diff options
Diffstat (limited to '75915-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 75915-h/75915-h.htm | 12447 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 75915-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 1282227 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 75915-h/images/i_title.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20586 bytes |
3 files changed, 12447 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/75915-h/75915-h.htm b/75915-h/75915-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb5ab17 --- /dev/null +++ b/75915-h/75915-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12447 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> + <head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title>Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious | Project Gutenberg</title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + body { margin-left: 8%; margin-right: 10%; } + h1 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; } + h2 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; } + h3 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: large; } + h4 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.0em; } + .pageno { right: 1%; font-size: x-small; background-color: inherit; color: silver; + text-indent: 0em; text-align: right; position: absolute; + border: thin solid silver; padding: .1em .2em; font-style: normal; + font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; } + p { text-indent: 0; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: justify; } + sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.6em; } + .fss { font-size: 75%; } + .sc { font-variant: small-caps; } + .large { font-size: large; } + .xlarge { font-size: x-large; } + .small { font-size: small; } + .under { text-decoration: underline; } + .lg-container-b { text-align: center; } + .x-ebookmaker .lg-container-b { clear: both; } + .lg-container-r { text-align: right; } + .x-ebookmaker .lg-container-r { clear: both; } + .linegroup { display: inline-block; text-align: justify; } + .x-ebookmaker .linegroup { display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; } + .linegroup .group { margin: 1em auto; } + .linegroup .line { text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em; } + div.linegroup > :first-child { margin-top: 0; } + .linegroup .in12 { padding-left: 9.0em; } + .linegroup .in14 { padding-left: 10.0em; } + .linegroup .in2 { padding-left: 4.0em; } + .linegroup .in4 { padding-left: 5.0em; } + .linegroup .in5 { padding-left: 5.5em; } + .linegroup .in6 { padding-left: 6.0em; } + .linegroup .in7 { padding-left: 6.5em; } + .linegroup .in8 { padding-left: 7.0em; } + .index li {text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em; } + .index ul {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 0; } + ul.index {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 0; } + .dl_1 dd { text-align: justify; padding-top: .5em; padding-left: .5em; + margin-left: 3.7em; text-indent: -1em; } + .dl_1 dt { float: left; clear: left; text-align: right; width: 2.5em; + padding-top: .5em; padding-right: .5em; } + .ul_1 li {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; } + .x-ebookmaker .dl_1 dt { float: left; clear: left; text-align: right; + width: 2.5em; padding-top: .5em; padding-right: .5em; } + dl.dl_1 { margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em; } + ul.ul_1 {padding-left: 0; margin-left: 2.78%; margin-top: .5em; + margin-bottom: .5em; list-style-type: disc; } + div.footnote > :first-child { margin-top: 1em; } + div.footnote p { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: 0.25em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + div.pbb { page-break-before: always; } + hr.pb { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-bottom: 1em; } + .x-ebookmaker hr.pb { display: none; } + .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } + .figcenter { clear: both; max-width: 100%; margin: 2em auto; text-align: center; } + .figcenter img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } + .id001 { width:10%; } + .x-ebookmaker .id001 { margin-left:45%; width:10%; } + .ig001 { width:100%; } + .table0 { margin: auto; margin-top: 2em; } + .nf-center { text-align: center; } + .nf-center-c0 { text-align: justify; margin: 0.5em 0; } + .c000 { margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; } + .c001 { page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em; } + .c002 { margin-top: 2em; } + .c003 { margin-top: 1em; } + .c004 { margin-top: 4em; } + .c005 { page-break-before:auto; margin-top: 4em; } + .c006 { margin-top: 2em; text-indent: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + .c007 { text-decoration: none; } + .c008 { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: 0.25em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + .c009 { margin-top: 2em; font-size: .9em; text-indent: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; + } + .c010 { text-align: center; } + .c011 { vertical-align: top; text-align: right; padding-right: 1em; } + .c012 { vertical-align: top; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1em; + padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; } + .c013 { vertical-align: top; text-align: right; } + .c014 { page-break-before: auto; margin-top: 4em; } + .c015 { font-size: 80%; } + .c016 { page-break-before: auto; margin-top: 2em; } + .c017 { margin-top: 1em; text-indent: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + .c018 { margin-top: 1em; font-size: .9em; } + .c019 { text-indent: 0; margin-top: 0.25em; margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + .c020 { margin-top: .5em; } + .c021 { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; width: 10%; margin-left: 0; + margin-top: 1em; text-align: justify; } + div.tnotes { padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;background-color:#E3E4FA; + border:thin solid silver; margin:2em 10% 0 10%; font-family: Georgia, serif; + clear: both; } + .covernote { visibility: hidden; display: none; } + div.tnotes p { text-align: justify; } + .x-ebookmaker .covernote { visibility: visible; display: block; } + .figcenter {font-size: .9em; page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; + max-height: 100%; } + h1 {line-height: 150%; } + .footnote {font-size: .9em; } + div.footnote p {text-indent: 2em; margin-bottom: .5em; } + .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; } + body {font-family: Georgia, serif; text-align: justify; } + table {font-size: .9em; padding: 1.5em .5em 1em; page-break-inside: avoid; + clear: both; } + div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; } + div.titlepage p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; + line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } + .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; + margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } + .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; + page-break-before: always; } + .fraction {display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; } + .center {text-align: center; display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + max-width: 50%; } + .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } + </style> + </head> + <body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75915 ***</div> + +<div class='tnotes covernote'> + +<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> + +<p class='c000'>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +</div> + +<div class='titlepage'> + +<div> + <h1 class='c001'>WIT AND ITS RELATION TO THE UNCONSCIOUS</h1> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c002'> + <div>BY</div> + <div class='c003'><span class='xlarge'><span class='sc'>Professor Dr.</span> SIGMUND FREUD, LL.D.</span></div> + <div class='c003'>Authorized English Edition, with Introduction by</div> + <div><span class='large'>A. A. BRILL, <span class='sc'>Ph.B.</span>, M.D.</span></div> + <div class='c003'><span class='small'>Lecturer in Psychoanalysis and Abnormal Psychology, New York University; former Chief of Clinic of Psychiatry, Columbia University</span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='figcenter id001'> +<img src='images/i_title.jpg' alt='[Logo]' class='ig001'> +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>NEW YORK</div> + <div>MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY</div> + <div>1916</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div><span class='small'>Copyright, 1916, <span class='fss'>BY</span></span></div> + <div><span class='small'>MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY</span></div> + <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>New York</span></span></div> + <div class='c002'><span class='small'><em>All Rights Reserved</em></span></div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> + <h2 class='c005'>TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE</h2> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>In 1908 when it was agreed between Professor +Freud and myself that I should be his translator, +it was decided to render into English first the +following five works: <cite>Selected Papers on Hysteria +and Psychoneuroses</cite>,<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c007'><sup>[1]</sup></a> <cite>Three Contributions +to the Theory of Sex</cite>,<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c007'><sup>[2]</sup></a> <cite>The Interpretation +of Dreams</cite>,<a id='r3'></a><a href='#f3' class='c007'><sup>[3]</sup></a> <cite>Psychopathology of Everyday +Life</cite>,<a id='r4'></a><a href='#f4' class='c007'><sup>[4]</sup></a> and the present volume. These works +were selected because they represent the various +stages of development of Professor Freud’s Psychoanalysis,<a id='r5'></a><a href='#f5' class='c007'><sup>[5]</sup></a> +and also because it was thought that +they contain the material which one must master +before one is able to judge correctly the author’s +theories or apply them in practice. This undertaking, +which was fraught with many linguistic +and other difficulties, has finally been accomplished +<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>with the edition of the present volume, +and it is therefore with a sense of great satisfaction +that the translator’s preface to this work +is written. But although the original task is +finished the translator’s work is only beginning. +Psychoanalysis has made enormous strides. On +the foundation laid by Professor Freud there +developed a literature rich in ideas and content +which has revolutionized the science of nervous +and mental diseases, and has thrown much light +on the subject of dreams, sex, mythology,<a id='r6'></a><a href='#f6' class='c007'><sup>[6]</sup></a> the +history of civilization and racial psychology,<a id='r7'></a><a href='#f7' class='c007'><sup>[7]</sup></a> +philology,<a id='r8'></a><a href='#f8' class='c007'><sup>[8]</sup></a> æsthetics,<a id='r9'></a><a href='#f9' class='c007'><sup>[9]</sup></a> child psychology and +pedagogics,<a id='r10'></a><a href='#f10' class='c007'><sup>[10]</sup></a> philology,<a id='r11'></a><a href='#f11' class='c007'><sup>[11]</sup></a> and mysticism and occultism. +With the <cite>Interpretation of Dreams</cite> and +<cite>Psychopathology of Everyday Life</cite>, Professor +Freud has definitely bridged the gulf between +normal and abnormal mental states by demonstrating +that dreams and faulty acts like some +forms of forgetting, slips of the tongue, slips of +reading, writing, etc., are closely allied to psychopathological +<span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>states and represent the prototypes +of such abnormal mental conditions as neurotic +symptoms, hallucinations, and deliria. He also +shows that all these productions are senseful +and purposive, and that their strange and peculiar +appearance is due to distortions produced by +various psychic processes. These views are confirmed +in the present volume, where it is demonstrated +that wit, which belongs to æsthetics, is +subject to the same laws, shows the same mechanism, +and serves the same tendencies as the +other psychic productions. With his wonted +profundity and ingenuity the author adds the +solution of wit to those of the neuroses, dreams, +and psychopathological acts.