western shore of the lake could not be defined: a series
+of low hill-tops extended in this direction as far as the
+eye could reach; while below me, at no great distance,
+was the <i lang="fr">débouchure</i> of the creek which enters the lake
+from the south, and along the banks of which my last
+three days’ journey had led me. This view was one
+which even in a well-known and explored country would
+have arrested the traveller by its peaceful beauty. The
+islands, each swelling in a gentle slope to a rounded
+summit, clothed with wood between the rugged, angular,
+closely-cropping rocks of granite, seemed mirrored in
+the calm surface of the lake, on which I here and there
+detected a small black speck,—the tiny canoe of some
+Muanza fisherman. On the gently shelving plain below
+me blue smoke curled among the trees, which here and
+there partially concealed villages and hamlets, their brown
+thatched roofs contrasting with the emerald-green of the
+beautiful aloes, the coral flower-branches of which cluster
+in such profusion round the cottages, and form alleys and
+hedgerows about the villages as ornamental as any garden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+shrub in England. But the pleasure of the mere view
+vanished in the presence of those more intense and exciting
+emotions which are called up by the consideration
+of the commercial and geographical importance of the
+prospect before me.</p>
+
+<p>“I no longer felt any doubt that the lake at my feet
+gave birth to that interesting river, the source of which
+has been the subject of so much speculation, and the
+object of so many explorers. The Arabs’ tale was proved
+to the letter. This is a far more extensive lake than the
+Tanganyika; ‘so broad that you could not see across it,
+and so long that nobody knew its length.’ I had now the
+pleasure of perceiving that a map I had constructed on
+Arab testimony, and sent home to the Royal Geographical
+Society before leaving Unyanyembe, was so substantially
+correct in its general outlines I had nothing whatever to
+alter. Further, as I drew that map after proving their
+first statements about the Tanganyika, which were made
+before my going there, I have every reason to feel confident
+of their veracity relative to their travels north
+through Karagwe, and to Kibuga in Uganda.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_123" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1222_map.jpg" width="1358" height="2321" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1222_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sketch Map by Burton and Speke, 1858.</span></p>
+  <p>From the Original in the possession of the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Unable to delay longer in his exploration of the
+southern shores of the Victoria Nyanza, as he had
+promised to rejoin Burton by a certain date, Speke
+returned to Kaze in Unyanyembe, to find his companion
+vexed at the great discovery which he had
+made. Speke did not pursue the argument as to the
+Victoria Nyanza being the main source of the Nile.
+The two men journeyed together on more or less bad
+terms to Zanzibar, where Burton remained to wind up
+the affairs of the expedition, Speke returning direct
+to England. Here the wonderful news he brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
+prompted the Royal Geographical Society to gather
+together the funds for a fresh expedition, which was
+to enable Speke to make good his discovery of the
+lake, and to prove to the satisfaction of the scientific
+world that this sheet of water was the ultimate source
+of the White Nile.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII"><span id="toclink_125"></span>CHAPTER XII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SPEKE AND THE NILE QUEST</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">John Hanning Speke</span> was born on May 27,
+1827, at Orleigh Court, Bideford, North Devon.
+His father’s family had its seat in Somersetshire, near
+the pretty old town of Ilminster, and was of ancient
+descent. The name was spelled L’Espec in Norman
+times, and apparently meant a spike or porcupine
+quill (the family crest was a porcupine).<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> Speke’s
+mother was a Miss Hanning of Dillington Park, also
+in Somerset. He was one of four sons, and had several
+sisters. As his father (Mr. William Speke),
+after he came into the family place of Jordans near
+Ilminster, had two church livings to dispose of, he
+was desirous that two at least of his sons might be
+brought up to the Church. John Hanning and Edward
+Speke (who was killed at Delhi) declined such
+a career, however, and wished to go into the army.
+Speke was a restless boy, who detested school, declaring
+that a sedentary life made him ill. Whenever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
+he could escape from his masters, he was always out
+in the woods and on the heaths, displaying a great
+devotion to natural history and sport.</p>
+
+<p>When only seventeen his mother, who was acquainted
+with the Duke of Wellington, obtained for
+her two sons, John and Edward, commissions in the
+Indian army. The Duke asked to see the boys, and
+congratulated their mother on two such fine young
+fellows coming forward for service in India. Edward
+Speke, as already mentioned, was killed during the
+Indian mutiny at the siege of Delhi. John Hanning
+Speke himself, between the ages of seventeen and
+twenty-two, had seen a good deal of military service
+in India, and took part in the last Sikh war,
+having been at the battles of Ramnagar, Sedulapur,
+Chilianwala, and Guzerat.</p>
+
+<p>In 1849 he first entertained the idea of exploring
+equatorial Africa. Prior to this date he had shot a
+great deal in India, and subsequently explored southwestern
+Tibet. His first interest in Africa lay in the
+possibility of amassing magnificent zoölogical collections
+to illustrate the fauna of that wide stretch
+of country which lay between South Africa and Abyssinia.
+He wished to supplement the researches of
+Rüppell on the northeast and of Harris, Gordon Cumming,
+and others in the far south. Even at that date
+Speke desired to land at some point on the East
+African coast, and strike across to the Nile, descending
+the Nile to Egypt with his zoölogical collections.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_126" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1261.jpg" width="1419" height="2013" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">John Hanning Speke.</span></p>
+
+<p>At the age of 17, on first receiving his commission in the Indian Army.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>He obtained furlough in the autumn of 1854, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
+proceeded to Aden with the intention of landing on the
+opposite coast of Somaliland. Arrived at Aden, his
+plans met with stubborn opposition from Colonel Sir
+James Outram, the Resident, who not only opposed
+Speke’s journeys, but even those which were officially
+ordered by the Bombay government to be conducted
+by Richard Burton. But the Bombay government, in
+regard to the latter plan, insisted on Sir James Outram
+withdrawing his opposition. Sir James Outram
+then attached Speke to this expedition, knowing him
+to be a good surveyor. Speke had in fact mapped a
+good deal of southwestern Tibet, and was thoroughly
+at home with the sextant. The results of this venture
+have been described in the preceding chapter. The
+Somali expedition led to Speke’s accompanying Burton
+in 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Speke returned to England alone on the 8th of
+May, 1859. The day after his arrival Sir Roderick
+Murchison, President of the Royal Geographical Society,
+decided that Speke was to be sent back as soon
+as possible to substantiate his discovery of the Victoria
+Nyanza, and to ascertain its connection with the
+Nile system. But although funds were soon secured
+by public subscription, it was deemed advisable by
+Speke that the new expedition should not start for
+nearly a year. Captain James Augustus Grant, who
+had shot with Speke in India, begged leave to accompany
+him as his lieutenant.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_127" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1282_map.jpg" width="1326" height="2062" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1282_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Burton’s Idea of the Nile Sources, Dec. 1864.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Burton returned to England in 1859, somewhat chagrined
+to hear of the enthusiasm with which Speke’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
+discovery of the Victoria Nyanza had been received,—an
+enthusiasm which to some extent had put the
+revelation of Lake Tanganyika in the shade. Burton
+nevertheless was awarded, in 1860, the Gold Medal
+of the Royal Geographical Society, and in returning
+thanks for this honour, he uttered a handsome acknowledgment
+of Speke’s services as surveyor on
+this expedition to the great lakes. But the two men
+were evidently on bad terms, and though the fault of
+their disaccord may have lain with Burton’s conduct,
+the world knew of it first through the writings of
+Speke in “Blackwood’s Magazine,” and later (in
+1864) in the republication of these Blackwood articles
+with additions under the title of “What Led to
+the Discovery of the Source of the Nile.” In these
+works Speke makes certain stinging references to
+Burton. So far as an impartial verdict can be arrived
+at, Speke in all probability spoke the truth; but
+he was perhaps unduly hard on his companion, for
+whom he had evidently a great personal dislike and
+some degree of contempt. In some respects Speke’s
+own education had been defective (at least, we are
+told that he was so much of a truant as to receive
+but little schooling before going to India). He may,
+therefore, have been unable to appreciate to the full
+Burton’s undoubted talents. Yet again, in reading
+Speke’s books it would occur to no one to say that
+he was deficient in education. He had become an admirable
+geographer, a keen naturalist; and whether his
+writing was or was not without grace of style, it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
+certainly pithy and to the point. His great book, the
+“Discovery of the Source of the Nile,” is good reading
+all through, and strikes one who, like the present
+writer, has been over much of the same ground, as
+being singularly truthful. It is as good a book as
+any that Burton himself ever wrote on Africa, not
+excepting even the excellent “Lake Regions.” Speke
+was a fine figure of a man,—tall and handsome in
+an English style, with blue eyes and a brown beard.
+There is no doubt that he impressed the natives favourably
+wherever he went as being a man and a
+gentleman. Yet there was a little hardness in his
+disposition, something pitiless in his criticisms of
+Burton. Burton’s own attacks on Speke scarcely appeared
+in a public form until four years after Speke
+had returned to Africa. They were angry, and somewhat
+clumsy, but not so incisive as Speke’s criticisms
+of Burton. Burton’s chief revenge lay in endeavouring
+for many years to prove that Speke had made no
+very great discovery; that his Victoria Nyanza was
+not the greatest lake in Africa and the main source
+of the Nile, but a network of swamps and lakelets.
+Burton hailed with delight Sir Samuel Baker’s description
+of the Albert Nyanza as being the ultimate
+origin of the White Nile. To meet this view he,
+against his own convictions, tried to make the Rusizi
+River flow out of the north end of Tanganyika instead
+of flowing into that lake, in the hope that Tanganyika
+was thus connected with Lake Albert,—a
+fact which, if proved, would dwarf the discovery of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
+the Victoria Nyanza into insignificance. To this end
+he published a map, and endeavoured to persuade
+every geographer who would listen to him that the
+Victoria Nyanza was more than half a myth, and
+that its contribution to the Nile waters was insignificant
+compared to the supply received from the western
+chain of lakes.</p>
+
+<p>Speke’s character was that of many an officer in
+the British army. Though his family claimed Norman
+descent, his physique was emphatically Anglo-Saxon.
+Born almost without fear, he had perhaps too ready
+a contempt for others of weaker nerve who could
+better weigh the chances of danger and the counsels
+of prudence. Speke was a splendid shot, and
+accurate in those astronomical observations necessary
+to the determination of geographical positions. He
+had a good knowledge of Hindustani,<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> but not that
+great readiness in picking up languages which was
+Burton’s forte. Yet he was perfectly honest about
+this, as about every talent which he possessed or
+lacked. On the other hand, his great dislike of Burton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
+sometimes made him unjust in denying to his
+companion the qualities of mind he really possessed.
+Burton’s <i lang="fr">résumé</i> of ethnological information concerning
+the East African tribes from the Zanzibar coast
+to Uganda and the shores of Tanganyika is masterly,
+and due to the most careful note-taking. It may
+not, perhaps, be out of place if I quote a few lines
+from a letter written by Sir Samuel Baker to a
+<span class="locked">correspondent:<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a>—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Speke comes first as a geographer and African explorer.
+He was superior to Burton as a painstaking,
+determined traveller, who worked out his object for the
+real love of geographical research, without the slightest
+jealousy of others.... But Burton excelled Speke in
+cleverness and general information, though he was not
+so reliable. Speke was a splendid fellow in every way.... Grant
+(his companion) was one of the most loyal
+and charming creatures in the world. Perfectly unselfish,
+he adored Speke, and throughout his life he maintained
+an attitude of chivalrous defence of Speke’s reputation.... They
+were all friends of mine.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that Burton, who had displayed
+such cool courage on his journey to Mecca, had received
+a shock over the Somali attack on his camp in
+1854, from which he never wholly recovered. His
+proceedings in connection with the Tanganyika journey
+were marked by something approaching timidity.
+It is probable that had Speke been in command of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
+expedition much more would have been done than was
+actually accomplished. Feeling this very strongly, and
+realising that he had contributed a good deal of his
+private funds to the resources of this and the preceding
+Somali expedition, Speke considered himself quite
+justified in hurrying home with the news of the expedition’s
+discoveries, the more so because Burton had
+snubbed him for his pains in connection with the Victoria
+Nyanza. I do not think it can be said that he
+ever treated Burton unfairly, but there was perhaps
+in his behaviour a touch of hardness and a lack of
+generosity. He heartily disliked Burton, and that was
+the reason.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_132" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1321.jpg" width="1374" height="1597" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">James Augustus Grant.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In James Augustus Grant (as is indicated by the
+quotation from Sir Samuel Baker’s letter) Speke had
+found a companion after his own heart. Grant was a
+handsome Scotchman of the “Iberian” type,—black
+hair, dark eyes, dark eyebrows, clear complexion. In
+later life the hair and the beard turned white, but
+the face remained singularly youthful. Of Grant Sir
+Samuel Baker writes: “He was the most unselfish
+man I ever met; amiable and gentle to a degree that
+might to a stranger denote weakness, but, on the contrary,
+no man could be more determined in character
+or unrelenting when once he was offended.” Grant,
+like Speke, was a sportsman; he was also—in a somewhat
+uninstructed way—a zoölogist and a botanist.
+The botany of Africa, in fact, was his principal hobby.
+He painted cleverly in water-colours, and did more than
+anybody else, down to a quite recent date, to put before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>
+our eyes some idea of the beautiful coloration of
+African wild flowers. He published at his own expense,
+through the Linnæan Society, three volumes
+illustrating the more notable features of his botanical
+collections. Although most of these flowers were
+drawn for him by scientific draughtsmen, his own
+sketches supplied the means for an accurate coloration
+which could no longer be ascertained from the
+dried specimens. In this particular Grant has made
+an important contribution to African research.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving England Speke made arrangements,
+through the British consul at Zanzibar, to send on an
+instalment of porters and property to Unyamwezi, intending
+to follow his old route to the Victoria Nyanza.
+The Indian government, which has often done so much
+to assist the opening up or the settlement of eastern
+Africa, gave to Speke’s expedition fifty carbines and
+twenty thousand rounds of ammunition, and lent him
+as many surveying instruments as were required. The
+government of India also put at his disposal rich presents
+(gold watches) for such Arabs as had assisted
+him on the former expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Petherick, whose explorations have been treated of
+in the previous chapter, had recently arrived in England
+from the Upper Nile, and had been promoted to
+be British Consul. Speke, before he left England,
+made arrangements with Petherick to place boats at
+his disposal at Gondokoro, and to send a party of
+men in the same direction to collect ivory and to wait
+about in the vicinity of Gondokoro in order to assist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
+him when he should reach that part of the Nile.
+Petherick was also invited to ascend the Asua River
+(then thought to be a branch of the Nile instead of
+an affluent) in case it should be another means of
+communication with the Victoria Nyanza. Speke and
+Grant journeyed out by way of the Cape, and at Cape
+Town stayed for a while with the great Sir George
+Grey, who, taking the greatest interest in their undertaking,
+induced the Cape government to grant the
+sum of three hundred pounds to be spent in buying
+baggage mules. With these mules were sent ten Hottentot
+mounted police. From Cape Town the expedition
+was conveyed on a gunboat to Zanzibar. At
+the commencement of October, 1860, Speke’s expedition
+was organised, and he started for the interior.
+His expedition consisted of one corporal and nine
+privates of the Hottentot police; one jemadar and
+twenty-five privates of the Baluch soldiery of the
+Sultan of Zanzibar; one Arab caravan leader and
+seventy-five freed slaves; one kirongozi or guide and
+one hundred negro porters; two black valets, who
+had both been man-of-war’s men and could speak
+Hindustani; Frij, the black cook (also from a man-of-war),
+and the invaluable “Bombay,” who was interpreter
+and factotum. (The expedition took with it
+twelve transport mules and three donkeys, also twenty-two
+goats for milk and meat. The Hottentots soon
+broke down in health, and took to riding the donkeys,
+the mules being loaded with ammunition.) The white
+men, as a rule, had to walk. The Hottentots were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
+sometimes useful as camp cooks, but they suffered
+so much from fever as to become a burden to the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_135" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1341.jpg" width="1291" height="1976" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Mnyamwezi Porter.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“My first occupation [writes Speke]<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> was to map the
+country. This is done by timing the rate of march
+with a watch, making compass bearings along the road,
+or any conspicuous marks,—as, for instance, hills off it,—and
+by noting the watershed,—in short, all topographical
+objects. On arrival in camp every day came
+the ascertaining, by boiling-point thermometer, of the altitude
+of the station above the sea-level; of the latitude of
+the station by the meridian altitude of a star taken with
+a sextant; and of the compass variation by azimuth.
+Occasionally there was the fixing of certain crucial stations
+at intervals of sixty miles or so, by lunar observations ... for
+determining the longitude, by which the
+original-timed course can be drawn out with certainty on
+the map by proportion.... The rest of my work, besides
+sketching and keeping a diary, which was the most
+troublesome of all, consisted in making geological and
+zoölogical collections. With Captain Grant rested the
+botanical collections and thermometrical registers. He
+also undertook the photography. The rest of our day
+went in breakfasting after the march was over,—a pipe,
+to prepare us for rummaging the fields and villages to
+discover their contents for scientific purposes,—dinner
+close to sunset, and tea and a pipe before turning in at
+night.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke noticed in Uzegura deposits of pisolitic limestone
+in which marine fossils are observable. He
+draws attention to the interesting fact that a limestone
+formation occurs with a few breaks almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
+continuously from the southwest coast of Portugal,
+through North Africa, Egypt, and part of the Somali
+country, across Arabia to eastern India.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> In connection
+with this it may be mentioned as a point of great
+interest that Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley (Sub-Commissioner
+in the East Africa Protectorate) discovered deposits
+of limestone in the Nyando valley, about forty miles
+from the northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>Speke’s expedition travelled on with little trouble
+as far as Usagara. The complete harmony which
+existed at all times between Speke and Grant contributed
+much to the smoothness of the arrangements.
+At Usagara, however, they had trouble with one of
+their caravan leaders (Baraka). The Hottentots became
+increasingly sick and helpless, and Captain Grant
+was seriously ill with fever. However, they pushed
+on to that East Coast range of terraced mountains
+which is nowadays dotted with not a few mission and
+government stations. There is charming and fantastic
+scenery in these mountains, which rise in parts to
+an altitude of seven thousand feet. From Usagara
+were sent back some of the Hottentots, a collection
+of natural history specimens, and the camera. Speke
+had greatly desired to illustrate the scenery of equatorial
+Africa by means of photography,—a most serious
+undertaking in the sixties. Grant worked the
+apparatus, but was rendered so ill by the heat of the
+dark tent that Speke decided to abandon photography
+and to rely instead on his companion’s drawings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p>
+
+<p>Ugogo, which is a rolling plateau to the west of
+the Usagara range, gave the travellers some trouble.
+Here, as elsewhere, there was famine, owing to the
+scarcity of water and the incessant raids on the part
+of the Masai from the north or the Wahehe from
+the south. The Wagogo themselves are a truculent
+people, who have given serious annoyance to caravans
+during the last hundred years. They speak a Bantu
+language, but have very much more the physical
+aspect of the Nilotic tribes to the north, being, like
+them, very much addicted to nudity.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> On the plains
+of Ugogo Grant killed the largest and handsomest
+of all the gazelles, which had henceforth borne his
+name.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p>
+
+<p>In Ugogo Speke also records the existence of that
+strange archaic type of dog, the <i class="taxonomy">Otocyon</i>, a specimen of
+which he killed. On the western frontier of Ugogo the
+expedition was menaced with serious trouble. The rapacious
+native chief made increasing demands on them
+for taxes. A number of their porters deserted, and
+their Wanyamwezi carriers who had agreed to replace
+the missing men were scared away by the threats of
+the Wagogo. In addition, the rainy season had come
+on, and was unusually heavy, flooding the country in
+all directions. The expedition would have come to
+grief but for the game shot by its leaders, which kept<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
+the men from starvation. It was only got out of its
+difficulties at last by the friendly help of the Arabs
+of Unyamwezi, who sent seventy porters to the relief
+of the explorers. When Speke reached the borders of
+Unyamwezi and took stock of his position, he found
+that six of his Hottentots were dead or had been sent
+back to the coast in charge of several free porters,
+that twenty-five of the Sultan of Zanzibar’s slaves and
+ninety-eight of the original Wanyamwezi porters had
+deserted, all the mules and donkeys were dead, and
+half of his property had been stolen.</p>
+
+<p>Unyamwezi, “the Land of the Moon,” is a remarkable
+part of eastern Africa. Practically it consists of
+nearly all the land lying between the Victoria Nyanza
+on the north and the vicinity of Lake Rukwa on the
+south. It is longer (from north to south) than it is
+broad. Prior to the German occupation it had ceased
+to be a single kingdom, and was divided into a number
+of small and mutually hostile states only united
+by the common bond of the Kinyamwezi language.
+This varies a good deal in dialect, though it has distinctive
+features of its own. In Usukuma to the
+north it offers more resemblance to the languages of
+the Uganda Protectorate; on the south it links on in
+some way with the languages of the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+plateau. How the country became associated with the
+moon is not known; for the most part of it is an
+undulating plateau, with occasional rift valleys that
+contain salt or fresh water pools. A great part of its
+drainage goes towards Tanganyika or Lake Rukwa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
+The language of its people is typically Bantu, but they
+would seem to be a very mixed race physically. Some
+of them have the ugly features of the Congo Pygmies;
+others again are strikingly like the Galas and the
+Bahima. The bulk of the nation consists of tall and
+very muscular Negroes, with thoroughly Negro features.
+They are celebrated as porters, being able to
+carry burdens twice as heavy as could be offered to
+any other carriers. They have also a keen instinct
+for trade, and it is supposed that, first of all Bantu
+nations of the East African interior, they opened up
+communications with the coast. There has been trade
+going on between the Zanzibar coast and Unyamwezi
+for at least five centuries,—a trade, however, which
+has been subject to prolonged interruptions. The
+Zanzibar Arabs did not settle in the country until a
+hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Conversing with the Arabs of Unyamwezi, Speke
+again heard from them of “a wonderful mountain
+to the northward of Karagwe<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> so high and steep that
+no one could ascend it. It was seldom visible, being
+up in the clouds, where white matter—snow or hail—fell
+on it.” The Arabs also spoke of the other
+lake, which was salt and also called Nyanza, but
+quite different from the Victoria.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> From the Arabs
+Speke also heard of the naked Nile Negroes to the
+north and east of Unyoro, and of those of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
+(the Lango) who, like the Turkana farther east, wear
+their hair in enormous bags down the back. They
+told him that Lake Tanganyika was drained by the
+Marungu River.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> Some of this knowledge Speke
+perverted to fit in with erroneous and preconceived
+notions. At this interval of time, however, one is
+surprised at the correctness of geographical information
+given to Burton, Speke, and Baker by the Arabs.
+One is still more surprised that the constant hints as to
+the great snow-mountain range of Ruwenzori should
+have so often fallen on deaf ears.</p>
+
+<p>In Unyamwezi Speke’s further progress was much
+delayed, owing to the difficulty in getting porters.
+The country to the east from which he had come was
+convulsed with wars between the Arabs and the natives.
+In these wars figured, as a bandit leader of
+handsome appearance and remarkable adventures, the
+celebrated Manwa Sera, a dispossessed Unyamwezi
+chief. In the course of these wars Speke’s principal
+friends amongst the Arabs were killed or disappeared.
+Amongst them was the celebrated Snay, the first Arab
+to enter Uganda, and in fact the first non-Negro to
+convey the news of the existence of Uganda to the civilised
+world. On the northwest trouble was threatened
+by the warlike country of Usui, whose chief, Suwarora,
+blocked the way to Karagwe by his extortions. To
+the west and north also the country was being raided
+by the Watuta, a mysterious race of warlike nomads
+who were said to be of Zulu origin, and were, according<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
+to all accounts, the furthest extension of the great
+Zulu invasion of East Africa, which took place in the
+first half of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Speke attempted to recruit porters in the northern
+parts of Unyamwezi, but without success. He therefore
+returned to the headquarters of the Arabs at
+Kaze, and from this point sent back the last of the
+Hottentots to the coast. Speke, seeing that he could
+get no farther without bringing some order into the
+country, negotiated a peace between Manwa Sera and
+the Arabs. The peace with Manwa Sera broke down.
+Finally Speke decided to leave Bombay and Grant behind
+in northern Unyamwezi with the loads which it
+was impossible to transport. With such porters as he
+had he pushed on to the northwest and entered Buzinza,
+the first country ruled by Bahima chiefs.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Speke remarks
+rightly that specimens of this Hamitic (Gala)
+aristocracy extend from the south shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza southwards as far as the Fipa country
+and the edges of the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. On
+pages 128 to 134 of his book<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Speke gives an excellent
+description of the maddening extortions of a
+petty African chief. This behaviour on the chief’s
+part should be borne in mind when the armchair geographer
+is inclined to lay all the blame on the European
+and Arab for commencing wars with Negro
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>From February to October Speke had the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
+trying experiences which were to await him on
+this journey. He travelled backwards and forwards
+from Kaze to Uzinza, endeavouring in all possible
+ways to get porters to carry him to Usui. In these
+journeys he caught a severe cold, the effects of which
+lasted for months in a most distressing cough, and
+some disease of the chest which he could not diagnose.
+His caravans were robbed, though the goods
+were sometimes recovered. Several of his Swahili
+headmen turned traitors; Bombay alone was faithful.
+Grant, when he had recovered from fever, marched
+and countermarched. But Speke had fortunately managed
+months before to send on word of his coming to
+Suwarora, Chief of Usui, who himself was a vassal of
+Rumanika, the great Hima ruler of Karagwe. Suwarora
+sent an envoy with his mace to invite Speke to
+proceed at once to his court. This intervention made
+a good impression on the treacherous chief of Buzinza,
+Lumeresi. Much of the stolen property was recovered,
+and the expedition obtaining a few porters started
+for Usui in October, 1861.</p>
+
+<p>Grant was left behind with such of the property as
+could not be removed. Speke, when he left Buzinza,
+“was a most miserable spectre in appearance, puffing
+and blowing at each step he took, with shoulders drooping
+and left arm hanging like a dead log, which he
+was unable to swing.” At last, after incredible worries
+and trouble, occasioned by the demands for “hongo”
+(tribute) on the part of every petty chief whose territories
+they crossed, they reached the large country of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
+Usui or Busui at the southwest corner of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Usui is “a most convulsed looking country
+of well-rounded hills composed of sandstone....
+Cattle were numerous, kept by the Wahuma (Bahima),
+who would not sell their milk to us because we ate
+fowls and a bean called <i>maharagwe</i>.” In Usui the
+caravan was incessantly worried at night by the attacks
+of thieves until one of these was killed, whereupon
+the Basui congratulated the expedition, saying
+that the slain man was a wonderful magician. “They
+thought us wonderful men, possessed of supernatural
+powers.” Suwarora and his fellow-chief Vikora were
+most exacting in their demands for hongo. At last,
+after heart-breaking delays, they got away out of Suwarora’s
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Between Usui and Karagwe was one of those no
+man’s lands, which at times are such a relief to the
+harassed traveller,—a land in which he can enjoy
+the beauty of the landscapes, the excitement of
+sport in complete freedom from the harassing attentions
+of Negro tribes. In this lovely wilderness
+they were greeted by officers sent to their assistance
+by Rumanika, who said, “Rumanika has ordered us
+to bring you to his palace at once, and wherever you
+stop a day, the village officers are instructed to supply
+you with food at the King’s expense; for there are
+no taxes gathered from strangers in the Kingdom of
+Karagwe.” Speke noted the little lake of Urigi, and
+learned from the natives that this was the remains of
+a much larger sheet of water. They declared, in fact,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
+that this lake had formerly extended far to the southwards
+in the direction of Tanganyika, having been at
+one time a considerable gulf of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>For the first time since leaving the coast they travelled
+day after day through beautiful and attractive
+scenery, in which rhinoceroses, both “white” and
+black, and herds of hartebeest mingled with the
+splendid long-horned cattle of the natives. Speke
+and Grant shot several square-lipped “white” rhinoceroses.
+(Stanley subsequently did the same in this
+country of Karagwe. Though it has since been shot
+on the Upper Nile, this creature is now becoming
+extinct in East Equatorial Africa.) “Leaving the
+valley of Uthenja, we rose over the spur of Nyamwara,
+and found we had attained the delightful
+altitude of five thousand feet. Oh, how we enjoyed
+it!—every one feeling so happy at the prospect of
+meeting the good king Rumanika. Rumanika the
+king and his brother Nyanaji were both of them men
+of noble appearance and size.... They had fine
+oval faces, large eyes, and high noses, denoting the
+best blood of Abyssinia. Having shaken hands in
+true English style, which is the peculiar custom of
+the men of this country, the ever-smiling Rumanika
+begged us to be seated on the ground opposite to
+him, and at once wished to know what we thought
+of Karagwe, for it had struck him his mountains were
+the finest in the world; and the lake, too, did we
+not admire it?”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_144" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1441.jpg" width="1298" height="1679" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Hima of Mpororo, near Karagwe.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke subsequently went to see the queens and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
+princesses of this royal family, who, by means of
+a milk diet, were kept immoderately fat. Of one
+of them he writes: “She could not rise; and so
+large were her arms that between the joints the flesh
+hung down like large, stuffed puddings. Then in came
+their children, all models of the Abyssinian type of
+beauty, and as polite in their manners as thoroughbred
+gentlemen.”</p>
+
+<p>Rumanika and his brothers received their presents
+with a graceful gratitude which was striking after
+the ill manners of the Negro chiefs in Unyamwezi
+and Usui. Rumanika begged Speke to remain a little
+while in his country so that he might send on word
+of his coming to the King of Uganda. Speke consented
+to do so, and when walking about the vicinity
+of the king’s capital, descried the distant cone of
+Mfumbiro. This he at once identified with the Mountains
+of the Moon and with the story of the snow-capped
+peaks. It is curious, seeing how friendly were
+all the Bahima, and what facilities were given to him
+for travelling about the country of Karagwe, that he
+made no attempt to enter Ruanda whilst waiting to go
+on to the north, and thus obtain a nearer acquaintance
+with the Mountains of the Moon. Had he done so, he
+might perchance have caught a glimpse of Ruwenzori.
+Grant’s drawing of Mfumbiro and other volcanoes
+(since explored by many travellers) is a truthful
+one.</p>
+
+<p>In Rumanika’s country Speke discovered the water
+tragelaph which now bears his name (<i class="taxonomy">Limnotragus spekei</i>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
+This creature has the hoofs very much prolonged,
+so as to enable it to walk on floating vegetation
+and marshy ground. Speke at once discerned
+that this creature was closely allied to the water
+tragelaph found by Livingstone on Lake Ngami.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_146" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1461.jpg" width="1455" height="1106" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Speke’s Tragelaph</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Limnotragus spekei</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The existence of this Bahima<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> aristocracy in the
+countries west and south of the Victoria Nyanza was
+not reported for the first time in Speke’s account of
+his second journey to the Victoria Nyanza. First of
+all, in the early fifties, the Zanzibar Arabs brought
+to the coast—either at Mombasa or Zanzibar—accounts
+of a race of “white” men who lived on the
+Mountains of the Moon. Burton, analysing these
+stories at Kaze in Unyamwezi, reduced them to accounts
+of Bahima, who were believed to have the
+features and complexion of Abyssinians. Speke’s arrival
+in Buzinza and Karagwe made us partially acquainted
+with the facts. We now know that at some
+relatively remote period not less than two thousand
+years ago the lands between the Victoria and Albert
+Nyanzas were invaded from the northeast by a Caucasian
+race allied to the Gala and the Egyptian. These
+ancestors of the Bahima mingled to some extent with
+the indigenous Negroes, and so somewhat darkened the
+colour of their skins and acquired hair more like
+the Negro’s wool. This pastoral people brought with
+them herds of cattle from the direction of Abyssinia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
+or Galaland,—cattle with enormous horns, sometimes
+over three feet in length. This breed of cattle
+is found at the present day in southern and western
+Abyssinia. It is also depicted—with other breeds on
+the Egyptian monuments. It is supposed to be
+allied in origin to the stock which gave rise to the
+ordinary humped cattle of India,—the Zebu type.
+These oxen with enormous horns—horns which are
+not only very long but sometimes very large in girth—are
+found westwards as far as the vicinity of Lake
+Chad, and in a more degenerate type farther west still,
+to the sources of the Niger. It might be thought that
+they were also related to the long-horned cattle of
+South Africa, but it is sometimes asserted that the long-horned
+South African cattle owe their main origin to
+the introduction of Spanish breeds by the Portuguese,
+the cattle met with by the first Europeans in South
+Africa having belonged to the humped zebu type.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahima once founded an empire which stretched
+from the northern limits of Unyoro and the Victoria
+Nile westward to the Congo Forest and southward
+to the coast of Tanganyika. This ancient Empire of
+Kitara split up into a number of states governed for
+the most part by Hima dynasties, though in Uganda
+the native kings became more and more Negro in aspect
+through their fathers’ intermarriage with Negro
+women. But for the most part friendly relations subsisted
+between all the states into which the Empire of
+Kitara was subdivided; it was only in more recent
+times that the existing blood feud sprang up between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
+Unyoro and Uganda. The Bahima were reverenced
+and admired by the mass of the Negro population as the
+descendants of supernatural beings who had brought to
+these lands what little civilisation they possessed. Intermarriage
+constantly took place between the dynasties
+of Buzinza, Usui, Karagwe, Ruanda, Mpororo,
+Ankole, Unyoro, and Uganda. This and other causes
+for intercommunication gave intelligent chiefs like
+Rumanika a considerable grasp of African geography.
+These chiefs knew that their world was bounded on
+the west by the impenetrable Congo Forest. They
+knew all about Tanganyika, the Victoria Nyanza, the
+Masai countries, the course of the Nile as far north
+as Gondokoro, and even the existence of Lake Rudolf.
+Perhaps also they had a glimmering knowledge not
+only of the “Turks” on the White Nile (which was
+the case), but also of the existence of men like themselves
+in Galaland and Abyssinia. Speke and subsequent
+travellers found these Hima sovereigns and their
+courts very different to the petty Negro states of East
+Africa. Besides the recognised king (a member of a
+long dynasty), there were regularly established Court
+officials and functionaries, and an orderly system of
+government. Travellers like Speke were not slow to
+appreciate the influence which this Gala invasion of
+equatorial Africa had on the Negro types. We now
+begin to feel that this Negrified Caucasian has interpenetrated
+most parts of Negro Africa between the
+Cameroons and Zanzibar, and between the northern
+limits of the Sudan and Natal. In the western prolongation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
+of Africa something like the same infiltration
+of a superior race has been brought about by the
+Tawareqs of the Sahara. This Libyan race is also of
+the Caucasian family, more directly so indeed than the
+curly-haired Gala, who, mixing with the Libyan, laid
+the foundation of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII"><span id="toclink_150"></span>CHAPTER XIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SPEKE IN UGANDA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Speke</span> and Grant both seem to have taken the
+shape and existence of the Victoria Nyanza for
+granted. No doubt from the highlands of Karagwe
+and Buddu they occasionally caught glimpses of the
+distant Nyanza; besides which the chiefs and the
+Arabs spoke of its existence as a fact which could
+be ascertained by one or two days’ journey to the
+east. Speke was more concerned himself with losing
+no time in getting to the point at which the Nile left
+the Victoria Nyanza. He made little or no attempt
+to delineate the coast line of that lake with any accuracy,
+and as we know, he placed the west coast much
+too far to the east, reducing the lake to almost two-thirds
+of its actual area. Seeing how near he marched
+to the coast in Buddu, it is curious that he got no
+sight of the large archipelago of the Sese Islands,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a>
+which can be sighted from a distance of many miles.
+There is no indication of these islands on his map.
+Apparently he made no attempts to check his computation
+of the altitude of the Victoria Nyanza, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
+in 1858 he computed at 3740 feet (an estimate not
+far off the correct one of 3775 feet). All the other
+altitudes taken by his boiling-point thermometer
+seem to be too low. His surmise that the Ripon Falls
+are only 3308 feet above sea-level is more than four
+hundred feet too low; and if his altitudes in northern
+Unyamwezi are correct (which I doubt), the waters
+of the Victoria Nyanza must be a huge, pent-up
+dam which would flood large tracts of German East
+Africa.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_151" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1501.jpg" width="2165" height="976" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Ripon Falls from the West Bank.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Grant had to be left behind in Karagwe, owing
+to an ulcerated leg. Speke decided upon going to
+Uganda alone, but despatched the head-man of his
+caravan, Baraka, with a companion to the north of
+Unyoro, providing him with a letter to Petherick.
+He himself entered Uganda (first of all Europeans
+to do so) on the 16th of January, 1862. He travelled
+along the coast country of Buddu, and soon began to
+appreciate the beauty of the land.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“I felt inclined to stop here a month, everything was so
+very pleasant. The temperature was perfect. The roads,
+as indeed they were everywhere, were as broad as our
+coach roads, cut through the long grasses, straight over
+the hills and down through the woods in the dells,—a
+strange contrast to the wretched tracks in all adjacent
+countries. The huts were kept so clean and so neat, not
+a fault could be found with them; the gardens the same.
+Wherever I strolled I saw nothing but richness, and what
+ought to be wealth. The whole land was a picture of
+quiescent beauty, with a boundless sea in the background.
+Looking over the hills, it struck the fancy at once that at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
+one period the whole land must have been at a uniform
+level with their present tops, but that, by the constant
+denudation it was subjected to by the frequent rains, it
+had been cut down and sloped into those beautiful hills
+and dales which now so much please the eye; for there
+were none of those quartz dykes I had seen protruding
+through the same kind of aqueous formations in Usui
+and Karagwe, nor were there any other sorts of volcanic
+disturbance to distort the quiet aspect of the scene.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_152" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1522.jpg" width="1600" height="1276" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A View in Uganda.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke found an Uganda not much smaller in area
+than that Negro kingdom is to-day. It lacked the
+large slices of Unyoro which were cut off and added
+to Uganda after the commencement of the British
+Protectorate, but it probably wielded a political influence
+over Busoga on the east and Toro on the
+west, since denied to it. The population of this kingdom
+in those days was computed at not far under
+four millions. Its administrators at the present time
+are doubtful if the same kingdom possesses eight hundred
+thousand inhabitants. The roads then were as
+broad and as well kept as they are now. It is sad to
+think that the people were possibly happier. True,
+their despotic ruler—whom they regarded with almost
+religious veneration—slaughtered and tortured
+those who frequented his Court; but the people at large
+were little affected by these deeds of cruelty, even if
+they did not regard them with that disinterested admiration
+which the Negro always accords to a display
+of force. Syphilis had wrought but slight ravages
+amongst them; indeed, it was a disease of but recent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
+introduction (coming from the Nile).<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> No religious
+feuds had begun. The people believed their monarch
+to be the mightiest on earth, and themselves to
+be the happiest folk, living in a real paradise. For
+beauty the land can hardly be matched elsewhere in
+Africa. The one indisputable flaw in the climate is
+the frequency of dangerous thunderstorms. But for
+these reminders of a harsher law the Baganda might
+well have looked back on their life under Mutesa
+and his predecessors as one of ideal happiness. They
+had plenty to eat. Their banana groves provided the
+staple of their diet unfailingly. In addition, the rich
+soil grew such legumens and cereals as they required.
+The rivers, lakes, and marshes swarmed with fish.
+Cattle throve. Goats, sheep, and fowls were abundant.
+Bark cloth from the fig-trees and carefully
+dressed skins provided the clothing they were so
+scrupulous to wear; for they shuddered at open indecency,
+and yet led the most licentious lives, licentiousness
+then paying no penalty in the spread of
+malignant diseases. This would be the way in which
+the average Muganda might look back on the past.
+Of course there was another side to the picture, no
+doubt. The paradisaical, unmoral lives of easy indulgence
+in their banana groves ill fitted them in the
+long run to cope with the attacks of stronger races.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
+Fate led them under the British ægis after the country
+had been brought to something like ruin by ten
+years of civil war, and ten years of wretched misgovernment
+at the hands of a wicked sovereign. Had
+the British Protectorate not been declared, it is futile
+to suppose the country could have retained its independence.