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I take great pleasure in tendering my thanks +to Mr. Horatio Winslow, who has read the manuscript +and has given me valuable suggestions in +the choice of expressions and in the selection of +substitutes for those witticisms that could not be +translated.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-r'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><span class='sc'>A. A. Brill.</span></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c009'><em>May, 1916.</em></p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span> + <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table class='table0'> + <tr><td class='c010' colspan='3'>A. ANALYSIS OF WIT</td></tr> + <tr> + <th class='c011'>CHAPTER</th> + <th class='c012'> </th> + <th class='c013'>PAGE</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>I.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>II.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Technique of Wit</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>III.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Tendencies of Wit</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c010' colspan='3'>B. SYNTHESIS OF WIT</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>IV.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Pleasure Mechanism and the Psychogenesis of Wit</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>V.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Motives of Wit and Wit as a Social Process</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'> </td> + <td class='c012'> </td> + <td class='c013'> </td> + </tr> + <tr><td class='c010' colspan='3'>C. THEORIES OF WIT</td></tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>VI.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>The Relation of Wit to Dreams and to the Unconscious</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class='c011'>VII.</td> + <td class='c012'><span class='sc'>Wit and the Various Forms of the Comic</span></td> + <td class='c013'><a href='#Page_288'>288</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class='chapter'> + <h2 class='c005'>A. ANALYSIS</h2> +</div> + +<div class='chapter ph1'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>WIT AND ITS RELATION TO THE UNCONSCIOUS</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> + <h3 class='c014'>I<br> <span class='c015'>INTRODUCTION</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Whoever has had occasion to examine that +part of the literature of æsthetics and psychology +dealing with the nature and affinities of +wit, will, no doubt, concede that our philosophical +inquiries have not awarded to wit the +important rôle that it plays in our mental life. +One can recount only a small number of thinkers +who have penetrated at all deeply into the +problems of wit. To be sure, among the authors +on wit one finds the illustrious names of +the poet Jean Paul (Fr. Richter), and of the +philosophers Th. Vischer, Kuno Fischer, and Th. +Lipps. But even these writers put the subject +of wit in the background while their chief +interest centers around the more comprehensive +and more alluring problems of the comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the main this literature gives the impression +that it is altogether impractical to study +wit except when treated as a part of the comic.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Presentation of the Subject by Other Authors</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>According to Th. Lipps (<cite><span lang="de">Komik und Humor</span></cite>, +1898<a id='r12'></a><a href='#f12' class='c007'><sup>[12]</sup></a>) wit is “essentially the subjective side +of the comic; i.e., it is that part of the comic +which we ourselves create, which colors our conduct +as such, and to which our relation is that +of Superior Subject, never of Object, certainly +not Voluntary Object” (p. 80). The following +comment might also be added:—In general +we designate as wit “every conscious and clever +evocation of the comic, whether the comic element +lies in the viewpoint or in the situation +itself” (p. 78).</p> + +<p class='c008'>K. Fischer explains the relation between wit +and the comic by the aid of caricature, which, +according to his exposition, comes midway between +the two (<cite><span lang="de">Über den Witz</span></cite>, 1889). The +subject of the comic is the hideous element in +any of its manifestations. “Where it is concealed +it must be disclosed in the light of the +comic view; where it is not at all or but slightly +noticeable it must be rendered conspicuous and +elucidated in such a manner that it becomes +clear and intelligible. Thus arises caricature” +(p. 45). “Our entire psychic world, the intellectual +realm of our thoughts and conceptions, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>does not reveal itself to us on superficial +consideration. It cannot be visualized directly +either figuratively or intuitively, moreover it +contains inhibitions, weak points, disfigurements, +and an abundance of ludicrous and comical contrasts. +In order to bring it out and to make +it accessible to æsthetic examination, a force is +necessary which is capable not only of depicting +objects directly, but also of reflecting upon +these conceptions and elucidating them—namely, +a force capable of clarifying thought. +This force is nothing but judgment. The judgment +which produces the comic contrast is +wit. In caricature wit has played its part unnoticed, +but only in judgment does it attain +its own individual form and the free domain of +its evolution.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>As can be seen Lipps assigns the determining +factor which classifies wit as part of the +comic, to the activity or to the active behavior +of the subject, whereas K. Fischer characterizes +wit by its relation to its object, in which characterization +he accentuates the hidden hideous +element in the realm of thought. One cannot +put to test the cogency of these definitions of +wit; one can, in fact, hardly understand them +unless one studies the text from which they were +taken. One is thus forced to work his way +through the author’s descriptions of the comic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>in order to learn anything about wit. From +other passages, however, one discovers that the +same authors attribute to wit essential characteristics +of general validity in which they disregard +its relation to the comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>K. Fischer’s characterization of wit which +seems to be most satisfactory to this author runs +as follows: “Wit is a <em>playful</em> judgment” (p. +51). For an elucidation of this expression we +are referred to the analogy: “How æsthetic +freedom consists in the playful contemplation +of objects” (p. 50). In another place (p. 20) +the æsthetic attitude towards an object is characterized +by the condition that we expect nothing +from this object—especially no gratification +of our serious needs—but that we content ourselves +with the pleasure of contemplating the +same. In contrast to labor the æsthetic attitude +is <em>playful</em>. “It may be that from æsthetic freedom +there also results a kind of judgment, freed +from the conventional restrictions and rule of +conduct, which, in view of its genesis, I will +call the <em>playful</em> judgment. This conception contains +the first condition and possibly the entire +formula for the solution of our problem. ‘Freedom +begets wit and wit begets freedom,’ says +Jean Paul. Wit is nothing but a free play of +ideas” (p. 24).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Since time immemorial a favorite definition +<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>of wit has been the ability to discover similarities +in dissimilarities, i.e., to find hidden similarities. +Jean Paul has jocosely expressed this idea by +saying that “wit is the disguised priest who +unites every couple.” Th. Vischer adds the +postscript: “He likes best to unite those couples +whose marriage the relatives refuse to +sanction.” Vischer refutes this, however, by +remarking that in some witticisms there is no +question of comparison or the discovery of +similarities. Hence with very little deviation +from Jean Paul’s definition he defines wit as +the skill to combine with surprising quickness +many ideas, which through inner content and +connections are foreign to one another. K. +Fischer then calls attention to the fact that +in a large number of these witty judgments one +does not find similarities, but contrasts; and +Lipps further remarks that these definitions +refer to the wit that the humorist possesses and +not to the wit that he produces.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Other viewpoints, in some measure connected +with one another, which have been mentioned in +defining and describing wit are: “the <em>contrast +of ideas</em>,” “<em>sense in nonsense</em>,” and “<em>confusion +and clearness</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Definitions like those of Kraepelin lay stress +upon the contrast of ideas. Wit is “the voluntary +combination or linking of two ideas which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>in some way are contrasted with each other, +usually through the medium of speech association.” +For a critic like Lipps it would not be +difficult to reveal the utter inadequacy of this +formula, but he himself does not exclude the +element of contrast—he merely assigns it elsewhere. +“The contrast remains, but is not +formed in a manner to show the ideas connected +with the words, rather it shows the contrast or +contradiction in the meaning and lack of meaning +of the words” (p. 87). Examples show the +better understanding of the latter. “A contrast +arises first through the fact that we adjudge a +meaning to its words which after all we cannot +ascribe to them.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the further development of this last condition +the antithesis of “sense in nonsense” becomes +obvious. “What we accept one moment +as senseful we later perceive as perfect nonsense. +Thereby arises, in this case, the operation of the +comic element” (p. 85). “A saying appears +witty when we ascribe to it a meaning through +psychological necessity and, while so doing, retract +it. It may thus have many meanings. We +lend a meaning to an expression knowing that +logically it does not belong to it. We find in +it a truth, however, which later we fail to find +because it is foreign to our laws of experience or +usual modes of thinking. We endow it with a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>logical or practical inference which transcends +its true content, only to contradict this inference +as soon as we finally grasp the nature of the expression +itself. The psychological process +evoked in us by the witty expression which gives +rise to the sense of the comic depends in every +case on the immediate transition from the borrowed +feeling of truth and conviction to the impression +or consciousness of relative nullity.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>As impressive as this exposition sounds one +cannot refrain from questioning whether the contrast +between the senseful and senseless upon +which the comic depends does not also contribute +to the definition of wit in so far as it is distinguished +from the comic. Also the factor of +“confusion and clearness” leads one deeply into +the problem of the relation of wit to the comic. +Kant, speaking of the comic element in general, +states that one of its remarkable attributes is +the fact that it can delude us for a moment only. +Heymans (<cite><span lang="de">Zeitschr. f. Psychologie</span></cite>, XI, 1896) +explains how the mechanism of wit is produced +through the succession of confusion and clearness. +He illustrates his meaning by an excellent +witticism from Heine, who causes one of his figures, +the poor lottery agent, Hirsch-Hyacinth, +to boast that the great Baron Rothschild treated +him as an equal or quite FAMILLIONAIRE. +Here the word which acts as the carrier of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>witticism appears in the first place simply as a +faulty word-formation, as something incomprehensible, +inconceivable, and enigmatic. It is for +these reasons that it is confusing. The comic +element results from the solution of the enigma +and from the understanding of the word. Lipps +adds that the first stage of enlightenment, showing +that the confusing word means this or that, is +followed by a second stage in which one perceives +that this nonsensical word has first deluded us +and then given us the true meaning. Only this +second enlightenment, the realization that it is +all due to a word that is meaningless in ordinary +usage—this reduction to nothingness produces +the comic effect (p. 95).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Whether or not either the one or the other +of these two conceptions may seem more clear +we are brought nearer to a definite insight +through the discussion of the processes of confusion +and enlightenment. If the comic effect of +Heine’s <em>famillionaire</em> depends upon the solution +of the seemingly senseless word, then the wit +would have to be attributed to the formation of +this word and to the character of the word so +formed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In addition to the associations of the viewpoints +just discussed there is another characteristic +of wit which is recognized as peculiar to it +by all authors. “Brevity alone is the body and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>soul of wit,” declares Jean Paul (<cite><span lang="fr">Vorschule der +Aesthetik</span></cite>, I, 45), and modifies it with a speech of +the old tongue-wagger, Polonius, from Shakespeare’s +<cite>Hamlet</cite> (Act II, Scene 2):</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit,</div> + <div class='line'>And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes,</div> + <div class='line'>I will be brief.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Lipps’s description (p. 90) of the brevity of +wit is also significant. He states that wit says +what it does say, not always in few, but always +in too few words; that is: “It expresses itself in +words that will not stand the test of strict logic +or of the ordinary mode of thought and expression. +In fine it can express itself by leaving the +thing unsaid.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>That “wit must unearth something hidden and +concealed”—to quote K. Fischer (p. 51)—we +have already been taught from the grouping of +wit with caricature. I re-emphasize this determinant +because it also has more to do with the +nature of wit than with its relation to the comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I am well aware that the foregoing scanty +quotations from the works of the authors on wit +cannot do justice to the excellence of these works. +In view of the difficulties that confront one in +reproducing clearly such complicated and such +delicately shaded streams of thought I cannot +<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>spare inquiring minds the trouble of searching +for the desired information in the original +sources. However, I do not know whether they +will return fully satisfied. For the criteria and +attributes of wit mentioned by these authors, +such as—activity, the relation of the content of +wit to our thoughts, the character of the playful +judgment, the union of dissimilarities, contrasting +ideas, “sense in nonsense,” the succession of +confusion and clearness, the sudden emergence +of the hidden, and the peculiar brevity of wit, +seem to us, at first glance, so very pertinent and +so easily demonstrable by examples that we cannot +succumb to the danger of underestimating +the value of such ideas. But they are only disjointed +fragments which we should like to see +welded into an organic whole. In the end they +contribute no more to the knowledge of wit than +a number of anecdotes teach us of the true characteristics +of a personality whose biography interests +us. We do not at all understand the connection +that is supposed to exist between the individual +conditions; for instance, what the brevity +of wit may have to do with that side of wit +exhibited in the playful judgment; besides we do +not know whether wit must satisfy all or only +some of these conditions in order to form real +wit; which of them may be replaced and which +ones are indispensable. We should also like a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>grouping and classification of wit in respect to +its essential attributes. The classification as +given by the authors is based, on the one hand, on +the technical means, and on the other hand, on +the utilization of wit in speech (sound-wit, play +on words, the wit of caricature, characterization +wit, and witty repartee).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Accordingly we should not find ourselves in a +dilemma when it comes to pointing out goals for +a further effort to explain wit. In order to look +forward to success we must either introduce new +viewpoints into the work, or try to penetrate +further by concentrating our attention or by +broadening the scope of our interest. We can +prescribe for ourselves the task of at least not +permitting any lack along the latter lines. To +be sure, it is rather remarkable how few examples +of recognized witticisms suffice the authors for +their investigations and how each one accepts +the ones used by his predecessors. We need not +shirk the responsibility of analyzing the same examples +which have already served the classical +authors, but we contemplate new material besides +to lay a broader foundation for our deductions. +It is quite natural that we should select such examples +of wit as objects for our investigation as +have produced the deepest impression upon our +own lives and which have caused us the greatest +amount of laughter.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>Some may inquire whether the subject of wit +is worthy of such effort. In my opinion there is +no doubt about it, for even if I disregard the +personal motives to be revealed during the development +of this theme (the motives which drove +me to gain an insight into the problem of wit), +I can refer to the fact that there is an intimate +connection between all psychic occurrences; a +connection which promises to furnish a psychological +insight into a sphere which, although remote, +will nevertheless be of considerable value +to the other spheres. One may also be reminded +what a peculiar, overwhelmingly fascinating +charm wit offers in our society. A new joke +operates almost as an event of universal interest. +It is passed on from one person to another just +like the news of the latest conquest. Even prominent +men who consider it worth while relating +how they attained fame, what cities and countries +they have seen, and with what celebrated persons +they have consorted, do not disdain to dwell +in their autobiographies upon this and that excellent +joke which they have heard.<a id='r13'></a><a href='#f13' class='c007'><sup>[13]</sup></a></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span> + <h3 class='c001'>II<br> <span class='c015'>THE TECHNIQUE OF WIT</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We follow the beckoning of chance and take +up as our first example of wit one which has already +come to our notice in the previous chapter.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In that part of the <cite><span lang="no">Reisebilder</span></cite> entitled “<span lang="de">Die +Bäder von Lucca</span>,” Heine introduces the precious +character, Hirsch-Hyacinth, the Hamburg lottery +agent and curer of corns, who, boasting to +the poet of his relationship with the rich Baron +Rothschild, ends thus: “And as true as I pray +that the Lord may grant me all good things I +sat next to Solomon Rothschild, who treated me +just as if I were his equal, quite <em>famillionaire</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is by means of this excellent and very funny +example that Heymans and Lipps have illustrated +the origin of the comic effect of wit from the succession +of “confusion and clearness.” However, +we shall pass over this question and put to ourselves +the following inquiry: What is it that +causes the speech of Hirsch-Hyacinth to become +witty? It can be only one of two things; +either it is the thought expressed in the sentence +which carries in itself the character of the witticism; +or the witticism adheres to the mode of expression +<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>which clothes the thought. On whichever +side the nature of the wit may lie, there we +shall follow it farther and endeavor to elucidate +it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In general a thought may be expressed in different +forms of speech—that is, in different +words—which may repeat it in its original accuracy. +In the speech of Hirsch-Hyacinth we +have before us a definite form of thought expressed +which seems to us especially peculiar and +not very readily comprehensible. Let us attempt +to express as exactly as is possible the same +thought in other words. Lipps, indeed, has already +done this and has thus, to some degree, +elucidated the meaning of the poet. He says (p. +87), “We understand that Heine wishes to say +that the reception was on a familiar basis, that +is, that it was of the friendly sort.” We change +nothing in the sense when we assume a different +interpretation which perhaps fits better into +the speech of Hirsch-Hyacinth: “Rothschild +treated me quite as his equal, in a very <em>familiar</em> +way; that is, as far as this can be done by a +<em>millionaire</em>.” We would only add, “The condescension +of a rich man always carries something +embarrassing for the one experiencing it.”