+It would have been annexed by Germany
+or France, have been added to the Congo Free State
+or to the Egyptian Sudan.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> If by some miracle it
+had escaped any one of these masters, it would have
+fallen victim later on to the Abyssinian raiders of
+the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Speke found the country governed by a worshipped
+despot, Mutesa, who had just succeeded to a throne
+which had been in existence for something like four
+hundred and fifty years in an unbroken dynasty
+originally of Hima origin. This despot was a young
+man of agreeable countenance, with somewhat negroid
+features but a yellowish-brown skin. He had
+the large, liquid eyes characteristic of all the princes
+and princesses of this family. He lived in palaces
+which, though built of palm trunks, reeds, and grass
+were often imposing in appearance, with roofs rising
+to fifty feet above the ground. The interior of these
+dwellings had a raised floor of mud, hard as cement,
+and was divided into compartments by reed screens.
+The floor would be strewn with a soft carpet of fine
+fragrant grass, on which leopard skins and beautifully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
+dressed ox-hides were laid down. The towns consisted
+mainly of collections of these straw-thatched dwellings
+surrounded by large gardens and banana groves, and
+fenced off from the outer world by tall reed fences so
+plaited as to produce an agreeably variegated aspect.
+Speke and his companion, and the Swahili porters
+with them, noticed the resemblance offered by this
+beautifully “tidy” country of Uganda to the civilised
+coast belt of Zanzibar. Negro savagery was far
+removed, especially in sanitary matters, where the
+arrangements were quite equal to those in force in
+England one hundred years ago. The religion of the
+country consisted of a worship paid to a large number
+of Ba-lubari or spirits, some of which were obviously
+ancestral, and others the personification of earth,
+air, or water forces.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> The ministers of this religion
+were the Ba-mandwa or sorcerer-priests. Originally
+these priests were of the Bahima stock. Indeed,
+this religion which prevails amongst so many tribes
+in western and equatorial Africa seems to have had
+(like the Bahima aristocracy) a Hamitic origin, and
+to have come originally from the regions east of the
+White Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Mutesa’s Court was remarkable for its hierarchy of
+officials. The principal minister is now the Katikiro,
+but was formerly styled Kamuraviona. He was formerly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
+the commander-in-chief, though now no longer
+associated with such office. Some functions were hereditary,
+such as the Pokino or Governor of Buddu;
+but these hereditary posts were formerly the recognition
+of the existence of feudatory princes. The Kimbugwe
+was formerly the guardian of the king’s navel
+string and the keeper of his drums. The Mugema was
+the commissioner in charge of the royal tombs; Kasuju
+was the guardian of the king’s sisters; Mukwenda
+was his treasurer; Kauta was the steward of
+his kitchen; Seruti his head brewer; and so forth. In
+course of time many of these functions were purely
+honorary. The system seems to have come, like so
+much else of the civilisation of Uganda, from the
+Hamitic invaders, and it bears a curious resemblance
+to the origin of similar functionaries in the courts of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Society also was divided much as it is in our own
+world. There were the Royal Family and its collateral
+branches, known as Balángira, or princes. The
+princesses were called Bambeja. The Baronage was
+styled Bakungu. Then there was an upper class of
+functionaries known as Batongoli, while the peasants
+were classed as Bakopi.</p>
+
+<p>Speke—handsome, manly, kindly, and straightforward—became
+an immense favourite with the
+volatile tyrant of Uganda, with the queens (for there
+were several queens—dowagers, mothers, consorts—at
+once in Uganda), with the nobles, and with
+the people. “My beard,” he writes, “engrossed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
+major part of most conversations; all the Baganda
+said they would come out in future with hairy faces.”
+The Royal Family of Uganda, he also remarks, gave
+orders without knowing how they were to be carried
+out, and treated all practical arrangements as trifling
+details not worth their attention; so that Speke and his
+caravan sometimes found themselves not very well off
+for food. The king or the queen-mother had said,
+“Let them be fed,” but ministers were not equally
+eager to see the royal largesse awarded. The handsome
+young king was extremely trying to deal with,
+as he put a great many questions and seldom waited
+for the answers. His slavish courtiers were constantly
+on their bellies, uttering incessant expressions of
+“Thank you very much” (“Niyanzi-ge”) for whatever
+their chief was pleased to do, say, or show to
+them. Not infrequently Speke intervened to save the
+lives of queens or pages who for a nothing were condemned
+to a cruel execution. On one occasion a picnic
+on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza was attended by
+the following incident. One of Mutesa’s <span class="locked">wives,—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="in0">“a most charming creature, and truly one of the best of
+the lot, plucked a fruit and offered it to the king, thinking,
+doubtless, to please him greatly; but he, like a madman,
+flew into a towering passion, said it was the first
+time a woman had ever had the impudence to offer him
+anything, and ordered the pages to seize, bind, and lead
+her off to execution. These words were no sooner uttered
+by the king than the whole bevy of pages slipped their
+cord turbans from their heads, and rushed like a pack
+of cupid beagles upon the fairy queen, who, indignant at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
+the little urchins daring to touch her majesty, remonstrated
+with the king, and tried to beat them off like flies,
+but was soon captured, overcome, and dragged away,
+crying on the names of the Kamuraviona and ‘Mzungu’
+(myself) for help and protection; whilst Lubuga, the
+pet sister, and all the other women clasped the king by his
+legs, and kneeling, implored forgiveness for their sister.
+The more they craved for mercy, the more brutal he became,
+till at last he took a heavy stick and began to belabour
+the poor victim on the head. Hitherto I had been
+extremely careful not to interfere with any of the king’s
+acts of arbitrary cruelty, knowing that such interference,
+at an early stage, would produce more harm than good.
+This last act of barbarism, however, was too much for
+my English blood to stand; and as I heard my name,
+‘Mzungu,’<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> imploringly pronounced, I rushed at the
+king, and staying his uplifted arm, demanded from him
+the woman’s life. Of course I ran imminent risk of
+losing my own in thus thwarting the capricious tyrant;
+but his caprice proved the friend of both. The novelty
+of interference even made him smile, and the woman was
+instantly released.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke had quitted Grant in January, 1862. The
+two travellers did not meet again till the end of May
+in the same year. Grant had been constantly ill, and
+had been unable to make any survey of the lake shore.
+It was not till the 7th of July that Speke and Grant
+obtained leave to quit the capricious king on their
+journey eastwards to the Nile. The day before they
+started Speke <span class="locked">notes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“On the way home one of the king’s favourite women
+overtook us, walking, with her hands behind her head, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
+execution, crying ‘Nyawo’ in the most pitiful manner.
+A man was preceding her, but did not touch her; for she
+loved to obey the orders of her king voluntarily, and in
+consequence of previous attachment was permitted as a
+mark of distinction to walk free. Wondrous world! It
+was not ten minutes since we parted from the king,
+yet he had found time to transact this bloody piece of
+business.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the following morning the king replied to
+Speke’s farewell remarks “with great feeling and
+good taste.” The king followed him with his courtiers
+in a procession to his camp, and exhorted the
+porters to follow the travellers through fire and water.
+“Then, exchanging adieus again, he walked ahead in
+gigantic strides up the hill, the pretty favourite of his
+harem, Lubuga, beckoning and waving with her little
+hands, and crying, ‘Bana! Bana!’<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> All showed
+a little feeling at the severance. We saw them no
+more.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV"><span id="toclink_160"></span>CHAPTER XIV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">FROM VICTORIA NYANZA TO ALEXANDRIA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">On</span> the 28th of July, 1862, Speke stood by the
+side of the Ripon Falls, where the Victoria
+Nile leaves the great Nyanza at the head of Napoleon
+Gulf. Grant had gone off with a portion of the expedition
+on the more direct route to Unyoro. Speke
+had reached the Victoria Nile first of all below its exit
+from the lake, and describes the scene as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It was the very perfection of the effect aimed at in
+a highly kept park, with a magnificent stream of from
+six to seven hundred yards wide, dotted with islets and
+rocks,—the former occupied by fishermen’s huts, the
+latter by birds and crocodiles basking in the sun,—flowing
+between fine, high grassy banks, with rich trees
+and plantains in the background, where herds of topi
+and hartebeest could be seen grazing, while the hippopotami
+were snorting in the water and bustards and
+guineafowl were rising at our feet.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_160" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1601.jpg" width="1696" height="1291" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Nile at the Isamba Rapids</span> (looking North).</p>
+
+<p>Where Speke first struck it.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Marching up the left bank of the Nile towards
+the lake, he thus describes that river at the Isamba
+<span class="locked">rapids:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The water ran deep between its banks, which were
+covered with fine grass, soft cloudy acacia, and festoons
+of lilac convolvuli, whilst here and there, where the land<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+had slipped above the rapids, bared spaces of red earth
+could be seen, like that of Devonshire; there, too, the
+waters, impeded by a natural dam, seemed like a huge
+mill pond, sullen and dark, in which two crocodiles, lying
+about, were looking out for prey. From the high banks
+I looked down upon a line of sloping wooded islets
+lying across the stream, which divide its waters, and, by
+interrupting them, cause at once both dam and rapids.
+The whole was more fairy-like, wild, and romantic than—I
+must confess that my thoughts took that shape—anything
+I ever saw outside of a theatre. It was exactly
+the sort of place, in fact, where, bridged across from one
+side-slip to the other, on a moonlight night, brigands
+would assemble to enact some dreadful tragedy. Even
+the Wangwana (Zanzibaris) seemed spellbound at the
+novel beauty of the sight, and no one thought of moving
+till hunger warned us that night was setting in, and we
+had better look out for lodgings.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke describes the Ripon Falls, where the Nile
+leaves the lake, as by far the most interesting sight
+he had ever seen in Africa. The falls are stemmed
+by rocky islands and crowned by magnificent trees.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It was a sight that attracted one to it for hours,—the
+roar of the waters, the thousands of passenger-fish, leaping
+at the falls with all their might, the Basoga and
+Baganda fishermen coming out in boats and taking post
+on all the rocks with rod and hook, hippopotami and crocodiles
+lying sleepily on the water, the ferry at work above
+the falls, and cattle driven down to drink at the margin
+of the lake. The scene made, in all, with the pretty nature
+of the country,—small hills, grassy-topped, with trees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
+in the folds, and gardens on the lower slopes,—as interesting
+a picture as one could wish to see.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was Speke’s furthest point eastward in connection
+with Nile discovery. He confesses in his
+book that he has missed much by not going through
+Busoga to see the northeast corner of the lake. Had
+he done so, he might have cleared up at the very beginning
+the most disputed portion of that lake’s
+geography. At the northeast corner of the Victoria
+Nyanza is a long and narrow gulf which we now
+term Kavirondo Bay. This gulf figures on Speke’s
+map as a semi-independent Lake Baringo. Stanley,
+in his circumnavigation, wholly overlooked it, as its
+mouth is blocked by islands. Joseph Thompson read
+a quarter of the riddle. One-half was guessed by Mr.
+C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, and the remaining quarter was cleared
+up by an expedition under Commander Whitehouse.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_162" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1621.jpg" width="1207" height="1146" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ripon Falls, from Bugunga, where Speke first
+saw them.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These falls of the Nile were named after the Earl
+de Grey and Ripon, then President of the Royal
+Geographical Society; and the gulf of the Victoria
+Nyanza, from which the Nile issued, was called Napoleon
+Channel after the then Emperor of the French.
+Speke and his party, with their Baganda guides, got
+into canoes, and paddled some distance down the Nile
+north of the Isamba rapids. But just as they were
+nearing Lake Kioga (of whose existence Speke was
+ignorant) they passed an important town on the left
+bank of the Nile which was an outpost of Unyoro,
+under a semi-independent chief. Here the party was
+received with the greatest hostility, and obliged to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
+give up the river route. Speke struck inland to the
+waters of the Luajali, which he wrongly believed to
+be another outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, and shortly
+afterwards met Grant, who was on his return journey
+from the capital of Unyoro. After some hesitation
+they decided to join forces and march on Unyoro overland.
+By this means they entirely lost count of the
+course of the Victoria Nile for some distance, and of
+the existence of the great lakes Kioga and Kwania.
+As they crossed the boundary line and entered Unyoro,
+Speke <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“This first march was a picture of all the country to
+its capital: an interminable forest of small trees, bush,
+and tall grass, with scanty villages, low huts, and dirty-looking
+people clad in skins; the plantain, sweet potato,
+sesamum, and ulezi (millet) forming the chief edibles,
+besides goats and fowls; whilst the cows, which are
+reported to be numerous, were kept, as everywhere else
+where pasture-lands are good, by the wandering, unsociable
+Wahuma, and were seldom seen. No hills, except
+a few scattered cones, disturb the level surface of the land,
+and no pretty views ever cheer the eye. Uganda is now
+entirely left behind; we shall not see its like again; for the
+further one leaves the equator, and the rain-attracting
+influences of the Mountains of the Moon, vegetation
+decreases proportionately with the distance.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_163" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1624.jpg" width="1178" height="1210" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">View of Napoleon Gulf, from Jinja.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke had sent on, many months in advance, his
+head-man, Baraka, to await him in Unyoro, and possibly
+to convey letters to Petherick. But for this action
+in all probability a peaceful entry into Unyoro
+would have been refused, as the Baganda were much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
+detested there for their predatory raids. Kamurasi,
+King of Unyoro, was very nearly as big a scoundrel
+and as inhospitable to strangers as his son Kabarega,
+who is now residing in the Seychelles Islands. After
+innumerable difficulties caused by the caprices of Mutesa
+and the jealousies subsisting between the Baganda
+and Banyoro, and the fierce suspicions of Kamurasi,
+they reached the capital of that monarch who considered
+himself to be the legitimate emperor over all
+the lands once ruled by the Bahima race. This capital
+was situated then on a peninsula between the Kafu
+River and the Nile, on what is now the soil of Uganda.
+The Kafu River, which is a broad, marshy stream rising
+not far from the Albert Nyanza, is the present
+boundary between the two kingdoms. Speke wrongly
+believed it to be another outlet of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>For nine days Speke and his companion were kept
+waiting before the suspicious king could make up his
+mind to see them. From the 9th of September to the
+9th of November the whole expedition was detained
+at the Court of this greedy tyrant. At his Court they
+heard of the existence of a large lake, “Lutanzige,” to
+the west,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> and asked permission to go and see it. This
+was refused, and thus another opportunity of adding
+an important piece of information to Nile discovery
+was denied to Speke, who could have travelled to and
+from the coast of Lake Albert in three weeks instead
+of wasting two months at Kamurasi’s Court. However,
+during this long stay Speke managed to send<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
+Bombay with some of Kamurasi’s men down the
+Nile and through the Lango and Acholi countries to
+Petherick’s outpost. After Bombay’s return with
+this cheering news, Speke was more than ever impatient
+to get away. Kamurasi attempted to delay the
+departure under one pretext or another, no doubt
+with the object of bleeding the expedition of more
+and more gifts. At last, on the 9th of November,
+they descended the Kafu River to its junction with the
+Nile, and found themselves on the broad Nile, still
+lake-like in extent, owing to the vicinity of Lake
+Kioga. In this manner, some travelling by canoe and
+some by land, they reached the Karuma Falls, from
+which point they left the Nile, marching across the
+marshy and then steppe-like countries of the Acholi,
+and came first into touch with the influence of Egypt
+at Faloro, on the borders of the Madi country. Here
+they met a Sudanese named Muhammad Wad-el-Mek,—quite
+black, but dressed like an Egyptian and talking
+Arabic. Muhammad was in command of some
+two hundred Sudanese, who, by their association with
+Egypt, were known as Turks by the natives. Muhammad
+Wad-el-Mek at first professed to be Petherick’s
+employé, and then confessed that he was really
+the head-man of a Maltese trader named De Bono.
+These were the men that Petherick had arranged
+with De Bono were to come into touch with Speke’s
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Here, however, they met with some disappointment.
+Instead of being allowed to proceed directly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
+to Gondokoro, Muhammad Wad-el-Mek sought to
+detain them by alleging that no boats would be
+waiting for them at Gondokoro at that season (December).
+The usual heart-breaking delays took place.
+Speke decided from this point (Faloro) to send back
+Kijwiga,—a fairly faithful Unyoro guide, who had
+been with him now, one way and the other, about a
+year, having originally been sent to greet him in
+Uganda. Meantime Muhammad, De Bono’s agent,
+went off to the southward with his men to fight one
+African chief on behalf of another so as to secure a
+large quantity of ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Speke was shocked, during his stay in Unyoro, at
+the abominable way in which the “Turks” treated
+the inoffensive Madi natives. At last, on the 12th of
+January, 1863, Speke, disgusted and hopeless at the
+delay, started ahead to a village called Panyoro. He
+was followed up by Muhammad’s men, and they arrived
+at the Nile near the modern station of Afuddu
+(close to the junction of the river Asua and the Nile).
+At this place they found a tree with the letters M.&nbsp;I.
+inscribed on its bark. This was the remains of an
+attempt on the part of the Venetian traveller Miani
+to carve his name on a tree so as to give some information
+to Speke, who had long been expected in this
+direction. At this place there was another halt, which
+Speke and Grant employed in killing game, and giving
+a great deal of the meat thus acquired to the natives.</p>
+
+<p>On the first of February they started again, Muhammad
+having procured porters by the most arbitrary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
+methods. They followed the Nile down to the confluence
+of the Asua River. This stream Speke imagined
+to flow out of what we now call Kavirondo Bay. It
+is strange that so great a geographer should have had
+such elementary notions about hydrography. He gives
+the Victoria Nyanza something like four principal outlets,
+much as the Portuguese in earlier days provided
+lakes in the centre of Africa which fed impartially the
+Congo, the Nile, and the Zambezi. Crossing the Asua,
+they emerged along the Nile rapids until they arrived
+at the verge of the Bari country. One serious attack
+was made on them, but was met by the determined
+measures taken by Muhammad.</p>
+
+<p>At last, on the 15th of February, 1863, they walked
+into Gondokoro. Here their first inquiry was for
+Petherick. “A mysterious silence ensued; we were
+informed that Mr. De Bono was the man we had to
+thank for the assistance we had received in coming
+from Madi.” Hurrying down through the ruins of
+the abandoned Austrian Mission to the bank of the
+river, where a line of vessels was moored, the explorers
+suddenly saw Mr. Samuel Baker marching
+towards them. “What joy this was I cannot tell.
+We could not talk fast enough, so overwhelmed were
+we both to meet again.”<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Samuel Baker had conceived the idea of going
+to meet Speke at the head waters of the Nile. He and
+his wife (the present Lady Baker) arrived at Khartum,
+and there received much information and assistance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
+from Petherick in the furtherance of their work.
+As to Petherick himself, he arrived with his wife also
+a few days after Speke reached Gondokoro. Speke
+seems to have been rather hard on this man. We
+know that Petherick went up the river to Gondokoro
+in 1862, expecting to get news of Speke, and not imagining
+that he could have lost something like a year
+of travel by his delays in Unyamwezi, Uganda, and
+Unyoro. Being unable to remain indefinitely at Gondokoro
+without news of the travellers, he arranged
+with De Bono to send Muhammad and his men in
+the direction of Unyoro to found a post where Speke
+might be awaited. As we know, these orders were
+carried out. Petherick was naturally obliged to think
+of his own means of livelihood, for he was an unpaid
+consul. He therefore went on an ivory-trading expedition
+west of the Mountain Nile, knowing, of
+course, that Baker would be awaiting the travellers,
+and that runners from the direction of Gondokoro
+would keep him advised as to their approach. He
+and his wife reached Gondokoro only a few days after
+Speke had arrived there. Speke, however, refused
+all assistance at their hands, and decided to return to
+Khartum on Baker’s dahabiah. Speke’s adverse report
+on Petherick, combined with the intrigues of the
+Turks, who disliked his opposition to the slave-trade,
+practically ruined Petherick, as we have seen in a
+previous chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The journey of this wonderful expedition from Gondokoro
+down the Nile (Speke mistaking the origin and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
+course of its affluents as he went along, so that his
+map in this respect is very incorrect) was broken at
+Khartum, whence the Europeans and Negroes travelled
+across the desert to Egypt. Of the hundred-odd
+porters who left Zanzibar with this expedition
+in 1860, nineteen (including Bombay) reached Cairo
+with Speke and Grant, the remainder having deserted,
+died, or been sent back from various points. These
+survivors were generously treated by Speke, who gave
+them an extra year’s pay as a gratuity, and orders for
+land and marriage portions on their reaching Zanzibar.
+He also provided for their free passage from Suez
+to Zanzibar via the Seychelles Islands. Somehow or
+other they went on by mistake to Mauritius, where
+they were treated most generously by the little colony.
+Thence they were sent in safety to Zanzibar. From
+this point several of these men subsequently journeyed
+with Stanley and other African explorers. Bombay,
+“Captain of the Faithful,” died in 1886 (?), having
+been in receipt during the last years of his life of a
+regular pension from the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+
+<p>Speke and Grant returned to England in the spring
+of 1863. By December in that year Speke had finished
+his great book, the “Discovery of the Source of the
+Nile.” Speke, soon after his return, was received by
+the present king. In the autumn of 1863 he was
+given an ovation in the county of Somerset worthy of
+his achievements. “Punch” accorded him a cartoon
+drawn by Tenniel, but the British government
+did <em>nothing</em> for him, unless there can be attributed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
+its influence the paltry satisfaction of granting to him
+through the Heralds College supporters and an additional
+motto to his coat of arms. By this grant his
+family is now entitled to add a hippopotamus and a
+crocodile as supporters to their shield, a crocodile to
+their crest, the flowing Nile to their coat of arms, and
+the additional motto, “Honor est a Nilo.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_170" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1702_map.jpg" width="1617" height="2314" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1702_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">The last Map issued to Illustrate Speke’s Theories, 1865.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Meantime Burton had become a British consul on
+the West Coast of Africa, and was returning to
+England in 1864. Speke had published articles in
+“Blackwood” and a book which, as already related,
+made uncomplimentary references to his former companion.
+The two great travellers were invited to meet
+at the British Association at Bath in 1864 and discuss
+their different views as to the Nile sources; for
+Burton, as a tit-for-tat, had published a work in collaboration
+with Petherick, in which he sought to
+prove that Speke’s discovery of the Victoria Nyanza
+was unimportant. Taking advantage of the traveller’s
+admission that he had touched but seldom the
+shores of this great lake, he denied its existence, and
+reduced it to a mere assemblage of pools and swamps.
+Speke, before quitting Baker at Gondokoro, had told
+him much of the Luta Nzige or Western Lake which
+had some connection with the Nile, and Baker (as will
+be subsequently set forth) had followed Speke’s indications
+with success, and discovered and named the
+Albert Nyanza. His exaggeration of the length of
+this sheet of water had convinced Burton that Speke
+was altogether mistaken, and that he himself was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
+wrong in having earlier stated that the Rusizi River
+flowed into and not out of the north end of Tanganyika.
+(Neither Speke nor Burton actually saw the
+Rusizi.) Burton therefore turned the Rusizi into an
+effluent of Tanganyika, and made it a connection between
+that lake and the Albert Nyanza. Had he had
+any glimmerings of lakes Kivu, Albert Edward, and
+the Semliki, he would no doubt have been still more
+certain of his hypothesis. As it was, Speke’s theories
+have been shown subsequently to have been very near
+the whole truth. The Victoria Nyanza is the main
+source of the Nile, though that river finds another
+reservoir in the great swampy lakes of Kioga and
+Kwania (which again receive much of the drainage
+of Mount Elgon), and a most important contribution
+from the Albert Nyanza; for this last lake is the receptacle
+of all the drainage of the Ruwenzori snow
+range. At the time, however, Speke’s theory was not
+sufficiently supported by evidence, and was certainly
+open to attack, the more so because he had blundered
+by giving the Victoria Nyanza so many outlets. The
+two great men were to meet and discuss their differences,
+and every one knew that underneath a mere
+dispute on geographical theories lay deep-seated bitterness
+of feeling. It was said that Speke, who hated
+quarrelling, and perhaps felt some compunction as to
+the frankness of his remarks concerning Burton,
+looked forward to this public meeting with great dislike,
+the more so as he was a poor and unready public
+speaker. But the intended conference was never to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
+come off; on the 21st of September, 1864, Speke,
+whilst out partridge-shooting on his father’s land at
+Jordans, near Ilminster, was scrambling over a stile
+with his gun at full-cock. It was just one of those
+little imprudences that even the wariest of African
+travellers commits when he returns to civilisation.
+Both barrels of the gun were discharged into his
+body, and he died within a few hours. The news
+was received by the British Association at Bath just
+as the meeting was about to commence, and as Burton
+was seated awaiting the arrival of his old comrade.
+This terrible event hushed the difference between them.
+Burton’s wife, a gifted woman, who sometimes wrote
+very good poetry, inscribed some very beautiful lines
+to the memory of Speke.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_172" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1722.jpg" width="1602" height="2287" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Speke’s Handwriting.</span></p>
+
+<p>(Letter to Laurence Oliphant.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We take leave here of one of the greatest of African
+explorers, the second greatest only, if Stanley is to
+be accounted the first. Only a man of extraordinary
+energy, determination, bravery, tact, and of iron constitution
+could have struggled through the difficulties
+which beset Speke on his route from Zanzibar to the
+Victoria Nyanza, and from the Victoria Nyanza to
+the navigable Nile. The purport of the expedition
+was wellnigh wrecked between Unyamwezi and the
+Victoria Nyanza; it ran many risks from the caprices
+of Mutesa; several times Kamurasi threatened it with
+failure in Unyoro; other dangers awaited it in the
+Madi and Bari countries, but it finally resulted in
+affording us the main solution of the Nile Quest. As
+the outcome of Speke’s journey, the Victoria Nyanza<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
+was placed on the map with some approximate correctness
+as to shape and area; the shape and size of
+Lake Albert Nyanza were guessed at with extraordinary
+accuracy, and the course of the White and Mountain
+Nile was foreshadowed with the same amount of
+truth as in the case of the Albert Nyanza. The remarkable
+Hima aristocracy of equatorial Africa and
+the barbaric court of Uganda were revealed to the
+world. Speke broke the back of the Nile mystery,
+just as Stanley did that of the Congo. It only remained
+henceforth to fill up the minor details of the
+map.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV"><span id="toclink_174"></span>CHAPTER XV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SAMUEL BAKER AND THE ALBERT NYANZA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Samuel White Baker</span> was born in London
+on the 8th June, 1821, and was the second
+and eventually eldest son of Mr. Samuel Baker,
+a city merchant, who possessed large properties
+and sugar plantations in Jamaica and Mauritius.
+Samuel Baker, the elder, at one time maintained a
+small fleet of sailing vessels. He also became one
+of the first Directors of the Great Western Railway.
+His family and grandfather were mainly settled at
+Bristol, and were much connected with the navy in
+the eighteenth century. Further back still the Bakers
+were members of Parliament and Court officials. They
+came originally from London, then became a Kentish
+family, then moved to Dorsetshire, then to Bristol,
+and finally back again to London. Samuel Baker, the
+younger, was a typical English boy. His biographer,
+Mr. Douglas Murray, describes him as having been
+“of the Saxon type; a noble-looking boy, of very fair
+complexion, light hair, and fearless blue eyes.” He
+was “enterprising, mischievous, for ever getting into
+scrapes, and leading others into them; but he was
+never known to tell a lie or do a mean thing.” His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
+career was very nearly brought to a premature close
+when he was twelve years old by an attempt to make
+fireworks. He ignited a small heap of gunpowder on
+the kitchen table, and caused a terrible explosion, which
+blew him to the far end of the room and burnt his
+arm severely.</p>
+
+<p>He hated school, and received most of his education
+from a private tutor and by a residence at
+Frankfurt in Germany. His father attempted to put
+him in his London office; and this work, though
+excessively irksome, was endured for a time, as he
+had early fallen in love with the daughter of a
+Gloucestershire rector, whom he married when he
+was only twenty-two. Soon after his marriage he
+went out to Mauritius with his wife, to attempt the
+management of his father’s estates in that island.
+But he was restless and dissatisfied with this career;
+moreover, his three children, born in three years, all
+died. He therefore started for Ceylon, to which island
+he was attracted by the stories of big-game shooting.
+His interest was excited in the splendid mountain region
+of the interior of Ceylon, which presents considerable
+areas for European occupations between six
+thousand and eight thousand feet in altitude. Here
+for nine years he worked at founding an English settlement
+of planters, which exists to this day in a
+flourishing condition, some of the land-owners being
+members of the Baker family. But his wife, who
+bore him many children, suffered greatly in health.
+In 1855 he returned to England, and wrote a book<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
+on Ceylon. At the end of that year his wife died,
+and Baker, after leaving his young children to be
+brought up in England, started for Constantinople,
+which he reached at the close of the Crimean War.
+His idea was to travel in Circassia, and see what advance
+in that direction Russia was making towards
+India; but he spent several years in a rather objectless
+fashion, shooting, fishing, and exploring in Asia
+Minor and Turkey in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859 he settled down as Manager-General of
+a British-made railway from the Danube to the
+Black Sea. Whilst this railway was being made
+he met in Hungary the lady who became his second
+wife.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> The railway was completed in 1860, and
+Baker once more became restless. Big-game shooting
+in Asia Minor—splendid as it seems to have
+been at that period, when he could shoot as many
+bears, boars, wolves, red deer, and roe deer as he
+wished—did not content him; his thoughts turned
+towards Africa and the Nile. He arrived at Cairo with
+Mrs. Baker in 1861, with the idea of travelling up the
+Nile to meet Speke and Grant coming from Zanzibar
+via the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_176" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1762.jpg" width="1406" height="1973" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Maull &amp; Fox.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Samuel Baker, 1865.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But Baker resolved, before attempting anything so
+difficult as the exploration of the White Nile above
+Gondokoro, to learn something of African travel and
+Sudanese Arabic. He therefore left the main Nile at
+Berber and ascended the Atbara River, the last affluent
+which the Nile receives on its way to the Mediterranean;<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
+the first running river encountered by the
+traveller ascending the Nile that can be said to flow
+through tropical Africa,—the Africa with the typical
+Ethiopian fauna and flora.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“After a scorching march of about twenty miles we
+arrived at the junction of the Atbara River with the Nile
+[writes Baker]; throughout the route the barren sand
+stretched to the horizon on the left, while on the right,
+within a mile of the Nile, the soil was sufficiently rich to
+support a certain amount of vegetation, chiefly dwarf
+mimosas and the <i class="taxonomy">Asclepia gigantea</i>.... The Atbara
+has a curious appearance; in no part was it less than four
+hundred yards in width, while in many places this breadth
+was much exceeded. The banks were from twenty-five
+to thirty feet deep: these had evidently been overflowed
+during floods, but at the present time the river was dead,
+not only partially dry, but so glaring was the sandy bed
+that the reflection of the sun was almost unbearable.
+Great numbers of the <i class="taxonomy">Dum</i> palm (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>)
+grew upon the banks.... The only shade there is afforded
+by the evergreen Dum palms.... Many pools
+were of considerable size and great depth. In flood time
+a tremendous torrent sweeps down the course of the
+Atbara, and the sudden bends of the river are hollowed
+out by the force of the stream to a depth of twenty or
+thirty feet below the level of the bed. Accordingly, these
+hollows become reservoirs of water when the river is
+otherwise exhausted.... These pools are full of life, huge
+fish, crocodiles of immense size, turtles, and occasionally
+hippopotami.... The animals of the desert gazelles,
+hyaenas, and wild asses—are compelled to resort
+to these crowded drinking places.... Innumerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
+doves, varying in species, throng the trees and seek the
+shelter of the Dum palms; thousands of sand grouse
+arrive morning and evening to drink and to depart.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the pools of the Atbara Baker for the first time
+shot hippopotamuses. He also started fishing with a
+rod and line, and on one occasion caught an enormous
+“turtle.”<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>
+
+<p>At the end of June they were nearly suffocated with
+the heat and dust of the Sudan summer, but they were
+to experience the effects of the melting of Abyssinian
+snows and of the descent of the tropical rains on that
+African Switzerland. On the 24th of June Baker was
+lying half asleep on his bed by the margin of the river
+when he fancied he heard a rumbling sound like distant
+thunder. This roar increased in volume till it
+awoke his Arabs, who rushed into the camp shouting,
+“The river! The river!”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“We were up in an instant, and my interpreter in a
+state of intense confusion exclaimed that the river was
+coming down, and that the supposed distant thunder
+was the roar of approaching water.... Many of the
+people were sleeping on the clean sand of the river’s bed,
+and were only just in time to reach the top of the steep
+bank before the water was on them in the darkness....
+The river had arrived ‘like a thief in the night.’ When
+morning broke I stood upon the banks of a noble river,
+the wonder of the desert! Yesterday there was a barren
+sheet of glaring sand with a fringe of withered bush and
+trees upon its borders.... No bush could boast of a
+leaf, no tree could throw a shade: crisp gum crackled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
+upon the stems of the mimosas.... In one night there
+was a mysterious change.... An army of water was
+hastening to the wasted river, which had become a magnificent
+stream some five hundred yards in width and
+fifteen to twenty feet in depth. Bamboos and reeds with
+trash of all kinds were hurried along the muddy waters....
+I realised what had occurred: the rains were falling
+and the snows were melting in Abyssinia. These were
+the main source of the Nile floods.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baker left the Atbara in a land of wild asses and
+gazelles, and travelled to Kassala,—a fortress of the
+eastern Sudan since rendered famous by the struggle
+for its possession between Dervishes and Italians.
+Kassala is situated on the right bank of the river
+Mareb, which rises close to the Red Sea on the northern
+slopes of the Abyssinian plateau. The Mareb
+has every intention of reaching the Nile, or rather
+the Atbara, and no doubt did so in past epochs; but
+at the present time northwards of Kassala it loses
+itself in the desert.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“There was an extraordinary change [writes Baker]
+in the appearance of the river between Gozerajup and this
+spot. There was no longer the vast sandy desert with the
+river flowing through its sterile course on a level with the
+surface of the country, but after traversing an apparently
+perfect flat of forty-five miles of rich alluvial soil, we
+suddenly arrived upon the edge of a deep valley, between
+five and six miles wide, at the bottom of which, about two
+hundred feet below the general level of the country,
+flowed the river Atbara. On the opposite side of the
+valley, the same vast table-lands continued to the western
+horizon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p>
+
+<p>“We commenced the descent towards the river; the
+valley was a succession of gullies and ravines, of landslips
+and watercourses; the entire hollow of miles in
+width had evidently been the work of the river. How
+many ages had the rains and the stream been at work to
+scoop out from the flat tableland this deep and broad
+valley? Here was the giant labourer that had shovelled
+the rich loam upon the delta of lower Egypt! Upon these
+vast flats of fertile soil there can be no drainage except
+through soakage. The deep valley is therefore the receptacle
+not only for the water that oozes from its sides,
+but subterranean channels bursting as land-springs from
+all parts of the walls of the valley, wash down the more
+soluble portions of the earth, and continually waste away
+the soil. Landslips occur during the rainy season;
+streams of rich mud pour down the valley’s slopes, and
+as the river flows beneath in a swollen torrent, the friable
+banks topple down into the stream and dissolve. The
+Atbara becomes the thickness of pea-soup, as its muddy
+waters steadily perform the duty they have fulfilled from
+age to age. Thus was the great river at work upon our
+arrival on its banks at the bottom of the valley. The Arab
+name, ‘Bahr-al-Aswad’ (black river), was well bestowed.
+It was the black mother of Egypt, still carrying to her
+offspring the nourishment that had formed the Delta.</p>
+
+<p>“At this point of interest the journey had commenced;
+the deserts were passed, all was fertility and life; wherever
+the sources of the Nile might be, the Atbara was the
+parent of Egypt! This was my first impression, to be
+proved hereafter.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baker gives a fine description of the splendid type
+of Arab who is still found in the regions of the
+<span class="locked">Atbara:—</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“He was the most magnificent specimen of an Arab
+that I have ever seen. Although upwards of eighty years
+of age, he was as erect as a lance, and did not appear more
+than between fifty and sixty; he was of Herculean stature,
+about six feet three inches high, with immensely
+broad shoulders and chest, a remarkably arched nose;
+eyes like an eagle, beneath large, shaggy, but perfectly
+white eyebrows; a snow-white beard of great thickness
+descended below the middle of his breast. He wore a
+white turban, and a white cashmere abbai or long robe,
+from the throat to the ankles. As a desert patriarch he
+was superb, the very perfection of all that the imagination
+could paint, if we would personify Abraham at the head
+of his people.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This fine old Sheikh brought ten of his sons, most
+of them as tall as himself. He seems to have been
+the father of many children,—a fortunate circumstance
+for the country, though no doubt nearly all
+of his stalwart descendants were extirpated in the
+miserable wars following on the Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Baker ascended the Atbara to its upper waters,
+where it is known as the Settit (higher up still as
+the Takaze). Here he had magnificent hunting of
+big game amongst the Hamran Arabs, whose extraordinary
+prowess with the sword he describes most
+vividly. They would follow up elephants and hamstring
+them with a single blow of their long weapons,
+which were like those of the Crusaders. (As a matter
+of fact, the generality of the Hamran swords were
+manufactured at Sollingen in Germany.) In this land
+Baker saw innumerable giraffes, and most of the big<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
+antelopes of Central Africa, including Kudu and Oryx.
+The country about the Upper Atbara below the Abyssinian
+highlands was exactly like an English park,
+though the trees were mainly acacias. Here and there
+was a gigantic baobab. In the waters of the river was
+found the now well-known Lung-fish, the <i class="taxonomy">Protopterus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the upper waters of the Atbara and its many
+tributaries Baker, skirting the western terraces of
+Abyssinia, reached the river Rahad,—an Egyptian
+affluent of the Blue Nile which flows nearly parallel
+to the river Dinder. These two streams rise
+on the western flanks of the Abyssinian tableland, and
+enter the Blue Nile about one hundred miles southeast
+of Khartum. On his way down this river Baker,
+in the country of Galabat, met two German lay missionaries
+proceeding to Abyssinia in spite of the objection
+expressed to their presence by King Theodore.
+“One of these preachers was a blacksmith, whose iron
+constitution had entirely given way, and the little
+strength that remained he exhausted in endless quotations
+of texts from the Bible, which he considered
+applicable to every trifling event or expression.”</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1862, the Bakers reached Khartum. After
+a long stay at the Pethericks’ house, Baker decided,
+as already related, to go in search of Speke. His
+wife, the present Lady Baker, accompanied him. As
+already related, she was a Hungarian lady of great
+beauty, and possessed of extraordinary courage. Her
+fame as “<em>the</em> Lady” (Es-sitt) still lingers among the
+Nile Negroes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p>
+
+<p>It has already been shown that Baker succeeded in
+being the first European to greet Speke and Grant.
+He received from these travellers the legacy to complete
+their task of ascertaining definitely the existence
+of the western Nile lake (Albert), of which Speke had
+heard under the name of Luta Nzige. On the 26th
+of March, 1863, the Bakers left Gondokoro on this
+errand.</p>
+
+<p>Muhammad Wad-al-Mek, De Bono’s agent, and all
+the other Nubian Nile traders, did their very utmost to
+prevent Baker returning along Speke’s route through
+the Bari country. They incited his Khartum men to
+mutiny. Baker, being unable to obtain porters, owing
+to the excessive hostility of the slave-traders, employed
+the camels he had brought with him from Khartum for
+his transport. As the slave-traders had threatened, if
+he followed in their footsteps, to raise the natives
+about him, he determined to reach the back country of
+Lotuka first, and therefore deliberately strewed some
+of his goods in the way so as to delay the slave-traders,
+who stopped to pick them up. He was outdone
+at his own game, for a large caravan of “Turks”
+reached the Elliria country nearly as soon as he did.
+The leader of this expedition was one Ibrahim. Mrs.
+Baker resolved to see what could be done by a direct
+appeal to whatever the man might possess of generosity.
+The Bakers threatened that if he did them
+harm he would probably be hung at Khartum, while
+if he assisted them to see this lake, they would see
+he was well rewarded. The result was that a truce<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
+was patched up between the slave-traders and Baker’s
+small expedition. Nevertheless, a mutiny happened
+among Baker’s camel-men in the vicinity of Lotuka.
+Some of these men ran away and joined a slave-trading
+party, which, however, was massacred by the
+Lotuka. Henceforth Baker’s few men stuck to him
+faithfully, in terror of what might happen to them
+from his evil eye.</p>
+
+<p>Baker journeyed southward through the splendid
+Lotuka country,—a land of which we know even
+now scarcely more than he told us forty years ago.
+The Lotuka people are a splendid race of Negroids,
+with a good deal more Gala blood in their veins than
+is the case with the Masai, to whom they are closely
+allied in language, but who dwell very much farther
+to the east and south. Since the days of Baker’s
+adventure some of the Lotuka have become Muhammadans,
+and they are no longer completely nude in
+consequence. Their country is a very mountainous
+one, and on the whole well watered. It will probably
+play a considerable part in the future of the Uganda
+Protectorate. Working steadily south through the
+Madi and Acholi countries, the Bakers forded the
+Asua, the great southeastern tributary of the Mountain
+Nile. Here nearly all their porters deserted,
+and as their camels had died in the Madi country,
+they were obliged to abandon all loads which were
+not absolutely necessary,—such as ammunition, and
+presents for Kamurasi.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_184" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1842.jpg" width="1267" height="1982" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Native of Unyoro.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At length they arrived at the Karuma Falls on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
+Victoria Nile, and entered Unyoro. Their first reception
+in Unyoro was hostile, because Muhammad
+Wad-al-Mek had preceded them, and had made the
+worst impression by his treatment of the Banyoro.
+At first Baker desired to follow the Nile down stream
+till it entered the Albert Nyanza, but the Banyoro
+would not allow him to do anything of the kind, or
+to make any journey off the main road along the
+Victoria Nile to Kamurasi’s capital. Contrary to their
+anticipations, Kamurasi received the Bakers well; and
+this was the more fortunate, as Mr. Baker was very
+nearly dead with fever. But Kamurasi soon showed
+his evil nature. He refused to allow Baker to proceed
+due west to the Albert Nyanza, declaring that
+lake was distant a six months’ journey. Ibrahim, the
+slave and ivory trader, had purchased all the goods
+he required, and had left Unyoro. All Baker’s porters,
+except thirteen, had deserted. Finding, however,
+there was nothing more to be got out of Baker, Kamurasi
+relented, accepted a double-barrelled gun, and sent
+off the explorer and his wife with two guides and an
+escort of three hundred men. This escort, however,
+was soon sent back, owing to their unruly behaviour.
+Somehow or other, with such porters as could be
+procured from village to village, they managed, in
+the teeth of fearful misfortunes, to reach the Albert
+Nyanza at a place called Mbakovia, on the southeast
+coast. On this journey Mrs. Baker nearly died from
+sunstroke, and Baker himself was frightfully ill. But
+on the 16th of March, 1864, they had discovered a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
+great lake “with a boundless sea-horizon to the southwards,”
+which they named the Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Baker’s visit no doubt (though he
+does not say so) there was a good deal of mist about
+this lake,—a common feature. The mist and the
+clouds seem to have prevented the travellers from
+getting any glimpse of the mass of the Ruwenzori
+snow-range which lay not many miles distant from
+them to the south. They also believed (though they
+were then a day’s journey from the end of the lake)
+that there was a boundless sea-horizon to the south.
+Their misapprehension of the geography of this lake
+has often caused surprise; but apart from a natural
+tendency to exaggerate the importance of their
+own particular lake, in looking to the southward they
+were looking up the broad valley of the Semliki, which
+was undoubtedly at one time—at any rate for a distance
+of some fifty miles—a southern extension
+of the Albert Nyanza. This valley was bordered on
+either side by cliff-like mountains—plateau edges—continued
+northwards along the coasts of the Albert
+Lake. To the west of Lake Albert the plateau tilts
+westwards towards the Congo basin. Baker called the
+western cliffs and the foothills of Ruwenzori the Blue
+Mountains,—a name they might very well continue to
+bear, as there is no native designation for these heights,
+which separate so abruptly and by only a few miles
+the basin of the Congo from the basin of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>After a short stay at Mbakovia, the Bakers got
+into canoes and coasted along the Albert Nyanza to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
+Magungo, where the lake is entered by the Victoria
+Nile. They ascended the Victoria Nile and discovered
+the Murchison Falls, “where the river drops in
+one leap one hundred and twenty feet into a deep
+basin, the edge of which literally swarms with crocodiles.”
+On their overland journey in the direction of
+the Karuma Falls, their porters again deserted, and
+for two months they were stranded, almost at death’s
+door, living with difficulty on wild herbs and mouldy
+flour; occasionally, but rarely, obtaining fowls from
+the natives. Once more they came within the persecution
+of Kamurasi, who pestered Baker for his
+assistance in a war he was carrying on against his relation,
+Fowuka. Whilst Baker was hesitating, the Nile
+was crossed by one of De Bono’s caravans of ivory-traders,
+who had entered into an alliance with Fowuka.
+They were just about to attack Kamurasi’s army (and
+with their one hundred and fifty guns would have
+easily defeated it) when Baker planted the British
+flag in Kamurasi’s camp, and warned De Bono’s soldiers
+that the Unyoro king was now under British
+protection. Overawed by Baker’s threats, the ivory-traders
+withdrew to the north side of the Nile. The
+only return that he received from Kamurasi for this
+service was that the latter placed every obstacle in
+his way to prevent his leaving Unyoro. At the same
+time Mutesa of Uganda, having heard of a white
+man’s arrival in Unyoro, and imagining that Kamurasi
+was stopping his further journey to Uganda,
+sent a large army to ravage Unyoro. Kamurasi fled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
+to some islands in the Nile, and left Baker to shift
+for himself, without provisions or beasts of burden,
+at the Karuma Falls. From this point he managed
+to send messages to Ibrahim, the slave and ivory
+trader, and the latter came to his assistance. With
+the aid of Ibrahim, the Bakers, who had lost everything
+except guns and ammunition, eventually managed
+to return to Gondokoro, though they were nearly
+killed on the way by the Bari tribe, which had risen
+against the slave-raiders. At Gondokoro their troubles
+were not ended, for the sudd had begun to form, and
+obstructed the passage of the White Nile. Plague
+also had broken out in Khartum. But the travellers
+fought through all obstacles, any one of which might
+have wrecked an expedition conducted by less intrepid
+people, and reached Khartum in May, 1865. Here
+they remained two months to recuperate, and during
+this time they managed to secure the banishment of
+one of the slave-traders who had incited the mutiny
+of their men at Gondokoro in 1863.</p>
+
+<p>From Khartum they travelled to Berber down the
+Nile, and then started on camels to cross the desert
+to Suakin. They reached England in the autumn of
+1865. By this time perhaps African exploration had
+become more interesting to the British government,
+for Baker received for his discoveries a well-earned
+knighthood,—a distinction which might very well
+have been accorded to Speke or to Grant. As a matter
+of fact, the only reward given to the last-named
+traveller was a C.B., which was awarded, not for his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
+marvellous “Walk across Africa,” but for the inconspicuous
+services which he rendered some years later
+in connection with the Abyssinian War.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of the Speke and Baker explorations,
+so far as published maps were concerned, our knowledge
+of the Nile basin in 1865 was as follows: The
+shape and area of the Victoria Nyanza were roughly
+indicated, together with the outlet of the Victoria Nile
+at the Ripon Falls. The course of the Victoria Nile was
+mapped (with a good many blanks) from the Ripon
+Falls to the north end of Lake Albert Nyanza. Baker
+was able to show that there was a widening of the
+Victoria Nile opposite the eastern frontier of Unyoro,
+but it was some years later before this widening was
+discovered to consist of two large lakes (Kioga and
+Kwania). Baker had given an extremely exaggerated
+size to the Albert Nyanza. Speke, on the other
+hand, had sketched this lake with remarkable accuracy
+merely from hearsay. The course of the Nile from
+the north end of Lake Albert to its junction with the
+Asua River was quite unexplored. The rest of the
+course of the Mountain Nile was mapped as far as
+its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but very little
+was known about one of its branches, the Giraffe
+River. No further researches beyond those made by
+the Turks had taken place on the Sobat River.</p>
+
+<p>As for Sir Samuel Baker, we take leave of him
+here as one of the great explorers of the Nile. He
+returned to the regions of the great lakes in 1869,
+having been appointed for four years in charge of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
+expedition to subdue and annex to the Egyptian Empire
+the equatorial regions of the Nile basin. This
+object involved him in incessant fighting in Unyoro,
+with the slave-traders between Unyoro and Gondokoro,
+and with the Bari. Some of these conflicts
+were forced on him; others, it is to be feared, he
+precipitated by his determination to enlarge the territories
+of the Egyptian Sudan. His time would
+seem to have been passed mainly in warfare with one
+enemy or another, or in laying very solidly the
+foundations of a civilised administration. His stay
+in Equatoria resulted in but little addition to our
+knowledge of the Nile and its affluents. A good
+many of his efforts for the welfare of the country
+were thwarted by the Egyptian Governor-General
+at Khartum, and after his departure, in 1873, some
+of his worst enemies among the slave-traders were
+reinstated. This much must always be recorded to
+the credit of Sir Samuel Baker’s work on the Upper
+Nile: he inspired universal respect among the fair-dealing
+natives; he, first of all, broke the back of the
+immense slave-trading industry which had sprung up
+on the Mountain Nile, in Unyoro, and in the Acholi
+countries; throughout these regions the natives can
+remember but one great and good administrator before
+the present régime, and that is Sir Samuel Baker.
+“Gordoom” Pasha is but a name, and represents little
+to their minds; Emin they only remembered as an
+enthusiastic naturalist, who did but little to check the
+rapine and wrong-doing of his Sudanese soldiers; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
+“Baker Basha” is, in the remembrance of the old
+people, the one heroic White man they have known:
+terrible in battle, scrupulously just, at all times kind
+and jovial in demeanour amongst friends; a born
+ruler over a savage people.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI"><span id="toclink_192"></span>CHAPTER XVI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ALEXANDRINE TINNE AND THEODOR VON HEUGLIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> journeys of Petherick and Miani in the
+western Nile basin have already been described.
+The very interesting region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+however, had been relatively neglected by scientific
+explorers down to the beginning of the sixties of
+the last century. Petherick’s own map of these regions
+was not published till 1869. There were two
+obstacles to water travel in this direction: the sudd,
+and the terrible fevers which attacked Europeans.
+The introduction of steamers on the Upper Nile to
+some extent enabled Europeans to force their way
+up streams which were not to be penetrated by sailing-vessels.
+Quite a rendezvous had been created at
+a place called Mashra-ar-Rak, where many great
+streams coming from the Nyam-nyam country enter
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, which, as a geographical term,
+applied to the western lake-like affluent of the Nile,
+may be said to begin its course here.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_192" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1922.jpg" width="1203" height="2028" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Alexandrine Tinne.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne, who with her German companions Von
+Heuglin and Steudner was to considerably increase
+our knowledge of these regions, had already, in 1859
+and 1860, ascended the White Nile in sailing-vessels
+to near Gondokoro. In 1861 she organised a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+expedition in steamers and boats, which was accompanied
+by her mother, her aunt, and, later on, by several
+scientific explorers,—such as Baron d’Ablaing,
+Theodor von Heuglin, and Dr. Steudner. This expedition
+was intended to explore the region of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, to see how far the Nile basin extended
+westward in the direction of Lake Chad, and
+also, if possible, to discover a great lake in the very
+heart of Africa, of which rumours had been brought
+back by Miani and others.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p>
+
+<p>Alexandrine<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Tinne was the daughter of Philip
+Frederic Tinne and Henrietta, Baroness van Steengracht
+Capellen. Her father, Philip Tinne, was a
+Dutchman, who settled in England during the wars
+of the French Revolution, the French invasion of
+Holland having brought his family into trouble. The
+Tinnes were of remote French Huguenot origin, having
+emigrated to Holland from Calais. But further
+back still they came from Saxony. A very far back
+ancestor went to the Crusades, and distinguished
+himself at Rosetta (Egypt) by clambering onto the
+Saracen battlements. He received therefrom the
+soubriquet of “Tinne” (in Low Dutch, a battlement)
+and a coat of arms, still used by the family,
+embodying battlements. It is remarkable that Miss
+Tinne’s remote ancestor should have sprung into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
+fame in the thirteenth century at the <em>mouth</em> of the
+Nile. Philip Tinne, who emigrated to England at
+the end of the eighteenth century, returned to Holland
+after Napoleon’s downfall, and married a Dutch
+heiress, the daughter of Admiral van Capellen. He
+died when his daughter Alexandrine was only five
+years old, leaving her the richest heiress in the
+Netherlands. It is said that when a young girl she
+had a serious love disappointment, and dismissed or
+lost her fiancé. To stifle her mental anguish, she undertook
+a course of travel;<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> and after staying for
+some time in the Levant and Egypt, ascended the
+Nile in dahabiahs to near Gondokoro. This journey
+was followed by the great expedition to the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+in 1861. It is said that this expedition was
+even provided with European lady’s-maids. Probably
+no equally luxurious and well-equipped undertaking
+ever started for equatorial Africa. Miss Tinne commenced
+her second Nile journey by ascending the main
+stream as far as Gondokoro, and then, returning, she
+explored a portion of the Sobat River. She set out
+once more with the whole party from Khartum in
+February, 1863, and entered the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This
+was ascended as far as the mouth of the Bahr-al-Hamr.
+From this point a journey was then made
+overland to the Jur and Kosango rivers, and to the
+mountains on the borders of the Nyam-nyam country.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
+On this exploration the travellers suffered most
+severely from fever. Dr. Steudner and the Baroness
+van Capellen eventually died of blackwater fever, and
+the remainder of the party only managed with the
+greatest difficulty to reach Khartum in July, 1864,
+where further deaths occurred. The geographical results
+of this expedition were not published in full till
+1869, though Miss Tinne’s cousin printed some notes
+on their expedition at Liverpool in 1864.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_195" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1942.jpg" width="1684" height="1338" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Jur River: Sudd Blocking the Channel.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>After four years spent in various places in Egypt,
+Algeria, and Tunis, Miss Tinne started from Tripoli
+with a very large caravan to proceed to Lake Chad,
+intending afterwards to journey from Lake Chad to
+the Upper Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne took with her two Dutch sailors to
+assist in the organisation of her caravan, several Algerian
+women-servants, and her confidential old Negress,
+Saadah, who was originally a slave freed by
+Miss Tinne in the Sudan. The Turkish authorities
+made no opposition to her journeys, nor do they seem
+to have been in any way to blame for the catastrophe
+that occurred. Unfortunately, Miss Tinne, in order
+to provide for the comfort of her followers as well
+as for herself, decided to take with her one or more
+iron tanks filled with water, which were carried by
+the camels. These tanks attracted much attention
+when the expedition halted for a time at Murzuk,
+the capital of Fezzan, where Turkish authority was
+still maintained. The rumour that they contained
+treasure in coin which was to accompany this wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
+princess into the heart of Africa spread from
+the bazaars of Murzuk to the Tawareq of the desert,
+ever on the lookout to plunder caravans crossing the
+Sahara.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne had taken all reasonable precautions
+to secure the friendship of the Tawareq on this
+journey. She had sent messages to Ghat, an important
+Saharan town, to the chief Ikenukhen, with
+presents, and requests for guides. The chief replied
+that he would meet her himself at a water place on
+the way to Ghat, and send her the guides. These
+guides apparently concerted measures with the Arab
+and Tawareq camel-drivers of her expedition, and
+plans were evidently laid for her murder and the
+plunder of her goods.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition had halted at Wadi Aberjong to
+await the Tawareq chief Ikenukhen. On the early
+morning of the 1st of August Miss Tinne, in
+her tent, heard the Arab and Tawareq camel-drivers
+disputing about arranging the saddles of the Algerian
+women-servants. She called to the Dutch
+sailors to stop the noise, which had developed into
+a sham fight. The Dutch sailors went amongst the
+men to get at their own luggage and take their
+rifles. The camel-drivers stopped their sham fight
+and endeavoured to prevent the Dutch sailors obtaining
+their arms. Miss Tinne, hearing the continued
+clamour, came out of her tent to inquire its
+meaning. She held up her right hand to command
+attention. Suddenly there was a cry of “Strike,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
+a Tawareq made a cut at her with a sabre, which severed
+her right hand almost entirely through the wrist,
+so that it hung only by tendons of skin. The poor
+girl endeavoured to replace it in position, and staggered
+back to her tent, where she sat on a box. At
+the same moment that the blow was aimed at her one
+of the Dutch sailors, Cornelius, was pierced through
+the body by a spear. The other, Jacobse, was killed
+by a sabre cut cleaving his head. Cornelius, with the
+spear passing right through him, ran into the tent and
+fell at Miss Tinne’s feet. A man followed him, pinned
+him to the ground with another spear, and fired two
+pistol shots into his head. Another Tawareq struck
+Miss Tinne with a sabre on the nape of the neck,
+which cut through the foulard enveloping her head,
+and severed the long plait of her hair, but did not cut
+through the spine. She fell forward to the ground,
+stunned. Two men then tore off most of her clothing,
+and, seizing her by the heels, dragged her out of
+the tent to a spot a few yards away, where they left
+her lying on the sand in the blazing sunshine. Her
+poor old Negress, Saadah, followed, and raising her
+head, gently rested it on her knee; but the Tawareq
+tore her away, and drove her back into the camp.
+The unfortunate Alexandrine Tinne lay where she
+was left from eight o’clock in the morning to three
+o’clock in the afternoon, when death at last ended
+her sufferings. At intervals she called piteously
+on her people, one by one, to bring her water, but
+none were allowed to approach her. One of her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
+Arab servants was asked afterwards why they behaved
+so callously. He replied, “We had no arms,
+we were like women: they kept us in the tent, and
+threatened to kill us if we came out.”</p>
+
+<p>Her baggage was ransacked by the Arabs and
+Tawareq, among whom disputes then arose as to the
+allotment of the Algerian waiting-maids and men-servants.
+Strange to say, this dispute ended by both
+parties agreeing to make no slaves. The servants
+were each given a camel and a dollar, and allowed
+to return to Murzuk.</p>
+
+<p>The Pasha of Murzuk sent soldiers out to bury the
+bodies. They laid a strip of calico about thirty yards
+long on the sand, and wound it round Miss Tinne’s
+body by rolling it over with sticks, to avoid touching
+her. Then they put boards on each side loaded with
+stones, and piled sand over all. The two bodies of
+the faithful sailors were laid on each side of her.
+Men were afterwards sent out to mark the spot, but
+the sand of the desert had in the interval been blown
+over the place, thus hiding the grave of this beautiful
+and talented woman.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_198" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1982.jpg" width="2302" height="1460" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Letter of Miss Tinne to her Nephew John.</span></p>
+
+<p>Written from Tripoli, 1869.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The leader of not a few exploring parties in Africa
+has been alone to blame for disasters to his expedition,
+by committing himself or allowing his followers to
+commit misdeeds sufficient to justify native hostility.
+But wherever Miss Tinne and her expeditions went
+in Africa, they left behind them nothing but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
+memory of considerate treatment, kindness, and acts
+of sumptuous generosity. In all the preparations
+which Miss Tinne made for crossing the Sahara, and
+so reaching the western limits of the Nile basin, she
+showed a desire to conciliate the suspicions of the
+people, and paid generously for assistance afforded.
+The fierce Berber tribes which range over the Sahara
+Desert from North Africa to the neighbourhood of
+Lake Chad, almost alone of all African races, have
+earned sharp reprisals from Europeans for their innumerable
+acts of causeless treachery to explorers. If
+ever the French occupy the district of Ghat, as they
+will eventually some day, it is to be hoped that they
+will bear in mind the massacre of Alexandrine Tinne
+and avenge it.</p>
+
+<p>This woman was the romantic figure in Nile exploration.
+Young and beautiful,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> remarkably accomplished,
+a daring horsewoman, a charming Diana;
+mistress of many tongues, including Arabic, and generous
+to a fault, it is little wonder that the “Signorina”
+(as she was called in the days when most dragomen
+were Italian or Maltese) has lingered as a beautiful
+and gracious demi-goddess in the remembrance of
+such Arabs and Nile Negroes of the Egyptian Sudan
+as were not exterminated by the Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>Theodor von Heuglin was a native of Würtemberg.
+He was a scientific observer and a naturalist much in
+the style of Schweinfurth. His interest in the exploration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
+of the Nile basin was rather in the direction of
+zoölogy and anthropology. He began to travel in
+these regions in the fifties of the last century. With
+Munzinger, a Swiss (afterwards Munzinger Pasha),
+and Dr. Steudner, a German, he explored Kordofan,
+and the regions round Khartum. In 1862 Von Heuglin
+and Steudner joined Miss Tinne’s Nile expedition,
+and as her guest or alone on their own account,
+explored the affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the
+main White Nile. After the death of Steudner and
+of Miss Tinne’s aunt and mother from blackwater
+fever, Heuglin turned away from these regions with
+some disgust, and devoted himself henceforth to the
+exploration of the healthier regions along the upper
+waters of the Blue Nile and of the Atbara. In all
+this part of western and northern Abyssinia he made
+valuable collections of natural history. Von Heuglin’s
+books are of very great interest, and are full of valuable
+natural history notes. His writings were published
+between 1860 and 1875, generally in Germany.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII"><span id="toclink_201"></span>CHAPTER XVII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SCHWEINFURTH AND THE BASIN OF THE BAHR-AL-GHAZAL</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">As</span> already related down to 1869, but little had
+been placed on the map concerning the western
+tributaries of the Nile in the region now styled generally
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal Province. The Bahr-al-Ghazal
+itself is the gathering up of some nine great
+rivers. These unite to form a marshy, lake-like
+stream, which indeed widens out into a lake of variable
+size (Lake No) at its junction with the main
+or Mountain Nile. The great breadth of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+is often disguised, and the open water reduced
+to a mere thread by an immense floating
+vegetable growth which we now know by the name
+of <i>sudd</i>. The name “Bahr-al-Ghazal” simply means
+a “River of Antelopes,” and is a designation given to
+the great western affluent of the Nile by the Sudanese
+Arabs. Rumours of this important contribution coming
+to the Nile from the west (and the tributary
+periodical streams known as the Bahr-al-Arab or
+Bahr-al-Hamr extend the Nile basin as far west as
+the frontiers of Wadai) reached even the Greek geographers
+two thousand years ago, and induced some
+of them to believe that the main sources of the Nile
+lay far to the west, near where Lake Chad is situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
+on the map. Then this was forgotten, and it was not
+until Arabs and Nubians had begun to extend their
+commerce into the Sudan, when Egypt was under
+Turkish rule, that the existence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+was again mooted. This affluent of the Nile was first
+sketched on the map with an approach to definiteness
+in 1771, when D’Anville plainly indicates its existence.
+In a very truncated form it appears on the maps of
+the Nile drawn from the surveys of the Frenchmen
+who accompanied the three expeditions sent by Muhammad
+Ali to conquer the Sudan between 1839 and
+1841. In the forties of the last century Nubian slave-traders
+started in numbers to explore these regions,
+firstly to purchase ivory, and secondly to acquire slaves.
+The strange Nyam-nyam cannibals began to be heard
+of at Khartum about 1845. Petherick himself went
+in these directions in 1848. He was followed, as has
+been related, by Miani the Venetian, and by Miss
+Tinne and Von Heuglin. First of all Europeans,
+Miani had penetrated so far south up these affluents
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal as to have heard from the
+Nyam-nyam people of the existence of the Welle
+River, which he reported to Petherick, and through
+Petherick to Speke, as a great river flowing steadily
+to the west. This was the first hint received of the
+southwestern limits of the Nile basin.</p>
+
+<p>But little precise information about the southern
+portions of this wonderful region had reached Europe
+until the work of Schweinfurth was completed in
+1871.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_203" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2022.jpg" width="1275" height="1950" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Georg Schweinfurth</span> (1875).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Georg Schweinfurth is a native of Riga in the
+Baltic Provinces of Russia. He is consequently of
+German extraction. He was born in 1837, and in
+the early sixties spent much time in exploring for
+botanical purposes Nubia, Upper Egypt, southwestern
+Abyssinia, and the regions between these countries
+and the Red Sea coast. The tropical luxuriance of
+the vegetation in the outlying districts of Abyssinia
+attracted him to further journeys towards the equator.
+He conceived the idea of visiting the then least known
+part of the Nile basin, the Bahr-al-Ghazal province.
+For this purpose he obtained ample funds from the
+Royal Academy of Science at Berlin. Apart from
+the fact that he was a German by descent and speech,
+his great explorations of the Nile were due entirely
+to German support, and must be considered one of
+Germany’s many contributions towards the Nile Quest.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth landed at Suakin in September, 1867.
+Before proceeding on his voyage up the White Nile,
+he resolved to commence with a preliminary exploration
+of the mountains to the south and west of
+Suakin between the end of the Nubian Alps and the
+beginning of the Abyssinian highlands. This elevated
+district lies for the most part within the watershed of
+the Atbara’s tributaries, though it also sends down
+intermittent torrents to the Red Sea. In the mountains
+to the south of Suakin first appears to any
+traveller coming from Egypt and the north the characteristic
+vegetation of tropical Africa, especially such
+types as the dragon trees (<i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i>) and arborescent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
+euphorbias. These types begin at an altitude of
+about two thousand feet, as at that height they obtain
+some moisture, whereas lower down the country is
+mostly an arid desert. The Nubian <i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i> and those
+of the slopes of the Abyssinian tableland are relatively
+dwarfish (at most some twenty feet high) compared to
+the giant forms of these tree-lilies which are met with
+in equatorial Africa. Aloes, of course, grow in the
+same districts as the euphorbia and the dracæna.
+“Found in company with them is a wild, unearthly-looking
+plant called the ‘Karaib’ (<i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>), of
+which the branches are like wings, prickly and jagged
+round the edges like a dragon’s back. They produce
+clusters of brown flowers as large as one’s fist, which
+exhale a noxious and revolting smell, the plants themselves
+being swollen with a white and slimy poisonous
+juice.” Another item in this harsh vegetation is
+the <i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>, a plant belonging to the same group
+as the aloes, lilies, and dracænas, with isolated,
+leathery leaves like sword blades, though sometimes
+with rolled edges like a thick, leathery whip. Higher
+up, at altitudes of from four thousand to six thousand
+feet, the trees are covered with clusters of
+<i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i> lichen. On the northern spurs of the Abyssinian
+highlands is found the wild olive tree, “of low
+bushy shape, with box-like foliage.” The wild olive
+is found nowhere else in tropical Africa beyond the
+Abyssinian region.</p>
+
+<p>All watercourses with a supply of moist soil under
+ground just sufficient for a few months’ vegetation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
+are comprehended within the Arab designation <em>Wadi</em>.
+Cheerless through the dry season, after the first rain
+their level sand flats are clothed with the most luxuriant
+flora; fresh-springing grasses put forth their
+pointed leaves and give the sward the appearance of
+being dotted with a myriad spikes; then quickly come
+the sprouting blades, and the river bed is like a waving
+field of corn. Half-way between Singat and Erkowit
+Schweinfurth halted at a wady of this character, which
+bore the name of Sarrowi. He <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“What a prospect! How gay with its variety of hue,—green,
+red and yellow! Nothing could be more pleasant
+than the shade of the acacia, nothing more striking
+than the abundance of bloom of the Abyssinian aloe,
+transforming the dreary sand beds into smiling gardens.
+Green were the tabbes-grass and the acacias, yellow and
+red were the aloes, and in such crowded masses, that I
+was involuntarily reminded of the splendour of the tulip
+beds of the Netherlands: but here the garden lay in a
+waste of gloomy black stone. One special charm of a
+desert journey is that it is full of contrasts, that it brings
+close together dearth and plenty, death and life; it opens
+the eyes of the traveller to the minutest benefits of nature,
+and demonstrates how every enjoyment is allied to a
+corresponding deprivation.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When he reached the Nile, coming from Suakin,
+he was received at Berber by an old acquaintance,
+M. Lafargue, who was settled in that starting-point
+for Suakin as a merchant and French vice-consul.
+Lafargue, himself an experienced traveller on the
+Upper Nile, received the German explorers with that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
+hearty hospitality “which many other desert wanderers
+have proved besides myself.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Sir Samuel Baker [writes Schweinfurth] aptly compares
+such receptions to the oasis in the desert. No
+necessity for letters of introduction here as with us in
+Europe, no hollow forms of speech, exchanging courtesies
+which perchance mean the very reverse; no empty
+compliment of at best a tedious dinner; but here in the
+Egyptian Sudan we are received with free and genial
+amiability; all Europeans are fellow-citizens, and everything
+is true and hearty. ‘What pleases me the most is
+the ease with which you travel in this country; you come,
+you go, you return again as though it were a walk.’ Such
+were M. Lafargue’s cordial words to me. We parted
+well pleased with one another; I shall not see him again.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About that part of the journey from Berber to
+Khartum by way of the Nile Schweinfurth gives a
+vivid description. For the first part of the voyage,
+as far as Shendi and Matammah, the only considerable
+towns in this district, the shore offered nothing
+attractive. It reminded him of the Egyptian valley
+of the Nile only in two places,—the mouth of the
+Atbara, and one spot where the renowned pyramids
+of Meroe formed a noble background.</p>
+
+<p>Matammah was then a populous town, but dull and
+unenterprising. The buildings, constructed of Nile
+earth, were insignificant in themselves, and irregularly
+crowded together in a mass like huge ant-hills;
+not a single tree afforded shade in the dreary streets,
+which were filthy with dirt.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile voyage below Shendi was, however, rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
+in the charms of scenery. This was especially applicable
+to the views afforded by the river islands. These
+islands were so many throughout the whole extent of
+the sixth cataract between the island of Marnad and
+the lofty mountain-island of Royān, “that no one pretends
+to know their precise number, and the sailors
+call them in consequence the ninety-nine islands.”
+The landscapes on shore afforded the traveller a treat
+“which no other river voyage could surpass.” Splendid
+groups of acacias, in three varieties, with groves
+of ‘holy-thorn,’ overgrown by the hanging foliage of
+graceful climbers, made the profusion of islands set
+in the surface of the water appear like bright green,
+luxuriant, and gay tangles.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Wildly romantic on the contrary, reminding one of
+the Bingerloch on the Rhine, are the narrow straits of
+Sablu where the Nile, reduced to a deep mountain stream,
+flows between high, bare granite walls that rise to several
+hundred feet.</p>
+
+<p>“So much the more surprising appeared the breadth
+which the Nile exhibited above this cataract, where it
+displays itself in a majesty which it has long lost in
+Egypt. Below their confluence, the waters of the Blue
+and the White Nile are distinctly visible many miles
+apart. It is highly probable that at certain times the level
+of the streams might show a difference of several feet;
+the proposed establishment of a Nilometer should therefore
+take place below the confluence, in order that with
+the help of the telegraph accurate intelligence of its
+condition might be remitted to Cairo.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth reached Khartum on the 1st of November,
+1868. He left that place in January, 1869,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
+for the Bahr-al-Ghazal. Of his voyage up the White
+Nile he <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“As the morning sun fell upon the low, monotonous
+shores of the flowing river, it seemed at times almost as
+though it were illuminating the ocean, so vast was the
+extent of water where the current ran for any distance
+in a straight and unwinding course.... The districts
+along the shore mostly retained an unchanging aspect
+for miles together. Rarely does some distant mountain
+or isolated hill relieve the eye from the wide monotony....
+The attention is soon attracted by the astonishing
+number of geese and ducks which are seen day after day.
+The traveller in these parts is so satiated with them,
+fattened and roasted, that the sight creates something
+akin to disgust. The number of cattle is prodigious:
+far as the eye can reach they are scattered alike on either
+shore, whilst, close at hand, they come down to the river-marshes
+to get their drink.</p>
+
+<p>“The stream, as wide again as the Nile of Egypt, is
+enlivened by the boats belonging to the shepherds, who
+row hither and thither to conduct their cattle, their dogs
+in the water swimming patiently behind.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Early on the third day he reached Getina, a considerable
+village inhabited by Hassaniah Arabs (long since
+wiped out by the Dervishes). Getina was then a favourite
+rendezvous of the Nile boats. The flats here
+were bright with the luxuriant green of sedges which
+in their abundant growth imparted to the banks the
+meadow-like character of European river-sides. Thousands
+of geese (<i class="taxonomy">Chenalopex ægyptiacus</i>), in no degree
+disconcerted by the arrival of humans, paced the greensward.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
+Although in places the right bank was bounded
+by sand-banks thirty feet high, the left appeared completely
+and interminably flat, and occasionally admitted
+the culture of sorghum. “This remarkable difference
+which exists between the aspect of the two banks, and
+which may be observed for several degrees, is to be
+explained by a hydrographical law, which is illustrated
+not only here, but likewise in the district of
+the Lower Nile. As rivers flow from southerly into
+more northern latitudes, their fluid particles are set in
+motion with increased velocity, the result of which is
+to drive them onwards so as to wash away the eastern
+bank, leaving a continual deposit on the west.”</p>
+
+<p>About two hundred miles to the south of Khartum
+more signs of Tropical Africa begin to appear. Graceful,
+shade-giving acacias (<i class="taxonomy">A. spirocarpa</i>) grew on the
+river banks, where also were seen great masses of
+large-leaved shrubs, many of them covered with the
+beautiful blossoms of the <i class="taxonomy">Ipomœa</i> convolvulus. Hippopotamuses
+were abundant, lions were heard roaring
+at night, and the semi-Arab, somewhat Nubian population
+was gradually replaced by the naked, black, and
+lanky Shiluk Negroes. Great monitor lizards (<i class="taxonomy">Varanus</i>)
+and snakes rustled in the dry grass, while <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus</i>
+monkeys, crowned cranes, and handsome
+red and white waterbuck diversified the aspect of the
+river-banks; huge crocodiles lay on the foreshore. In
+Negro Nileland Schweinfurth first noticed the ambatch.
+This is really a member of the bean tribe (<i class="taxonomy">Herminiera
+elaphroxylon</i>), which grows in shallow water. Its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
+leaves resemble those of the acacia, and its blossoms
+are bold, pea-like flowers of bright orange.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The ambatch is distinguished for the unexampled
+lightness of its wood, if the fungus-like substance of the
+stem deserves such a name at all. It shoots up to fifteen
+or twenty feet in height, and at its base generally attains
+a thickness of about six inches. The weight of this
+fungus-wood is so insignificant that it really suggests
+comparison to a feather. Only by taking it into his hands
+could anyone believe that it were possible for one man
+to lift on his shoulders a raft made large enough to carry
+eight people on the water. The plant shoots up with
+great rapidity by the quiet places on the shore, and since
+it roots merely in the water, whole bushes are easily
+broken off by the force of the wind or stream, and settle
+themselves afresh in other places. This is the true origin
+of the grass-barriers so frequently mentioned as blocking
+up the waters of the Upper Nile, and in many places
+making navigation utterly impracticable. Other plants
+have a share in the formation of these floating islands,
+which daily emerge like the Delos of tradition; among
+them, in particular, the <i class="taxonomy">Vossia</i> grass and the famous
+papyrus of antiquity, which at present is nowhere to be
+found on the Nile either in Egypt or in Nubia.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth notices a remarkable extinct volcano
+called Defafang, one thousand feet high, which is situated
+some five miles from the east bank of the Nile,
+in about latitude 10° 50′ north. This extinct volcano
+was first discovered by Ferdinand Werne, who collected
+specimens of the rocks,—chiefly basaltic lava.
+Defafang for a long time was the boundary on that
+side of the Nile between the territory of the Negroes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
+on the south and that of the more or less Arab shepherds
+on the north.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_211" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2102.jpg" width="1531" height="1228" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shiluks.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the village of Kaka, on the east bank of the
+White Nile, Schweinfurth observed ruins of a fort
+which had once been the headquarters of a renowned
+robber chief, Muhammad Kher. This man,
+who flourished between 1840 and 1855, was a Nubian,
+who gathered round him a number of well-armed
+Baggara Arab horsemen. He was one of the first of
+the slave-traders to show how, by means of fortified
+stations, it was possible to intimidate the Negroes of
+the Sudan and bring them into subjection. Muhammed
+Kher and his Arabs devastated the country for
+hundreds of miles along the banks of the Nile, exterminating
+the population in many places. At Kaka
+Schweinfurth found himself greeted by a great crowd
+of naked Shiluks, who, prompted by curiosity, assembled
+on the shore.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The first sight of a throng of savages suddenly presenting
+themselves in their native nudity is one from
+which no amount of familiarity can remove the strange
+impression; it takes abiding hold upon the memory, and
+makes the traveller recall anew the civilisation he has left
+behind.... Although these savages are altogether unacquainted
+with the refined cosmetics of Europe, they
+make use of cosmetics of their own; viz., a coating of
+ashes for protection against insects. When the ashes are
+prepared from wood they render the body perfectly gray;
+when obtained from cow-dung they give a rusty red tint,
+the hue of red devils. This colour is only donned by land-owners.
+Ashes, dung, and the urine of cows are the indispensable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
+requisites of the toilet. The item last named
+affects the nose of the stranger rather unpleasantly when
+he makes use of any of their milk vessels, as, according
+to a regular African habit, they are washed with it, probably
+to compensate for a lack of salt.... Entirely bare
+of clothing, the bodies of the men would not of themselves
+be ungraceful, but through the perpetual plastering
+over with ashes they assume a thoroughly diabolical
+aspect. The movements of their lean bony limbs are so
+languid, and their repose so perfect, as not rarely to give
+the Shiluks the resemblance of mummies; and whoever
+comes as a novice amongst them can hardly resist the
+impression that in gazing at these ash-gray forms he is
+looking upon mouldering corpses rather than upon living
+beings.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to the Bahr-al-Ghazal, Schweinfurth opines that
+the volume of water brought down by the Gazelle
+River to swell the Nile is still an unsolved problem.
+“In the contention as to which stream is entitled to
+rank as first born among the children of the great
+river god, the Bahr-al-Ghazal has apparently a claim
+in every way as valid as the Bahr-al-Jabl (Mountain
+Nile). In truth, it would seem to stand in the same
+relation to the Bahr-al-Jabl as the White Nile does to
+the Blue. At the season when the waters are highest
+the inundations of the Ghazal spread over a wide territory;
+about March, the time of year when they are
+lowest, the river settles down in its upper section into a
+number of vast pools of nearly stagnant water, whilst
+its lower portion runs off into divers narrow and sluggish
+channels. These channels, overgrown as they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
+look with massy vegetation, conceal beneath (either
+in their open depths or mingled with the unfathomable
+abyss of mud) such volumes of water as to be in
+some places nearly unsoundable by moderate lengths
+of pole or cord.”</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of the real Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+where that broad lake-like stream is formed by the confluence
+of the Dyur (Jur) and other rivers, there was,
+before the uprising of the Mahdi and the consequent
+devastation of the Sudan, a large trading-station
+originally founded by the Nubian, Arab, and Coptic
+merchants of Khartum. This was named Mashra-ar-Rak—transcribed,
+in the mincing Turkish fashion,
+“Meshra-er-Rek.” Here merchants and travellers
+generally started on their land journeys into the Nyam-nyam
+countries. Miss Tinne had paused a long time
+at Mashra-ar-Rak, and it was supposed that there her
+expedition had contracted the severe malarial fevers
+which eventually caused the death of five out of its
+nine Europeans. Mashra-ar-Rak was situated on a
+lake-like swelling of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, which expanse
+is partly covered by four wooded islands. All the surroundings
+of this lake-like estuary are very low and
+swampy. In all directions the eyes rest on jungles
+of papyrus, with the exception of the few trees on the
+islands aforementioned.</p>
+
+<p>A short time before Schweinfurth reached this place
+with its dismal record of disease amongst Europeans,
+he heard that a French predecessor had died not far
+from the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This was Le Saint, a French<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
+naval officer, who had been despatched by the Paris
+Geographical Society to make that extended exploration
+of the whole of the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+which Fate had destined Schweinfurth himself to
+accomplish.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth’s own expedition had to be conducted
+in a most economical and unobtrusive fashion. He
+made most of his great journeys between the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the Congo watershed on foot. Remembering
+that his expedition was purely scientific, and
+was financed by a scientific society, he very wisely
+concerned himself with no question of ethics or reform
+such as had hitherto caused all English explorers
+of these regions to be hindered as much as possible
+by Nubians, Arabs, and Turks. He was not there to
+undertake crusades, but to make collections. He thus
+won and retained the friendship and confidence of men
+of all colours, some of them, no doubt, great ruffians,
+but all made equally to subserve the interests of science
+by affording sympathetic support to one of the greatest
+and most genial of African explorers, Georg Schweinfurth.