<a id='r14'></a><a href='#f14' class='c007'><sup>[14]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>Whether we shall remain content with this or +with another equivalent formulation of the +thought, we can see that the question which we +have put to ourselves is already answered. The +character of the wit in this example does not +adhere to the thought. It is a correct and ingenious +remark that Heine puts into the mouth +of Hirsch-Hyacinth—a remark of indubitable +bitterness, as is easily understood in the case of +the poor man confronted with so much wealth; +but we should not care to call it witty. Now if +any one who cannot forget the poet’s meaning +in the interpretation should insist that the +thought in itself is also witty, we can refer him +to the definite fact that the witty character is +lost in the interpretation. It is true that Hirsch-Hyacinth’s +speech made us laugh loudly, but +though Lipps’s or our own accurate rendering +may please us and cause us to reflect, yet it cannot +make us laugh.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But if the witty character of our example does +not belong to the thought, then it must be sought +for in the form of expression in the wording. +We have only to study the peculiarity of this +mode of expression to realize what one may term +word- or form-technique. Also we may discover +the things that are intimately related to the very +nature of wit, since the character as well as the +effect of wit disappears when one set of expressions +<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>is changed for others. At all events we +are in full accord with our authors when we put +so much value upon the verbal form of the wit. +Thus K. Fischer (p. 72) says: “It is, in the first +place, the naked form which is responsible for +the perception of wit, and one is reminded of a +saying of Jean Paul’s which affirms and proves +this nature of wit in the same expression. ‘Thus +the mere position conquers, be it that of warriors +or of sentences.’”</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Formation of Mixed Words</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Now wherein lies the “technique” of this +wit? What has occurred to the thought, in our +own conception, that it became changed into wit +and caused us to laugh heartily? The comparison +of our conception with the text of the poet +teaches us that two processes took place. In the +first place there occurred an important abbreviation. +In order to express fully the thought contained +in the witticism we had to append to the +words “Rothschild treated me just as an equal, +on a familiar basis,” an additional sentence +which in its briefest form reads: i.e., so far as +a millionaire can do this. Even then we feel the +necessity of an additional explanatory sentence.<a id='r15'></a><a href='#f15' class='c007'><sup>[15]</sup></a> +The poet expresses it in terser terms as follows: +“Rothschild treated me just like an equal, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>quite <em>famillionaire</em>.” The entire restriction, +which the second sentence imposes on the first +thus verifying the familiar treatment, has been +lost in the jest. But it has not been so entirely +lost as not to leave a substitute from which it +can be reconstructed. A second change has also +taken place. The word “familiar” in the witless +expression of the thought has been transformed +into “<em>famillionaire</em>” in the text of the +wit, and there is no doubt that the witty character +and ludicrous effect of the joke depends +directly upon this word-formation. The newly +formed word is identical in its first part with +the word “familiar” of the first sentence, and +its terminal syllables correspond to the word +“millionaire” of the second sentence. In this +manner it puts us in a position to conjecture the +second sentence which was omitted in the text +of the wit. It may be described as a composite +of two constituents “familiar” and “millionaire,” +and one is tempted to depict its origin from +the two words graphically.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>FAMIL I A R</div> + <div class='line in2'>MILLIONAIRE</div> + <div class='line'>—————————————</div> + <div class='line'>FAMILLIONAIRE</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The process, then, which has carried the +thought into the witticism can be represented in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>the following manner, which, although at first +rather fantastic, nevertheless furnishes exactly +the actual existing result: “Rothschild treated +me quite familiarly, i.e., as well as a millionaire +can do that sort of thing.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Now imagine that a compressing force is acting +upon these sentences and assume that for +some reason or other the second sentence is of +lesser resistance. It is accordingly forced toward +the vanishing point, but its important component, +the word “millionaire,” which strives +against the compressing power, is pushed, as it +were, into the first sentence and becomes fused +with the very similar element, the word “familiar” +of this sentence. It is just this possibility, +provided by chance to save the essential part of +the second sentence, which favors the disappearance +of the other less important components. +The jest then takes shape in this +manner: “Rothschild treated me in a very</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>famillionaire way.”</div> + <div class='line in7'>/   (mili) (aire)</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Apart from such a compressing force, which is +really unknown to us, we may describe the origin +of the wit-formation, that is, the technique of the +wit in this case, as a <em>condensation with substitutive +formation</em>. In our example the substitutive +formation consists in the formation of a mixed +word. This fused word “famillionaire,” incomprehensible +<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>in itself but instantly understood +in its context and recognized as senseful, +is now the carrier of the mirth-provoking +stimulus of the jest, whose mechanism, to be +sure, is in no way clearer to us through the +discovery of the technique. To what extent +can a linguistic process of condensation with +substitutive formation produce pleasure through +a fused word and force us to laugh? We +make note of the fact that this is a different +problem, the treatment of which we can postpone +until we shall find access to it later. For +the present we shall continue to busy ourselves +with the technique of wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Our expectation that the technique of wit cannot +be considered an indifferent factor in the examination +of the nature of wit prompts us to inquire +next whether there are other examples of +wit formed like Heine’s “famillionaire.” Not +many of these exist, but enough to constitute a +small group which may be characterized as the +blend-word formations or fusions. Heine himself +has produced a second witticism from the +word “millionaire” by copying himself, as it +were, when he speaks of a “millionarr” (<cite>Ideen</cite>, +Chap. XIV). This is a visible condensation +of “millionaire” and “narr” (fool) and, like +the first example, expresses a suppressed by-thought. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>Other examples of a similar nature +are as follows.</p> + +<p class='c008'>During the war between Turkey and the Balkan +States, in 1912, <cite>Punch</cite> depicted the part +played by Rumania by representing the latter +as a highwayman holding up the members of +the Balkan alliance. The picture was entitled: +<cite>Kleptorumania</cite>. Here the word is a fusion of +Kleptomania and Rumania and may be represented +as follows:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in2'>KLEPTOMANIA</div> + <div class='line in6'>RUMANIA</div> + <div class='line'>—————————————</div> + <div class='line'>KLEPTORUMANIA</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>A naughty jest of Europe has rebaptized a +former potentate, Leopold, into <em>Cleopold</em> because +of his relation to a lady surnamed Cleo. +This is a clear form of condensation which by +the addition of a single letter forever vividly +preserves a scandalous allusion.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In an excellent chapter on this same theme +Brill gives the following example.<a id='r16'></a><a href='#f16' class='c007'><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>“De Quincey once remarked that old persons +are apt to fall into ‘anecdotage.’” The word +<em>Anecdotage</em>, though in itself incomprehensible, +can be readily analyzed to show its original full +sense; and on analysis we find that it is made up +of two words, <em>anecdote</em> and <em>dotage</em>. That is, instead +<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>of saying that old persons are apt to fall +into dotage and that old persons are fond of telling +anecdotes, De Quincey fuses the two words +into a neologism, <em>anecdotage</em>, and thus simultaneously +expresses both ideas. The technique, +therefore, lies in the fusion of the two words. +Such a fusion of words is called condensation. +Condensation is a substitutive formation, i.e., instead +of <em>anecdote</em> and <em>dotage</em> we have <em>anecdotage</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“In a short story which I have recently read, +one of the characters, a ‘sport,’ speaks of the +Christmas season as the <em>alcoholidays</em>. By reduction +it can be easily seen that we have here a compound +word, a combination of <em>alcohol</em> and <em>holidays</em> +which can be graphically represented as +follows:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>alcoHOL</div> + <div class='line in4'>HOLidays</div> + <div class='line'>————————————</div> + <div class='line'>ALCOHOLIDAYS</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>“Here the condensation expresses the idea +that holidays are conducive to alcoholic indulgence. +In other words, we have here a fused +word, which, though strange in appearance, can +be easily understood in its proper context. The +witticism may be described as a condensation +with substitution.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“The same mechanism is found in the following: +A dramatic critic, summarizing three paragraphs +<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>to the effect that most plays now produced +in New York City are violently emotional +and hysterical, remarks: ‘Thespis has taken up +his home in Dramatteawan.’ The last word is +a condensation of <em>drama</em> and <em>Matteawan</em>. The +substitution not only expressed the critic’s idea +that most of the plays at present produced in +New York are violent, emotional and hysterical, +that is insane, but it also contains a clever allusion +to the nature of the problem presented by +most of these plays. Matteawan is a state hospital +for criminal insane. Most of the plays are +not only insane, but also criminal since they treat +of murders, divorces, robberies, scandals, etc.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>When Flaubert published his famous romance +<cite>Salammbo</cite>, which treats of life in ancient Carthage, +it was scoffingly referred to by Sainte-Beuve +as <em>Carthaginoiserie</em> on account of its +tedious detailed descriptions.