+Schweinfurth was no sympathiser with the
+slave-trade and the barbarities to which it gave rise.
+“Throughout my wanderings,” he writes, “I was for
+ever puzzling out schemes for setting bounds to this
+inhuman traffic. On one point (i.e. the abolition of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
+the slave-trade) all are unanimous,—that from Islam
+no help can be expected, and that with Islamism
+no pact can be made.” His reports on the behaviour
+of the slave-traders did a great deal to bring about the
+abolition of this devastation by Gordon Pasha and his
+officers some years later.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"><span id="toclink_216"></span>CHAPTER XVIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SCHWEINFURTH’S ACHIEVEMENTS AND DESCRIPTIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Dr. Schweinfurth</span> spent three years exploring
+the regions of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and
+returned to Europe in the autumn of 1871. During
+the course of his journeys he took no observation of
+latitude or longitude, but kept a most accurate dead
+reckoning. He laid down with astonishing accuracy
+much of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, of the courses of the Rōl,
+the Roah and its affluents, the Dogoru and Tondi, the
+Jur, Nyenam, Ji, Biri, Kuru, and Dembo tributaries
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the upper waters of the Sue and
+Yabongo; lastly, he crossed the Nile watershed and
+entered that of the Congo, thus discovering the upper
+waters of the Welle River and its many affluents.
+Here he thought that he had entered the basin of the
+Shari River, but, as we know now, he had discovered
+the head streams of that most important affluent of the
+Congo, the Welle-Ubangi.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schweinfurth gave the first true and particular
+account of the Congo Pygmies under the name of
+Akka, whom he found in the thickly forested region
+on the northern limits of the Congo watershed; he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
+drew our attention to those remarkable “gallery”
+forests,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> and to the existence in the Nile basin of
+the chimpanzee, the gray parrot,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> and other West
+African types. He discovered a slightly civilised
+race on this Congo-Nile water-parting—the Mangbettu—speaking
+a language which has no known
+relations, but leading a life singularly similar to that
+of the other semi-civilised Negro states of Unyoro
+and Uganda. The Mangbettu and their chiefs exhibit
+traces of former intermixture with Hamitic people.
+Dr. Schweinfurth also told us much we did not know
+before as to the Nyam-nyam,<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> the Bongo, and the
+Dinka tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth possessed many qualifications for
+writing a book on African exploration. He was
+a scientific botanist, and knew a great deal of zoölogy.
+He had a quick ear for languages, and wrote
+down vocabularies of the important dialects. He
+collected invaluable notes on ethnology and anthropology.
+Although he was unable to do much
+photography, he was a skilled draughtsman, and his
+beautiful drawings are apt illustrations of his book.
+As regards the value of the information he collected,
+no such book as Schweinfurth’s had appeared before,
+with the exception of Barth’s classical work on the
+Western Sudan; but Schweinfurth’s book was far<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
+ahead of Barth’s in the matter of illustrations. These
+are as accurate as photographs, and yet much clearer.
+More than any previous traveller who had written on
+Africa, Schweinfurth is able to bring to our mental
+vision the different aspects of vegetation. He describes
+the tree-lilies (<i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i>), with their bouquets
+of leaves like bayonets and their short, woody
+stems, the Candelabra euphorbias, the coral red aloes,
+the dragon-like <i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>, the leathery <i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>,
+and the gigantic clumps of the grass-green <i class="taxonomy">Salvadora</i>,
+which characterise the northern flanks of
+Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_218" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2181.jpg" width="1181" height="1178" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">“<span class="smcap">Papyrus, Fifteen Feet High.</span>”
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In another place he describes acacia groves on the
+right bank of the White Nile above Khartum, with
+their enormous white bulbous thorns,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> and their oozy
+lumps of amber-coloured gum. He notes the remarkable
+fact that little, if any, of the floating vegetation
+of the Upper Nile reaches Egypt. He describes the
+jungles of papyrus, “fifteen feet high,” the floating
+grass barriers and the sudd (which he calls <em>sett</em>); the
+<i class="taxonomy">suf</i> reeds, the water-ferns, the floating <i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>
+(like a pale-green lettuce), the duck-weeds, the
+beautiful white and blue waterlilies. When he reached
+the vicinity of the water-parting between the Nile and
+the Congo, he had entered the forest region of West-Central
+Africa. This mighty tropical forest has no
+great reverence for geographical boundaries, but overlaps
+in several places the watershed of the Nile, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
+of course it exists in patches in the basins of the Shari,
+the Benue, the Niger, and on the coast belt of Upper
+and Lower Guinea. Perhaps the most marked feature
+of it, the clearest indication of its West African nature,
+is the existence of the climbing <i class="taxonomy">Calamus</i>
+palm, which is never found in typical East Africa.
+The wonderful “gallery”<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> forests are described as
+<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Trees with immense stems, and of a height surpassing
+all that we had elsewhere seen (not even excepting
+the palms of Egypt), here stood in masses which seemed
+unbounded, except where at intervals some less towering
+forms rose gradually higher and higher beneath their
+shade. In the innermost recesses of these woods one
+would come upon an avenue like the colonnade of an
+Egyptian temple, veiled in the leafy shade of a triple
+roof above. Seen from without, they had all the appearance
+of impenetrable forests, but, traversed within, they
+opened into aisles and corridors which were musical with
+many a murmuring fount. Hardly anywhere was the
+height of these less than seventy feet, and on an average
+it was much nearer one hundred; yet, viewed from without,
+they very often failed to present anything of that
+imposing sight which was always so captivating when
+taken from the brinks of the brooks within. In some
+places the sinking of the ground along which the gallery-tunnels
+ran would be so great that not half the wood
+revealed itself at all to the contiguous steppes, while in
+that wood (out of sight as it was) many a ‘gallery’ might
+still exist.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p>
+
+<p>Most of these gigantic trees, the size of whose
+stems exceeds any European forest growth, belong
+to the order of the <i class="taxonomy">Sterculiæ</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Boswelliæ</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Papilionaceæ</i>,
+<i class="taxonomy">Rosaceæ</i>, or <i class="taxonomy">Cæsalpiniæ</i>; to the <i class="taxonomy">Ficaceæ</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Artocarpeæ</i>,
+the <i class="taxonomy">Euphorbiaceæ</i>, and the varied order of
+the <i class="taxonomy">Rubiaceæ</i>. Amongst the trees of second and
+third rank are a few <i class="taxonomy">Araliacea</i>, large-leaved figs,
+brilliant-flowered Spathodeas, Combretums, and Mussændas,
+as well as innumerable other rubiaceous or
+papilionaceous plants. There is no lack of thorny
+shrubberies; “and the <i class="taxonomy">Oncoba</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Phyllanthus</i>, the
+<i class="taxonomy">Celastrus</i>, and the <i class="taxonomy">Acacia ataxacantha</i>, cluster after
+cluster, are met with in abundance.” “Thick creepers
+climbed from bough to bough, the <i class="taxonomy">Modecca</i> being the
+most prominent of all; but the <i class="taxonomy">Cissus</i>, with its purple
+leaf, the <i class="taxonomy">Coccinea</i>, the prickly <i class="taxonomy">Smilax</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Helmiæ</i>,
+and the <i class="taxonomy">Dioscoreæ</i>, had all their part to play. Made
+up of these, the whole underwood spread out its
+ample ramifications, its great twilight made more
+complete by the thickness of the substance of the
+leaves themselves.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_220" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2202.jpg" width="1648" height="1338" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Path through the Forest.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Down upon the very ground, again, there were
+masses, all but impenetrable, of plants (mainly <i class="taxonomy">Zingeberaceæ</i>
+or else Arums) growing large gorgeously
+painted leaves which contributed to fill up the gaps
+left in this mazy labyrinth of foliage. First of all there
+were the extensive jungles of the <i class="taxonomy">Amomum</i> and the
+<i class="taxonomy">Costus</i>, rising full fifteen feet high, and of which
+the rigid stems (like those of stout reeds) either bar
+out the progress of a traveller altogether, or admit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
+him, if he venture to force his way among them, only
+to fall into the sloughs of muddy slime from which
+they grow.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“And then there was the marvellous world of ferns,
+destitute indeed of stems, but running in their foliage
+to some twelve feet high. Boundless in the variety of
+the feathery articulations of their fronds, some of them
+seemed to perform the graceful part of throwing a veil
+over the treasures of the wood; and others lent a charming
+contrast to the general uniformity of the leafy scene.
+High above these there rose the large, slim-stemmed
+<i class="taxonomy">Rubiaceæ</i> (<i class="taxonomy">Coffeæ</i>), which by regularity of growth and
+symmetry of leaf appeared to imitate, and in a measure
+to supply the absence of, the arboraceous ferns. Of all
+the other ferns the most singular which I observed was
+that which I call the elephant’s ear. This I found up in
+trees at a height of more than fifty feet, in association
+with the <i class="taxonomy">Angræcum</i> orchis and the long gray beard of the
+hanging <i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whenever the stems of the trees failed to be thickly
+overgrown by some of these different ferns, they were
+rarely wanting in garlands of the crimson-berried
+pepper. Far as the eye could reach, it rested solely
+upon green which did not admit a gap. The narrow
+paths that wound themselves partly through and
+partly around the growing thickets were formed by
+steps consisting of bare and protruding roots which
+retained the light, loose soil together. Mouldering
+stems, thickly clad with moss, obstructed the passage
+at wellnigh every turn. “The air was no longer that
+of the sunny steppe, nor that of the shady grove; it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
+was stifling as the atmosphere of a palm-house. Its
+temperature might vary from 70° to 80° Fahr., but the
+air was so overloaded with an oppressive moisture
+exhaled by the rank foliage that the traveller could not
+feel otherwise than relieved to escape.”</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>In the second volume of his work Schweinfurth
+<span class="locked">adds:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The cumbrous stems are thickly overgrown with wild
+pepper, and the spreading branches are loaded with bead
+moss (<i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>) and with that remarkable lichen which resembles
+an elephant’s ear. High among the boughs are
+the huge dwellings of the tree-termites (white ants).
+Some stems already decayed serve as supports for immense
+garlands of <i class="taxonomy">Mucuna</i> (a bean), and overhung
+by impenetrable foliage, form roomy bowers, where
+dull obscurity reigns supreme. Such is the home of the
+chimpanzee.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth might have extended his researches
+further into the unknown but for a disastrous campfire
+in the Dyur country, which destroyed the greater
+part of his collections, journals, drawings, and instruments.
+Eventually, with such of his collections as
+he was able to save from the conflagration, Schweinfurth
+turned his steps northward again, and reached
+Europe in 1871. He subsequently did much to increase
+our knowledge of the botany of Abyssinia
+and Arabia, but never resumed the rôle of African
+explorer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_223" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2222_map.jpg" width="1523" height="2320" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_2222_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Schweinfurth’s Map.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX"><span id="toclink_223"></span>CHAPTER XIX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">STANLEY CONFIRMS SPEKE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Dr. Schweinfurth</span> evidently shared Burton’s
+opinions on the subject of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Speke’s great discovery may be said to
+have reached its low-water mark of depreciation in
+the map issued in 1873 to illustrate Schweinfurth’s
+book, “The Heart of Africa.” On this map a fairly
+correct estimate of the shape and area of the Albert
+Nyanza is given, together with some hint of the abrupt
+commencement of the Congo watershed west of
+Lake Albert. But the mountainous character of Unyoro
+is greatly exaggerated, and the area of the great
+Victoria Nyanza is taken up by five lakes and lakelets.
+Speke was dead, and Grant was tired of asseverating
+that the Victoria Nyanza was one huge continuous
+sheet of water.</p>
+
+<p>In 1873, just as Dr. Schweinfurth’s book was being
+published, Henry Moreton Stanley, an Americanised
+Welshman, had returned to London from the discovery
+and relief of Dr. Livingstone. Soon after his
+return arrived the news of Livingstone’s death. The
+sorrow over this loss, and enthusiasm at the half-finished
+discoveries on the great mysterious river<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
+which Livingstone believed to be the Nile and everyone
+else the Congo, caused the “Daily Telegraph”
+and the “New York Herald” to unite in furnishing
+funds for a great expedition which should attempt
+to clear up many African problems. This expedition
+Stanley (who therefrom rose to be the greatest of
+African explorers) commanded.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the coast opposite Zanzibar, whence
+so many expeditions had set forth since Maizen<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and
+Burton had made the first attempts, Stanley travelled
+by the Unyamwezi route to the Victoria Nyanza, the
+south shore of which he reached at the end of February,
+1875. On the 8th of March in that year Stanley (having
+put together a boat which he brought in sections,
+and which he named the <i>Lady Alice</i>) started—accompanied
+by eleven of his men—on a most adventurous
+voyage along the eastern and northern shores of
+the lake. He coasted and named the important southeastern
+arm of the Victoria Nyanza, which is known
+as Speke Gulf. Passing rather hurriedly along the
+northeast coast of the lake, he made one great blunder,
+in that he overlooked the very narrow entrance to
+Kavirondo Bay (which is almost a separate lake),
+and created instead a broad northern gulf which he
+called Ugowe Bay. Ugowe Bay actually is the native
+name of quite a small shallow inlet on the Uyoma
+coast. Stanley skirted at some distance the much indented
+shores of Busoga, passed through what is now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
+known as Rosebery Channel, and so on up Murchison
+Gulf to the native capital of Uganda, then called Rubaga
+(now known as Mengo). Here he had a splendid
+reception from Mutesa, and here he met Édouard
+Linant de Bellefonds,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> a Belgian in the Egyptian government,
+who had been sent by Gordon Pasha to report
+on the state of affairs in Uganda.</p>
+
+<p>Mutesa having agreed to send a large fleet of
+canoes to transport all Stanley’s expedition to Uganda,
+Stanley then resumed his circumnavigation of the
+lake, following the western shore. Passing between
+the mainland of Karagwe and the little island of
+Bumbiri, he was fiercely and unprovokedly attacked
+by the natives of that island, who were a savage
+people ruled over by light-coloured Bahima chiefs.
+Narrowly escaping disaster, he rushed through the
+opposing savages, got into the <i>Lady Alice</i>, and
+his men paddled off with boards which they tore
+up from the bottom of the boat. Having rejoined
+his expedition, which he had left at a place called
+Kagehi, near to the modern German station of
+Muanza, Stanley made one more blunder in his
+configuration of the lake (which he was the first to
+set right years afterwards). Deceived by a chain
+of islands, he curtailed the Victoria Nyanza of its
+southwestern gulf, which extension of the lake Stanley
+subsequently named after Emin Pasha.</p>
+
+<p>Reinforced by Mutesa’s fleet of canoes, Stanley’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
+entire expedition was saved the long march through
+the Hima kingdoms to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.
+But on his return journey to Uganda he was obliged
+to stop and give a severe lesson to the Bumbiri
+islanders. These warlike people barred the passage
+with their canoes. Stanley had been warned of this
+opposition by the natives of Iroba on the mainland.
+Stanley seized the king and two chiefs of Iroba as
+hostages, who should negotiate a peace between himself
+and the king of Bumbiri. These hostages caught
+for him the king’s son. At this moment a large reinforcement
+of Baganda canoes arrived, and volunteered
+to go to Bumbiri and negotiate. But they were attacked,
+and driven off with some loss. Stanley, therefore,
+was obliged to inflict punishment. On the 4th
+of August, 1875, he attacked Bumbiri, and drove its
+natives to the interior of the island. The expedition
+then pursued its way along the west and north coasts
+until they entered Napoleon Gulf and arrived at the
+Ripon Falls, where the Nile leaves the lake. Here
+they found Mutesa encamped with a large army, engaged
+in one of his periodical wars with Unyoro.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley not only ascertained the approximate area
+and shape of the Victoria Nyanza, but he was able
+to define with some approach to accuracy its principal
+islands and archipelagoes. After his journey there
+was no longer any doubt as to Speke’s great discovery.
+The question was settled once and for ever.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_226" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2261.jpg" width="2102" height="1267" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Victoria Nyanza: Uganda Government Steamer in the Offing.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Leaving Uganda in December, 1875, Stanley accompanied
+an expedition sent by Mutesa to the countries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
+then governed by the Banyoro at the base of
+Ruwenzori. Amazing to relate, Stanley was actually
+encamped under the Ruwenzori range (called, by the
+Baganda, Gambaragara), and yet was unaware of
+the importance of his discovery. He guessed that the
+mountain in front of him might be from fourteen to
+fifteen thousand feet high, and he called it Mount
+Edwin Arnold. What is so extraordinary about the
+matter is that he relates (as though he disbelieved
+them) the stories of the natives to the effect that
+white stuff and intense cold characterised the upper
+parts of this mountain range, yet he evinced little or
+no curiosity to ascertain the truth of these statements.
+Of course at the time of his visit all the
+thirty miles of snow and glaciers were concealed
+under heavy clouds.</p>
+
+<p>From the vicinity of Ruwenzori the party made its
+way to Lake Dweru, which Stanley named Beatrice
+Gulf. This he learned from the natives was (as it
+is) but a loop of a much larger lake. Years afterwards
+Stanley was to realise that he had discovered
+a portion of Lake Albert Edward. Quitting these
+regions of mysterious lakes and mountains, he journeyed
+much more prosaically past the volcanoes of
+Mfumbiro and the Hima kingdoms of Karagwe to
+Lake Tanganyika, which he reached at Ujiji on its
+northeast coast. On this portion of the journey Stanley
+added a good deal to our information regarding
+the ultimate source of the Nile, the Kagera, though
+he was somewhat misled by native information, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
+perhaps by exaggerated swamps, into the creation of
+a non-existing lake, which he called the Alexandra
+Nyanza. His subsequent route across Africa from
+Tanganyika to the mouth of the Congo does not concern
+the present narrative.</p>
+
+<p>One interesting result of Stanley’s explorations of
+the Victoria Nyanza, Uganda, and Unyamwezi was
+that Mr. (now Sir Edwin) Arnold<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> was inspired to
+propose a Cape-to-Cairo overland telegraph wire to
+pass via the Zambezi, Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika,
+to Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan, thereby forestalling
+both Cecil Rhodes and the author of this
+book in the advocacy of a continuous line of British
+communications between South Africa and Egypt.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_228" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2282_map.jpg" width="1139" height="2030" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_2282_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Stanley’s Idea of the Victoria Nyanza.</span>. 1880.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It has been mentioned that Stanley’s letter to the
+“Daily Telegraph,” summoning missionaries to the
+court of Mutesa, decided the fate of Uganda. This
+letter met with an immediate response, and in 1876
+two parties of English missionaries were sent out by
+the Church Missionary Society. The Rev. G. Lichfield,
+Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Pearson, and Dr. R.&nbsp;W. Felkin were
+despatched by the Nile route. They travelled from
+Suakin to Khartum, and thence, by the help of Gordon
+Pasha, to the Albert Nyanza and Uganda. The
+other half of the missionary party (Lieutenant Shergold
+Smith, R.N., the Rev. C.&nbsp;T. Wilson, and, amongst
+others, Alexander Mackay, a Scottish engineer) made
+the journey by way of Zanzibar and Unyamwezi.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
+Some of these missionaries were detained at the south
+end of the Victoria Nyanza. Lieutenant Shergold
+Smith—a man of great promise—journeyed across
+the lake in a boat and reached Uganda; but soon after
+his return to the south end of the lake he was killed
+in an attack made by the natives of Ukerewe (Bukerebe)
+on the Arab traders. Leaving Mackay, Lichfield,
+and O’Neil in Uganda, C.&nbsp;T. Wilson and R.&nbsp;W.
+Felkin decided to return to Europe, taking with them
+envoys whom Mutesa wished to send to England. On
+their return journey they were greatly troubled by the
+sudd, which then—as frequently before and since—practically
+blocked the navigation of the main Nile.
+They therefore made a very interesting overland journey
+through Darfur and Kordofan, and thence back
+into Egypt.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX"><span id="toclink_230"></span>CHAPTER XX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GORDON AND HIS LIEUTENANTS.—JUNKER AND THE NILE-CONGO WATER-PARTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1874 Colonel Purdy and Colonel Colston (Englishmen)
+were despatched by the Egyptian government
+respectively into Darfur and Kordofan for
+surveying purposes. By their expeditions a good deal
+of the country along these half-dry affluents of the
+Bahr-al-Arab and the water-parting between the
+Shari and the Nile was explored and made known.
+Their work was added to in some respects (1875–1876)
+by Sidney Ensor, a civil engineer, who surveyed
+the route for a railway from Wadi Halfa to
+Al Fasher, the capital of Darfur.</p>
+
+<p>The energetic work undertaken by Sir Samuel Baker
+of suppressing the slave-trade in the Equatorial Province
+of the Egyptian Sudan was carried much further
+by the celebrated Charles Gordon, who was destined
+to die at Khartum under circumstances conferring
+on him lasting fame. Gordon Pasha (as he subsequently
+became) had, as it is hardly necessary to state,
+been an engineer officer. It was thought that his appointment
+to the supreme government of the Egyptian
+Sudan (an appointment which Baker had not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
+held, since he worked with an Egyptian Governor-General
+at Khartum) would—as it did—materially
+assist the improvement of communications. Gordon
+made an interesting survey of the country between
+Suakin and Berber on the Nile, and together with
+Lieutenants Watson and Chippendall mapped the
+main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro and Lake
+Albert. He also caused the circumnavigation of
+that lake to be effected.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Gordon had taken up the work begun by
+Sir Samuel Baker, a curious theory had been started
+concerning Lake Albert Nyanza. In those days, when
+so much personal feeling was very naturally imported
+into Nile exploration, and one great explorer vied with
+another, theories were often started by A to minimise
+the work of B or to exaggerate the results of A’s own
+discoveries. It has been already recounted how Burton,
+piqued by Speke’s great discovery of the Victoria
+Nyanza, which might have fallen to Burton’s own
+lot had he been less crippled with fever, subsequently
+strove to prove the non-existence of that lake as a
+continuous sheet of water. Speke in the most wonderful
+manner had not only discovered the Victoria
+Nyanza, but had, by the collection of native information
+and the deductions he drew therefrom, made, on
+the whole, a remarkably accurate forecast of the Nile
+system in the region of the equatorial lakes. He had
+put Lake Albert on the map, merely from report, in
+a shape and position closely in accordance with actuality.
+Not, however, being able to visit this lake himself,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
+he had handed the task over to Sir Samuel Baker,
+who had discovered the Albert Nyanza, but had not
+been able to ascertain its area and shape. Both Speke
+and Baker, however, assumed that the Victoria Nile
+entered Lake Albert, and quitted that lake as the main
+stream of the White Nile. Neither explorer, however,
+nor most that came after them, could state positively
+that they had mapped the Victoria Nile along its whole
+course from the Ripon Falls to Lake Albert, nor had
+they traced the course of the Nile from Lake Albert
+northward to Gondokoro. Therefore in the early
+seventies some theorist had started the ingenious
+idea that Lake Albert belonged either to the system
+of the Congo or the Shari, and that its waters drained
+away by an unknown river at the south end, or else
+by an outlet to the north, which was not the Nile, as
+generally assumed, but a river which flowed westward
+to the unknown. The discovery about this
+time of Lake Kioga further confused notions about
+the Nile system, and it was thought that the Victoria
+Nile discovered by Speke did not enter Lake Albert,
+but in some tortuous way joined the Asua, and so
+flowed on past Gondokoro, leaving Lake Albert altogether
+out of its system.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_232" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2321.jpg" width="1240" height="1191" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Victoria Nile flowing towards Lake Kioga.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To settle these doubts, Gordon resolved to despatch
+Romolo Gessi,<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> who was then little more than
+a steamer engineer, though, having been the mate of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
+Mediterranean steamer, he was able to take astronomical
+observations. Gessi was therefore instructed to
+circumnavigate Lake Albert. This task he carried out
+in 1876. He ascertained positively that the Victoria
+Nile entered Lake Albert and left it again, and he
+connected his rough survey of the Albertine Nile with
+the work which was being carried on up stream from
+Gondokoro by two English engineer officers in Gordon’s
+employ, Lieutenants Watson<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> and Chippendall.
+In 1877 Colonel Mason (an American) took advantage
+of the first steamer being placed on Lake Albert to
+make a survey rather more careful than that of Gessi,
+but neither of these explorers ascertained the existence
+of the Semliki River or of the snow-range of Ruwenzori,
+though it is said that in some of Gessi’s private
+letters mention was made of a strange apparition
+“like snow-mountains” in the sky, which had appeared
+to some of his men at the south end of Lake
+Albert,—a remark that attracted no attention at the
+time. Gessi also records having seen the mouth of
+a large river at the south end of Lake Albert, but it
+never seems to have occurred to him that this river
+was probably of the greatest geographical interest.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, when Gessi returned to Khartum to
+report the result of his Albert Nyanza explorations to
+Gordon, the latter exclaimed, “What a pity you are not
+an Englishman!” This remark is supposed to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
+been made from pique that the two English officers despatched
+by Gordon (Watson and Chippendall) had
+not arrived in time to accomplish what a Levantine
+Italian had successfully performed. Gessi was already
+somewhat offended, because he considered that he had
+done an excellent piece of work, and he had only
+received as a reward a present of a few hundred francs
+and the decoration of the Mejidieh, third class. He
+therefore flung his fez at Gordon’s feet and tendered
+his resignation. He journeyed to Italy, and was received
+with great distinction by the Italian Geographical
+Society at Rome, who presented him with their
+Gold Medal. He resolved, however, to return to work
+as an explorer, giving particular attention to anthropological
+and zoölogical researches. He engaged two
+Austrian-Italians—Giacomo Morch and Riccardo
+Buchta—to accompany him. Buchta deserves special
+notice, as he was the first careful photographer to visit
+the regions of the Upper Nile. His photographs of
+the native types and scenery of these countries taken
+between 1878 and 1882 are remarkably interesting.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Gessi’s arrival in Egypt with all his
+stores, he was informed that a fire had broken out
+at Suez railway station, resulting in the complete
+destruction of all his goods, involving a monetary
+loss of something like twelve hundred pounds. He
+therefore returned to Italy, gave up the idea of
+exploring the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and instead resolved
+to start for the river Sobat, and work his way from
+the upper waters of that stream to the southern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
+regions of Abyssinia, where two Italians—Cecchi
+and Chiarini—were supposed to be wandering.
+His second expedition was financed by generous
+Italians and by the late King of Italy. He was accompanied
+by Dr. Pellegrino Matteucci, who was
+subsequently to cross Africa from east to west and
+die at the end of his journey.</p>
+
+<p>Ernst Marno, a Viennese, had attempted, in 1870,
+to ascend the Blue Nile and then enter the country of
+the Galas to the south of it. After penetrating, however,
+as far as Fadasi, he was obliged to turn back,
+owing to the hostility of the people. The same obstacles
+turned back Gessi and his companions, and
+the expedition to Kaffa was given up. Returning to
+Khartum, Gessi was preparing to attempt the ascent
+of the Sobat when Gordon returned to his post, from
+which he had been absent, and invited Gessi to re-enter
+the service of the Egyptian government. A
+serious revolt had occurred in the western part of the
+Egyptian Sudan. The great slave-trader, Zubeir, who
+had conquered Darfur, had become a danger to the
+Egyptian power. By dint of a wily invitation he was
+lured to Cairo, and once in Egypt, was prevented by
+the Khedive from returning to the Sudan. His son
+Suleiman, however, remained in Darfur, and attempted
+to rise against the Egyptian government.
+His attempt was frustrated by Gordon, who, however,
+pardoned him, and appointed him sub-governor
+of his country with a handsome salary. But in 1878
+Suleiman openly espoused the cause of the Nubian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
+and Arab slave-traders whose devastations of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal and the White Nile regions had been
+sternly suppressed by Baker and Gordon. Putting
+himself at the head of these disaffected people, Suleiman
+practically subjugated all the vast territory of
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and proclaimed his independence.
+Gessi proceeded with a small force on steamers to
+Lado, on the White Nile, where he met Emin Pasha.
+From this point he started for the Nyam-nyam country,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>
+picking up on the way all the soldiers he could
+obtain from the various stations of the Sudan government.
+He found that Suleiman had proclaimed
+himself “Lord of Bahr-al-Ghazal, Rōl, and Makarka.”
+At Dem Idris, in the most western part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province, the great battle took place.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> The
+people of the country were on the side of Gessi and
+the Egyptian forces, because of the incessant slave-raiding
+of Suleiman and his men. Gessi had entrenched
+himself and his small force, which at the
+outside amounted to seven thousand men, regulars
+and irregulars. He had several pieces of artillery
+that fired grape-shot. His entrenchments were assaulted
+by Suleiman’s forces, and as the result of this
+attack Suleiman lost his flags, much of his ammunition,
+and most of his guns, together with several
+thousand of his men. Nevertheless, in spite of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
+recovery of Egyptian prestige throughout the Sudan,
+Suleiman’s power was not yet at an end. He gathered
+up more forces, and continued to attack Gessi.
+At last reinforcements arrived from the north which
+enabled Gessi to take the offensive. He captured
+stronghold after stronghold. In the spring of 1879
+Suleiman was flying for his life with only a thousand
+men. Gessi destroyed almost all the strongholds of the
+slavers (some of which had existed for twenty-five
+years, and had devastated all the country around) in
+the province of Bahr-al-Ghazal.</p>
+
+<p>Gordon Pasha had now come to Gessi’s assistance,
+and established himself at Shakka on the Nile. He
+also invaded Darfur, reconquered that country, and
+prevented reinforcements reaching Suleiman from that
+direction. Eventually, after a hundred fights, Gessi
+succeeded in tracking Suleiman to his last refuge. At
+the time he had no more than two hundred men with
+him, whilst Suleiman had eight hundred. Taking the
+camp entirely by surprise, he tried a game of bluff,
+and sent a messenger to tell Suleiman that he had
+surrounded his place with a large force, and that
+resistance was hopeless. Suleiman therefore surrendered.
+Gessi tried him by court-martial, and had him
+shot in November, 1879. This ended the first of the
+great rebellions which menaced Anglo-Egyptian authority
+in the Sudan. Gessi was made a Pasha for
+his services, and Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province. He slowly brought about peace among the
+distracted Negro tribes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p>
+
+<p>During all the operations undertaken by Gordon
+and Gessi a good many additions were made to the
+geography of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the Bahr-al-Arab,
+and Darfur. After Gordon’s departure from the
+Sudan Gessi found it impossible to work with the
+Egyptian Governor-General, Raiūf Pasha. He was
+also extremely ill. He therefore decided to return to
+Europe, but got no farther than Suez, where he died
+in 1881, having uttered several premonitions as to the
+possibility of another revolt. As a matter of fact, the
+Mahdi, who had just begun to make himself known
+as a rebel, did little more than carry on the reaction
+against the anti-slave-trading policy of the Anglo-Egyptian
+control. All the elements of Suleiman’s
+revolt which had been destroyed by the splendid
+valour of Gessi and Gordon gathered round the new
+leader, and brought about that cataclysm which closed
+the area of Nile exploration for fourteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Édouard Linant de Bellefonds, the Belgian official
+in Gordon’s employment of whom mention was made
+in the previous chapter, and who had met his death
+at the hands of the Bari, was avenged by the American
+C. Chaillé-Long, who inflicted severe chastisement
+on the Bari and allied tribes at and around Gondokoro.
+Chaillé-Long was made a colonel by the Egyptian government.
+He was despatched by Gordon on a mission
+to Uganda to spy out the land; but owing to the intervention
+of Sir John Kirk from Zanzibar, the British
+government stayed the ambitious Khedive from attempting
+to include Uganda in the Egyptian Sudan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
+Chaillé-Long added a little to our knowledge of the
+Victoria Nile, and gave a more detailed report of Lake
+Kioga than had been previously gleaned from the unscientific
+journey of Piaggia. He named this lake
+“Ibrahim.” Chaillé-Long also travelled to the west
+of the Mountain Nile in the Nyam-nyam countries.
+His book (“Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked
+People”) is unfortunately marred by much incorrect
+information, and by the erroneous spelling of native
+names. Mutesa, the ruler of Uganda, is disguised
+as “M’tse;” Uganda becomes Ugunda, while preposterous
+plurals are invented for the people of Uganda
+and Unyoro, who are called the Ugundi, Unyori, etc.
+Chaillé-Long’s one practical contribution to Nile exploration
+was the definite discovery of Lake Kioga,
+which had only been hesitatingly reported by the unlearned
+Piaggia.</p>
+
+<p>Ernst Marno, the Viennese, surveyed a good deal of
+country west of Lado and the Mountain Nile,—the
+valley of the Yei among other rivers. Casati, an
+Italian officer, journeyed all over the lands of the
+Egyptian Sudan; but as he was an unscientific observer
+and lost all his journals in the troubles that
+followed on the Mahdi’s revolt, his contributions to
+our knowledge of the Nile regions are practically
+worthless.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Gustav Nachtigal, one of the great African
+explorers, was born at Eichstadt, near Magdeburg,
+in Germany. He was despatched on a mission to
+Bornu by the King of Prussia. After years spent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
+with great advantage to science in the Sahara, round
+Lake Chad, and on the Shari River, he passed from
+Wadai into the Nile basin in the country of Darfur,
+and added somewhat to our geographical knowledge
+of this little known part of the Nile basin. Nachtigal
+reached Khartum at the end of 1874. Another
+German was to contribute his share to the opening
+up of the Nile basin. Dr. Wilhelm Junker was
+born at Moscow in 1840 of German parents, and
+was educated in Germany. He started for Egypt in
+1875 with the intention of going to Darfur, but he
+spent some time examining the Libyan Desert and the
+curious blocked outlet of the Nile in the Fayūm. After
+exploring the Atbara as far as Kasala and journeying
+thence across country to the Blue Nile, he travelled up
+the Sobat River to Nasr (a point at which all exploration
+of the Sobat stopped for many years), and then
+made his way to the White Nile and the Makarka
+(Nyam-nyam) country. His journeys through the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal province took him as far south as the
+Kibali or Welle River. After a visit to Europe with
+his collections and notes, he returned to the Welle and
+the Mangbettu country. He explored the Welle and
+its tributaries for some distance eastward and westward.
+Munza, the celebrated king of the Mangbettu,
+about whom Schweinfurth wrote so much, had been
+murdered by the Nubian slave-traders, and the country
+about the Upper Welle was much disordered.
+Junker reached the Nepoko River, which is an affluent
+of the Aruwimi. His journeys westward to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>
+Welle River near its confluence with the Mbomu convinced
+him that this mysterious stream, the existence
+of which had first been reported by Miani and Potagos
+(a Greek trader), was after all the most northern affluent
+of the Congo, and not the Upper Shari. Junker’s
+journeys were now interrupted by the news of the
+Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_241" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2401.jpg" width="1654" height="1302" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nuēr Village, Sobat River.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Frank Lupton (Bey), a native of Essex, and once
+a mate on a small steamer plying between the Red Sea
+ports, had entered Gordon’s service, and had become
+in time Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province.
+Lupton added a good deal to our knowledge regarding
+the many affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He
+unhappily fell into the hands of the Dervishes, and
+eventually lost his life. Lupton managed to warn
+Junker of the outbreak, and the Russo-German
+traveller then made his way across country to Lado.
+There he stayed until the news arrived of the fall of
+Khartum. He then started for Uganda, crossed the
+Victoria Nyanza by the help of the English missionaries,
+and travelled to Zanzibar by way of Unyamwezi.
+Junker brought home with him the invaluable journals
+of Emin Pasha. His own two great works on
+the Nile basin are full of interesting information concerning
+the natives. He added much to our knowledge
+of the southern tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but
+the chief value and glory of his work lay in the Congo
+basin and was concerned with the identification of the
+Welle-Kibali with the Ubangi. He also discovered the
+important northern tributary of the Welle, the Mbomu.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
+Junker’s observations regarding natural history are not
+altogether trustworthy or accurate. His work in this
+respect is not to be compared with that of Schweinfurth
+or Emin. His books are badly illustrated, the
+drawings of beasts and birds being seldom recognisable,
+and the pictures of the people quite without any
+scientific value.</p>
+
+<p>Two Italian officers, Massari and Matteucci, crossed
+the Nile basin just before the uprising of the Dervishes
+closed the Sudan to exploration for sixteen
+years. They passed through the northern frontier
+lands of Abyssinia, descended the White Nile, and
+ascended the Bahr-al-Ghazal, entered Darfur and
+quitted the Nile basin on the borders of Wadai, which
+excessively hostile Muhammadan state they actually
+traversed unharmed. From Wadai they reached the
+West Coast via Bornu and the Niger, but only to die
+respectively in England and Italy soon afterwards.
+For daring and courage the journey was a marvel;
+for geography it was a nullity.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_242" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2421.jpg" width="1415" height="2032" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Maull &amp; Fox.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson and Wilhelm Junker.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the intensity of the Dervish rule was slackening,
+in the early nineties of the last century various
+Belgian officers, such as Lieutenant Van Kerckhoven,
+passed the Congo basin to the Bahr-al-Arab and the
+westernmost tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and
+threw a little fresh light on the still mysterious hydrography
+of the Nile-Shari water-parting. They
+pointed the way, however, to Joseph Marchand and
+his associates. This gallant band of Frenchmen, in
+1897, made their way from the Mbomu River (Congo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
+basin) down the Jur (Sue) to the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the White Nile, to face England at Fashoda.
+Marchand was accompanied, amongst other European
+officers and non-commissioned officers, by Lieutenants
+A.&nbsp;H. Dyé and Tanguedec. Tanguedec remained till
+1900 on the Mountain Nile near the Bahr-az-Ziraf.
+Dyé gave, in 1902, some account of the explorations of
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal region undertaken by the Marchand
+expedition. The swamps which characterise the northeastern
+part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province render
+the definite mapping of the lower courses of its great
+rivers extremely difficult. Nevertheless, in the most
+systematic way, Marchand and his companions, in
+their little steam launch <i>Faidherbe</i>, surveyed the
+Sue or Jur (the longest stream flowing into the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary), the Bahr-al-Arab, Bahr-al-Hamr,
+the Tonj, and Rōl.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-al-Ghazal itself, from Mashra-ar-Rak
+downwards, was carefully surveyed, and many indications
+were found of the changes which have taken
+place since the days of its early explorers, though
+M. Dyé considers the sketch given by Lejean in 1862
+as wonderfully correct in its general outlines.</p>
+
+<p>After describing the ferruginous laterite plateau,
+which occupies the whole southern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province, as well as adjoining parts on the
+Congo basin, Lieutenant Dyé sketches the transition
+from this region, in which the streams flow in steep-sided
+valleys to the sea of swamps which lies along
+the ninth parallel. It is in about 7° 20′ north that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
+the first change occurs, the river-banks opening out
+and leaving between them an alluvial-flood plain,
+grassy and intersected by swamps, through which
+the river winds in a tortuous course, much choked
+by sand-banks. At the height of the rains this is entirely
+flooded. Still lower, the rocky valley sides entirely
+disappear, and the clayey banks sink below the
+mean water-level, the rivers becoming more and more
+narrow, and diminishing in depth until they are finally
+lost, each in its own belt of swamp, which forms a sea
+of grass, “Um Suf” [fleecy reeds], and papyrus.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Dyé, in his description, divides the estuary
+or drainage channel of the Bahr-al-Ghazal below
+Mashra-ar-Rak into three sections, each with its particular
+characteristics, the general trend of the estuary,
+however, below Mashra-ar-Rak being north, then
+northeast, and lastly east. The first section near
+Mashra-ar-Rak is at times of great width, as at the
+expansion known as Lake Ambady or Ambach.