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Carthaginoiserie</div> + <div class='line in5'>chinoiserie</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>During a conversation with a lady I unintentionally +furnished the material for a jest. I +spoke to her about the great merits of an investigator +whom I considered unjustly ignored. She +remarked, “But the man really deserves a monument.” +“Perhaps he will get one some day,” I +answered, “but at the moment his success is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>very limited.” “Monument” and “moment” +are contrasts. The lady then united these contrasts +and said: “Well, let us wish him a <em>monumentary</em> +success.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>If at this stage the reader should become +displeased with a viewpoint which threatens to +destroy his pleasure in wit without explaining +the source of this pleasure I must beg him to +be patient for a while, because we are now confronted +with the technique of wit, the examination +of which promises many revelations if +only we enter into it far enough. Besides the +analysis of the examples thus far cited, which +show simply a process of condensation, there +are others in which the changed expressions +manifest themselves in other ways.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Condensation with Modification and Substitution</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The following witticisms of Mr. N. will serve +as illustrations.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“I was driving with him tête-à-bête.” Nothing +is simpler than the reduction of this jest. +Evidently it can only mean: I was driving +tête-à-tête with Mr. X. and X. is a stupid ass +(beast).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Neither of these two sentences is witty nor +is there any wit if one combines them into this +one: “I was out driving tête-à-tête with that +stupid ass (beast).” The wit appears when +<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>the words “stupid ass” are omitted and when, +as a substitute for them, the first “t” of the +second “tête” is changed to “b.” This slight +modification brings back to expression the suppressed +“bête.” The technique of this group +of witticisms may be described as “condensation +with a slight modification.” And it would +seem that the more insignificant the substitutive +modification, the better is the wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Quite similar, although not without its complications, +is the technique of another form of +witticism. During a discussion about a person +in whom there was something to praise and +much to criticise, N. remarked: “Yes, vanity +is one of his four heels of Achilles.”<a id='r17'></a><a href='#f17' class='c007'><sup>[17]</sup></a> This +modification consists in the fact that instead of +the one vulnerable heel which was attributed to +Achilles we have here four heels. Four heels +means four feet and that number is only found +on animals. The two thoughts condensed in +the witticism are as follows: Except for his +vanity he is an admirable fellow; still I do not +care for him, for he is more of an animal than +a human being.<a id='r18'></a><a href='#f18' class='c007'><sup>[18]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>A similar but simpler joke I heard <i><span lang="la">statu +nascendi</span></i> in a family circle. One of two brothers +who were attending college was an excellent +scholar while the other was only an average +student. It so happened that the model boy +had a setback in school. The mother discussed +this matter and expressed her fear lest this event +be the beginning of a lasting deterioration. +The boy who until then had been overshadowed +by his brother willingly grasped this opportunity +to remark: “Yes, Carl is going backward +on all-fours.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here the modification consists in a small +addition as an assurance that in his judgment +his brother is going backward. This modification +represents and takes the place of a passionate +plea for his own cause which may be +expressed as follows: After all, you must not +think that he is so much cleverer than I am +simply because he has more success in school. +He is really a stupid ass, i.e., much more stupid +than I am.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A good illustration of condensation with +slight modification is furnished by a well-known +witty jest of Mr. N., who remarked about a +character in public life that he had a “<em>great +future behind him</em>.” The butt of this joke +was a young man whose ancestry, rearing, and +personal qualities seemed to destine him for the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>leadership of a great party and the attainment +of political power at its head. But times +changed, the party became politically incompetent, +and it could readily be foreseen that the +man who was predestined to become its leader +would come to nothing. The briefest reduction +of the meaning by which one could replace this +joke would be: The man has had a great future +before him, but that is now past. Instead of “has +had” and the appended afterthought there is a +small change in the main sentence in which “before” +is replaced by its opposite “behind.”<a id='r19'></a><a href='#f19' class='c007'><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Mr. N. made use of almost the same modification +in the case of the nobleman who was +appointed minister of agriculture for no other +reason than that he was interested in agriculture. +Public opinion had an opportunity to +find out that he was the most incompetent man +who had ever been intrusted with this office. +When, however, he had relinquished his portfolio +and had withdrawn to his agricultural +pursuits Mr. N. said of him: “<em>Like Cincinnatus +of Old he has returned to his place in front of +the plough.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>That Roman, who was likewise called to his +office from his farm, returned to his place +behind the plough. In those days, just as in +the present time, in front of the plough walked—the +ox.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We could easily increase these examples by +many others, but I am of the opinion that we +are in need of no more cases in order to grasp +thoroughly the character of the technique of +this second group—condensation with modification. +If we now compare the second group +with the first, the technique of which consisted +in condensation with a mixed word-formation, +we readily see that the differences are not vital +and that the lines of demarcation are indistinct. +The mixed word-formation, like the modification, +became subordinated to the idea of substitutive +formation, and if we desire we can +also describe the mixed word-formation as a +modification of the parent word through the +second elements.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We may make our first pause here and ask +ourselves with what known factor in the literature +of wit our first result, either in whole or +in part, coincides. It obviously agrees with the +factor of brevity which Jean Paul calls the soul +of wit (<em>supra</em>, p. 11). But brevity alone is not +wit or every laconism would be witty. The +brevity of wit must be of a special kind. We +<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>recall that Lipps has attempted to describe +more fully the peculiarity of the brevity of +wit (<em>v. s.</em>, p. 11). Here our investigation started +and demonstrated that the brevity of wit is +often the result of a special process which has +left a second trace—the substitutive formation—in +the wording of the wit. By applying the +process of reduction, which aims to cause a +retrogression in the peculiar process of condensation, +we find also that wit depends only +upon the verbal expression which was produced +by the process of condensation. Naturally our +entire interest now centers upon this peculiar +and hitherto almost neglected mechanism. +Furthermore, we cannot yet comprehend how +it can give origin to all that is valuable in wit; +namely, the resultant pleasure.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Condensation in Dreams</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Have processes similar to those here described +as the technique of wit already been +noted in another sphere of our psychic life? +To be sure, in one apparently remote sphere. +In 1900 I published a book which, as indicated +by its title (<cite>The Interpretation of Dreams</cite><a id='r20'></a><a href='#f20' class='c007'><sup>[20]</sup></a>), +makes the attempt to explain the riddle of the +dream and to trace the dream to normal psychic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>operations. I had occasion to contrast there the +manifest and often peculiar dream-content with +the latent but altogether real thoughts of the +dream from which it originated, and I took up +the investigation of the processes which make +the dream from the latent dream-thought. I +also investigated the psychological forces which +participated in this transposition. The sum +of the transforming processes I designated as +the dream-work and, as a part of this dream-work, +I described the process of condensation. +This process has a striking similarity to the +technique of wit and, like the latter, it leads to +abbreviations and brings about substitutive +formations of like character.</p> + +<p class='c008'>From recollections of his own dreams the +reader will be familiar with the compositions +of persons and objects that appear in them; +indeed, the dream makes similar compositions +of words which can then be reduced by analysis +(e.g., Autodidasker—Autodidakt and Lasker<a id='r21'></a><a href='#f21' class='c007'><sup>[21]</sup></a>). +On other occasions and even much more frequently, +the condensation work of the dream +produces no compositions, but pictures which +closely resemble an object or person up to a +certain addition or variation which comes from +another source, like the modifications in the +witticisms of Mr. N. We cannot doubt that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>in this case, as in the other, we deal with a +similar psychic process which is recognizable by +identical results. Such a far-reaching analogy +between wit-technique and dream-work will +surely arouse our interest in the former and +stimulate our expectation of finding some explanation +of wit from a comparison with the +dream. We forbear, however, to enter upon +this work by bearing in mind that we have investigated +the technique of wit in only a very +small number of witty jests, so that we cannot +be certain that the analogy, the workings of +which we wish to explore, will hold good. +Hence we turn away from the comparison with +the dream and again take up the technique of +wit, leaving, however, at this place of our investigation +a visible thread, as it were, which +later we shall take up again.