+There is much floating vegetation, and the channels
+frequently change with the winds. The depth is
+nowhere greater than thirteen feet in this section,
+which is distinguished as the region of lakes, lagoons,
+and reed-beds. In the second section, characterised
+by the growth of papyrus, the channel becomes much
+narrower, and reaches depths of twenty feet and more,
+though the figures given by former travellers seem
+somewhat exaggerated. The width becomes greater
+again in the last section, the banks of which are, as a
+rule, marked by ant-hills covered with brushwood.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
+Schweinfurth was mistaken in saying that the current
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is imperceptible, for, except in
+expansions and side branches, some movement can
+always be traced, and in the narrowest section it
+reaches a speed of one mile and a quarter an hour. A
+remarkable characteristic of the region is the small
+variation of water-level between the seasons, owing
+to the impounding of the water in the marshes. The
+maximum flood-level occurs on the Bahr-al-Ghazal in
+November and December, or two months later than
+that on the Sue, and various facts are quoted showing
+the slight effect which a rise in the upper courses
+of the streams has on the water-level of the swamp
+region.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_245" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2442.jpg" width="1314" height="1655" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Sternwheel Steamboat.</span></p>
+
+<p>Forcing its way up the Jur (Sue) or main affluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Given their resources and the distance they had to
+traverse (from Loango on the West Coast to Fashoda
+on the Nile, and afterwards to Abyssinia and Somaliland
+via the Congo, Ubangi, Mbomu, Sue, and Bahr-al-Ghazal),
+the enemies they had to encounter, the allies
+they had to win, the privations they had to endure: the
+journey of Marchand and his companions is one of the
+most splendid feats in African exploration, and well
+deserves the admiration accorded to it in France and
+England.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI"><span id="toclink_246"></span>CHAPTER XXI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">JOSEPH THOMSON, MT. ELGON, AND KAVIRONDO BAY</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">It</span> will be remembered that a remarkable turn was
+given to Nile exploration when between 1849 and
+1855 the German missionaries in the employ of the
+Church Missionary Society at Mombasa reported their
+explorations of inner East Africa,—explorations which
+revealed the existence of snow-mountains, and which
+gathered reports of great lakes in the interior. The
+outcome of these researches on the part of Krapf
+and Rebman was the despatch of Speke and Burton in
+search of the Nile lakes. We read that only Burton’s
+excessive prudence prevented this first expedition to the
+lakes from starting inland from Mombasa and following
+the trading route right through the Masai country
+to the Victoria Nyanza. This was the route followed
+by Arab traders as far back as 1850. The terror
+caused by the Masai led to great exaggerations of the
+dangers of this direct journey. Its chief difficulty lay
+in the fact that owing to the ravages of the Masai and
+the somewhat waterless character of the intervening
+country, there were no inhabitants for a distance of
+some two hundred miles between the coast regions on
+the east and the fertile lands bordering the Victoria
+Nyanza on the west. The missionaries, German and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
+English, who were settled at or near Mombasa, continued
+to collect information from Arab caravans. In
+this way news arrived of the existence of the Rift
+valley, with its chain of lakes, salt and fresh, and of
+some greater lake beyond called “Samburu,” afterwards
+known as Lake Rudolf; also of the Nilotic
+Negroes in the country of Kavirondo, on the northeast
+coast of the Victoria Nyanza. Much of this information
+was industriously gathered up by a most
+excellent missionary, the late Mr. Wakefield,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> who
+sent his notes and theories to an eminent geographer,
+E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein. Mr. Ravenstein prepared this information
+for the use of the Royal Geographical
+Society, and in about 1880 had gathered together all
+that was known from surveys and reports into maps
+illustrating Eastern Equatorial Africa.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_247" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2462.jpg" width="2304" height="1461" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">N.E. Corner of Victoria Nyanza (with Samia Hills in Distance).</span></p>
+
+<p>Near where Joseph Thomson struck the lake shore at the end of his long march, December, 1883.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As the result of the interest these maps inspired,
+the Royal Geographical Society resolved, in 1882, to
+despatch on this search for a direct route to the Victoria
+Nyanza, Joseph Thomson, a very young and
+very brilliant African explorer, who had already performed
+a remarkable journey to lakes Nyasa and
+Tanganyika. Joseph Thomson left Mombasa in the
+spring of 1883, and after several checks and disappointments,
+finally crossed Masailand (Dr. Fischer,
+a German, had discovered the Rift valley and Lake
+Naivasha a year previously), settled at last the existence
+of the much exaggerated Lake Baringo, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
+finally reached the northeast coast of the Victoria
+Nyanza, in Kavirondo Bay, on the borders of Busoga.
+So far as Nile exploration was concerned, the chief
+immediate result of Joseph Thomson’s remarkable
+journey was to draw attention to Stanley’s blunder
+about Ugowe Bay. But Thomson himself only made
+a step towards the delineation of this gulf; his work
+had subsequently to be finished by Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley
+and Commander Whitehouse. He discovered Mount
+Elgon, however (previously alluded to by Stanley as
+Mount Masawa), and was, politically, the forefather
+of the Uganda Railway.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_248" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2482.jpg" width="1400" height="2055" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Jamieson &amp; Co.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The present writer supplemented Thomson’s work
+in the neighbourhood of the snow-mountain Kilimanjaro,
+and laid the foundations there of the British
+Protectorate of East Africa. Bishop Hannington followed
+in an attempt to repeat Thomson’s journey to
+the Victoria Nyanza, and thus enter Uganda. The
+missionary bishop was murdered on the confines of
+Uganda, and his plucky enterprise added nothing to
+our geographical knowledge. Then came Count
+Samuel Teleki von Szek (a Hungarian) and Lieutenant
+von Höhnel (an Austrian naval officer) in
+1887. Although the expedition led by these gentlemen
+never actually entered the Nile basin, it achieved
+the most important results of discovering lakes Rudolf
+and Stephanie, and thereby limiting the Nile
+basin on the southeast. Ernest Gedge and F.&nbsp;J.
+Jackson crossed what is now British East Africa in
+1889–1890, and reached Elgon, the Victoria Nyanza,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
+and Uganda. Dr. Carl Peters made the same
+journey in 1890, but did not add to our geographical
+knowledge in the basin of the Nile. All these expeditions
+were the direct result of Joseph Thomson’s
+work.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII"><span id="toclink_250"></span>CHAPTER XXII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">EMIN PASHA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> remarkable man whose name is given to this
+chapter was a German Jew,—Eduard Schnitzer,—born
+in Silesia about 1830. Becoming a doctor
+of medicine, he gradually drifted to Austria and thence
+to Turkey, where he engaged in much medical service
+in the suite of high officials. To some extent he
+adopted the religion of Islam, and changed his name
+to Dr. Emin. Attracted by the mystery of Central
+Africa, he found his way to Khartum, and from being
+a mere medical practitioner, became a Bey in the service
+of the Egyptian government under General Gordon.
+He did a great deal to add to our knowledge
+of the eastern tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+the western tributaries of the Mountain Nile. He
+explored the Nile-Congo water-parting, and made
+very interesting notes on Unyoro, Uganda, and the
+Albert Nyanza. He also added considerably to our
+knowledge of the Latuka, Bari, and Acholi countries.
+Strange to relate, though he lived so much between
+1877 and 1888 on the Albert Nyanza, he never once
+sighted the remarkable snow-range of Ruwenzori.
+This extraordinary omission may have been due to
+the fact that he was very short-sighted. He would,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
+therefore, not himself have noticed any remarkable
+appearance in the sky, and probably the Negroes and
+Turks around him were too dull-witted to draw his
+attention to the snow-peaks on the rare occasions on
+which they were visible. In travelling along the west
+coast of Lake Albert Nyanza, however, he discovered
+the Semliki River flowing into that lake, and called
+it the river Dweru.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> Emin Pasha’s journals and letters,
+which were brought to England by Dr. Junker,
+were issued as a book in 1888. Regarding this compilation,
+it may be classed as one of the few great books
+that have ever been written about tropical Africa. It
+is full of concise and valuable information on natural
+history, anthropology, languages, and geography.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a>
+He gives a very interesting description of the mountainous
+country of Lotuka (Latuka), and of the regions
+further east.</p>
+
+<p>He had been received by Latome, “an elderly gentleman
+of medium height and rather pleasing features,”
+who was the ruler of the nude and handsome
+Lotuka <span class="locked">Negroids:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Meantime a motley crowd assembled in the yard,—women
+and girls, the former with leather aprons, the
+latter entirely nude; men of different districts, all armed
+with shields and spears,—the genuine Lotuka people,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
+recognisable by their slight figures and long faces,—all
+nude, and adorned with iron ornaments, ivory rings on
+the upper arm, broad copper rings as necklaces, and helmets
+of shining brass or copper plates, surmounted by
+waving ostrich plumes. Some of them wore caps made
+of basket work. After our reception was over, we visited
+the summit of the hill, whence a splendid view is obtained,
+extending from Mount Loligono in the Bēr country,
+northwards over the whole Lokoya range, to the west,
+and to the high peaks of the Obbo Mountains, in the
+south and southwest, where the horns of Jebel Asal tower
+up,—so named on Baker’s map, but called by the Bari
+“Ekara,” and by the Lotuka “Chufal,”—then away to
+the long lofty ranges of Molong and Killio, the defile
+leading to Tarangole, with its hills rising up like sentinels,
+and finally the long range of Lafit, which closes the scene
+on the northeast,—a typical Alpine landscape.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Lotuka people, it might be mentioned, are very
+similar in appearance and language to the Elgumi
+tribe, which is much farther south, in the vicinity of
+Mount Elgon. Both these peoples are nearly related
+in origin to the Masai. They should properly be
+styled Lotuka.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_252" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2521.jpg" width="1269" height="1936" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Emin Pasha.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Of the Lotuka country Dr. Emin <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The sky was overclouded when we left Tarangole.
+Taking a southeasterly course along Khor Kos,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> through
+beautiful park land, we reached the ford in about half an
+hour. The <i>khor</i> was here about twenty-two yards broad,
+and full of yellowish water, which reached up to our<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
+thighs, and flowed over a sandy, rocky bottom. We had
+a pleasant march over a good firm road, across sandy
+country covered with open wood, the ground being rather
+wet in some places; the predominance of acacias (<i class="taxonomy">Acacia
+albida</i>, <i class="taxonomy">A. mellifera</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">A. campylacantha</i>) and <i class="taxonomy">Balanites</i>
+gave a gray tone to the scenery. Khor Oteng, now
+very insignificant, is said to pour such large volumes of
+water into Khor Kos<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> in the rainy season that the passage
+is often rendered impossible for hours. The ford of Khor
+Kos is called Chuchur; a splendid forest of doleb palms
+(<i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i>) yielding an abundance of odorous fruits,
+skirts the khor, copses of various other trees intervening.
+Large flat blocks of friable granite, with white streaks,
+lie across the road that leads direct to the foot of the hill
+of Loguren, which is about four hundred feet high. Its
+summit is crowned with the dome-shaped huts of the
+village bearing the same name.</p>
+
+<p>“Dum Palms (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>) grow here, as they
+do at the ford of Khor Kos. It appears, therefore, that
+the southern limit of this tree runs along the Bahr-al-Jabl
+between Bor and Lado, and then advances farther to the
+south, no doubt owing to the sandy soil which connects
+the Lotuka and Somal districts.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> Picturesque groups of
+rocks, inhabited by the restless Hyrax, well-tilled fields,
+and here and there small clumps of doleb palms are seen
+along the road to Elianga, where, on the edges of the
+rocks, numerous clay vessels containing human bones
+seem to say ‘Memento mori,’ a rather unnecessary warning
+in Central Africa.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span></p>
+
+<p>Emin describes the Lotuka villages as being dreadfully
+dirty, in contrast to the Bari settlements, which
+are always kept scrupulously clean within, though
+their environments are filthy. Hundreds of rats and
+mice infest the Lotuka huts. These latter are built
+upon round substructures about four and one-half
+feet high, usually caulked and overlaid with mud. The
+huts are surmounted by bell-shaped roofs (sometimes
+peaked), which project considerably over the substructures.
+A small doorway is left open, about two
+and a half feet high, which must, of course, be entered
+on all fours. The interior is kept fairly clean,
+but is quite dark. The thatch is generally made of
+grass; many huts are covered with split leaves of the
+<i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i> palm, which are more durable and compact,—a
+very desirable quality for withstanding tropical
+rain. Sheep and goats are the only domestic animals
+kept here; the former are long legged and of a superior
+breed. The Lotuka do not seem to keep dogs. Agriculture,
+as is usual among hunting tribes, is rather neglected,
+although the soil is excellent, and the Sudanese
+soldiers stationed in Lotuka grew without difficulty
+durrah, maize, ground-nuts, and splendid watermelons.</p>
+
+<p>Ostriches are caught when young, and are tamed
+in the Lotuka settlements. Sometimes they are
+hatched from eggs buried in the sand. Snakes of
+many kinds, especially viperine, frequent the Lotuka
+villages unmolested by the people, and often making
+their way into the huts after the rats. A poisonous
+species of <i class="taxonomy">Echis</i> is, however, much dreaded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p>
+
+<p>Okkela in the Lotuka country was a paradise for
+a natural history collector like Emin. The belt of
+wood round this settlement was full of treasures.
+There were many Colobus monkeys, whose white
+dorsal mane and tail-tuft gleamed through the dark
+foliage, small families of them being led by white-bearded
+old males which gazed fearlessly at the
+stranger. Close by a brown baboon mother might
+be giving her offspring rough lectures on good manners,
+which, to judge from the howling, were not
+much appreciated; “tall, fox-coloured baboons, white
+on the under side,<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> were chasing one another along
+the tree-tops, and barking and yelping like hoarse
+dogs. A small mouse-coloured monkey with a black
+face, and quite unknown to me, skulked away through
+the thick bush; two varieties of <i class="taxonomy">Funambulus</i> squirrels
+ran up and down the long tendrils of the creeping
+plants, and the graceful <i class="taxonomy">Xerus leucumbrinus</i> squirrel
+roved about upon the ground. Small cats, ichneumons,
+rats, and mice had also found a comfortable
+shelter in the woods, and other creatures, quite unknown,
+to judge from the description, are said to
+haunt it, especially at night.”</p>
+
+<p>Birds were even more numerous and striking.
+“Gorgeous blue kingfishers (<i class="taxonomy">Halcyon senegalensis</i> and
+<i class="taxonomy">H. semicærulea</i>) and beautiful bee-eaters (<i class="taxonomy">Merops
+bullockii</i> and <i class="taxonomy">M. albicollis</i>) were perched on the dry
+boughs waiting for insects; a large gray cuckoo,
+probably a new variety,<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> could be heard in the tree-tops,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
+as also the handsome <i class="taxonomy">Cuculus capensis</i>, whose
+loud cry the Nile Negroes interpret by the word
+<i>lashakong</i> (my gourd), and a charming little falcon
+(<i class="taxonomy">Nisus</i> sp.) joined them with a sharp chirp, which
+the natives call <i>lefit</i>, a happy imitation of its cry.
+Snow-white <i class="taxonomy">Terpsiphone</i> and brilliant golden cuckoos
+(<i class="taxonomy">Chalcites cupreus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">C. clasii</i>) were swinging in the
+green leafy bowers, and cunning barbets (<i class="taxonomy">Pogonorhynchus
+rolleti</i>, <i class="taxonomy">P. diadematus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">P. abyssinicus</i>)
+came into sight for a moment, to disappear again
+directly like woodpeckers. In the thick copsewood
+<i class="taxonomy">Bessornis heuglinii</i> flew off at my approach with a
+sudden cry of fear, and <i class="taxonomy">Cichladusa guttata</i> sang as
+loudly, but was not quite so shy. An <i class="taxonomy">Aedon</i> warbled
+its beautiful song among the thickest briars, and was
+accompanied by the tapping of numerous woodpeckers.
+I caught <i class="taxonomy">Picus nubicus</i>, the rarer <i class="taxonomy">P. minutus</i>, and another
+kind which I think is new; it closely resembles
+<i class="taxonomy">P. schoensis</i>, and it is equally handsome.”</p>
+
+<p>Animal life abounded also in the open country of
+Lotuka,—a land covered with shrubs, with broad,
+grassy clearings and sandy flats. The ground was
+strewn with the shells of <i class="taxonomy">Achatina zebra</i>; small lizards
+and snakes of various kinds—among them the rare
+<i class="taxonomy">Typhlops</i>—glided over the sand, and larger snakes
+hissed frightfully and retreated. A concert of croaking
+frogs would arise from the reedy margins of the
+half-dry rivers, and on the sandy islands of the Kos
+enormous crocodiles were watching the children bathing
+close by. Herds of <i class="taxonomy">Cobus leucotis</i><a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> grazed on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>
+young grass; large wart hogs issued from holes in the
+ground. “They were,” writes Emin, “no despicable
+antagonists, for they can make very good use of their
+huge tusks. Going further into the bush, I saw the
+elegant form of a wild cat stealing off with its tail
+in the air, and heard a loud growl from a leopard
+which disapproved of my presence. Lions were most
+plentiful.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_257" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2562.jpg" width="1247" height="1532" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Raphia Palms by a Central African Stream.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A herd of zebras grazing on the fresh green grass
+is a pleasant picture, whether surrounded by their
+frolicking young or running away at a thundering
+gallop. One does not often meet with the scaly
+ant-eater, <i class="taxonomy">Manis temmincki</i>, still less with the earth-pig
+(<i class="taxonomy">Orycteropus æthiopicus</i>), but a fine example of
+the latter edentate having fallen into a pitfall, Emin
+was able to attest its presence in Nile land.</p>
+
+<p>Emin’s journeys in the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and along the water-parting between the basins of the
+Nile and the Congo added greatly to our knowledge
+of those countries. The forests in these regions he
+described as magnificent “gallery” woods, in which
+all the marvels of vegetation unfolded themselves before
+the enchanted gaze of the botanist. These forests
+border the streams, and exist only near to running
+water. The region, however, of immense unbroken
+forests, in which one may wander for hours without
+seeing a sunbeam, and where one hears the rain beating
+upon the summits of the trees without feeling a
+drop, commences only a little to the west of the Nyam-nyam
+(Zande) country. There is no doubt that much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal region was originally quite covered
+with forests, to judge from the remains of virgin
+woods which still exist. The gradual disappearance
+of the forest is to be attributed to the comparatively
+thick population, the constant removal of villages and
+fields, and to the inroads of both axe and fire. Emin
+saw the remains of many a gigantic and magnificent
+forest-tree lying rotting on the ground, having been
+cut down, and given to decay because it spread too
+much shade over the crops. After many years of wandering
+among these regions, he was inclined to think
+that in ancient times the true Central African forest
+region, that is, the permanence of evergreen woods
+containing westerly species, extended much farther to
+the north than it does to-day. Towards the east of the
+Nyam-nyam country, as far as the district of Janda,
+he observed such West African forms as <i class="taxonomy">Artocarpus</i>
+and <i class="taxonomy">Anthocleista</i>, but he states that the valley of the
+Mountain Nile throughout its whole length, as far
+south as Lake Albert, is characterised by steppe vegetation,
+as is also the entire eastern region of the Nile
+basin.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"><span id="toclink_259"></span>CHAPTER XXIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">STANLEY DISCOVERS THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON
+AND LAKE ALBERT EDWARD.—THE END OF EMIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Two</span> sets of circumstances now hindered further
+exploration of the Nile basin,—the revolt of
+the Mahdi, with the disasters that followed at Khartum;
+and the persecution of the Christians followed by
+civil war in Uganda. Emin Pasha was left to govern
+Equatoria for four years, cut off from all communication
+with Egypt. Dr. Junker, arriving with his collections
+and journals in 1886, aroused a great wave
+of enthusiasm in England and Germany. Stanley at
+once offered to lead a relief expedition to the Equatorial
+provinces of the Nile. The great prestige of
+this remarkable man made it impossible for any other
+candidate to enter the field in England. Many, however,
+were in favour of entrusting the expedition to
+Thomson, who believed in the practicability of conducting
+it by a direct route from Mombasa to Mount
+Elgon, and so across to the Nile. Whether he would
+have succeeded is a moot question, owing to the fierceness
+of the Nile tribes between Elgon and Gondokoro,
+and the jealousy and suspicion of Uganda and
+Unyoro; for the King of Uganda, having had his
+fears aroused as to European aggression, had already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span>
+caused Bishop Hannington to be murdered for repeating
+Thomson’s journey to Busoga.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley was precluded from following the old
+Unyamwezi route, owing to German jealousy. He
+decided, therefore, to strike at the Upper Nile by way
+of the Congo, and so found himself struggling through
+the dense forests of the Congo basin between the navigable
+waters of the Aruwimi and the cliffs of Lake
+Albert. This wonderful journey, which he took for
+the relief of Emin Pasha, resulted in the discovery of
+the real Mountains of the Moon [Ruwenzori], the
+complete course of the Semliki River, Lake Albert
+Edward, and the southwesternmost gulf of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Stanley added a great deal to our knowledge
+of the Congo Pygmies, who in this direction stray
+over into the Nile watershed; but his grand discovery
+on this occasion was Ruwenzori. On May 24, 1888,
+about five miles from Nsabe, on the grassy mountains
+to the southwest of Lake Albert Nyanza,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="in0">“while looking to the southeast and meditating upon the
+events of the last month, my eyes were directed by a boy
+to a mountain said to be covered with salt, and I saw a
+peculiar shaped cloud of a most beautiful silver colour,
+which assumed the proportions and appearance of a vast
+mountain covered with snow. Following its form downward,
+I became struck with the deep blue-black colour
+of its base, and wondered if it portended another tornado;
+then as the sight descended to the gap between the eastern
+and western plateaux I became for the first time conscious
+that what I gazed upon was not the image or semblance
+of a vast mountain, but the solid substance of a real one,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
+with its summit covered with snow.... It now dawned
+upon me that this must be the Ruwenzori, which was said
+to be covered with a white metal or substance believed to
+be a rock, as reported by Kavali’s two slaves.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_261" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2601.jpg" width="1397" height="2278" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by John Fergus.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sir Henry Stanley, G.C.B.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This view was obtained from a distance of seventy
+miles,—about the distance of the chief snows of Ruwenzori
+from the south end of Lake Albert Nyanza.
+The constant haze rising from the Semliki valley no
+doubt keeps this mountain usually invisible from the
+waters of the lake. It is, therefore, not so surprising
+that it was not hitherto seen by the explorers of the
+Albert Nyanza, as it is that Stanley himself should
+have camped at the very base of this mountain for
+some days in 1875, and have been ignorant of its
+true character as the highest ground and the most completely
+snow-and-glacier-covered range in the whole of
+Africa. The name that he has given to it unfortunately
+does not completely correspond with the native
+pronunciation; it should be Runsororo.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of this snowy range was soon followed
+by the realisation of the Semliki River, another
+geographical name of Stanley’s giving which it
+is most difficult to trace to any native source. (The
+Semliki, in fact, is never called by any native tribe
+“Semliki.” It is known as Dweru, Nyanja, Ituri,
+Isango, and other Bantu terms indicating <em>lake</em> or
+<em>river</em>. When first discovered by Emin Pasha, a short
+time before Stanley’s arrival, it was known as the
+Dweru.) This stream is really the Albertine Nile.
+Its existence had been surmised by Sir Samuel Baker<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
+without much foundation (then) for his theory. Emin
+Pasha first noted it in 1884 as a feeder of Lake
+Albert. Stanley, in 1889, traced the Semliki up its
+course to its point of exit from Lake Albert Edward,
+which sheet of water he was the first European to
+discover. Albert Edward is connected by a narrow,
+winding channel<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> on the northeast with a somewhat
+extensive, shallow lake, usually known as “Dweru.”<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p>
+
+<p>Dweru was discovered by Stanley in 1875, and
+named by him Beatrice Gulf. Stanley now ascertained
+that the two lakes were connected. His expedition
+crossed the Kafuru, as the connecting stream
+is called, and entered the till then unvisited Hima
+kingdom of Ankole. Stanley’s guess at the shape of
+the Albert Edward was incorrect, and it needed subsequent
+expeditions to give us a truer idea of the
+form and area of this sheet of water, the eastern
+shore of which still remains unsurveyed.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_262" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2621.jpg" width="2168" height="1288" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shores of the Victoria Nyanza, near Emin Pasha Gulf.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Passing through Ankole, Stanley reached the southwestern
+extremity of the Victoria Nyanza, which he
+named Emin Pasha Gulf. On his journeys of circumnavigation
+in 1875, he had been deceived by a
+chain of islands into an incorrect limitation of the
+area of the Victoria Nyanza in this direction. He
+now realised that the lake extends much further to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
+the southwest than was previously thought by Speke
+and himself, and is therefore not of the heart-shape
+assigned to it in the earliest maps; it is, in fact,
+much longer from north to south than it is broad
+from east to west.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of Stanley’s great journey took him out of
+the Nile watershed.</p>
+
+<p>But the discoveries which he made in the Albertine
+region of the Nile basin whetted the curiosity of
+Emin Pasha, who longed to return to these mysterious
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>He did so in 1890, as a German official. Accompanied
+by Dr. Franz Stuhlmann, a very able explorer,
+he directed his steps to these regions of fascinating
+interest, the Snow-mountains, and the Great Forest.
+In 1891 Dr. Stuhlmann made an ascent of the Ruwenzori
+range on its western aspect nearly to the
+snow-line. He revealed the existence of its remarkable
+Alpine vegetation of giant groundsels and lobelias.
+He also attempted to discriminate between the
+many different snow-peaks of this lofty range, though
+with only partial success, his failure in arriving at
+a complete result, like that of subsequent travellers,
+being due to the constant presence of clouds. Emin
+and Stuhlmann together added a good deal to our
+knowledge of the Semliki, and to the clearing up of
+geographical points connected with the line of watershed
+between the Nile and the Congo systems immediately
+west of Lake Albert. Emin Pasha resolved
+to return by way of the Congo, and was therefore left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
+to do so by Stuhlmann, who returned to his duties in
+German East Africa. Re-entering the great Congo
+forest, and following a northern affluent of the
+Ituri-Aruwimi, Emin was captured by one of the
+slave-trading, Arabised Manyema who had recently
+invaded this region to secure ivory and slaves. As
+a German official, Emin (together with other Germans)
+had confiscated property belonging to these
+Manyema, had released slaves, and had severely punished
+slave-raiders. From motives of revenge, therefore,
+he was sentenced to death by his captor, and his
+throat was cut in his house one day in October, 1892.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_264" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2641.jpg" width="1342" height="1982" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Dr. Franz Stuhlmann.</span></p>
+
+<p>(Deputy Governor of German East Africa.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"><span id="toclink_265"></span>CHAPTER XXIV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GERMAN EXPLORERS DETERMINE THE SOUTHERN
+LIMITS OF THE NILE BASIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> acquisition by Germany of those interior
+regions of the Zanzibar coast-line which now
+constitute German East Africa led to a considerable
+development of exploration in the southernmost regions
+of the Nile basin. Prior to 1890 there had
+been much discussion as to what was the Nile’s furthest
+tributary,—what stream, in fact, was the ultimate
+source of the Nile. Stanley’s journeys in search
+of Emin Pasha had revealed the existence of the Semliki
+and of Lake Albert Edward, and had thus extended
+considerably the length of the Albertine Nile
+system. Later on Count Götzen had shown by his remarkable
+journeys north from Tanganyika that Lake
+Kivu (the existence of which had been already reported
+by Burton, Speke, and Stanley) was connected
+with Tanganyika, and therefore with the Congo. This
+put a limit to the Nile basin in that direction, and disposed
+for ever of the last vestige of Livingstone’s wild
+dream, by which the main course of the Nile would
+have risen far south of the equator in what we now
+know to be the basin of the Congo, and have flowed
+through Lake Albert instead of through the Victoria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>
+Nyanza. Speke had discovered the important Kagera
+River (which he called the Kitangule), and Stanley
+had extended our knowledge of this, the largest affluent
+of the Victoria Nyanza. Stanley had, in fact, in
+1875 christened it the Alexandra Nile, but he was
+very much misled about its origin and course, and he
+made it issue from a hypothetical lake, Akanyaru,<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a>
+which has no existence, but which was no doubt in
+part an exaggeration of swamps along the course of
+the Kagera, and in part a confusion with the rumoured
+Lake Kivu.</p>
+
+<p>The Kagera is now acknowledged to be the extreme
+head-waters of the Nile. A distinctly observable current
+passes across the Victoria Nyanza from the mouth
+of the Kagera to the Ripon Falls. In 1891–1893 Dr.
+Oscar Baumann, a German official, who had previously
+done some good exploring work in West Africa,
+made extensive journeys through southern Masailand
+and Unyamwezi to the sources of the Kagera River.
+This stream (especially in its upper waters, where it
+is known as Ruvuvu), was further explored in 1899–1900
+by M. Lionel Dècle, a French traveller, who had
+done a great deal to increase our knowledge of Central
+Africa.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> Dr. Kandt,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> in 1898, and other Germans,
+have also put on the map portions of the
+Kagera’s course, and our knowledge of this stream has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
+received contributions from Messrs. Racey, Mundy,
+and R.&nbsp;W. Macallister, officials of the Uganda Protectorate.
+The Kagera River has two principal sources,
+both of them almost within sight of the waters of
+Tanganyika. The stream which is usually taken to
+be the more important source rises in south latitude
+3° in the country of Ruziga, about fifteen miles due
+north of the north end of Tanganyika, at an altitude
+of about 6,270 feet above sea-level. Some fifty miles
+south-southeast of this point, however, there is another
+source, which may be taken to be the southernmost
+extension of the Nile system. This fountain, in south
+latitude 3° 45′, is on the eastern slope of the Utembera
+or Kangozi Mountains, only ten miles east of Tanganyika.
+The altitude is about 6,300 feet. This would
+seem to be the farthest source of the Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_267" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2662.jpg" width="1395" height="1951" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Native of Unyamwezi, from near South Shores of Victoria
+Nyanza.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Herr Baumann made another contribution of negative
+value to Nile exploration. Stanley and some
+other travellers had believed that the southernmost
+source of the Nile lay in the country of Unyamwezi,
+in certain streams which flowed northward into the
+Victoria Nyanza, which they entered under the name
+of the river Simiyu or Shimeyu. But in these deductions
+they were wrong. Baumann showed that
+the river Simiyu was an inconsiderable stream of
+short course, and that the waters much further to the
+south which had been identified with this river really
+flowed northeastwards into a largish salt lake, discovered
+by Baumann and called Lake Eyasi. Eyasi
+has no outlet. It is situated in a rift valley which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
+joins the great Rift valley of Masailand. The journeys
+of Baumann and of other Germans considerably
+curtailed the present extent of the Nile basin in
+Unyamwezi. The waters of this somewhat arid tableland,
+which apparently is almost below the surface of
+the Victoria Nyanza, flow mainly to Tanganyika, to
+Lake Rukwa, and to Lake Eyasi and other isolated
+pools of the rift valleys.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_269" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2682.jpg" width="1363" height="1953" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by J. Thomson.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sir Frederic D. Lugard.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV"><span id="toclink_269"></span>CHAPTER XXV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GEOGRAPHICAL WORK IN THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Stanley’s</span> relief of Emin Pasha led to the
+withdrawal of the latter’s government from the
+equatorial regions, and after a brief interval of hesitation,
+to the foundation of a British Protectorate
+over Uganda and the adjoining territories. Preparations
+for this Protectorate were made by Captain
+(now General Sir Frederic) Lugard, who, in the
+course of his settlement of the disturbed country of
+Uganda, journeyed round Ruwenzori to Lake Albert
+Edward.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> Shortly afterwards (as already related)
+Emin Pasha returned to this part of the world accompanied
+by Dr. Stuhlmann. Mr. Scott-Elliott, a
+Scottish naturalist, came out in 1893–1894 for the purpose
+of making natural history collections. He drew
+a very neat and truthful little map of the eastern and
+southern flanks of Ruwenzori,—a map which until
+quite recently has been somewhat overlooked by those
+who have compiled charts of this region. Scott-Elliott,
+Lugard, Stuhlmann, Grogan, J.&nbsp;E. Moore, Malcolm
+Fergusson, and several Belgian officers, such as
+the late Lieutenant Meura, were not slow to point out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
+and correct serious errors on the part of Stanley in
+his rough delimitation of Lake Albert Edward. Lake
+Dweru or Beatrice Gulf was also redrawn with advantage.
+But curiously enough, all these travellers—Stanley
+included—omitted to point out that the connection
+between Lake Dweru and Lake Albert Edward
+was not a broad channel, but a narrow and winding
+river between high banks. It was left to the present
+writer to make this correction on the map. The
+author also, together with Lieutenant Meura, redrew
+with greater correctness the upper course of the Semliki
+River, and in 1900 added somewhat to our knowledge
+of the configuration of the Ruwenzori range.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition of Sir Gerald Portal (especially
+through the work of his brother Raymond, who died
+after doing excellent service in pacifying Toro) added
+to the map of the countries between Ruwenzori on the
+west and Kavirondo on the east. In 1895 the late
+Colonel Seymour Vandeleur (when only a lieutenant
+in the army) made an excellent and systematic survey
+of the Kingdom of Uganda and of much of Unyoro.
+The wars against the Sudanese mutineers added to our
+geographical knowledge of these districts. Colonel
+John Evatt and Captain H. Maddox, amongst others,
+gave us for the first time something like the true
+shape of the marshy lakes of Kioga and Kwania,
+which, in some respects, are huge backwaters of the
+Victoria Nile. But the great addition to the geography
+of the southern extremities of the Nile basin was made
+by the expedition under Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
+This officer had accurately mapped the regions bordering
+on the northwest coasts of the Victoria Nyanza
+in 1894. About this period also Mr. F.&nbsp;J. Jackson,<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a>
+Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, and Mr. Ernest Gedge were filling
+up the map as regards the configuration of the country
+along the northeastern watershed of Victoria Nyanza
+and the slopes of Mount Elgon. Mount Elgon was
+ascended to its highest peak (14,080 feet), for the first
+and only time, by Messrs. Jackson and Gedge in 1895.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_271" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2702.jpg" width="1364" height="2055" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliot.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Colonel Macdonald was despatched more with a
+political than with a geographical object. He was
+to journey through the northeastern part of the British
+sphere of interest in East Africa and make for the Nile
+about Gondokoro, and so travel with the idea of forestalling
+any possible French competitors; whilst General
+(Lord) Kitchener should be defeating the Khalifa
+at Khartum with a view to recovering all the provinces
+of the Egyptian Sudan. But the mutiny of the
+Sudanese soldiers in Uganda and other causes threw
+great difficulties in the way of Colonel Macdonald’s
+expedition. He succeeded however in mapping himself,
+and with the aid of such officers on his staff
+as Majors Austin, Bright, Hanbury-Tracey, and
+others, the regions to the north of Mount Elgon.
+He filled up a considerable blank in the map between
+what was known east of the Mountain Nile and the
+actual coast-line of Lake Rudolf. Colonel Macdonald’s
+expedition first brought clearly to our knowledge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
+the remarkable mountain-ranges of Chemorongi,
+Nakwai, Lobor, Lopala, Morongole, Agoro, and
+Harogo. He put on the map the upper waters of
+the Asua River (an important eastern contributary
+of the Mountain Nile) and its larger affluents. His
+work and that of the late Captain Welby has enabled
+us to define more clearly the separation between the
+waters of Lake Rudolf on the east and the Mountain
+Nile on the west. Colonel Macdonald discovered
+Lake Kirkpatrick on the upper Asua, and mapped
+more precisely Lake Salisbury and the northern slopes
+and streams of Mount Elgon.</p>
+
+<p>Captain M.&nbsp;S. Wellby had travelled in 1899 round
+the east and south shores of Lake Rudolf, and thence
+had penetrated westwards through the Turkana and
+Karamojo countries to the Nile watershed, where he
+discovered two streams flowing north, both of which
+he named Ruzi. These he imagined to be the head-waters
+of the Sobat. Donaldson Smith and H.&nbsp;H.
+Austin showed his theory to be wrong [?]. The Ruzis
+probably flow into the rivers draining the Lotuka
+highlands and entering the Bahr-az-Ziraf or Giraffe
+Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_272" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2722.jpg" width="1480" height="2078" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dr. Donaldson-Smith.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald (assisted by Captain
+Pringle) had previously (1893), when first employed
+in Uganda, made an admirable survey of the British
+coasts of the Victoria Nyanza, from Port Victoria
+in northern Kavirondo, westwards to the German
+frontier at the Kagera River, and for the first time
+put on record all or nearly all the islands, bays, inlets,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
+peninsulas, and rivers of the north and northwest
+coasts of the Victoria Nyanza. Here and there his
+work in this direction has been added to by Mr.
+C.&nbsp;W. Fowler and Commander Whitehouse. Whitehouse,
+as already related, was the surveyor who
+finally amended Stanley’s error of “Ugowe Bay,” and
+gave us for the first time the correct form of the great
+northeastern gulf of the Victoria Nyanza (Kavirondo
+Bay), together with the shape of the two large islands
+which mask its entrance. Commander Whitehouse
+also surveyed the east coast of the Victoria Nyanza
+down to the German frontier, and added a lot of new
+material to the delineation of this eastern coast-line.
+In this direction an interesting journey was made from
+Lake Naivasha to the coast of Kavirondo Bay by
+Major E. Gorges in 1900. Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, a
+Sub-Commissioner in the Uganda Protectorate, contributed
+a good deal of information to fill up the blank
+places of the map between Kavirondo Bay on the
+south and the northwestern flanks of Mount Elgon
+on the north. Captain Pringle had already mapped
+these countries on the railway survey.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 Dr. Donaldson-Smith, an American, traversed
+the countries which lie between the north end
+of Lake Rudolf and the Mountain Nile. He crossed
+several dry river-beds, in a region of appalling drought
+(extinct tributaries of the Sobat), and then reached the
+rivers Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos which flow in a northwesterly
+direction towards the Mountain Nile or its
+branch, the Giraffe River. The region between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>
+Giraffe and the Sobat remains to-day the only unexplored
+part of the Nile Basin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 and 1901 Major C. Delmé Radcliffe made
+the first completely accurate survey of the Nile from
+Lake Albert to Gondokoro, and put on the map for
+the first time many new details concerning the Asua
+River and its affluents, besides streams which rise
+in the hills of the Acholi and Madi countries and
+enter that portion of the Nile between Gondokoro
+and Lake Albert.</p>
+
+<p>From the Cape to Cairo was a watchword that, as an
+idea, first emanated from the pen of Sir Edwin Arnold
+in 1876, and as a phrase took shape in writings by the
+author of this book in 1888 and 1890, and as a policy
+was finally adopted by Cecil Rhodes in 1892. The first
+person to carry this idea into practical execution was
+Mr. Ewart Grogan, who (accompanied part of the
+way by Mr. Sharp) travelled literally from the Cape
+to Cairo via Lake Albert Edward and the Uganda
+Protectorate. His contributions to Nile explorations
+are referred to in the next chapter. He was followed
+in 1900 by Major A. St. Hill Gibbons and later by
+M. Lionel Dècle. Between 1898 and 1902 Colonel
+E.&nbsp;A. Stanton surveyed the eastern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the intricate channels of the lower
+Mountain Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_274" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2741.jpg" width="1195" height="1173" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cutting the Sudd.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the year 1900 a very notable achievement took
+place. The terrible obstruction of the sudd which
+had intermittently blocked the Nile navigation from the
+days of Nero’s two centurions (who could hardly force<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
+their way through it in the year 66 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) to our
+own times was cut through resolutely by an expedition
+under Major Malcolm Peake. The government
+of the Egyptian Sudan has for the last two
+years continued to clear away this obstacle, and in all
+probability it will never be allowed to form again.
+In fact, in this direction man will probably do much
+to modify the subsequent history of the Nile. Sir
+William Garstin has recently explored Lake Tsana and
+the Blue Nile as well as the White Mountain Nile as
+far as Gondokoro, Lake Albert, and Lake Victoria,
+with a view to ascertaining which of the two rivers
+contributes the most valuable supply of water for
+the irrigation and fertilisation of Egypt. So far,
+he has decided for the Blue Nile, a fact which lends
+increased importance to the Empire of Abyssinia.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a>
+It may be, however, that with the clearing of the sudd
+on the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Mountain Nile these
+branches of the great river may send down increasing
+supplies of water to Egypt. In any case the clearing
+of the sudd will permit of these waterways being used
+for penetrating in all directions into the heart of
+Equatorial Africa.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"><span id="toclink_276"></span>CHAPTER XXVI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE EASTERN BASIN OF THE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">We</span> will now turn to the eastern part of the Nile
+basin—the first to be explored, the last to be
+finished. It has been already related how, alarmed at
+the rapid successes of the Portuguese in India, the
+Persian Gulf, and East Africa, the Abyssinians resolutely
+ejected the Portuguese missionaries from their
+country during the seventeenth century, and how the
+attempts of Louis XIV. to supplant the Portuguese
+by French influence resulted disastrously. Bruce had
+broken the spell which rested on this strange country,
+so fascinating to Europeans, because while being absolutely
+“Africa” it was ruled, and for the most part
+inhabited, by more or less Caucasian races, its rulers
+having a Semitic history which attached them to the
+fountains of civilisation. Our previous review of exploration
+in Abyssinia ended with Bruce’s journey, and
+with the attempts on the part of French and German
+explorers during the early part of the nineteenth century
+to enter Abyssinia up the course of the Blue Nile.
+Meantime the overland route to the East had been conceived
+by Lieutenant Waghorn, the British government
+had seized Aden in 1839, and a much greater interest
+than heretofore was taken in the navigation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
+Red Sea, which was rapidly becoming the main route
+to India. Although Abyssinia then as now had no
+acknowledged political control over any part of the
+Red Sea littoral, it was early recognised that Abyssinia
+was an important factor in the political problems governing
+the control of the Red Sea. Even before the
+safety of the British route to India became a matter
+of urgent importance, we had sought to enter into
+direct relations with Abyssinia. In 1805 a British
+mission under Lord Valentia and Consul Henry Salt
+was sent to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia
+and obtain a port on the Danakil coast by means of
+which Britain could, if necessary, convey troops to
+Abyssinia, and so take a French Egypt in the rear.
+The writings of Henry Salt added greatly to our
+knowledge of the peoples, languages, and fauna of
+Abyssinia and of the Zanzibar coast, but did not
+contribute materially to the elucidation of Nile problems.
+During the first part of the nineteenth century
+Abyssinia was in the throes of civil war caused by
+the struggles for supremacy between the ruler of Tigre
+(the northern province) and the Ras or Governor of
+Amhara (the central province). The Ras of Tigre—Sabagadis—threw
+open northern Abyssinia to the
+English, cordially inviting missionaries, mechanics, and
+explorers to enter his dominions. In this way the
+Church Missionary Society’s missions to eastern Africa
+started by the despatch of Protestant missionaries
+(mostly Germans in the pay of the Society) to Tigre.
+On the other hand, the war between Tigre and Amhara<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
+having resulted in the death of both the chiefs, a third
+potentate, the ruler of the lofty Samien Mountains,
+annexed Tigre, and out of opposition to his predecessor’s
+policy invited Frenchmen to develop the
+country. Captains Galinier and Ferret accepted the
+commission to survey Tigre and Samien by careful
+triangulation. This task was accomplished in 1842,
+and resulted in the correct mapping of the affluents of
+the Atbara. Meantime the British Protestant missionaries
+had penetrated into Amhara, while Tigre and
+Samien came under French Roman Catholic influence.
+In fact, the history of Uganda was given here on a
+larger scale. Simultaneously the southern province
+of Ethiopia, Shoa, under the enlightened ruler Selasié
+had attracted the attention of Europeans. Major
+(afterwards Sir William) Harris was sent by the
+Indian government in 1841 to conclude a treaty with
+Shoa, as it was thought that this country might eventually
+extend its influence over Somaliland, and so
+come into direct contact with the Indian government
+at Aden. This British mission was naturally followed
+by a French one, and a French envoy applied to the
+Pope for the starting of a Roman Catholic mission
+in Shoa.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Monseigneur Massaja, who was despatched
+by Pope Pius IX., though it throws much
+interesting light on the structure of the Gala language,
+hardly comes within the sphere of Nile exploration.
+Meantime an adventurer named Kasa had arisen in
+Amhara, and had gradually made himself master of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
+the northern and western provinces of Abyssinia.
+He had himself crowned King of Kings of Ethiopia
+under the name of Theodore, and then proceeded to
+annex the province of Shoa to his dominions.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of Theodore’s reign the two
+brothers d’Abbadie were at work surveying Abyssinia
+and collecting invaluable information regarding the
+languages, literature, coins, inscriptions, and religions
+of that assemblage of Semitic, Hamitic, and Negro
+states. Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie and his brother
+Arnaud Michel were actually born in Dublin, their
+father being French and their mother Irish. They
+were however educated in France. Their bent for scientific
+exploration was early recognised, for the French
+Academy sent the elder of the two on a scientific
+mission to Brazil at the age of twenty-five. The
+younger d’Abbadie explored Algeria. This leading
+his thoughts in the direction of Abyssinia, he proposed
+to his brother a joint mission of exploration,
+which commenced in 1838 by their landing at Masawa.
+Besides carefully surveying the northern and
+central provinces of Abyssinia they did work of
+special novelty and interest in the south. Until the
+journeys of Cecchi and other Italians twenty years ago
+the d’Abbadies’ information concerning the countries
+lying to the south of Abyssinia represented all that
+we knew of Kaffa and Enarea,—names indeed which
+had been cited by the Portuguese, but names unsupported
+by geographical information. Antoine
+d’Abbadie penetrated the furthest into Kaffa. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
+collected an immense amount of information regarding
+the languages spoken in the vague south and
+southwest districts inhabited mainly by races of
+Hamitic origin. The d’Abbadies closed their survey
+of Abyssinia in 1848, though the younger brother
+paid the country another short visit in 1853. They
+were in no hurry to give the results of their explorations
+to the world; in fact, the “Géographie de
+l’Éthiopie” (of which only one volume was published)
+did not appear till 1890. Their actual surveys of Abyssinia
+were published between the years 1860 and 1873.
+Their Ethiopian manuscripts came out also during that
+period, but Antoine’s Dictionary of the Amharic tongue
+was published no further back than 1881. Their twelve
+years’ work in Abyssinia was the greatest contribution
+that has ever been made to our knowledge of that
+country, but most of their labours do not lie sufficiently
+within the field of Nile exploration to admit of an
+adequate description in this book. Antoine d’Abbadie
+lived to the age of eighty-seven (he died in 1897).
+About 1859 he found himself involved in a somewhat
+acrid conflict of opinion with another Abyssinian explorer,
+Dr. C.&nbsp;T. Beke, who visited Abyssinia in the
+forties of the last century. D’Abbadie was naturally
+prejudiced in favour of the Blue Nile being the main
+Nile, since that river and its southern affluents had been
+the special object of his researches during twelve years.
+On the other hand, Dr. Beke was hotly in favour of
+the White Nile, especially after Speke’s discovery of
+the Victoria Nyanza. Dr. Beke was right in his main<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>
+contentions, but seems to have thrown unnecessary
+aspersions on the genuineness of Antoine d’Abbadie’s
+explorations in southern Abyssinia. We now know
+d’Abbadie’s work to have been perfectly accurate.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_281" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2801.jpg" width="1628" height="2336" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dr. C. Beke.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Mansfield Parkyns, an Englishman, visited Abyssinia
+from 1843 to 1846, wrote interestingly on the country
+in confirmation or correction of Bruce’s statements, but
+did not add materially to our geographical knowledge,
+though his book is still often quoted in regard to habits
+and customs now dying out.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Protestant missionaries first despatched
+to the country by the Church Missionary Society of
+London was the celebrated Krapf, already alluded to
+in Chapter XI. as the joint discoverer of the East
+African snow-mountains. Krapf penetrated far south
+into Shoa, and gave considerable information, both
+interesting and true, regarding the dwarfish Negro
+tribes found to the southwest of the Abyssinian
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Lij Kasa, who had become King of Kings of
+Ethiopia under the name of Theodore III., showed
+himself, when he had consolidated his power, very fond
+of the English, and encouraged English missionaries
+and consuls to go to his court. He seems, however, to
+have pursued this policy more with the idea of strengthening
+his prestige and improving his kingdom by the
+spread of mechanical appliances and the manufacture
+of superior arms and ammunition, than from any desire
+to encourage missionary work. In the early sixties
+he became offended at a supposed slight on the part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
+of the British government, which left unanswered a
+letter addressed to it by Theodore in 1863. His subsequent
+proceedings in regard to the imprisonment of
+the consul and missionaries eventually brought about
+the British expedition of 1868. A force of sixteen
+thousand British and Indian soldiers under Sir Charles
+Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala) marched
+from Masawa up and along the eastern escarpment of
+the Abyssinian plateau, and captured the citadel of
+Magdala, which is situated within the basin of the Nile,
+close to the northeasternmost tributary of that river.
+This expedition was accompanied by Dr. W.&nbsp;T. Blanford,
+who compiled a valuable work on the geology and
+zoölogy of Abyssinia, which was published in 1870.</p>
+
+<p>For ten years after the withdrawal of the British
+expedition, in 1869, little advance was made in our
+knowledge of Abyssinian geography. Theodore was
+succeeded by another adventurer, also called Kasa,—a
+native of Tigre,—who afforded considerable help
+to the British. By means of our indirect support he
+succeeded in getting himself crowned as Yohannes
+(John), King of Kings of Ethiopia. Shoa alone,
+where Menelik (the present emperor) was slowly recovering
+the power of his father (who had lost the
+country to Theodore), was not actually conquered by
+the Emperor John; for just as he was starting to
+subdue Menelik, he himself was attacked by the Egyptian
+army under Munzinger, the Swiss Governor of
+Masawa. Munzinger was urging the Khedive’s government
+to occupy and annex Abyssinia, and Egypt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
+had, as a preliminary, seized the Bogos country, the
+greater part of which still remains Egyptian. But
+in 1875 John inflicted a tremendous defeat on the
+Egyptian army near the river Mareb, and in 1876 a
+second defeat, still more disastrous to the Egyptian
+power. This brought about the intervention of General
+Gordon, who, in 1876 and 1879, made two attempts
+to come to a friendly understanding with
+Abyssinia. His journeys added a little to our knowledge
+of the affluents of the Blue Nile and the Atbara.</p>
+
+<p>In 1879 the Earl of Mayo (who subsequently travelled
+with the writer of this book in southwest Africa)
+made an interesting journey along the Takaze River,
+which is the upper waters of the Atbara. His sporting
+expedition was followed by that of the brothers
+W. and F.&nbsp;L. James (who subsequently explored
+Somaliland). The Italians began to take an interest
+in Abyssinia at the end of the seventies, but the
+first expeditions undertaken by their explorers have
+no connection with the Nile basin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 or 1840 one of the most important affluents
+of the Nile was discovered by the expedition of Turks
+and Europeans despatched by Muhammad Ali to
+explore the White Nile. This was the Sobat (as it
+was named by the Nile Arabs), which enters the White
+River under the ninth degree of latitude. The word
+Sobat was evidently an ancient Nubian or Ethiopian
+term which was in existence two thousand years ago,
+when it was applied to the White Nile (Asta Sobas),
+in contradistinction to the Blue Nile (Ast’apos). At<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>
+the present day the Sobat is known by the name of
+Kir<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> on its lower portion, and Baro on its upper
+course. In subsequent years steamers ascended the
+Sobat from the Nile as far as it was navigable,
+namely, to a point called Nasr. Johann Maria Schuver,
+a Dutch traveller in the seventies of the last
+century, and several Europeans in the service of the
+Egyptian government, collected a little more information
+about the Sobat and its tributaries above Nasr,
+but this river long remained one of the unsolved problems
+of Nile geography. Schuver did much to explore
+the western Gala countries between the Sobat and the
+Blue Nile. On some of these journeys he was accompanied
+by the Italian explorer Piaggia<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> (who had discovered
+Lake Kioga on the Victoria Nile). Piaggia,
+in endeavouring once more to force his way towards
+the Sobat, died at Karkoj, on the Blue Nile, in 1882.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_284" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2841.jpg" width="1550" height="1230" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Natives of the Baro (Upper Sobat) skinning Hippopotamus.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The surcease of the Nile exploration which followed
+on the Mahdi’s revolt in 1882, closed for a
+time the exploration of the Sobat and its affluents.
+But one result of this revolt was to urge European
+inquirers more and more towards Abyssinia, especially
+the southern provinces of that empire. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>
+French explorer, Jules Borelli, made remarkable journeys
+to the south and southwest of Abyssinia at the
+close of the eighties of the last century, and, besides
+discovering the river Omo, which flows into Lake
+Rudolf, he gave much new information regarding
+the source of the Sobat. The book which he published
+in 1890—“Ethiopie Méridionale”—is one of
+the best and most beautifully illustrated works which
+have appeared on Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Italy having assumed an unacknowledged protectorate
+over Abyssinia, subsidised expedition after expedition,
+nominally for scientific research. Among
+the best equipped of these undertakings, and the most
+fruitful in geographical results, was an expedition
+under Vittorio Bottego, L. Vannutelli, and C. Citerni,
+which explored the head-waters of the Sobat (Baro,
+Akobo, etc.) in the southern Abyssinian highlands,
+and also the waters of the Didessa (Dabessa), which
+is the southernmost tributary of the Blue Nile.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the celebrated Captain (now Colonel) J.&nbsp;B.
+Marchand, who had made a most remarkable journey
+across the Nyam-nyam country in the western Nile
+basin from the Mbomu (a northern affluent of the
+Welle-Ubangi), across the Nile watershed to the Sue
+River, and down the Sue to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+Fashoda, left Fashoda<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> in consequence of the agreement
+between France and Great Britain, and travelled
+to Abyssinia more or less along the course of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
+Sobat River, thus, first of all Europeans, practically
+connecting the southern provinces of Abyssinia with
+the White Nile by a direct journey up the valley of
+the Sobat or Baro. Marchand’s explorations were
+supplemented by those of MM. de Bonchamps and
+Michel.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_286" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2861.jpg" width="1382" height="1971" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Pierre Petit &amp; Fils.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Colonel J.&nbsp;B. Marchand.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These explorers were soon followed in the same
+direction by the late Captain M.&nbsp;S. Wellby. Captain
+Wellby also made a most interesting journey from
+Abyssinia to Lake Rudolf, down the east coast of
+Lake Rudolf to Lake Baringo and the Uganda Protectorate,
+and then northwest through the Turkana
+country, which lies to the west of Lake Rudolf.
+Here Captain Wellby found himself on the Nile-Rudolf
+water-parting. To the west of the Turkana,
+in the Karamojo country, he crossed an important
+stream named the Ruzi,<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> which was flowing in a general
+way northwest. Farther north he encountered
+another river also named Ruzi, which might or
+might not be the same, but which in doubt he called
+Ruzi II. From the second of these Ruzis he eventually
+reached the main Sobat. Thenceforth he believed
+that in one or other of the Ruzis he had discovered
+the southernmost affluent, or perhaps the headwaters
+of the Sobat River. His theory, however, was
+strongly contested by Major H.&nbsp;H. Austin, who, in
+company with Major R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T. Bright, travelled over
+the greater part of the Sobat system in 1900–1901,
+giving us for the first time a fairly accurate survey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
+of that river, and of its southern affluents, especially
+the Pibor-Akobo, which for length of course, though
+not in volume, might lay claim to be the main Sobat
+River. The Akobo rises in the mountains to the
+north of Lake Rudolf, its source being very close to
+the stream of the Omo, the principal feeder of Lake
+Rudolf. It does receive an affluent from the south,
+which is named by Major Austin “Neubari,” but
+this stream is at present unexplored in its lower
+course. It might turn out to be one of the rivers
+named by Captain Wellby “Ruzi.” At the same
+time Dr. Donaldson-Smith, who crossed this region
+in 1900, does not appear to have encountered running
+water where the junction of the Ruzi and the
+Neubari should have taken place. Probably the two
+Ruzis discovered by Captain Wellby are two different
+streams, one of which flows northwestward into
+the Nile and the other into the northwest corner of
+Lake Rudolf. The countries to the south of Akobo
+and northwest of Lake Rudolf are described by the
+few travellers who have visited them as being a region
+of appalling drought.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_287" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2881.jpg" width="1539" height="1218" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gorge of the River Baro (Upper Sobat).</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Mr. Weld Blundell had succeeded the Bonchamps-Michel
+expedition as an explorer of the Blue Nile,
+and of its interesting southern affluent, the Didessa.
+Mr. Blundell made several interesting changes in the
+delineation of the course of the Blue Nile westward
+of Gojam. Blundell’s work was succeeded by the remarkable
+surveys of Major C.&nbsp;W. Gwynn and Lieutenant
+L.&nbsp;C. Jackson, who contributed a map of the Blue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
+Nile from Roseires up stream to the Gubba country,
+on the frontiers of Abyssinia. They also threw
+a little more light on the course of the Didessa and
+Yabus affluents of the Blue Nile, and the upper waters
+of the Rahad, which also flows (somewhat intermittently)
+into the Blue Nile. From the Rahad they
+crossed the tiny stretch of mountainous country (Galabat)
+to the Atbara. Here they showed that only a
+distance of about five miles of mountains separates
+the affluents of the Atbara from the affluents of the
+Rahad, which is a tributary of the Blue Nile. But
+for this intervening ridge of five miles in breadth,
+the systems of the Atbara and the Blue Nile would
+(as the ancients and Arabs formerly believed) have
+turned the whole country of Sennar into a huge
+island, in which form it was represented by most
+travellers down to the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. Major Gwynn also explored the head-waters
+of the river Garre, which is the northernmost
+affluent of the Baro-Sobat, and also the Pibor. As
+to the country between the Baro or the main upper
+Sobat and the Pibor, Major Gwynn describes it as
+“a dried-up marsh covered with a thick choking layer
+of black ash resulting from the burning of the
+grass.” The Nuers, one of the eastern tribes of the
+Nilotic Negroes, he describes as a wonderfully fine
+race physically, averaging nearly six feet in height.
+Of the work of the earliest European pioneer in
+western Galaland Major Gwynn gives a generous
+<span class="locked">estimate:—</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Up to this point (the Lega-Gala country) we had
+been traversing a land which had to a certain extent
+been explored by Schuver, and his work had, on the
+whole, been found to be very accurate in detail, though
+in the southern portions of his map a considerable error
+in latitude had appeared.... Schuver was much liked
+and respected throughout the country, and a great impression
+had been produced by his dog, which must have
+been a big Newfoundland. (He is still always spoken
+of by the Galas as Abu Sari, ‘the Father of the Dog.’)”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_289" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2884.jpg" width="1646" height="1269" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Berta Negroes.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the middle of the Blue Nile, north of the country
+of Fazokl, the aboriginal inhabitants are purely
+Negro—Berta and Barun. These Negro races were
+probably first mentioned by Cailliaud, the French explorer,
+and Ferdinand Werne, the German, who travelled
+on the Blue Nile between 1829 and 1843.
+Major Gwynn describes them as “a very black race,
+large, well made, but slothful and stupid to a degree.
+Going up to their villages in the hills, one finds them
+stretched out, sunning themselves on the rocks, looking
+for all the world like great black snails. Funny
+little black pigs and stringy fowls share the huts on
+equal terms.”</p>
+
+<p>An interesting journey was made by Mr. Oscar T.
+Crosby across southern Abyssinia and down the Blue
+Nile in 1900. In an article by Mr. Crosby in the
+“Geographical Journal” of July, 1900, an interesting
+description is given of the deep gorge of the Blue
+Nile in the Gomar country of Gojam. The level of
+the river at this point is 4,725 feet above sea-level.
+The edge of the plateau above the river is 9,650 feet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>
+and this plateau descends nearly five thousand feet in
+a series of abrupt steps or “benches.”</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1900 Mr. Oscar Neumann, a
+German, already noted for his explorations of the
+eastern part of the Uganda Protectorate, reached
+Abyssinia by the now well-trodden route from Zeila
+to Harar, and after visiting the Blue Nile in Gojam,
+explored the northern part of the Rudolf basin,
+and then reached the Galo, which is one of the rivers
+that might claim to be the head-waters of the Sobat,
+a river rising in those lofty, snow-patched highlands
+to the southwest of Enarea. From the Galo, Neumann
+crossed to the Akobo, and followed this stream
+down to its confluence with the Pibor. At this confluence
+he makes the Pibor such an important stream
+that it may well be Captain Wellby’s Ruzi. In the
+country immediately to the south of Kaffa and on the
+water-parting between the systems of the Nile and
+Lake Rudolf Mr. Neumann claims to have discovered
+Negro races of the Bantu stock. Apparently
+he means merely in physical type,—in other words,
+Negroes of more or less West African affinities; but
+if he or any other traveller should be able to support
+this statement by specimens of the language of these
+Sheko and Binesho peoples which actually showed
+affinities with the Bantu family, he would have
+thrown a remarkable new light on the unsolved problem
+concerning the source of this interesting family of
+African languages. The present writer has been able
+to show that Bantu languages of the most archaic type<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
+exist at the present day on the northwest slopes of
+Mount Elgon. This is the furthest point to the northeast
+to which the Bantu family has been traced.
+Thence southwards and westwards it spreads as the
+dominating family of languages as far as Cape Colony
+and Fernando Po.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_291" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2902.jpg" width="1683" height="1268" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Berta Village in the Matongwe Mountains.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Almost the only large white spot now remaining
+unexplored in the Nile basin is the district occupied
+by Nilotic Negroes (Dinka, Nuēr, Shiluk), lying between
+the Sobat River on the northeast and the main
+White Nile on the west and southwest. This region
+appears to be a flat country of alternate marsh and
+arid steppe, producing few or no great rivers of its
+own. On the west it is watered by the affluents of
+an important river, vaguely known as the Oguelokur,
+some of which (such as the Tu and Kos) rise in those
+high mountains of the Lotuka country in the northernmost
+parts of the Uganda Protectorate. Mr.
+Ewart Grogan, accompanied part of the way by Mr.
+Sharp, in 1899 and 1900, made a remarkable journey,
+literally from the Cape to Cairo. He travelled from
+the north end of Lake Tanganyika by way of lakes
+Kivu and Albert Edward to the Albert Nyanza, and
+thence down the Nile to the sudd barriers beyond
+Bor. After which, taking to the land, he traversed
+the unknown country along that branch of the White
+Nile called Bahr-az-Ziraf or the Giraffe River. He
+discovered another branch of the Mountain Nile
+which joins the Bahr-az-Ziraf, and at the junction
+of these rivers he notes the entry of a powerful tributary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
+from the southeast, doubtless the Oguelokur. It
+is sometimes supposed that the southernmost of the
+Ruzi rivers discovered by Captain Wellby also joins
+the Oguelokur, and not the Sobat, though the more
+northern Ruzi may be the head-waters of the Pibor.
+Some distance to the west of the Pibor is a river
+called in Sudanese Arabic “Khor Felus.” This river
+was practically discovered by Captain H.&nbsp;H. Wilson
+in 1902. Starting southwards from the Sobat, not
+far from its confluence with the main Nile, Captain
+Wilson followed the Khor Felus up stream for a distance
+of some eighty-five miles in a direct line due
+south. He describes the country traversed by this
+winding river as being flat and uninteresting,—nothing
+but a vast grassy plain, with hardly a tree to be
+seen. The river or khor was not traced to its source,
+which indeed was said by the natives to be the White
+Nile itself. If this be true, another branch of the
+White Nile would start from near Bor and flow
+northeastwards into the Sobat; further, more natural
+canals seem to connect the Khor Felus with the Pibor
+or the Upper Sobat. If this is the case, then in that
+vast plain lying between the Sobat and the Nile, which
+was once a portion of the “Lake of Fashoda,” we
+have still remains of many old channels of the Nile
+which, as the lake drained off to the northwards,
+meandered over its drying bed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_293" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2922.jpg" width="2318" height="1621" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Nile in Egypt.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"><span id="toclink_293"></span>CHAPTER XXVII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">CONCLUSION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> Nile quest is practically ended. It may be
+safely said that every important branch or affluent
+or lake-source of this the longest river in Africa
+(very nearly the longest in the world) has been discovered,
+named, and partially or completely mapped.
+The only portion of the Nile basin which presents any
+noticeable blank on the map is the unknown district—some
+say of swamp alternating with arid steppe—which
+stretches like a tongue of white in our charts
+between the tributaries of the Mountain Nile and the
+Giraffe on the west, and the affluents of the Sobat on
+the east. In all probability whilst these lines are written
+and printed this blank is being filled up by industrious
+surveyors sent out by the Anglo-Egyptian government
+of the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>Fate has ordained that the entire basin of this river
+and its tributaries (with the trifling exceptions of the
+upper waters of those which rise within the political
+limits of Abyssinia, a portion of the extreme source
+of the Nile (the Kagera), of Lake Albert Edward,
+and of the Semliki) should come under the political
+control of Great Britain. We have, therefore, cast
+our ægis over one of the most wonderful regions, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
+some respects one of the most productive portions,
+of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>On the north there is the oldest country in the
+world, so far as history goes,—Egypt, with its ten
+millions of Egyptians, Arabs, Europeans, and Nubians;
+its cotton and wheat, maize, barley, beans, sugar-cane,
+dates, rice, and clover; its petroleum, gold, and
+emeralds in the eastern desert, and its alum and soda
+in the Libyan wastes; Egypt, with its European or
+Mediterranean fauna and flora.</p>
+
+<p>Then comes Nubia, producing little at present but
+fierce men of mixed Hamitic, Semitic, and Negro
+blood; then the richer countries of Darfur, Kordofan,
+Sennar, Bogos, Kasalá, and Galabat. Here there is no
+lack of trade goods,—copper, camels, asses, and,
+above all, acacia gum. The vegetation in these lands is
+no longer that of the Mediterranean. It is African.
+On the hills above three thousand feet, appear dracænas
+and euphorbias. In the lowlands there are baobabs,
+acacias, giant fig-trees, wild-date palms, and the
+branching hyphæne. Here begins the great fauna of
+Africa,—baboons, elephants, antelopes, lions, zebras,
+cheetahs, leopards, spotted hyænas, wild asses, rhinoceroses,
+giraffes.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_294" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2941.jpg" width="1527" height="1216" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nubia: a “Washout” on the Sudan Railway.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Farther south comes the influence of the regular
+equatorial rains. The steppe gives place to grasslands,
+and, above all, to marshes,—hopeless marshes
+of papyrus, of Phragmites reeds, of the fleecy
+<i class="taxonomy">Vossia</i> grass, of the floating <i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>, the
+amaranth, the water-lily, and the ambatch (a gouty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
+bean with orange-coloured blossoms). In these
+marshes swarm the hippopotamuses and crocodiles,
+long banished from Egypt proper. Here strides and
+poses the extraordinary <i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i> or Whale-headed
+stork. Sacred ibises, spoonbills, stilts, herons,
+marabou storks, white storks, black storks, saddle-billed
+storks, tantalus storks, Egyptian geese, spur-winged
+geese, knobnose geese, ducks of many kinds
+frequent this dreary land, that, save to birds, has no
+horizon; for everywhere the view is shut in with
+walls of reed and rush and amphibious bush. Yet
+away beyond the marshes—marshes which are really
+hidden lakes and mighty rivers with false banks of
+floating vegetation—is a grassy country dotted with
+stony hillocks, if one travels far enough from the
+river, and inhabited by naked Nile Negroes. These
+are tall black men with long, thin shanks, and the
+gait and attitudes of wading birds. They are cattle-keepers,
+above all, and their vast unseen herds beyond
+the marsh lands breed and send forth periodically for
+the devastation of Africa those cattle plagues which
+recur at intervals of a few years.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_295" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2944.jpg" width="2108" height="1244" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Tropical Forest at Entebbe, on the North-west Shores of Victoria Nyanza</span>,</p>
+
+<p>(Now turned into Botanical Gardens.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To the southwest of Marshland begins an attractive,
+even beautiful, park-like country of rolling, grassy
+downs, interspersed with fine trees of ample foliage,
+with belts of forest along the rivers. Beyond the parklands
+rises that tremendous tropical forest which
+passes thence uninterruptedly over the water-parting
+into the basin of the Congo. This tropical forest, only
+to be rivalled in luxuriance by that of the Amazons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>
+in South America, stretches in a crescent curve along
+the southwestern edge of the Nile basin to Ruwenzori,
+and, with a few interruptions, into Unyoro,
+Uganda, and the northern shores of the Victoria Nyanza.
+On the plateaux lying to the northeast of the
+Victoria Nyanza are other areas of dense forest, but
+not always tropical in character,—forests consisting
+of great conifers and tree-heaths, which reappear on
+the high mountains of Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>To the immediate south of the marshy country
+appears more parkland on either side of the Mountain
+Nile, and in the countries of the Acholi, the Lango,
+and the Lotuka. Beyond this parkland is the great
+area of marshes between the Victoria Nile and Mount
+Elgon. North of Elgon the parkland becomes more
+arid. East and west of the Victoria Nyanza are
+beautiful and healthy plateaux ranging from six
+thousand to ten thousand feet in altitude, and highly
+suggestive of Europe and the Cape of Good Hope in
+their vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Between the watershed of Rudolf and that of the
+White Nile are many mountains, but as one proceeds
+northward in the direction of the Sobat, the country
+is increasingly parched and sandy where it is not
+stagnant marsh.</p>
+
+<p>Nileland contains within its limits the highest
+point of the African continent,—the culminating
+peak (whichever it may be) of the Ruwenzori range,
+a ridge which presents some thirty miles of snow and
+glaciers, and perhaps attains twenty thousand feet in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
+supreme altitude. South of Ruwenzori, and still
+partly within the Nile watershed, is the Mfumbiro
+group of volcanoes, two of which possibly exceed
+an altitude of thirteen thousand feet. Away to the
+northeast of the Victoria Nyanza is the great extinct
+volcano of Elgon, over fourteen thousand feet in
+height, while the mountains of Abyssinia, where the
+Sobat, the Blue Nile and its tributaries, and the Atbara
+take their rise, reach in places to altitudes of
+sixteen thousand feet, and are capped with patches
+of perpetual snow. Nileland, therefore, offers a wonderful
+range of climate, temperature, and vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Its fauna comprises the most interesting, the biggest,
+and the handsomest of African beasts. And
+its human races include nearly every type of Negro
+and Negroid,—Congo Pygmies, Turkana giants,
+Masai like Greek athletes and Balega<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> like apes,
+long-shanked Dinka and Shiluk, short-limbed Lendu,
+burly Baganda, handsome Bahima, ugly Berta and
+Shangala, bearded Nyam-nyam and womanish Madi;
+the clothed, curly-haired Galas and the absolutely
+nude Nilotic Negroes. In Egypt are pure Caucasians;
+in Nubia and Abyssinia, in the lands between
+the Nyanzas, are people of this regal stock variously
+mixed with antecedent Negro.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has been the main route by which in
+ancient times the Caucasian invaded Negro Africa,
+the once exclusive path by which the white man’s cultivated
+plants and domestic animals reached the torrid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
+lands and dense forests where the Negro, before the
+Caucasian touched him, lived in the condition of the
+semi-beast. No Negro race cared whence the Nile
+came or whither it flowed. Interest in geographical
+problems, as it was remarked in the first chapter of this
+book, is almost the exclusive heritage of the Caucasian.
+This is the human race which for some three thousand
+years has felt first a flickering curiosity, latterly
+an intense desire, to wrest the secret of the Nile
+sources from the heart of Africa. Its aim is accomplished.
+The main features of the Nile system are
+placed on the maps of civilised men, are known to intelligent
+Egyptians, Arabs, Indians, and Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has been the Caucasian’s first and easiest
+way across the desert to Real Africa before the
+ocean could be navigated. The Nile basin, moreover,
+offered to the more sensitive white man elevated
+areas, oases in a land of malarial fever, wherein
+he could make some home or settlement, south of the
+Tropic of Capricorn, not too dissimilar in climate and
+temperature to the lands of temperate Europe and
+Asia. From the vantage-ground of Abyssinia, of the
+Nandi and Ankole plateaux, of the Mediterranean
+Delta of the Nile, the Caucasian may still direct the
+education of the Nile Negroes and permeate increasingly
+these black and bronze-skinned, woolly-haired
+backsliders from human progress with Caucasian
+blood, energy, and love of knowledge, till the Nile
+Negro himself grows interested in the past history
+of Nile discovery.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"><span id="toclink_299"></span>CHAPTER XXVIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE NILE BASIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Early</span> in the geological history of the globe there
+appear to have been rock-foldings, wrinkles in
+the earth’s surface in the eastern half of Africa.
+Sometimes this puckering of the solid crust manifested
+itself simply in longitudinal strips of raised
+plateaux of which Abyssinia and the highlands east
+of the Victoria Nyanza, north and west of Nyasaland,
+are remains. A sharper wrinkle than others
+produced the remarkable snowy range of Ruwenzori,
+perhaps the greatest altitude of the African continent.
+These lofty plateaux and mountain ranges
+from Abyssinia on the north to Nyasaland on the
+south have no doubt in all times attracted an unusually
+heavy rainfall from the moisture-laden clouds
+which are blown inland off the Indian Ocean. The
+rainfall on the Livingstone Mountains and the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau drains south and east to the Indian
+Ocean and west to the basin of the Congo; or
+into Tanganyika, which is likewise connected with
+the Congo at the present day.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> North of the Tanganyika<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
+system, however,—that is to say, approximately
+north of the third degree of south latitude,—the
+rainfall flows either towards the Mediterranean
+down the valley of the Nile, or else in a north-northeasterly
+direction into a string of isolated lakes which
+apparently at one time communicated with the Gulf
+of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea. Supervening
+on the original wrinkling of the true backbone of
+Africa (i.e. the elevated ridge which extends from
+the Nubian Alps to the Cape of Good Hope or at any
+rate to the Zambezi) came a series of profound volcanic
+disturbances, elevating, depressing, cracking,
+and rending the eastern side of this ancient continent.
+As a rule this volcanic action seems to have
+proceeded along nearly parallel curved lines, running
+from the latitudes of the Zambezi River in a north-northeasterly
+direction. The first and widest of these
+faults due to volcanic action was seemingly the sinking
+of the ground between Madagascar and East
+Africa. A nearly parallel but much narrower rift
+valley was also formed up the trough of Lake Nyasa,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
+northwards<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> to the celebrated rift valley which lies
+to the east of the Victoria Nyanza, and contains innumerable
+lakes, large and small, salt and fresh.
+This valley, with some interruptions, extends north
+and northeast till it reaches the shores of the Gulf of
+Aden.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> Westward again of this East African rift
+(which some geologists believe to have been continued
+with a northwesterly inflection up the Red Sea
+to the valley of the Jordan) is another less clearly-defined
+fault, which may have produced the valleys
+of the Kafue and of the Luapula, and was then continued
+northwards through Tanganyika to the Albert
+Nyanza and the valley of the Nile. Various upheavals
+and modifications broke up the continuity of
+this western rift valley. The drainage of the Kafue
+was deflected to the Indian Ocean; that of the Luapula
+and its lakes and of Tanganyika to the Congo
+basin. North of Lake Kivu,<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> however, the drainage
+flowed northward into a vast fresh-water inland sea,
+which, for want of a better name, we may call the
+Lake of Fashoda. A parallel to this great circular,
+shallow sheet of water existed not very anciently in
+the northern basin of the Congo, and another is to
+be seen at the present day in the Victoria Nyanza.
+This last is the largest existing lake in Africa. So
+far as is known it is shallow compared to such deep<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
+troughs as Tanganyika and Nyasa, and is possibly not
+a very ancient sheet of water as geological age may
+be reckoned.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_302" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3021.jpg" width="1683" height="1368" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Napoleon Gulf, looking South, near the Outlet of the Ripon Falls.</span></p>
+
+<p>[Note the isolated rocks, the remains of a former barrier and fall.]</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Victoria Nyanza is in origin little but the
+widened course of the river Kagera, which flowed
+along a curved depression to the eastward of the
+Ruwenzori, Ankole, Mpororo, and Mfumbiro highlands.
+The Kagera, in fact, at the present day may
+be regarded as the extreme source of the Nile. It
+rises approximately under the fourth degree of south
+latitude, only a few miles from the mountainous
+shores of northeast Tanganyika. Many streams descending<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a>
+from these Burundi mountains unite to
+form the Kagera, which, after a zigzag northerly
+course studded with not a few small lakes, turns,
+under the first degree of south latitude, abruptly to
+the east (with one dip to the south) and enters the
+Victoria Nyanza a little to the north of the first degree
+of south latitude. The original course of the
+stream evidently lay between the Sese Islands (the
+remains of high mountains) and the coasts of Buddu
+and Uganda, and then through the Rosebery Channel
+into the Napoleon Gulf, from which, over the Ripon
+Falls, it issues as the acknowledged Nile. Apart
+from the Kagera the great Victoria Nyanza receives
+few rivers of size or important volume. The only
+others worthy to be mentioned are the Nzoia on the
+northeast, the Nyando and its affluents, which form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
+Kavirondo Bay, and four largish rivers which enter
+the east coast of the lake. If the bed of the Victoria
+Nyanza could be raised by some earth movement
+about two hundred and fifty feet, it would be traversed
+by a converging network of river channels
+uniting with the Kagera and the main stream of the
+Nile in what is at present called Napoleon Gulf; and
+the geographical appearance of this dried-up lake
+would be very similar to the present aspect on the
+map of the many branches and affluents of the Nile
+and its tributaries which converge (south of Fashoda)
+at the junction of the Sobat. The surface area of the
+Victoria Nyanza may at one time have been considerably
+greater than it is at the present day, and have
+covered a good deal of the country of Unyamwezi.
+Perhaps at one time it had no outlet. The highlands
+forming the eastern spine of the continent and
+stretching along the eastern cliffs of the rift valley
+from Abyssinia to North Nyasa prevented its overflowing
+towards the Indian Ocean; while the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau and the mountains bordering the
+Tanganyika rift valley opposed any western escapement.
+Therefore the great inland sea created by the
+drainage of Unyamwezi, of the Kagera, and the rivers
+from the Nandi plateau was forced up against the
+ridge of highish land (4,000 feet), forming the existing
+countries of Uganda, Busoga, and Kavirondo.
+Attacking this ridge at its narrowest diameter, the
+pent-up waters of the Victoria Nyanza slowly carved
+their way northwards down the gorge now occupied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
+by the Nile at the Ripon Falls. Nearly all the drainage
+of the Uganda-Busoga Plateau runs northward,
+and does not fall into the Victoria Nyanza. The tilt
+of this plateau is highest round the northern shores
+of the Victoria Nyanza (four to five thousand feet),
+and falls gradually till it reaches the somewhat low
+level (two thousand feet) of the Upper Nile valley.
+The escaping waters of the Victoria Nyanza formed
+another great lake (Kioga-Kwania) immediately to
+the north on the other side of the Uganda ridge. This
+lake again drained off eventually to the original (Albertine)
+Nile. The site of its former bed is covered
+at the present day with vast marshes and with the
+straggling, many-armed lake of Kioga-Kwania.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_304" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3041.jpg" width="1181" height="1142" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Birth of the Victoria Nile, at the Ripon Falls.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Albertine Nile, which some geographers think
+was the original main stream of the river, rises under
+the name of Ruchuru on the northern slopes of that
+great volcanic mass called the Mfumbiro mountains.