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Wit Formed by Word-division</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The next point we shall discuss is whether the +process of condensation with substitutive formation +is demonstrable in all witticisms so that +it may be designated as a universal character of +the technique of wit. I recall a joke which has +clung to my mind through certain peculiar circumstances. +One of the great teachers of my +youth, whom we considered unable to appreciate +<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>a joke—he had never told us a single joke of +his own—came into the Institute laughing. +With an unwonted readiness he explained the +cause of his good humor. “I have read an +excellent joke,” he said. “<em>A young man who +claimed to be a relative of the great J. J. +Rousseau, and who bore his name, was introduced +into a Parisian drawing-room. It should +be added that he was decidedly red-headed. He +behaved in such an awkward manner that the +hostess ventured this criticism to the gentleman +who had introduced him—‘Vous m’avez fait connaître +un jeune homme roux et sot, mais non pas +un Rousseau.’</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>At this point our teacher started to laugh +again. According to the nomenclature of our +authors this is sound-wit and a poor kind at +that, since it plays with a proper name.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But what is the technique of this wit? It is +quite clear that the character which we had perhaps +hoped to demonstrate universally leaves us +in the lurch in the first new example. Here +there is no omission and scarcely an abbreviation. +In the witticism the lady expresses almost +everything that we can ascribe to the thoughts. +“You have made me look forward to meeting a +relative of J. J. Rousseau. I expected that he +was perhaps even mentally related to him. +Imagine my surprise to find this red-haired +<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>foolish boy, a <i><span lang="fr">roux et sot</span></i>.” To be sure, I was +able to add and insert something, but this +attempt at reduction does not annul the wit. +It remains fixed and attached to the sound +similarity of +<span class='fraction'><span class='under'>Rousseau.</span><br>roux sot</span> +This proves that condensation +with substitution plays no part in +the production of this witticism.</p> + +<p class='c008'>With what else do we have to deal? New +attempts at reduction taught me that the joke +will persistently continue until the name Rousseau +is replaced by another. If, e.g., I substitute +the name Racine for it I find that although +the lady’s criticism is just as feasible +as before it immediately loses every trace of wit. +Now I know where I can look for the technique +of this joke although I still hesitate to formulate +it. I shall make the following attempt: +The technique of the witticism lies in the fact +that one and the same word—the name—is +used in a twofold application, once as a whole +and once divided into its syllables like a charade.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I can mention a few examples of identical +technique. A witticism of this sort was utilized +by an Italian lady to avenge a tactless remark +made to her by the first Napoleon. Pointing +to her compatriots at a court ball he said: +“<i><span lang="it">Tutti gli Italian danzano si male</span></i>” (all +Italians dance so badly). To which she quickly +<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>replied: <i>“<span lang="it">Non tutti, ma buona parte</span>”</i> (Not +all, but a great many)—<span class='fraction'><span class='under'><span lang="it">Buona parte</span>.<a id='r22'></a><a href='#f22' class='c007'><sup>[22]</sup></a></span><br><span lang="it">Buonaparte</span>.</span> Brill +reports still another example in which the wit +depends on the twofold application of a name: +“<em>Hood once remarked that he had to be a lively +Hood for a livelihood.</em>”<a id='r23'></a><a href='#f23' class='c007'><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>At one time when Antigone was produced +in Berlin a critic found that the presentation +entirely lacked the character of antiquity. The +wits of Berlin incorporated this criticism in +the following manner: “<em>Antique? Oh, nay</em>” +(Th. Vischer and K. Fischer).</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Manifold Application of the Same Material</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>In these examples, which will suffice for this +species of wit, the technique is the same. A +name is made use of twice; first, as a whole, and +then divided into its syllables—and in their +divided state the syllables yield a different +meaning.<a id='r24'></a><a href='#f24' class='c007'><sup>[24]</sup></a> The manifold application of the +same word, once as a whole and then as the +component syllables into which it divides itself, +was the first case that came to our attention +in which technique deviated from that of condensation. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>Upon brief reflection, however, we +must divine from the abundance of examples +that come to us that the newly discovered +technique can hardly be limited to this single +means. Obviously there are any number of +hitherto unobserved possibilities for one to +utilize the same word or the same material of +words in manifold application <em>in one sentence</em>. +May not all these possibilities furnish technical +means for wit? It would seem so, judging +by the following examples.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Two witty statesmen, X and Y, met at a +dinner. X, acting as toastmaster, introduced Y +as follows: ‘My friend, Y, is a very wonderful +man. All you have to do is to open his mouth, +put in a dinner, and a speech appears, etc.’ +Responding to the speaker, Y said: ‘My +friend, the toastmaster, told you what a wonderful +man I am, that all you have to do is to +open my mouth, put in a dinner, and a speech +appears. Now let me tell you what a wonderful +man he is. All you have to do is open +anybody’s mouth, put in his speech, and the dinner +appears.’</em>”<a id='r25'></a><a href='#f25' class='c007'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>In examples of this sort, one can use the +same material of words and simply change +slightly their order. The slighter the change, +the more one gets the impression that different +<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>sense was expressed with the same words, +the better is the technical means of wit. And +how simple are the means of its production! +“<em>Put in a dinner and a speech appears—put +in a speech and a dinner appears.</em>” This is +really nothing but an exchange of places of +these two phrases whereby what was said of Y +becomes differentiated from what is said of +X. To be sure, this is not the whole technique +of the joke.<a id='r26'></a><a href='#f26' class='c007'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Great latitude is afforded the technique of +wit if one so extends the “<em>manifold application +of the same material</em>” that the word—or the +words—upon which the wit depends may be +used first unchanged and then with a slight +modification. An example is another joke of +Mr. N. He heard a gentleman, who himself +was born a Jew, utter a malicious statement +about Jewish character. “Mr. Councilor,” +said he, “I am familiar with your <em>antesemitism</em>, +but your <em>antisemitism</em> is new to me.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here only one single letter is changed, the +modification of which could hardly be noticed +in careless pronunciation. This example reminds +one of the other modification jokes of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Mr. N., but it differs from them in lacking the +condensation. Everything that was to be said +has been told in the joke. “I know that you +yourself were formerly a Jew, therefore I am +surprised that you should rail against the +Jew.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>An excellent example of such wit modification +is also the familiar exclamation: “<i><span lang="it">Traduttore—Traditore</span></i>.”<a id='r27'></a><a href='#f27' class='c007'><sup>[27]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>The similarity between the two words, almost +approaching identity, results in a very impressive +representation of the inevitability by +which a translator becomes a transgressor—in +the eyes of the author.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The manifoldness of slight modifications possible +in these jokes is so great that none is +quite similar to the other. Here is a joke which +is supposed to have arisen at an examination for +the degree of law. The candidate was translating +a passage from the Corpus juris, “<em>Labeo +ait</em>.” “‘I fall (fail),’ says he,” volunteered +the candidate. “‘You fall (fail),’ says I,” replied +the examiner and the examination ended. +Whoever mistakes the name of the celebrated +Jurist for a word to which he attaches a false +meaning certainly deserves nothing better. But +the technique of the witticism lies in the fact +<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>that the examiner used almost the same words +in punishing the applicant which the latter used +to prove his ignorance. Besides, the joke is an +example of repartee whose technique, as we +shall see, is closely allied to the one just +mentioned.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Words are plastic and may be moulded into +almost any shape. There are some words which +have lost their true original meaning in certain +usages which they still enjoy in other +applications. In one of Lichtenberg’s jokes +just those conditions have been sought for in +which the nuances of the wordings have removed +their basic meaning.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>“How goes it?” asked the blind of the lame +one. “As you see,” replied the lame one to the +blind.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Language is replete with words which taken +in one sense are full of meaning and in another +are colorless. There may be two different +derivatives from the same root, one of which +may develop into a word with a full meaning +while the other may become a colorless suffix or +prefix, and yet both may have the same sound. +The similarity of sound between a word having +full meaning and one whose meaning is colorless +may also be accidental. In both cases +the technique of wit can make use of such +relationship of the speech material. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>following examples illustrate some of these +points.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Do you call a man kind who remits nothing +to his family while away?</em>” asked an actor. +“<em>Call that kindness?</em>” “<em>Yes, unremitting +kindness</em>,” was the reply of Douglas Jerrold. +The wit here depends on the first syllable <em>un</em> +of the word <em>unremitting</em>. Un is usually a prefix +denoting “not,” but by adding it to “remitting” +a new relationship is unexpectedly +established which changes the meaning of the +context. “<em>An undertaker is one who always +carries out what he undertakes.</em>” The striking +character upon which the wit here depends +is the manifold application of the words <em>undertaker</em> +and <em>carry out</em>. Undertaker commonly +denotes one who manages funerals. Only when +taken in this sense and using the words <em>carry +out</em> literally is the sentence witty. The wit +lies in the manifold application of the same +words.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Double Meaning and Play on Words</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>If we delve more deeply into the variety of +“manifold application” of the same word we +suddenly notice that we are confronted with +forms of “double meaning” or “plays on +words” which have been known a long time and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>which are universally acknowledged as belonging +to the technique of wit. Then why have we +bothered our brains about discovering something +new when we could just as well have gleaned it +from the most superficial treatise on wit? We +can say in self-defense only that we are presenting +another side of the same phenomena +of verbal expressions. What the authors +call the “playful” character of wit we treat +from the point of view of “manifold application.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Further examples of manifold application +which may also be designated under a new and +third group, the class of double meaning, may +be divided into subdivisions. These, to be sure, +are not essentially differentiated from one another +any more than the whole third group from +the second. In the first place we have:</p> + +<p class='c008'>(a) Cases of double meaning of a name and +its verbal significance: e.g., “<em>Discharge thyself +of our company, Pistol</em>” (<cite>Henry IV</cite>, Act +II). “<em>For Suffolk’s duke may he suffocate</em>” +(<cite>Henry IV</cite>, Act I). Heine says, “<em>Here in +Hamburg rules not the rascally Macbeth, but +Banko</em> (Banquo).”</p> + +<p class='c008'>In those cases where the unchanged name +cannot be used,—one might say “misused,”—one +can get a double meaning by means of +familiar slight modifications: “<em>Why have the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>French rejected Lohengrin?</em>” was a question +asked some time ago. The answer was, “<em>On +Elsa’s</em> (Alsace) <em>account.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>(b) Cases where a double meaning is obtained +by using a word which has both a verbal and +metaphoric sense furnish an abundant source +for the technique of wit. A medical colleague, +who was well known for his wit, once said to +Arthur Schnitzler, the writer: “<em>I am not at all +surprised that you became a great poet. Your +father had already held up the mirror to his +contemporaries.</em>” The mirror used by the +father of the writer, the famous Dr. Schnitzler, +was the laryngoscope. According to the well-known +quotation from <cite>Hamlet</cite> (Act III, +Scene 2), the object of the play as well as +the writer who creates it is to “hold, as’t were, +the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her +own feature, scorn her own image, and the very +age and body of the time his form and pressure.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>(c) Cases of actual double meaning or play +on words—the ideal case, as it were, of manifold +application. Here no violence is done to the +word. It is not torn into syllables. It need +not undergo any modifications. It need not +exchange its own particular sphere, say as a +proper name, for another. Thanks to certain +circumstances it can express two meanings just +<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>as it stands in the structure of the sentence. +Many examples are at our disposal.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One of the first royal acts of the last Napoleon +was, as is well known, the confiscation +of the estates belonging to the House of Orleans. +“<i><span lang="fr">C’est le premier vol de l’aigle</span></i>” was +an excellent play on words current at that time. +“Vol” means both flight and theft. Louis XV +wished to test the wit of one of his courtiers +whose talent in that direction he had heard +about. He seized his first opportunity to command +the cavalier to concoct a joke at his +(the king’s) expense. He wanted to be the +“subject” of the witticism. The courtier answered +him with the clever <em>bonmot</em>, “<i><span lang="fr">Le roi +n’est pas sujet</span>.</i>” “Subject” also means “vassal.” +(Taken from K. Fischer.)</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A physician, leaving the sick-bed of a wife, +whose husband accompanied him, exclaimed +doubtfully: “I do not like her looks.” “I +have not liked her looks for a long time,” was +the quick rejoinder of the husband.</em> The +physician, of course, referred to the condition +of the wife, but he expressed his apprehension +about the patient in such words as to afford +the husband the means of utilizing them to +assert his conjugal aversion. Concerning a +satirical comedy Heine remarked: “<em>This satire +would not have been so biting had the author +<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>of it had more to bite.</em>” This jest is a better +example of metaphoric and common double +meaning than of real play upon words, but +at present we are not concerned about such +strict lines of demarcation. <em>Charles Matthews, +the elder, one of England’s greatest actors, +was asked what he was going to do with his +son</em> (the young man was destined for architecture). +“<em>Why</em>,” answered the comedian, “<em>he +is going to draw houses like his father</em>.” <em>Foote +once asked a man why he forever sang one +tune. “Because it haunts me,” replied the man. +“No wonder,” said Foote, “you are continually +murdering it.”</em> Said the Dyspeptic Philosopher: +“<em>One swallow doesn’t make a summer, +nor quench the thirst.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A gentleman had shown much ingenuity in +evading a notorious borrower whom he had +sent away many times with the request to call +when he was “in.” One day, however, the +borrower eluded the servant at the door and cornered +his victim.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><em>“Ah,” said the host, seeing there was no way +out of it, “at last I am in.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><em>“No,” returned the borrower in anticipation, +“at last I am in and you are out.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Heine said in the <cite>Harzreise</cite>: “<em>I cannot recall +at the moment the names of all the students, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>and among the professors there are some who +have no name as yet.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Dr. Johnson said of the University of St. +Andrews in Scotland, which was poor in purse, +but prolific in the distribution of its degrees: +“<em>Let it persevere in its present plan and it may +become rich</em> by degrees.” Here the wit depends +more on the manifold application than +on the play on words.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The keen-witted writer, Horatio Winslow, +sums up the only too-familiar history of some +American families as follows:</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><span class='sc'>A Tale of Two American Generations</span></h4> + +<div class='lg-container-b c003'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'><em>Gold Mine</em></div> + <div class='line'><em>Gold Spoon</em></div> + <div class='line'><em>Gold Cure</em></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>The last couplet, gold cure, refers to the +familiar cure for alcoholism. This wit is an +excellent example of unification—everything is, +as it were, of gold. The manifold meanings +of the adjective which do not very strikingly +contrast with one another make possible this +“manifold application.”</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Ambiguity</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Another play on words will facilitate the +transition to a new subdivision of the technique +of double meaning. The witty colleague who +<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>was responsible for the joke mentioned on +page 42 is likewise responsible for this joke, +current during the trial of Dreyfus:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>This girl reminds me of Dreyfus. The +army does not believe in her innocence.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The word innocence, whose double meaning +furnishes the basis of the witticism, has in one +connection the customary meaning which is the +opposite of guilt or transgression, while in the +other connection it has a sexual sense, the +opposite of which is sexual experience. There +are very many such examples of double meaning +and in each one the point of the joke refers +especially to a sexual sense. The group could +be designated as “ambiguous.” <em>A good example +to illustrate this is the story told of a +wealthy but elderly gentleman who showed +his devotion to a young actress by many lavish +gifts. Being a respectable girl she took the +first opportunity to discourage his attentions by +telling him that her heart was already given +to another man. “I never aspired as high as +that,” was his polite answer.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>If one compares this example of double-meaning-with-ambiguity +with other examples +one cannot help noticing a difference which is +not altogether inconsequential to the technique. +In the joke about “innocence” one meaning of +the word is just as good for our understanding +<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>of it as the other. One can really not decide +whether the sexual or non-sexual significance +of the word is more applicable and more +familiar. But it is different with the other +example mentioned. Here the final sense of +the words, “I never aspired as high as that,” +is by far more obtrusive and covers and conceals, +as it were, the sexual sense which could +easily escape the unsuspecting person. In sharp +contrast to this let us examine another example +of double meaning in which there is no attempt +made to veil its sexual significance—e.g., Heine’s +characterization of a complaisant lady: “<em>She +could pass (abschlagen) nothing except her +water.</em>” It sounds like an obscene joke and +the wit in it is scarcely noticed.<a id='r28'></a><a href='#f28' class='c007'><sup>[28]</sup></a> But the +peculiarity that both senses of the double meaning +are not equally manifested can occur also in +witticisms without sexual reference providing +that one sense is more common or that it is +preferred on account of its connection with the +other parts of the sentence (e.g., <i><span lang="fr">c’est le premier +vol de l’aigle</span></i>). All these examples I propose +to call double meaning with allusion.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>We have by this time become familiar with +such a large number of different techniques of +wit that I am afraid we may lose sight of them. +Let us, therefore, attempt to make a summary.</p> + + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>I.</dt> + <dd><span class='sc'>Condensation</span> + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>(a)</dt> + <dd>with mixed word-formation. + </dd> + <dt>(b)</dt> + <dd>with modification. + </dd> + </dl> + </dd> + <dt>II.</dt> + <dd><span class='sc'>The Application of the Same Material</span> + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>(c)</dt> + <dd>The whole and the part. + </dd> + <dt>(d)</dt> + <dd>Change of order. + </dd> + <dt>(e)</dt> + <dd>Slight modification. + </dd> + <dt>(f)</dt> + <dd>The same words used in their full or colorless sense. + </dd> + </dl> + </dd> + <dt>III.