+These mountains have arisen in recent times in the
+middle of a rift valley which, seemingly, included
+Lake Kivu. The same fault may also contain the
+basin of Tanganyika, but this lies at a much lower
+level than Kivu. From Kivu (which no doubt once
+drained towards the Nile before the volcanic dam
+arose on the north) there would have been a gentle
+slope downward and northward (only partially
+stemmed by the extraordinary peninsula of Ruwenzori)
+to the basin of the Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>The Ruchuru enters Lake Albert Edward,—creates
+that lake, in fact,—and the Albert Edward Nyanza<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>
+has a northern gulf or tributary lake known as Dweru,
+which receives much of the drainage of Ruwenzori,
+and transmits the melted snows of this Central African
+Caucasus to the basin of the Albert Edward.
+From the north end of Albert Edward the Albertine
+Nile issues again under the conventional name of the
+Semliki. The Semliki flows round the abrupt western
+slopes of Ruwenzori into Lake Albert Nyanza,
+from the northern end of which important basin
+(which lies at an altitude of 2,100 feet above the sea),
+the Mountain Nile, formed by the great twin lakes,
+whose existence was remotely known to the ancients,
+starts on its career.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_305" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3044.jpg" width="1714" height="1182" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">On Lake Albert Edward (North-West Coast)</span>.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Victoria Nile enters the north end of Lake
+Albert, and its waters leave that lake almost uninfluenced
+by their volume; in fact, Lake Albert has
+almost become a river, the Albertine Nile, when the
+water coming from the Victoria Nyanza enters the
+river-like end of the Albert at Magungo and then
+abruptly turns with full stream to the north. The
+Mountain Nile,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> after leaving Lake Albert, maintains
+a broad, lake-like character until it enters the narrow
+rift valley north of Nimule in the Madi country.
+Along this winding gorge, which exhibits some of
+the finest scenery of Africa, the Nile flows over
+nearly a hundred miles of cataracts and descends in
+all about five hundred feet. At Lado (in about 5°<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>
+north latitude), where it slackens and expands, the
+altitude of the White or Mountain Nile is about fifteen
+hundred feet above sea-level. At the beginning
+of this cataract region, north of Nimule, the Nile receives
+a lengthy affluent from the southeast. This is
+the river Asua, which drains the very mountainous
+but slightly arid country west of the Rudolf watershed,
+and north of Mount Elgon. The Asua attracted
+a great deal of attention in the early days of Nile exploration,
+owing to Speke having thought that it was
+an additional outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, flowing
+from (what is now called) Kavirondo Bay.</p>
+
+<p>North of Lado the Nile enters an exceedingly
+marshy region, which is perhaps three hundred miles
+from north to south and two hundred miles from
+east to west. This area once certainly was the site
+of a lake at one time as large or larger than the
+Victoria Nyanza. This lake was mostly fed from
+the west by seven or eight important streams, which
+to-day, with their many tributaries, unite to form
+that broad western branch of the Nile known as the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-al-Ghazal is little else than a great estuary
+which receives contributions from many big rivers.
+If, however, one of these is to be selected as the main
+stream on account of general consistency of direction,
+then the Bahr-al-Arab would be the upper waters of
+the Gazelle. The furthest perennial source of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>
+river is in the country of Dar Fertit, on the verge of
+the northernmost limits of the Congo basin, and within
+a few days’ journey of the Upper Shari. Other very
+doubtful tributaries of the Bahr-al-Arab drain off what
+little water is not evaporated in the somewhat arid
+country of Darfur. The Bahr-al-Arab is fed by at
+least four important rivers, which flow northward
+from the Congo water-parting in the Nyam-nyam
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>If volume of water is to be considered, then probably
+the main stream of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is the Jur
+or Dyur, which, in its upper waters, is known as the
+Sue or Swe. The Sue-Jur rises in about 4° north
+latitude, not many days’ journey to the east of
+Mbomu. (The Mbomu is an important tributary of
+the Welle-Ubangi, which again is one of the principal
+tributaries of the Congo.) There is nearly continuous
+steam navigation up the Welle-Ubangi and
+the Mbomu to within a few days’ journey of the Nile
+basin. It was up this stream (from the Congo) that
+Marchand and his intrepid companions travelled in
+1897. From the waters of the Mbomu they carried
+their little steam-launch overland to the Upper Sue.
+They were then able to descend this river for hundreds
+of miles to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the main
+Nile. Near Mashra-ar-Rak, at the commencement of
+what the Sudanese style the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the Jur
+is joined by another important stream called, in its
+lower course, the Tonj, which has many tributaries
+coming from the vicinity of the Welle. Nearly parallel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
+with this river to the east are the Roa and the
+Rōl (or Yalo), both of which enter the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+not far from its confluence with the main
+Nile. There is also a river Yei or Ayi, the direction
+of which is not fully determined. This river, which
+flows nearly parallel with the main Nile, some sixty
+miles to the west of Lado, either enters the Rōl and
+thus the Bahr-al-Ghazal, or turns into the main Nile
+not far from the bifurcation of the Bahr-az-Ziraf.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-az-Ziraf is an eastern branch of the
+main Nile, which leaves the parental river near Bor
+(about latitude 6° 40′ north) and flows very tortuously
+northwards, rejoining the White Nile about sixty
+miles east of Lake No (Bahr-al-Ghazal). The Ziraf
+or Giraffe River has other communicating channels
+with the main Nile, and also throws off sluggish
+contributions to the Khor Felus,—a western tributary
+of the Lower Sobat. The Giraffe River (so named
+by the Arabs for the many giraffes once sighted
+from its banks) receives from the south an important
+stream known (perhaps incorrectly) as the Oguelokur,
+which, through its component rivers the Tu
+and Kos, drains the northern slopes of the Lotuka
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The lower part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is often lost
+in marshes or is widened into lake-like expanses such
+as Lake No, at the confluence of the White Nile.
+About a hundred miles to the east of this confluence
+with the Kir or main White Nile (also called, south
+of this point, the Bahr-al-Jabl or Mountain Nile),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>
+there enters a very important affluent from the east,
+the Sobat (Baro), which is formed by a number of
+streams flowing from the southwestern part of the
+Abyssinian Empire and the vicinity of the Lake
+Rudolf basin.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> After its confluence with the Sobat
+the White Nile flows without any important tributary
+for something like three hundred and fifty miles
+nearly due north through a country which passes
+from a tropical luxuriance of vegetation to the acacias
+and thin grass of the steppe region. The influence
+of the Sahara Desert, in fact, begins to make
+itself felt,—that desert which extends right across
+from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf, interrupted
+only by the exceptional mountain regions of Tibesti,
+Darfur, Abyssinia, Yaman, and Jabl Akhdar.</p>
+
+<p>At Khartum, in about 15° 40′ north latitude, the
+Nile receives its most important affluent, the Abai or
+Blue Nile (Bahr-al-Azrak). This river rises on Sagada
+Mountain in the Abyssinian province of Gojam,
+passes through the south end of Lake Tsana (a piece
+of water about the area of Gloucestershire) in the
+western part of Central Abyssinia, and, after curving
+to the east and south, turns west and north, and
+brings to the Nile (it is said) that great increase of
+volume in the summer time which causes the annual
+flooding of Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></p>
+
+<p>Lengthy as is the course of the White Nile from the
+Victoria and Albert Nyanzas to Khartum, and infinitely
+greater though the mass of its waters should
+be than the volume of the Blue Nile, the stream
+of the White River has nevertheless been much attenuated
+before it reaches Khartum by the waste of
+its volume in the region of vast swamps lying between
+Fashoda on the north and Lado on the south, to say
+nothing also of a similar waste and evaporation of
+water from the deflection of the Victoria Nile into
+the backwaters and swamps of Kioga and Kwania.
+Another contribution—though a much feebler one in
+volume of water—comes from Abyssinia in the shape
+of the Atbara, which, in its upper waters, is known
+as the Takaze.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> This river, during the dry season,
+almost ceases to flow in its lower portion, though it is
+flooded during the summer months from the melting
+of the snows and the heavy tropical rains on the
+northern Abyssinian mountains. The Atbara is considered
+by Sir Samuel Baker to contribute the principal
+share of the black mud which fertilises Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>After the confluence of the Atbara the Nile receives
+no other tributary of running water during the whole
+remainder of its course, though in former times of far
+greater rainfall it was joined by streams of considerable
+volume flowing northeast from Kordofan. The
+Nile at Ambukol seems to fall into another rift valley
+or series of faults, along which, and over deserts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
+sandstone, granite, and limestone, it pursues its way
+to the southeastern angle of the Mediterranean Sea.
+The great river divides in the extreme lower part of
+its course into two main branches, through which,
+and a number of other smaller streams and artificial
+canals, it pours into the sea the attenuated volume
+of water derived from the rainfall of Eastern Equatorial
+Africa, much having been already spent in useless
+swamps, or evaporated as it passed over a thousand
+miles of desert, or diverted by man to fertilise
+Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting feature of the Nile basin, and one
+which was known more or less vaguely to the ancient
+Egyptians and to the Sabæan Arabs of two thousand
+years ago,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> is the existence of snow-mountains
+at the head-waters of the two principal rivers of the
+Nile system,—the White and the Blue Niles. Ruwenzori<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a>
+was probably known to the ancients as the
+Mountains of the Moon. It is a mass of mainly
+Archæan rock some eighty miles long, which runs
+from northeast to southwest between Lake Albert
+and Lake Albert Edward. This marvellous range
+of snow-peaks and glaciers—a glittering panorama
+nearly thirty miles in length—exhibits a greater display
+of snow and ice (and that exactly under the
+equator) than can be seen anywhere else in the African
+continent, and is of far more imposing appearance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
+than the isolated snow-capped summits of Kenya and
+Kilimanjaro (extinct volcanoes). The entire drainage
+of the Ruwenzori snows falls into the Albertine
+Nile, that is to say, into Lake Edward, or the river
+Semliki, which connects that lake with Albert Nyanza.
+The other heights crowned with perpetual
+snow in the basin of the Nile are the high peaks of
+the Samien or Simen range in northern Abyssinia,
+and one at least,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> of the south Ethiopian (Kaffa)
+highlands. Two of the Samien peaks rise to a little
+over fifteen thousand feet in altitude and one (Buahit)
+to sixteen thousand feet. They are part of a nearly
+circular rim of great heights which surround Lake
+Tsana. To the south of Lake Tsana the mountains
+rise to heights of eleven, twelve, and fourteen thousand
+feet, but have no permanent snow. On the limits
+of the Nile basin, near the northeast corner of the
+Victoria Nyanza, stands Mount Elgon, a mighty extinct
+volcano,—perhaps the largest extinct volcano
+in the world. The crater rim of Elgon rises in places
+to over fourteen thousand feet in altitude, but no
+snow remains there permanently. Elsewhere than
+the Nile basin it is probable that permanent snow and
+ice are only to be found on the adjacent extinct volcanoes
+of Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and on the highest
+peaks of the Atlas range far away in the west of
+Morocco.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span></p>
+
+<p>The lower valley of the Nile, the country which we
+know as Egypt, has undergone fluctuations of level
+since the beginning of the Tertiary Epoch. In the
+secondary ages the last five hundred miles of the
+Nile valley lay for a period of immense duration
+under the waters of the ocean, where the limestone
+deposits were formed. In Eocene times this limestone
+bed was slowly raised to the altitude of a tableland
+above the Mediterranean, but always cut off
+from the direction of the Red Sea by the continuous
+range of mountains which we know as the Nubian
+Alps. It is possible that the drainage of the Central
+African rift valleys and lakes and snow-mountains
+may, by the uprising of this tableland, have been severed
+from its natural escape to the Mediterranean,
+and that the Nile ran to waste in what is now the
+Libyan Desert. No doubt the Nile formed lake after
+lake, and the overflow from these lakes slowly bored
+a passage through the limestone tableland. Then in
+Miocene times took place a further rise in the range
+of the Nubian Alps and the adjoining land, which
+caused fractures to occur in the limestone formation.
+Of this the Nile took advantage, though it filled up
+the rifts to some extent with its debris. The Nile
+cut at one time a very deep bed through the limestone;
+but then occurred fluctuations in level, a sinking
+of the Nile valley which once more brought the
+waters of the Mediterranean far inland, and covered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>
+the channel of the Nile with rubble washed in by the
+sea. Previous to this the cracks and folds which had
+occurred through the upheaval of the eastern highlands
+had evidently caused volcanic disturbances by
+the water of the Nile reaching through these cracks
+the heated strata below. The volcanic outbursts left
+behind beds of basalt through which the persistent
+Nile again cut a channel. In the later Tertiary ages
+Egypt was a country of abundant rainfall, the very
+reverse of the absolute desert of to-day. Heavy rains
+carved and scarped the surface of the country and
+nourished a luxuriant forest. At this period the
+lands lying to the west of Egypt, in what is now
+known as the Libyan Desert, were probably a bay of
+the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>After the Pliocene Epoch, when man first began
+to appear on the scene, there was another lowering
+of the level of the Nile valley in Egypt, and the
+Mediterranean extended its waters perhaps to the
+vicinity of Assiut. At this time the Mediterranean
+was almost certainly connected with the Red Sea
+across the Isthmus of Suez. The Nile stream was
+probably rapid in its descent towards the extended
+Mediterranean, and cut a deeper and deeper channel.
+Then another rise of the land took place, separating
+the Mediterranean from the Red Sea, and
+sending back the Mediterranean to something like its
+present limits; the upheaval indeed may have made
+what is now the Delta of the Nile higher than it is
+at the present day, while the river cut its way through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span>
+a channel many feet deeper than the existing bed.
+Gradually, however, the Lower Nile became more
+sluggish as the land near the Mediterranean rose,
+and, losing its rapidity, it deposited more and more
+thickly the detritus brought down from Equatorial
+Africa, Abyssinia, and Nubia, and so raised its bed
+to a higher level. It has also enlarged its delta by
+the deposit of mud, though the fatuity of its work
+in this direction (in the presence of earth waves) is
+shown by the fluctuations which have occurred even
+within the last three thousand years. Not more than
+a thousand years ago Lake Menzaleh was a fertile
+and richly cultivated district.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_315" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3142.jpg" width="2158" height="1628" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">In the Libyan Desert.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some time after man penetrated into Egypt (probably
+from the east) the countries to the west of the
+Lower Nile began to rise above the sea, for much of
+the Libyan Desert was under the Mediterranean in
+the Tertiary Epoch. This retreat of the sea coupled
+with other conditions not clearly known to us brought
+about a marked change in the climate of Africa north
+of the fifteenth degree of north latitude. The aridity
+of the Sahara Desert and of Arabia began to exercise
+a potent influence over the fate of northern Africa.
+Many of the lands, which as late as the human period
+were still covered with plentiful vegetation and were
+traversable by the apes, the elephants, and the antelopes
+of to-day, began to dry up into their present
+condition, an aridity which, from all we know, is increasing
+and extending. Only Egypt was kept alive
+by the beneficent stream which, so abundantly nurtured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
+by the snow-mountains and equatorial rain-belt
+of eastern Africa, survived even its passage of a thousand
+miles through the blazing desert, and covered
+the narrow ribbon of Upper Egypt and the tassel of
+the Delta with an ever fruitful soil of finely triturated
+mud.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has a length of course of some four
+thousand miles measured along the windings of the
+channel of its main stream,—the Kagera-Victoria-Mountain-White
+Nile. It is still doubtful as to
+whether the Missouri-Mississippi in North America
+is longer than the Nile, and thus the longest river
+in length of course in the world. In any case the Nile
+has the pre-eminence for actual length of basin,
+which, in a straight line measured from the furthest
+source of the Kagera to Rosetta on the Mediterranean,
+is about 2,490 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the Nile basin is approximately
+1,080,000 square miles.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> This falls short of the area
+of the Congo basin by some 400,000 square miles.
+The volume of water which the Nile pours into the
+Mediterranean is trivial compared with the Congo’s
+contribution to the ocean; but then the waters of
+the equatorial zone in East Africa are evaporated
+from the surface of lakes, squandered in swamps,
+sucked up by the desert winds, and finally are employed
+to irrigate Egypt; so that no comparison
+with the output of the Congo would give a fair
+idea of the catchment in the Nile basin. This, perhaps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
+(including the annual contribution to the Nile
+lakes), reaches to two-thirds of the volume of water
+poured into the Atlantic by the Congo’s single
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>This geographical sketch is intended to place before
+the reader the main features in the geography of Nileland.
+It is the summing up of the results of exploration
+during four or five thousand years. The preceding
+chapters deal with the history of the way
+in which the Caucasian has laid bare the secrets of
+the Nile to the curiosity of the civilised. It is only the
+Caucasian race which has cared for geography in the
+past,—the Caucasian in all his types as Dravidian,
+Hamite, Semite, Iberian, and Aryan. The Mongol
+of Asia and America, the Negro of Papua and
+Africa has never cared to ascertain whence rivers
+flowed and whither, what lands lay beyond the ocean
+or the snow-peaks. Some early cross with a Caucasian
+race sent the Polynesian cruising about the Pacific
+and venturing over the Indian Ocean from Java to
+Madagascar; but the more purely Mongoloid brother
+in China and Japan did not care to trace the chain of
+Aleutian Islands to Alaska and America, or if he did
+so by accident, felt the question of no interest, sequence,
+or importance. Only the Caucasian, and mainly the
+White Caucasian, has worried about the Nile problem.
+He has attacked it first from the north (Hamite,
+Greek and Roman); then from the northeast
+and east (Hamite and Semite, Greek, Portuguese,
+and British); once more from the north (Arabs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>
+Turks, French, British, Germans, Italians); resolutely
+from the southeast (British and Germans);
+latterly from the southwest (British, Belgians, and
+French); and, finally and completely, from the north
+and northeast.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_I"><span id="toclink_319"></span>APPENDIX I<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE ROLL OF FAME<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">OF THOSE WHO STARTED ON THE NILE QUEST IN MODERN DAYS</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="appx1">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Name.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Nationality.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Francisco Alvarez</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portuguese.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Pedro Paez</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Jeronimo Lobo</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Richard Pococke</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James Bruce</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">William Browne</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Johann Ludwig Burckhardt</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Swiss.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frederic Cailliaud</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Belgian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Prokesch von Osten</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Eduard Rüppell</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Selim Bimbashi</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Turk.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Thibaut</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">D’Arnaud</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Werne</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Brun-Rollet</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ignatz Knoblecher</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Austrian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">French-Irish.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Arnaud d’Abbadie</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Mansfield Parkyns</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Charles T. Beke</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">De Malzac</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">John Petherick</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Welsh).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Alfred Peney</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lejean</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Werner Munzinger</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Swiss.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Theodor von Heuglin</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German (Würtemberger).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dutch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">JOHN HANNING SPEKE</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James Augustus Grant</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Samuel White Baker</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Florence Baker</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Hungarian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Giovanni Miani</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian (Venetian).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">GEORG SCHWEINFURTH</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Russo-German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Piaggia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C. Chaillé-Long</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Édouard Linant de Bellefonds</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Belgian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Charles George Gordon</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">HENRY MORETON STANLEY</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Welsh).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wilhelm Junker</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">Russo-German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C.&nbsp;T. Wilson</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">R.&nbsp;W. Felkin</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Romolo Gessi</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian (Levantine).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;M. Watson</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Mason (Bey)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Johann Maria Schuver</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dutch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ernest Marno</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Austrian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Emin</span> (<span class="smcap">Eduard Schnitzer</span>)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German (Silesia).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frederick Dealtry Lugard</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Seymour Vandeleur</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Irish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliot</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Franz Stuhlmann</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oscar Baumann</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Vittorio Bottego</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James R. Lennox Macdonald</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">A.&nbsp;H. Dyé</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">J.&nbsp;B. Marchand</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">De Bonchamps</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">M.&nbsp;S. Wellby</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">H.&nbsp;H. Austin</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T. Bright</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C.&nbsp;W. Hobley</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ewart Grogan</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">J.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;S. Moore</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Malcolm Fergusson</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lionel Dècle</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Donaldson Smith</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Malcolm Peake</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Weld Blundell</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Benjamin Whitehouse</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;W. Gwynn</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Welsh).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Charles Delmé Radcliffe</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oscar Neumann</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">H.&nbsp;H. Wilson</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">E.&nbsp;A. Stanton</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">William Garstin</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Irish).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This Roll includes those only who added definitely and
+markedly to the map of the Nile basin, not those who travelled
+through these countries for other than geographical purposes.
+It comprises: 34 British (21 English, 8 Scots, 3 Welsh, and
+2 Irish); 10 Germans, 13 French, 4 Italians, 3 Portuguese, 2
+Dutch, 2 Belgians, 2 Americans, 2 Swiss, 3 Austro-Hungarians,
+1 Turk.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_II"><span id="toclink_322"></span>APPENDIX II<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED IN THE COMPILATION
+OF THIS BOOK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Previous to 1840</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Ancient Geography</span>, by Sir E.&nbsp;H. Bunbury. London,
+1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Nord de l’Afrique dans L’Antiquité</span>, by Vivien de St.
+Martin (full of valuable and reliable information). Paris,
+1863.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie du Moyen Age</span>, by J. Lelewel. (Brussels, 1852.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Documents sur L’Histoire de l’Afrique Orientale</span>, by
+Guillain. (Paris, 1850.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie Ancienne</span>, by D’Anville (the 1834 edition brought
+up to date by Manne). Paris.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Doctrina Ptolemaei</span>, etc., by Berlioux. (Paris, 1871.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ptolemy and the Nile</span>, by T. Desborough Cooley. (1854.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie des Anciens</span>, by P.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;G. Gosselin. Paris, 1798
+to 1813.</p>
+
+<p>Various papers by Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein in the Proceedings
+of the Royal Geographical Society or in the <span class="smcap">Geographical
+Magazine</span>; also privately written MS.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Egypt from the Earliest Times</span>, by W.&nbsp;M.
+Flinders Petrie (4 vols.). This and the same author’s
+article on <span class="smcap">(Ancient) Egypt</span> in the new edition of the Encyclopædia
+Britannica, 1902, are very useful for ascertaining
+what information on the knowledge of the Nile and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
+the Land of Punt was prevalent in Ancient Egypt and at
+the time of the Muhammadan invasion of the Nile countries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Egypt</span>, Vol. 1 (1902), by Dr. Wallis Budge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ptolemy’s Topography of Eastern Equatorial Africa</span>, by
+Dr. Schlichter (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
+Society, September, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Partition of Africa</span>, by Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Second Edition.
+1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Short Relation of the River Nile</span>, etc. Proceedings of
+the Royal Society, London, Nov. 1, 1668. (Portuguese
+Jesuits’ travels.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia</span>, by Bartholomeo Tellez.
+1710.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Historia da Africa Oriental Portugueza</span>, por José Joaquim
+Lopes de Lima. Lisbon, 1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voyage to Abyssinia</span>, by Father Jerome Lobo, Portuguese
+Jesuit, from the French of <span class="smcap">Le Grand</span>. London, 1735.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia</span>, 1520–1527.
+(Hakluyt Society’s publications, Vol. 44, 1881.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">L’Hydrographie Africaine au Seizième Siècle, d’après les
+Premières Explorations portuguaises.</span> (Lisbon, 1878.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Description of the East</span> and some other Countries,
+Vol. 1 (Egypt), by Richard Pococke, LL.D., F.R.S.
+London, 1743.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt</span>, by C.&nbsp;S. Sonnini
+de Manoncourt (translated by Henry Hunter). London,
+1799.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile in 1768,
+1773</span>, by James Bruce, in 5 vols. Edinburgh, 1790.</p>
+
+<p>(Also an excellent abridgment in 1 vol., published in 1798.)</p>
+
+<p>A Second Edition in 7 vols., 1805, is considered the best
+and fullest account of Bruce’s travels, with some of the
+errors corrected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, 1792–1798</span>, by William
+George Browne. London, 1800. (Darfur, Nubia.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Sources of the Nile</span>, by Charles T. Beke. London,
+1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Story of Africa</span>, by Dr. Robert Brown, Vols. 2 and 3,
+1893, 1894. (A most useful and trustworthy compilation.)
+London, Cassel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Voyage à Meroe</span>, au Fleuve Blanc, etc., by Frederic Cailliaud.
+4 vols. Paris, 1826.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voyage to Abyssinia</span>, by Henry Salt, 1814.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of Navigation on the Bahr-el-Abiad or the
+White Nile</span>, by A. Linant de Bellefonds, 1828. African
+Association, London.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Nubia</span>, by John Louis Buckhardt. London,
+1819.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan</span>, etc., by Eduard Rüppell. Frankfurt
+a. m., 1829.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>From 1840 to the Present Day</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Premier Voyage à la Recherche des Sources du Bahr-al-Abiad
+ou Nil Blanc</span>: Journal de Voyage par Selim Bimbashi.
+<cite>Bulletin</cite>, Société de Géographie. Paris, 1840.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Documents et Observations sur le Cours du Bahr-al-Abiad</span>,
+by D’Arnaud Binbachi. Paris, 1843.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Khartum and the Blue and White Niles</span> (Journeys of Andrew
+Melly), by George Melly. London, 1851. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Expedition zur Entdeckung der Quellen des Weiszen Nil</span>
+(1840, 1841), by Ferdinand Werne. Berlin, 1848.
+(With admirable map of the White Nile.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 17.
+(Brun-Rollet on the Sobat River.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Annales de Voyage</span>(?), by Andrea de Bono. Paris, July,
+1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Fleuve Blanc</span>, by Jules Poncet. 1863.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Egypt, the Sudan, and Central Africa</span>, etc., by John
+Petherick. 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Central Africa and Exploration of the Western
+Nile Tributaries</span>, 2 vols., by Mr. and Mrs. Petherick.
+1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Die Deutscher Expedition in Ost Africa</span>, 1861–1862, by
+Heuglin and Munzinger, in Petermann’s Geographische
+Mittheilungen, No. 13.</p>
+
+<p>Heuglin also writes on Miss Tinne’s expedition in the same
+periodical, No. 15, 1865, and gives further notes on the
+White Nile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in the Region of the White Nile</span>, by Alexandrine
+Tinne. 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géodésie de l’Éthiopie</span>, by Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie.
+Paris, 1890. 1 vol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life in Abyssinia</span>, by Mansfield Parkyns. London, 1853.
+2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Geology and Zoölogy of Abyssinia</span>, by W.&nbsp;T. Blanford.
+1870.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia</span>, by S.&nbsp;W. Baker. 1867.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 36, p. 2,
+article by S.&nbsp;W. Baker.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 36, pp.
+1 to 18.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Albert Nyanza</span>, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A.
+1866.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Albert Nyanza</span>, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A., New
+Edition. 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours</span>, by Dr. J.&nbsp;L.
+Krapf. 1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">What Led to the Discovery of the Nile Sources</span>, by
+Captain J.&nbsp;H. Speke. 1864.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lake Regions of Central Africa</span>, by R.&nbsp;F. Burton.
+1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile</span>, by
+J.&nbsp;H. Speke. 1864.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Walk across Africa</span>, by J.&nbsp;A. Grant. 1865.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil</span> und seine westlichen
+Zuflusse, 1862–1864, von M. Theodor von Heuglin.
+Leipzig, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Heart of Africa</span>, by Georg Schweinfurth. 2 vols. London,
+1873.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reise in Nordost Africa</span>, etc., von M. Theodor von Heuglin.
+Brunswick, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Through the Dark Continent</span>, by H.&nbsp;M. Stanley. 2 vols.
+1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan</span>, by C.&nbsp;T. Wilson and
+R.&nbsp;W. Felkin. 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir Samuel Baker</span>: a Memoir by T. Douglas Murray and
+A. Silva White. London, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ismailia</span>, by Sir Samuel W. Baker. London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Remarks on a Proposed Line of Telegraph Overland</span> from
+Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope, by (Sir) Edwin Arnold,
+Colonel J.&nbsp;A. Grant, and others. London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonel Gordon in Central Africa</span>, 1874–1879, by George
+Birkbeck Hill. London, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked People</span>, by
+Colonel C. Chaillé-Long. London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Khédivial Geographical Society of
+Cairo</span>, 1860–1882. [Schuver, Marno and other travellers.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Articles</span> of Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein on the researches of the
+Rev. C. Wakefield in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
+Society, 1875, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Through Masailand</span>, by Joseph Thomson. 1885.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Africa during the Years 1875–1878; 1879–1883;
+1882–1886; 1890, 1891, 1892.</span> By Dr. Wilhelm
+Junker.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seven Years in the Sudan</span>, by Romolo Gessi Pasha. London,
+1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In Darkest Africa</span>, by H.&nbsp;M. Stanley. 2 vols. 1890.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mit Emin Pasha ins Herz von Africa</span>, by Dr. Franz Stuhlmann.
+Berlin, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Éthiopie Méridionale</span>, by Jules Borelli. Paris, 1890.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Naturalist’s Wanderings in Mid-Africa</span>, by C. Scott
+Elliot. 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Durch Masailand zur Nil Quelle</span>, by Oscar Baumann.
+Berlin, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journeys to the North of Uganda</span>, by Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L.
+Macdonald and Major H.&nbsp;H. Austin in Geographical
+Journal of August, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>(Also Blue Books giving reports of Major Macdonald’s
+expedition.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger</span>, by Seymour
+Vandeleur. 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Cape to Cairo</span>, by E. Grogan and A. Sharp. 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Mountains of the Moon</span>, by J.&nbsp;E. Moore. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tanganyika Problem</span>, by J.&nbsp;E. Moore. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa</span>, by H.&nbsp;H.
+Austin. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King Menelik’s Dominions and the Country between Lake
+Gallop (Rudolf) and the Nile Valley</span>, by Captain
+M.&nbsp;S. Wellby. Geographical Journal for September,
+1900. London.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Story of Africa</span>, Vols. 2, 3, and 4, by Dr. Robert Brown
+(1893–1895).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Uganda Protectorate</span>, by Sir Harry Johnston. 2 vols.
+1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Geographical Journal</span> (London) for July and December,
+1901; and October, 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Journal of the African Society</span> (London) 1902,
+1903. [Colonel Stanton’s articles.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_328" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3281_map_left.jpg" width="920" height="1171" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_3281_map_large_left.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear">OROGRAPHICAL FEATURES<br>
+     <span class="small">of the</span><br>
+     NILE BASIN</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<figure id="ip_328b" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3281_map_right.jpg" width="918" height="1171" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_3281_map_large_right.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear">LAND SURFACE FEATURES<br>
+     <span class="small">of the</span><br>
+     NILE BASIN</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter footnotes">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> A superior type of dark-haired white man allied with Circassian and
+Persian, and perhaps a direct development from the Dravidian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> The Kudu, which is a tragelaph rather than an antelope, exists at
+the present day in the eastern part of the Egyptian Sudan, between
+Abyssinia and the Nile, and its remains are found fossil in Algeria. It
+may therefore have extended even within the historical period to near
+the shores of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> This word is the origin of the Arabised <i>Fayūm</i>, a name given to
+the remains of a curious Nile reservoir, or backwater-lake, to the west of
+the Nile, in the Libyan Desert.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> The Biblical Yeôr. The Hebrews also called the Nile <i>Shikhor</i>, or
+the “Black.” The earliest Greek name for the river and country is
+<i>Aiguptos</i> (the origin of “Egypt”). Later the name <i>Neilos</i> (Nile) was
+given to the river. This became the later Arab and European <i>Nilus</i>,
+<i>Nil</i>, <i>Nile</i>, etc. The origin of the Greek names <i>Aiguptos</i> and <i>Neilos</i> is
+unknown, but <i>Neilos</i> may be derived from the Persian word <i>nil</i> = blue.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> Needless to say, in all cases the iris of these eyes is actually gray;
+but the gray almost verges on blue in some instances, while the absence
+or presence of a dark rim round the eyes gives or withholds the violet
+tinge to the gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Ptolemy’s original maps have disappeared, and we only know them
+through the well-nigh innumerable copies that were made by Greek
+monks between 600 and 900 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, by Arabs in the Islamic Renaissance,
+by Latin monks and pilgrims, by Venetian and Catalan
+sailors, and Flemish or German geographers. Latterly many of these
+copyists imported into Ptolemy’s maps of the Nile much recent and
+modern information.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> Even to-day the local (unofficial) name of Berber or any of the
+districts round Berber is Ibrim.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> This mistake is hardly surprising, seeing that at Matama, in the
+country of Galabat, the most southern affluent of the Atbara approaches
+to within five miles of the most eastern affluent of the Blue Nile. See
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">Chapter XXVI</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> Ptolemy Philadelphus’ chief inducement to establish stations in
+Abyssinia was to procure war elephants. Thus to these Egyptian Greeks
+and Ethiopians the African elephant did not appear too intractable.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> Dongola, the accepted name for the Nubian country north of Kordofan,
+appears at one time to have been inhabited by a race speaking a
+Hamitic rather than a Nubian language. Dongola (originally Dankala),
+or its plural, Danagla, may be etymologically connected with Danākil of
+the north Somali coast.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> Gala and Somali are almost convertible terms. But in this book
+Somali is used to indicate that section of the Gala peoples who have
+become Muhammadans, and Gala is reserved as a general term for the
+whole race or for its non-Islamite tribes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> The Arabic and Turkish name for Venice is, or was, Bunduq. This
+was a clumsy rendering of the German Venedig, which again was a
+corruption of the Latin Veneticum. Although the Arab <em>q</em> (a very
+strong <em>k</em>) is almost unpronounceable by most Europeans, it is nevertheless
+constantly used by Arabs for translating the <em>k</em>-sound in European
+words.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> By “Dravidian” I mean that very early and little differentiated,
+dark-coloured Caucasian of India who is only a few degrees, physically,
+above the Australian race.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> At the time of these exploits Oporto, now the second town of Portugal,
+was of little account; the great port at the mouth of the Douro
+was called in Latin Portus Calis, or, in the local dialect, Portucal. This
+place, being the most important port in the district recovered from the
+Moors by Count Henry, gave its name to the little principality which
+he founded.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Algarve is simply a Portuguese softening of the Arabic words Al
+Gharb, the Extreme West or place of sun-setting. At that time Morocco,
+across the Straits, was also called Al Gharb for the same reason.
+Therefore, after these conquests, the kings of Portugal styled themselves
+“Kings of the Algarves, on this side and on the other side of the sea.”
+The after-triumphs of the Portuguese in the path of exploration, conquest,
+and colonisation were finally summed up in the grandiose titles of
+their monarchs, which endure to the present day, and which may well be
+allowed to endure with respect, seeing what the world’s knowledge owes
+to the Portuguese navigators and conquistadores. The titles run, “Rey
+de Portugal e dos Algarves, alem e aquem do Mar na Africa; Senhor da
+Guiné e da conquista e da navegaçao d’Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia e India”
+(King of Portugal and of the Algarves, on this side and on the other side
+of the Sea in Africa; Lord of Guinea, and of the conquest and navigation
+of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Prester John.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> It may be interesting to some to know that Vasco is a contraction of
+Velasco, meaning “hairy,” and was a nickname often given to Portuguese
+in early days.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> In Lobo’s book the date is given as 1613, but Bruce shows with
+some likelihood that, according to the native Abyssinian chronicles, the
+date of Paez’ visit to the sources of the Blue Nile was probably 1615.
+In the Latin version of Paez’ account of his travels, published at Rome
+in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, the date given is the 21st of
+April, 1618.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> See <a href="#Page_30">page 30</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> Probably, from the description given, <i class="taxonomy">Equus grevyi</i>; so that this,
+the largest, rarest, and the latest described of all the zebras, was probably
+the first example of the striped horse to receive that name at the
+hands of the Portuguese, and become known to Europe. The name is
+spelt “zevra” in Father Lobo’s account, in some versions “zeura.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> The modern term, Gala or Galla, used to denominate that section
+of the Hamite people closely akin to the Somalis yet heathen and dwelling
+inland, is derived through the Portuguese from an Abyssinian cant
+term meaning “wild,” “savage.” It is unrecognized by the “Gallas”
+themselves.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> Father Lobo gives an excellent description of the coasts of the Red
+Sea as known to the Portuguese at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+Among other places that are probably mentioned for the first time
+is Suakin, which is written “Suaquem.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> Fremona, the first and principal seat of the Jesuits, was nine or ten
+miles from Axum. It was originally called Maigoga, but the name Fremona
+was given to it by the Portuguese Jesuits as being the Abyssinian
+version of Frumentius, who was the so-called Apostle of Abyssinia, and
+converted the rulers of that country to the Greek Church in the fourth
+century.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> Lake Tsana is usually styled by Lobo and the earlier Portuguese
+travellers Dambia (Dembea); but they also give it the name of Sena,
+which is obviously the same as Bruce’s version of Tsana.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> Some of the blame undoubtedly must be laid on the shoulders of
+the Dutch and Saxon map-makers, who used and distorted Portuguese
+information.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> <i>Habsh</i>, <i>Habshi</i> is the name given to Negroes at the present day in
+Hindustani.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> A Description of the East and some other countries, Vol. I., by
+Richard Pococke, LL.D., F.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;S. London, 1743.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> He filled many posts between 1725 and his death in 1771. He desired
+to be made Secretary of State for the West Indies, but George II.
+refused. His efforts to foster British trade and colonial expansion
+were much appreciated by merchants and colonials, and Halifax, in Nova
+Scotia, is named after him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> Algeria was then practically a dependency of Turkey, governed by
+Turks.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> Though it is so stated, the delay was apparently caused
+by the complete breakdown of Bruce’s health, a breakdown which
+obliged him to spend some time at Italian sulphur baths (Poretta).
+Bruce, before leaving Sennar and the regions of the Blue Nile, had received
+into his system the germ of the Guinea worm. This creature
+developed in the usual way. One day when Bruce was reading on a
+sofa at Cairo he felt an itching on his leg, and soon afterwards through
+the pimple thus raised appeared the head of the worm. Three inches
+of this parasite were wound off round a piece of silk, but on the ship
+which conveyed Bruce from Alexandria to Marseilles the surgeon
+clumsily broke off the portion of the worm extruding from the body.
+The remainder of the worm still in the leg caused the most terrible
+agony for thirty-five days, which Bruce had to spend in the lazaretto
+at Marseilles. Here, however, he received better surgical treatment.
+Nevertheless, for some time afterwards his leg gave him considerable
+trouble, and apparently, in 1774, he had to visit Italian sulphur baths.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> All except, perhaps, some of his stories of Nubia and Sennar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> It is curious to read of his using a “rifle” in Abyssinia and thereby
+astonishing the princes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> The name of this notable African city is said to mean, in the local
+Arabic, “elephant’s trunk,” as the long spit of sand on which it was
+erected was supposed to resemble that feature. Other etymologies are
+quoted. Apparently the name was that of a small fishing village of
+grass huts which was selected by Ibrahim Pasha as a camp commanding
+both the White and Blue Niles and easily defended. Khartum, from
+its situation, rapidly became the metropolis of the Sudan. It was taken
+and destroyed by the Mahdi in 1885. Its site was reoccupied by Lord
+Kitchener’s victorious force in 1898. Khartum has since been rebuilt,
+and will probably become one of the greatest cities of Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> The son of a Swiss soldier in the Swiss corps subsidised by England
+in the Napoleonic wars.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> Afterwards absorbed by the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> As this journey was financed by the African Association, it may be
+regarded as a British contribution to Nile exploration.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> The name Muhammad is affectedly pronounced by the Turks Mehemet,
+but is of course written by them Muhammad.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> Afterwards for nearly forty years French consular agent at Khartum.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> Mainly supported by the Archduchess Sophia.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> The names of the principal members of this Austrian Roman Catholic
+Mission, which finally abandoned its labors about 1862, owing to the
+terribly unhealthy climate of the Upper Nile, were Knoblecher, Beltrame,
+Morlang, Ueberbacher, Ryllo, and Dorvak. Of their numbers (seventeen
+in all) fifteen died of fever or dysentery, and only two returned to Europe.
+Beltrame wrote important works in Italian on the Dinka language.
+Knoblecher, Ueberbacher, and Morlang collected materials for
+the illustration of the Bari language, which were put together by
+Mitterrützner.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> Glamorgan.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> It may be mentioned here that throughout the Sudan, from the
+Albert Nyanza to Khartum, the Egyptians, as distinct from their Sudanese
+soldiers, are always spoken of as Turki or Turūk. Kordofan, once
+the home of the Nubians and of Negro races, was overrun by Arabs for
+several centuries, and more than a hundred years ago formed part of the
+half-Ethiopian kingdom of Sennar. It was then subdued by the mailed
+horsemen of Darfur, and held by them until conquered by the Egyptian
+army under Ibrahim Pasha in 1820.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> Petherick in his last book writes in eulogistic terms of the behaviour
+of this mere boy (so far as age went) throughout all the trying experiences
+that the Pethericks underwent in their journeys up and down the
+White Nile and the rivers of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. It would be interesting
+to know what became of Foxcroft after so promising a début in
+African travel.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> Many of these tribes are known to us at the present day by foolish
+nicknames. For instance, the Kamasia people, who dwell in the western
+part of the Baringo district, really call themselves El Tūkan. Turkana
+seems often pronounced Tukana.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> Amabile, tried and sentenced to imprisonment by Petherick for
+slave-trading, and Andrea de Bono, who, though ostensibly an ivory-trader,
+was very unscrupulous in his methods. De Bono, however, was
+the first European to explore the countries to the east of the Mountain
+Nile, i.e., between the main Nile and the basin of Lake Rudolf.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> Near the confluence of the Asua River.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> Down to about 1860 the Arab ruler over East Africa was the Imam
+of Maskat, the sovereign of the principality of Oman on the Persian Gulf.
+For more than a hundred years, however, the Imam of Maskat deputed
+one of his sons or kinsmen to be Sayyid of Zanzibar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> By its own people this country is called <i>Wu-nya-mwezi</i>. <i>Wu-</i> is a
+degenerate form of the Bantu <i>bu-</i> prefix, which is often used to indicate a
+country. <i>Nya</i> is a particle, meaning “of,” or “concerning,” and <i>mwezi</i> =
+the moon. Unyamwezi is, however, so far away from Ruwenzori on the
+one hand or Kilimanjaro on the other that it is difficult to associate its
+name (which so far as we know has been in existence for about four centuries)
+with that of the snow-mountains.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> Speke and others are of opinion that there was a considerable civilisation
+in Somaliland at one time, which completely disappeared after the
+Muhammadanising of the country. The Somali (except those of the far
+interior) were converted to Islam by Arab immigrants in the fifteenth
+century. Prior to this they had been Christian to some extent, a much
+degraded type of Christianity having penetrated southwards from Abyssinia.
+It is hardly necessary to point out that the Somali and Gala are
+practically one people in race and language. Gala is only apparently
+a cant term originating in Abyssinia and unknown to the people whom
+we call by that name. It is also interesting to note that Speke and other
+explorers heard in Somaliland, in the “early fifties,” of the existence of
+a great lake far in the interior which was in all probability the Victoria
+Nyanza. The present writer has endeavoured to show, in his book on
+the Uganda Protectorate, that in ancient times considerable trading intercourse
+was kept up between Somaliland and the northeast shores of the
+Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> Victoria Nyanza. Often so called in earlier days by the Arabs,
+from Bukerebe, a large island near the south shore.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> Though Burton subsequently recanted this opinion in order to embarrass
+Speke’s theories, and declared that the Rusizi was the outlet of
+Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> After his Somersetshire home, and the Indian word for a creek—<i>ălla</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Walter L’Espec, in the reign of Henry I., founded three abbeys,—Kirkham,
+Rivaulx, and Warden. In the thirteenth century the L’Especs
+altered the spelling of their name to Speke. One Speke lost property
+by faithfulness to Charles I.; another got into (and out of) trouble in
+the reign of Charles II. by advocating the claims to the succession of the
+Duke of Monmouth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> In one of his books Speke shows us how Burton and himself managed
+to communicate with the natives. Neither of them—not even
+Burton—had a sufficient knowledge of Kiswahili during their journey to
+Tanganyika to talk direct with their porters. They conversed with
+“Bombay,” their Swahili interpreter, in Hindustani. Burton also was
+able to speak Arabic with the Arab traders. Both, perhaps, are a little
+too inclined to overlook this language difficulty in describing their conversations
+with native chiefs. In all cases these must have been carried
+on in the following manner: The chief would probably speak in his
+native language, which would be translated by somebody else into Swahili,
+and this again would be translated by Bombay, or Frij, or some other
+interpreter, into Hindustani or English; or, again, Burton’s information
+might be rendered by some Arab in Arabic. Direct communications no
+doubt were sometimes made by both parties in broken Swahili.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> Mr. T. Douglas Murray, who afterwards became Baker’s biographer.
+This letter was written near the close of Sir Samuel Baker’s
+life, on the 22d of August, 1893.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> See his “Discovery of the Source of the Nile.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> Discovery of the Source of the Nile, p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> Worthy of mention here as being the southernmost extension of
+“Nilotic” influence among the East African races.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> <i class="taxonomy">Gazella granti</i>, the horns of which are far longer than is the case
+with any other gazelle, the animal itself being about the size of a fallow
+deer.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> A Hima state, lying to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> This, of course, was Lake Albert, the waters of which are slightly
+brackish. But it is often called the Salt Lake by the Arabs, from the
+large deposits of salt on its shores.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> They meant, of course, the Rukuga, which flows through Marungu.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> Hima or Huma is the commonest name applied locally to the Gala
+aristocracy in East Equatorial Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> Journal of the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> Throughout the writings of Burton, Speke, and Stanley, this race is
+called Wahuma. The most common term, however, by which they are
+known and know themselves is Bahima (<i>hima</i> being the root and <i>Ba-</i>
+the plural prefix).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> This is the more curious because, on page 276 in the “Discovery
+of the Source of the Nile,” Speke writes of “a long range of view of the
+lake, and of the large island or group of islands called Sese, where the
+king of Uganda keeps one of his fleets.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> According to the traditions of the natives, syphilis and smallpox
+entered Uganda about the same time, and came originally from Unyoro.
+Unyoro received these plagues from the first Nubian slave- and ivory-trading
+caravans, which were the pioneers of Egyptian rule in the
+forties of the last century. Syphilis and smallpox were also brought
+by the Zanzibar trading caravans from Unyamwezi not many years later.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> This, indeed, long before the British Protectorate, Gordon Pasha
+meditated, and was only restrained therefrom by the intervention of Sir
+John Kirk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> It is a question whether all these spirits were not in origin deified
+chiefs or medicine-men, who after death were supposed to become controllers
+of the lake, of the rain supply, of certain diseases, or of certain
+functions. Speke considers that a small element of phallic worship was
+mixed up with the old Uganda religion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> Muzungu, i.e., “White-man.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> This word is really a mis-hearing on Speke’s part for Bwana, which,
+again, is a corruption of Abuna, the Arab word for “our father.” Bwana
+is the respectful term, meaning “master,” which is applied in the Swahili
+language to all persons of superior position. It was the name by
+which Speke was known throughout his stay in Uganda, though it has
+long since been discarded for “Sapiki.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> Since, by the unspeakable barbarism of the British Administration,
+<em>cut down</em>!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> Speke and Baker had met before in India.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> Florence Ninian von Sass. Lady Baker survives her husband.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> For something like twelve hundred miles, from the mouth of the
+Atbara to the sea, the Nile receives no further contribution of water.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> <i class="taxonomy">Cycloderma</i>, the Leathery Fresh-water Turtle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> This great lake was in reality nothing but the lake-like course of
+the Upper Congo. The words for river and lake in almost all African
+languages are the same.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> She usually signed herself Alexine. Her full name was Alexandrina
+Petronella Francina Tinne. The name is spelt without an accented <em>e</em>,
+and is pronounced as it would be in German.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> Her nephew, Mr. John Tinne, however, informs the present writer
+that his aunt once wrote to him saying that “ever since she was a little
+girl doing lessons she had longed to see what there was on the great
+blank spot on the map of Africa.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> This account of the death of Miss Tinne is derived from information
+very kindly supplied to the author by her nephew, Theodore F.&nbsp;S.
+Tinne, Esq., of Hawkhurst, Kent.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> She was only thirty-three at the time of her death.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> France was dogged with continual ill-luck in her attempts to open
+up and explore the Nile basin. Expedition after expedition and explorer
+after explorer, despatched directly or indirectly under French auspices,
+failed (generally by death from fever) in grasping the great discoveries
+which fell to more fortunate Germans and Englishmen.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> They were, however, first mentioned by Piaggia.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> Heuglin forestalled him, perhaps, as regards the Gray Parrot.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> These people do not call themselves by the designation. It is one
+applied to them by the Arabs as a nickname, indicating the gusto with
+which they eat human flesh. They themselves acknowledge several
+names, such as Azande and Makarka.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> Pierced by the ants so that they become whistles played on by the
+wind.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> First of all revealed to our notice by the Italian explorer, Piaggia,
+who succeeded Miani and preceded Dr. Schweinfurth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> A gifted French explorer who attempted to forestall other expeditions
+in discovering the Central African lakes. He was murdered about
+a hundred miles inland from Zanzibar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> Younger brother of Adolphe Linant, an early Nile explorer of 1827
+and 1828.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> In a pamphlet written in conjunction with Mr. Kerry Nichols and
+Colonel J.&nbsp;A. Grant, published in 1876, by William Clowes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> Romolo Gessi was a Levantine Italian, born at Constantinople in
+1831, who had gradually drifted into the employment of the Egyptian
+government. He became a Pasha after Gordon’s departure from the
+Sudan in 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> Now Colonel Watson, R.E. In 1874–1875 Lieutenant C.&nbsp;M. Watson,
+accompanied by Lieutenant Chippendall, made an admirable survey
+of the main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro, and later assisted
+Gordon in completing this survey up to Lake Albert.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> A portion of this is often called Makarka.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> During this struggle Gessi was hard put to it for food, but he
+quaintly notes that “Of all our troops only the Makarka and Nyam-nyam
+remained healthy, owing to their feeding on human flesh. Directly
+after a battle they cut off the feet of the dead, and consumed these, together
+with their brains.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> Whose encyclopædic work on the Galas will soon be published.
+Mr. Wakefield died in 1902.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> Dweru, like Nyanza, is a very common Bantu word which is applied
+equally to lake and river. It simply means “whiteness.” With
+different prefixes it becomes Mweru, Jeru, and so forth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> In giving extracts from this as from other works of Nile explorers the
+present writer often summarises. He also employs sometimes more
+modern spelling in scientific nomenclature to avoid puzzling the reader
+habituated to the most recent descriptions.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> Vide chap. ix. p. 107.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> This stream, joining others from farther east, enters the Mountain
+Nile near the bifurcation of the Giraffe River.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> Khor Kos flows into the Oguelokur, and thus into the Bahr-az-Ziraf.
+See <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">chap. xxvi</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> The distribution of the branching Hyphæne Fan palm is very peculiar.
+It is found right across the Sahara, south of latitude 25°, to the
+vicinity of the Atlantic. It avoids the better watered regions of Nigeria
+and the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but on the east extends across Somaliland and
+down the coast to Mombasa.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> Probably Emin refers to the lanky <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus patas</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> Really a plantain-eater—<i>Schizorhis</i> or <i>Gymnoschizorhis</i>.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> The white-eared Kob antelope.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> The Kafuru. This was re-examined by the author of this book.
+It is a narrow winding channel passing between high banks. In spite of
+the author’s delineation of this feature in his book, “The Uganda Protectorate,”
+map-makers still continue to draw it as a lake-like straight arm
+connecting the Albert Edward with Dweru.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Dweru, as already explained, merely means a white surface or sheet
+of water.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> This word is the name of one of the tributaries of the Kagera.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> M. Dècle travelled overland from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Victoria Nile in 1892–1894.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> Dr. Kandt (who first correctly mapped Lake Kivu) traced the
+course of the important Nyavarongo and Akanyaru tributaries of the
+Kagera. This learned explorer died in 1901.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> Lugard mapped much of the country between Uganda and Ruwenzori
+and discovered Lake Wamala in western Uganda.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> Mr Jackson’s magnificent zoölogical collections, especially in mammals,
+birds, and butterflies, have, with those of Mr. Oscar Neumann,
+done much to illustrate the fauna of southern Nileland.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> It is said that the contribution to the Nile waters from the great
+Victoria Nyanza is not more considerable than the maximum discharge
+of one of the great canals in Egypt. Much of the volume of the Victoria
+Nile is spread out to waste and evaporate in the Kioga-Kwania Lake,
+which also receives the heavy rainfall of north and west Elgon.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> I should again like to point out how frequent amongst Nilotic Negroes
+is the word Kir for a big river. This name is frequently applied
+to the main Nile, and appears even to crop up again in the Bantu languages
+of the Victoria Nyanza, for in Luganda the Nile is also called
+Kiira.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> Piaggia was originally an Italian mechanic, born at Alexandria. He
+drifted to the Sudan in 1856, and generally attached himself as a sort of
+caravan leader to the traders in the Bahr-al-Ghazal. In this capacity he
+explored (quite unscientifically) the Nyam-nyam country in 1863–1865,
+and in 1876 he visited Lake Kioga and the Victoria Nile.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> For various reasons not all Captain Marchand’s officers could be
+brought away from the Nile immediately. Lieutenant Tanguedec was
+left for some two years entirely isolated on the White Nile near Bor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> A name very suggestive of the Bantu languages.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> Negroes of the Semliki valley and forest.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> This lake is at present one of the unsolved African problems as
+regards its history and affinities. Unlike other lakes of Central Africa,
+its fauna has marine affinities, and would seem indeed to be actually of
+marine origin. It is at the present day connected somewhat intermittently
+with the Congo drainage, and therefore with the Atlantic Ocean;
+and one assumption to explain the existence of its sponges, shrimps, and
+jelly-fishes is that in Jurassic times it was connected with a vast inlet of
+the Atlantic Ocean which occupied the northern half of the low-lying
+Congo basin. Yet, when a relief map of Africa is looked at, it strikes
+one at a glance that Tanganyika lies within the same rift valley as Lakes
+Kivu, Albert Edward, Albert Nyanza, and the Albertine Nile. Its southern
+end may also have been connected through Lake Rukwa, with the rift
+valley of Lake Nyasa. It would be easy to imagine the occurrence of a
+recent and slight upheaval which detached this lake from the Nile system
+and sent its overflowing waters in the direction of the Congo, but
+for the aforementioned marine fauna of its waters. Its history, therefore,
+remains at the present moment an unsolved problem.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> With a bifurcated rift up Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> See “L’Omo,” by L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> A small and very interesting lake which lies about sixty miles to the
+north of Tanganyika, and communicates with that lake by the river
+Rusizi.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> Some rising as far south as Lat. 3° 50′ S. and within ten miles of
+Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> Bahr-al-Jabl, so called by the Turks and early French and German
+explorers, because by following it up stream they came at last to mountains
+after the thousand miles of marsh between Khartum and Bor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> “River of gazelles,” i.e., antelopes, the name given to it by the
+Sudanese Arabs from the dense herds of game which were formerly to
+be seen on its marshy shores.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> The Ruzi River, which rises to the west of Lake Rudolf, under the
+fourth degree of north latitude, was considered by the late Captain
+Wellby to be the southernmost source of the Sobat, but this supposition
+has not been verified.</p>
+
+<p>The Ruzi or the two Ruzis probably join the three big streams—the
+Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos—which enter the Giraffe River.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> This name means “the terrible,” from the violence with which it
+sweeps down a winding chasm from an altitude of 7,000 feet in Abyssinia
+to 2,500 feet in the Nubian plains.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> Who transmitted the rumour to Greek travellers and merchants
+visiting the coasts of the Red Sea and East Africa. These again handed
+on the information to Greek and Roman geographers.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> A corruption of Runsororo.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> Wosho Mountain, approximately sixteen thousand feet.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> Snow may perhaps occasionally lie for a few days on the highest
+points of the volcanic Mfumbiro peaks (Sabinzi and Karisimbi), which
+are over thirteen thousand feet and lie almost within the limits of the
+Nile basin, to the south of Lake Albert Edward; and there may be a
+little permanent snow perhaps on the peaks over eleven thousand
+feet in height on the southeast of Basutoland in South Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> A little less perhaps than Dr. A. Bludan’s estimate.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX"><span id="toclink_329"></span>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">Aahmes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d’, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abbadie, Arnaud d’, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ablaing, Baron d’, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Abyssinia"></a>Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geography of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">people of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i>,</li>
+<li class="isub2">(raw-meat eating) <a href="#Page_81">81–85</a>,</li>
+<li class="isub2">(feasts) <a href="#Page_82">82–85</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christianity of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emperor of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">missionaries in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">likeness to Bahima, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mother of the Nile, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mountains, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acacia (gum) trees, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acholi (Shuli), people, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adel (Somaliland), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aden, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adua, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adulis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Afar, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, East, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, Negro, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, North, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, South, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, West, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">African Association, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">African wild flowers, flora, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agoro Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ais, Al, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akka pygmies, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akobo River, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albania, Albanians, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albert Edward, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albert Nyanza, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandra Nyanza, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Algarve (southern province of Portugal), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Algiers, Algeria, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aloes, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alvarez, Francisco, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambach, or Ambady, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambatch (<i class="taxonomy">Herminiera</i>), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambukol, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">America, Americans, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amhara, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amharic language, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ankole, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antelopes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthropology, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anville, D’, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apes, anthropoid, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apuddo (Apuddu), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabs of Zanzibar, their early knowledge of African geography, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aragonese, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocracy in Nileland, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocreon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnaud, D’, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Arnold"></a>Arnold, Sir Edwin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aruwimi River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aryan races, languages, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assiut, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assuan, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>Astaboras (Abbara, <i>see</i>) <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astapus (Blue Nile), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astasobas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asua River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atbara, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austin, H.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austria, Austrians, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austrian Mission on Mountain Nile, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Author’s contributions to Nile geography, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Auxuma, Axum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Azania, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Baggara Arabs, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Arab, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Aswad, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Azrak, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_Blue">Blue Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Ghazal River, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Hamr, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Jabl, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_White">White</a> and <a href="#Nile_Mountains">Mountain Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-az-Ziraf, <i>see</i> <a href="#Giraffe">Giraffe Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bailul, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baker, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">marriage and Ceylon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Turkey, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">second marriage, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">commences Nile exploration, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the Atbara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for Albert Nyanza, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">deceived as to extent of this lake, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">knighted, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">results of his explorations, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to Nileland, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baker (Florence), Lady, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Bal_niceps_rex"></a><i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Balega"></a>Balega Negroes (Lendu), <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baltic provinces, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baluchistan, Baluchi, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Balugano (Italian draftsman), <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banana, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bantu languages, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bantu Negro, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baobab tree, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bari country, people, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baringo, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baro (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Nasr_Sobat">Sobat</a>), <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barth, Dr., <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basalt, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basilis (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bath, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baumann, Oscar, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baumgarten (Swiss engineer), <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beads, Blue Egyptian, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatrice Gulf, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beke, Dr. C.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belgium, Belgians, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beltrame, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Benue River, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berber (Primnis, Ibrim), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berbera, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berbers, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berkeley, Fort, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berlin, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bermudez, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berta Negroes, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bilma, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Binesho tribe, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bion (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birds, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biri River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackwater fever, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackwood’s Magazine, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blandford, Dr. W.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blood-drinking (Abyssinian, East African), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blundell, Weld, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bogos country, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Bombay” (Speke’s faithful), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonchamps, De, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bongo tribe, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Bono_Andrea_de"></a>Bono, Andrea de, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bor, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boran Galas, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i>, palm (<i class="taxonomy">Doleb</i>), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Borelli, Jules, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>Bornu, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Botany, <i>see</i> <a href="#Flora">Flora</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bottego, V., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brahuis (of Beluchistan), <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brèvedent, Father, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bright, R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British, the, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Egypt, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Egypt and Sudan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Association, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British government, its indifference to African exploration, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Browne, Wm. Geo., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bruce, James, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Guinea worm, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">raw-flesh eating, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">work in Abyssinian history, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brun-Rollet, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buchta, Richard, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buddu, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffon, Comte de (naturalist), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bumbiri, Island of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bunbury, Sir E.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burckhardt, J.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burton, Sir Richard F., <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>et seq.</i> (relations with Speke), <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, (character) <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">transference to West Africa, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">theories of geography, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hesitation to take Mombasa route, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burton, Lady, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushmen (pygmies), <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busoga, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byzantine Empire, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cailliaud, Frederic, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cairo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambridge, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambyses, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camel, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camerons, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cannibals, Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Cape-to-Cairo,” phrase and telegraph, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Capellen, Baroness Van, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carthage, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Casabi (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cattle, breeds of African, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">abundant, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caucasian and Nile discovery, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Caucasian"></a>Caucasian, Caucasian race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cecchi (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Centurions, Nero’s two, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chad, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Chaille-Long"></a>Chaillé-Long, Col., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II., <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemorongi Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chiarini (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chippendall, Capt., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christianity, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,37 <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Church Missionary Society, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Circassians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Citerni, C., <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Civilisation, of Egypt, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Greece, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Himyaritic, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coffee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colston, Col., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo forests, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo Free State, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo River, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Consuls, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooley, Mr. D., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copper, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coptic language, Copts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cosmas Indicopleustes, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Covilhaō, Pero de, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cow-dung, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crosby, Oscar T., <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cross River, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusades, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cruttenden, Lieut., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyprus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyrenaica, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dahabiahs on Nile, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Daily Telegraph,” the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dalion (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damietta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>Damot, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danākil (land, people), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danish explorers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darfur, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Bono, <i>see</i> <a href="#Bono_Andrea_de">Bono, De</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dècle, Lionel, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Defafang, extinct volcano on Nile, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delmé-Radcliffe, Major C., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delta of Nile, <i>see</i> <a href="#delta_of">Nile, delta</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>also</i> <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dem Idris, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dembo River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dervishes (Mahdi’s adherents), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Desneval, Count of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Didessa, or Dabessa River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinder River, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinka people, language, country, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenes (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dogoru River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Donaldson-Smith, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorvak, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Dracæna</i> (Dragon trees), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dravidian race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dublin, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dueru, or Dweru, Lake, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dufton, H., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dum Palm (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch, the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyé, Lieut. A.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyur River, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jur">Jur</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">East Africa, British protectorate, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwin Arnold, Sir (<i>see</i> <a href="#Arnold">Arnold</a>)</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwin Arnold, Mount (Ruwenzori), <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egypt, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Persian conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Greek, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Roman, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">once a very rainy country, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian government, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian temple, resemblance to an, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptians, ancient, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">trading relations with Equatorial Africa, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eichstadt (Germany, Nachtigal’s birthplace), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elam, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elephants, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elgon, Mount, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elgumi, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elliott, Scott, Dr. G.&nbsp;F., <i>see</i> <a href="#Scott-Elliott">Scott-Elliott</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emin (Pasha), Dr., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and early life, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">short-sightedness, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">journals, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Lotuka, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">description of birds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">beasts, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Bahr-al-Ghazal, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Congo forests, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Equatoria, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">journey with Stuhlmann, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enarea, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">England, English, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ensor, Sidney, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Equatoria (Emin’s province), <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eratosthenes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erfurt, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erhardt (Rev.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eritrea, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Escayrac, Comte d’, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Essex, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethiopia (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Abyssinia">Abyssinia</a>), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethiopians, Ethiopic language, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphorbias, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphrates, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Evatt, Col. John, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyasi, Lake, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fadasi, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Faidherbe,” steamship, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faloro, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fasher, Al, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fashoda, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fashoda, Lake of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fauna, Tropical African, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fayūm, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fazokl, Fazogli, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Febore, Théophile Le, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Felkin, Dr. R.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>Felus, <i>see</i> <a href="#Khor_Felus">Khor Felus</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fergusson, Malcolm, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferret, Capt., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferruginous laterite formations (Bahr-al-Ghazal), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fezzan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fischer, Dr., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flaccus, Septimus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flemings, Flemish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Flora"></a>Flora of Africa (Nileland), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foreign Office, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forests, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">“gallery,” <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fortnum and Mason, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fowler, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxcroft, Mount, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">France, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fremona, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">French, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gala people, Galas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galabat, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galaland, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galinier, Capt., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gallus, Ælius, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galo River, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gama, Christoforo da, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gama, Estevaõ da, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gamo, Vasco da, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garama, Garamentes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garstin, Sir William, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gazelle, Grant’s, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gedge, Mr. Ernest, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ge’ez (Ethiopic language), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Italian (Rome), <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Khédivial, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Paris, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Royal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geology of Nile Basin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II., <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germany, Germans, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gessi Pasha, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ghat, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbons, Major A. St. H., <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Giraffe"></a>Giraffe River, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Giraffes, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goa, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gojam, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gold, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gondar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gondokoro, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gordon (Pasha), C.&nbsp;G., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorges, Major, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grand, Le, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, James Augustus, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gray parrot, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greece, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Christianity, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek dynasties in Egypt, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greeks in Africa, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory the Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grogan, Ewart, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gum (acacia), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunpowder, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, (muskets) <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gwynn, Major C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Habash, Hawash, Habshi, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halifax, Lord, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamitic languages, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamitic race, Hamites, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hanbury-Tracey, Major, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hannington, Bishop, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrar, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harris, Sir William C., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrow School, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hebrews, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heuglin, Baron von, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hima, Ba- (Wahuma), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>Himyarite Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hittites, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hobley, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Höhnel, Lieut. von, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hottentots, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hungary, Hungarians, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i>, Branching Palm, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Iberian race, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Ibrahim,” Lake (Kioga), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim Pasha, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim (slave-trader), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">India, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, (Speke in) <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irby, Hon. Charles Leonard, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ireland, Irish, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Islam"></a>Islam (Muhammadanism), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Italy, Italians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivory, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Jaba River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jackson, F.&nbsp;J., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jackson, L.&nbsp;C., <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jacobin (map publisher), <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James II., <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, W. and F.&nbsp;L. (brothers), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Jemma"></a>Jemma, or Jimma (Upper Blue Nile), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jesuit missionaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, in Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ji River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jidda, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jimma, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jemma">Jemma</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John (Yohannes), Emperor of Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jordans Nullah, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Jordans” (Speke’s home), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juba River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Judaism, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Junker, Dr. William, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Jur"></a>Jur, or Dyur, or Sue River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kabarega, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kabirondo (country), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">(people) <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">(bay or gulf) <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaffa, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kafu River, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kafuru River, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kagera River (extreme Upper Victoria Nile), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaka (on the White Nile), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kamurasi, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kandt, Dr., <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karagwe, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karamojo, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karuma Falls of Nile, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kasa, a name of several Abyssinian rulers before crowning, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kassalá, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Katikiro, the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaze, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keltie, Dr. J. Scott, <i>prefatory note</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kenya Mountain, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kerckhoven, Lieut. Van, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khartum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (founding of), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khedive of Egypt, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Khor_Felus"></a>Khor Felus River, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khor Kos River, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khor Oteng River, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kibali River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kich (Kity), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kilimanjaro, Mt., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kioga, Lake, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kir (name of Nile), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kircher, Father Athanasius, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kirk, Sir John, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kirkpatrick, Lake, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kitara, Empire of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kivu, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knoblecher, Dr. Ignatz, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kordofan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Korosko, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kosango River, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krapf, Dr. Ludwig, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kudu, the (antelope), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kuru River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span>Kwania, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lado, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Lady Alice,” the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lafargue, Mons., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lakes, Nile, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Victoria_Nyanza">Victoria Nyanza</a>), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lango country and people (Bakedi), <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latitudes, Ptolemy’s, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bruce’s, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Latuka"></a>Latuka (Lotuka) country and people, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lega, Ba-, <i>see</i> <a href="#Balega">Balega</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leghorn, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lejean, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lendu tribe, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leon, Pedro, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Letorzec, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libya, Libyan race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libyan desert, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lichfield, Rev. G., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Limestone formations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linant de Bellefonds, Adolphe, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linant de Bellefonds, Édouard, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lisbon, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liturgies, Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liverpool, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingstone, Dr., <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lobo, Father Jeronimo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lobor Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logwek, Mount, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Long, Chaillé-, <i>see</i> <a href="#Chaille-Long">Chaillé-Long</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lotuka, <i>see</i> <a href="#Latuka">Latuka</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lotuka Mountains, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luajali River (affluent of Victoria Nile), <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ludolf (Leutholf), Hiob, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lugard, Sir F.&nbsp;D., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis XVIII., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lupton (Bey), Frank, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lutanzige (Albert Nyanza), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Macallister, R.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Macdonald, J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mackay, Alexander, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madagascar, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maddox, Capt. H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madi country, people, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magdala, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magungo, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mahdi, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maizen (French explorer), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Makarka (Nyam-nyam), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malindi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malta, Maltese, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malzac, De, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mameluks, the, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mangbettu tribe, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mangles, James, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manwa Sera, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manyema tribe, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maps, Ptolemy’s, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sicilian, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vatican, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch and German, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke’s, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marchand, Col. J., <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mareb River, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marinus of Tyre, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marno, Ernst, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marseilles, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marshes, of the Nile, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masai, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masawa (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masawa, Mount (Elgon), <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mashra-ar-Rak, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maskat, Maskat Arabs, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mason (Bey), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massaja, Monseigneur, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massari (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matammah (on Desert Nile), <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maternus, Julius, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matteucci, Dr. Pellegrino, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritania (Morocco, Algeria, Tunis), <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mayo, Earl of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mbakovia (on Lake Albert), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>Mbomu River, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mehemet, <i>see</i> <a href="#Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melly, Andrew, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menelik of Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mengo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menzalet, Lake, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Merāwi (Meroe), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metals, Metal-working, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meura, Lieut. (Belgian), <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mfumbiro Mountains, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miami, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Michel (French traveller), <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Missionaries, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mitterrützner, Herr ——, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mokha, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mombasa, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mongolian races, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monkeys, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moon, Land of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Unyamwezi">Unyamwezi</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mountains of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Mountains">Mountains</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moore, J.&nbsp;E., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moors, Morocco, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morch, Giacomo, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morlang, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morongo Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moscow, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Mountains"></a>Mountains, of the Moon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Lotuka, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mpororo, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Muhammad"></a>Muhammad, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Ali, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Granye, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Kher, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Wad-el-Mek, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammadanism, <i>see</i> <a href="#Islam">Islam</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammadans, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mundy, Lieut., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munza, King, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munzinger (Pasha), Werner, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murat (Abyssinian), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison Falls, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison Gulf, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison, Sir Roderick, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murie, Dr., <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murray, Mr. T. Douglas, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murzuk, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Museum, British, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutesa, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his cruelties, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mwanza Creek, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mykenæan civilisation, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nachtigal, Dr., <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naivasha, Lake, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nakwai Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nandi, people, country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napata, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napier, Lord, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon Gulf, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon III., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nasr_Sobat"></a>Nasr (Sobat), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Natal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neanderthaloid man, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Negro, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nilotic, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">West African, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Negroid races, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neil, O’ (Rev.), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neku (King of Egypt), <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nepoko River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nero, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neumann, Oscar, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“New York Herald,” The, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niger River, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile alluvial mud (from Atbara River), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Albertine, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_Blue"></a>Nile, Blue, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Cataracts of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Giraffe, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_Mountains"></a>Nile Mountains, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile Quest, the, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stops for a time at Gondokoro, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke discovers main source of White Nile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Baker’s explorations, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alexandrine Tinne the romantic figure of the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Schweinfurth’s share, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>close of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile River, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">names of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a id="delta_of"></a>delta of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ultimate sources of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, (farthest source of all) <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">floods of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">basin of, area, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">length of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">like Rhine, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Victoria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_White"></a>Nile, White, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_207">207</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nileland, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geography of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nilotic Negroes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nimule, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">No, Lake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nubia, Nubians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nubian Alps, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nudity of Negroes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nuēr tribe, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyam-nyam country and people, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyando valley, river, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyanza, name of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyasa, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyenam River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nzoia River, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oguelokur River, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olive, the wild, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oman, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Omo River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ostriches, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Otocyon</i> (long-eared fox), <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxen, African, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Paez, Father Pedro, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palms, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pangani, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Papyrus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parklands, African, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parkyns, Mansfield, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parrot, Gray, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peake, Malcolm, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pearson, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peney, Alfred, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Periplus of the Red Sea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persia, Persians, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persian Gulf, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peters, Dr. Carl, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petherick, John, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petherick, Mrs., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petrie, Prof. Flinders, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phallic worship, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phœnicians, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Photography, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piaggia, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pibor River, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pococke, Richard, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polynesians, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poncet brothers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poncet (French doctor-explorer), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pope, Papal Court, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portal, Capt. Raymond, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portal, Sir Gerald, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Potagos (Greek traveller), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Prester John,” <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Primnis (Berber), <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pringle, Capt., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prokesch von Osten, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Protopterus</i>, fish, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Psametik, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy (King), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy, Ptolemæus, Claudius, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Punt, land of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Purdy, Col., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pygmies, Congo, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pygmy races, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quartz, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Victoria, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queens, African, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Racey River, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>Radcliffe, Delmé, Ch. (Major), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rahad River, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raiūf Pasha, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ravenstein, Mr. E.&nbsp;G., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rebman, John, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Red Sea, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reeds, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rejaf, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Religions, Negro, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhaptum, or Rhapta, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhinoceros, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhodes, Cecil, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhodesia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rifles, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rift Valley (Great), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rift valleys of Eastern Africa, <a href="#Page_300">300</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riga, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ripon Falls of Nile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roa River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rōl River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rome, Romans, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosebery Channel, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roseires, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosetta, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roule, le Sieur du, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Geographical Society, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Society, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruanda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruchuru River, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Rudolf"></a>Rudolf, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rukwa, Lake, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rumanika, King, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rüppell, Dr. (German naturalist), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rusizi River, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russegger, J.&nbsp;I., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruvuvu River (Kagera), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruwenzori Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, (Alpine vegetation) <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruzi River, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryllo, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Saba (Sheba), Queen of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sabæan Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sabatier, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sagada Mountain, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sahara Desert, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sailing ships, their effect on African discovery, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saint, Le (French explorer), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salisbury, Lake, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salt, Consul Henry, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samburu, Lake (<i>see</i> <a href="#Rudolf">Rudolf</a>), <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samien Mountains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>, plant, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sardinian (i.e. N. Italian) travellers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxony, Saxe Gotha (share in African exploration), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuver, J.&nbsp;M., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schweinfurth, Dr. Georg, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and nationality, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for Suakin, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">describes botany of North Abyssinian terraces, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Berber to Khartum, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">White Nile scenery, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bahr-al-Ghazal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the slave-trade, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his achievements, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anthropological discoveries, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">botany of Nileland, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">“gallery” forests, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">shares Burton’s opinions regarding Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sclater, Dr. P.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Scott-Elliott"></a>Scott-Elliott, G.&nbsp;F., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scottish, Scotland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Selim Bimbashi, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semitic influence, languages, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semliki River, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sennar, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sese Islands, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Settit River (Atbara), <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shankala, Shangala, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shari River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sharp, Mr., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheko tribe, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shendi, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shergold-Smith, R.N. Lieut., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shiluk people, country, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>Sicily, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silesia, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simiyu, or Shimeyu River, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simonides (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slaves, Slavery, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slave-trade, Slave-traders, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slave-traders’ revolt, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Small-pox, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snakes, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snay, Sheikh, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snow, Snow-mountains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sobat River, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sofala, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sokotra, Island of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Solomon, King, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somali people, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; language, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somaliland, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somersetshire and Speke, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sonnini de Manoncourt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophia, Archduchess, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spain, Spanish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speke, John Hanning, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Somaliland, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for the Central Africa Lakes with Burton, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference with Burton, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to England, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">youth, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">second expedition with Grant, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to England, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name in Uganda, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers outlet of Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">honours, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">interview with King Edward, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical theories, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speke Gulf, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spekes, history of the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">arms of the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanley, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">greatest African explorer, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">confirms Speke, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">circumnavigates Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mistake about Ugowe Bay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">relieves Emin, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers Ruwenzori, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanton, E.&nbsp;A., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steamers on Nile, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steudner, Dr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strabo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stroyan, Lieut., <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuhlman, Dr. Franz, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suakin, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudan, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudanese soldiers, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">races, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudd, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sue (Sive) River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suez, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suez Canal, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suleiman-bin-Zubeir, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Switzerland, Swiss, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Syphilis, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Syria, Syrians, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tajarra Bay, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Takaze River (Upper Atbara), <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanganyika, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanguedec, Lieut., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tarangole, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawareq (Tonareg), Tamasheq, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teleki, Count S., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tellez, F. Balthasar, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tertiary Epoch, the Nile during the, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theodore, King, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thibaud, or Thibaut (French explorer and consular agent), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thomson, Joseph, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tibet (Speke in), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tigre (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tigris River, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tinne, Miss A., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">names, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">origin of Tinne family, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mother and aunt, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first Nile journeys, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>death of mother and aunt, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts from Tripoli to explore Sahara and reach Bahr-al-Ghazal from N.W., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treacherously slain near Murzuk by Tawareqs, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character and appearance, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the Roll of Fame, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tinne, Theodore F.&nbsp;S., <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tondi River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tonj River, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toro, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trade, Traders, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tragelaph, Speke’s, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trees, great forest, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tripoli, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tsana, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tsetse fly, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tu River, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tübingen, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tunis, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkana, country, people, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkey, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turks, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ubangi River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ueberbacher, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uganda, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">protectorate of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">aristocracy of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">country of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">people of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">King of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanley in, <a href="#Page_225">225–228</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">missionaries proceed to, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gordon and, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">route, via Busoga, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uganda Railway, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ugogo, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ugowe Bay, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ujiji, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ukerewe (Bukerebe), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Um Suf” (<i>Vossia</i>) (reeds), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Unyamwezi"></a>Unyamwezi, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">porters, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unyanyembe, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unyoro, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usagara, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usambara, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>, lichen, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usui, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utica, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Valentia, Lord, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vandeleur, Seymour, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vannutelli, L., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vaudet, Signor, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venetians, Venice, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Victoria_Nyanza"></a>Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burton’s depreciation of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke’s estimate of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanley’s circumnavigation, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">direct route to, from Mombasa, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">last discoveries of Stanley’s, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">surveyed (northern coast) by Col. J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">by Whitehouse, Hobley, etc., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">general features of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vinci, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wadai, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wadi Halfa, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><em>Wadi</em>, or river-bed, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waghorn, Lieut., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wakefield, Rev. Mr., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wales, Welsh, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wansleb, Michael, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waterfalls, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Watson, Col. C.&nbsp;M., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wellby, M.&nbsp;S., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welle River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Werne, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whale-headed storks, <i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Bal_niceps_rex">Balæniceps rex</a></i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitehouse, Commissioner B., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">White man, <i>see</i> <a href="#Caucasian">Caucasian</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">White Nile, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_White">Nile, White</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilson, Capt. H.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilson, Rev. C.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>Wosho Mountain (North Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Würtemberg, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyche, Sir Peter, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Yabongo River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yalo River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yaman (Arabia), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yei River, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zambezi River, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zanzibar, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zebra, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeila, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zinza, U-, Bu-, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zubeir Pasha, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zululand, Zulus, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="chapter transnote section">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
+consistent when a predominant preference was found
+in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Several words appear multiple times with and without
+accent marks. These inconsistencies have not been changed.</p>
+
+<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
+quotation marks were remedied when the change was
+obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned
+between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions
+of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page
+references in the List of Illustrations lead to the
+corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Page numbers in the List of Illustrations have been adjusted to match
+the actual pages on which the illustrations appear in this eBook.</p>
+
+<p>Transcriber added references to two maps at the
+end of the List of Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Printer’s notes indicating where to insert illustrations
+have been removed from this eBook.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of
+the book, just before the Index.</p>
+
+<p>The index was not checked for proper alphabetization
+or correct page references.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-03-05 13:21:05 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-03-05 13:21:05 -0800
commit	de844bba83b41af796ae9e2754eba10738ab912a (patch)
tree	d2071e1720c42b7a947a31afc238d4ce35e9cbf3 /75534-h