</dt> + <dd><span class='sc'>Double Meaning</span> + <dl class='dl_1'> + <dt>(g)</dt> + <dd>Name and verbal significance. + </dd> + <dt>(h)</dt> + <dd>Metaphorical and verbal meaning. + </dd> + <dt>(i)</dt> + <dd>True double meaning (play on words). + </dd> + <dt>(j)</dt> + <dd>Ambiguous meaning. + </dd> + <dt>(k)</dt> + <dd>Double meaning with allusion. + </dd> + </dl> + </dd> + </dl> + +<p class='c008'>This variety causes confusion. It might vex +us because we have devoted so much time to +the consideration of the technical means of wit, +and the stress laid on the forms might possibly +arouse our suspicions that we are overvaluing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>their importance so far as the knowledge of the +nature of wit is concerned. But this conjecture +is met by the one irrefutable fact: namely, that +each time the wit disappears as soon as we +remove the effect that was brought to expression +by these techniques. We are thus directed +to search for the unity in this variety. It must +be possible to bring all these techniques under +one head. As we have remarked before, it is +not difficult to unite the second and third +groups, for the double meaning, the play on +words, is nothing but the ideal case of utilizing +the same material. The latter is here apparently +the more comprehensive conception. The +examples of dividing, changing the order of the +same material, manifold application with slight +modifications (c, d, e)—all these could, without +difficulty, be subordinated under the conception +of double meaning. But what community exists +between the technique of the first group—condensation +with substitutive formation—and +the two other groups—manifold application of +the same material?</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Tendency to Economy</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>It seems to me that this agreement is very +simple and clear. The application of the same +material is only a special case of condensation +and the play on words is nothing but a condensation +<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>without substitutive formation. Condensation +thus remains as the chief category. A +compressing or—to be more exact—an economic +tendency controls all these techniques. +As Prince Hamlet says: “Thrift, Horatio, +thrift.” It seems to be all a matter of economy.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us examine this economy in individual +cases. “<i><span lang="fr">C’est le premier vol de l’aigle.</span></i>” That +is, the first flight of the eagle. Certainly, but +it is a depredatious flight. Luckily for the gist +of this joke “vol” signifies flight as well as +depredation. Has nothing been condensed and +economized by this? Certainly, the entire second +thought, and it was dropped without any +substitution. The double sense of the word +“vol” makes such substitution superfluous, or +what is just as correct: The word “vol” contains +the substitution for the repressed thought +without the necessity of supplementing or +varying the first sentence. Therein consists the +benefit of the double meaning.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another example: <em>Gold mine</em>,—<em>gold spoon</em>, +the enormous economy of expression the single +word “gold” produces. It really tells the history +of two generations in the life of some +American families. The father made his fortune +through hard toiling in the gold fields during +the early pioneer days. The son was born +with a golden spoon in his mouth; having been +<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>brought up as the son of a wealthy man, he becomes +a chronic alcoholic and has to take the +gold cure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Thus there is no doubt that the condensation +in these examples produces economy and we +shall demonstrate that the same is true in all +cases. Where is the economy in such jokes +as “<em>Rousseau</em>—<i><span lang="fr">roux et sot</span></i>,” or “<em>Antigone</em>—<em>antique-oh-nay</em>” +in which we first failed to +find the prime factors in causing us to establish +the technique of the manifold application of the +same material? In these cases condensation +will naturally not cover the ground, but when +we exchange it for the broader conception of +“economy” we find no difficulty. What we +save in such examples as those just given is +quite obvious. We save ourselves the trouble +of making a criticism, of forming a judgment. +Both are contained in the names. The same is +true in the “<em>livelihood</em>” example and the others +thus far analyzed. Where one does not save +much is in the example of “<em>I am in and you +are out</em>,” at least the wording of a new answer is +saved. The wording of the address, “<em>I am in</em>,” +serves also for the answer. It is little, but in +this little lies the wit. The manifold application +of the same words in addressing and answering +surely comes under the heading of economy. +Note how Hamlet sums up the quick succession +<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>of the death of his father and the marriage of +his mother:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in14'>“the funeral baked meats</div> + <div class='line'>Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>But before we accept the “tendency to economize” +as the universal character of wit and ask +whence it originates, what it signifies, and how +it gives origin to the resultant pleasure, we shall +concede a doubt which may justly be considered. +It may be true that every technique +of wit shows the tendency to economize in expression, +but the relationship is not reversible. +Not every economy in expression or every +brevity is witty on that account. We once +raised this question when we still hoped to +demonstrate the condensation process in every +witticism and at that we justly objected by +remarking that a laconism is not necessarily +wit. Hence it must be a peculiar form of +brevity and economy upon which the character +of the wit depends, and just as long as we are +ignorant of this peculiarity the discovery of the +common element in the technique of wit will +bring us no nearer a solution. Besides, we have +the courage to acknowledge that the economies +caused by the technique of wit do not impress us +as very much. They remind one of the manner +in which many a housewife economizes +<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>when she spends time and money to reach a +distant market because the vegetables can there +be had a cent cheaper. What does wit save by +means of its technique? Instead of putting together +a few new words, which, for the most +part, could have been accomplished without any +effort, it goes to the trouble of searching for +the word which comprises both ideas. Indeed, +it must often at first transform the expression +of one of the ideas into an unusual form until +it furnishes an associative connection with the +second thought. Would it not have been +simpler, easier, and really more economical to +express both thoughts as they happen to come +even if no agreement in expression results? Is +not the economy in verbal expression more than +abrogated through the expenditure of intellectual +work? And who economized through it, +whom does it benefit? We can temporarily circumvent +these doubts by leaving them unsolved +until later on. Are we really familiar enough +with all the forms of techniques of wit? It will +surely be safer to gather new examples and +submit them to analysis.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Puns</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Indeed, we have not yet given consideration +to one of the largest groups into which the +techniques of wit may be divided. In this we +<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>have perhaps been influenced by the low estimate +in which this form of wit is held. It +embraces those jokes which are commonly called +“puns.” These are generally counted as the +lowest form of wit, perhaps because they are +“cheapest” and can be formed with the least +effort. They really make the least demands on +the technique of expression just as the actual +play on words makes the most. Whereas in +the latter both meanings find expression in the +identical word, and hence usually in a word +used only once, in the pun it is enough if two +words for both meanings resemble each other +through some slight similarity in structure, in +rhythmic consonance, in the community of +several vowels, or in some other similar manner. +The following examples illustrate these points:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“We are now fallen into that critical age +wherein <i><span lang="la">censores</span></i> <span lang="la">liberorum</span> are become <i><span lang="la">censores +librorum</span></i>: <i><span lang="la">Lectores</span></i>, <i><span lang="la">Lictores</span></i>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Professor Cromwell says that Rome in exchanging +her religion changed <em>Jupiter</em> to <em>Jew +Peter</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>It is related that some students wishing to +play a trick on Agassiz, the great naturalist, +constructed an insect made up of parts taken +from different bugs and sent it to him with the +question, “What kind of a bug is this?” His +answer was “Humbug.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>Puns are especially fond of modifying one +of the vowels of the word; e.g., Hevesi (<cite><span lang="de">Almanaccando, +Reisen in Italien</span></cite>, p. 87) says of an +Italian poet who was hostile to the German +emperor, but who was, nevertheless, forced to +sing his praises in his hexameters, “<em>Since he +could not exterminate the Cæsars he at least +annihilated the cæsuras</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>From the multitude of puns which are at +our disposal it may be of special interest to +us to quote a really poor example for which +Heine (<cite>Book Le Grand</cite>, Chapter V) is responsible. +<em>After parading for a long time before his +lady as an “Indian Prince” the suitor suddenly +lays aside his mask and confesses, “Madam, I +have lied to you. I have never been in Calcutta +any more than that Calcutta roast which +I relished yesterday for lunch.”</em> Obviously the +fault of this witticism lies in the fact that both +words are not merely similar, but identical. +The bird which served as a roast for his lunch +is called so because it comes from, or at least +is supposed to come from, the same city of +Calcutta.</p> + +<p class='c008'>K. Fischer has given much attention to this +form of wit and insists upon making a sharp +distinction between it and the “play on words” +(p. 78). “A pun,” he says, “is a bad play on +words, for it does not play with the word as +<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>a word, but merely as a sound.” The play on +words, however, “transfers itself from the +sound of the word into the word itself.” On +the other hand, he also classifies such jokes as +“famillionaire, Antigone (Antique-Oh-nay),” +etc., with sound-wit. I see no necessity to follow +him in this. In the plays on words, also, +the word serves us only as a sound to which +this or that meaning attaches itself. Here also +usage of language makes no distinction, and +when it treats “puns” with disdain but the play +on words with a certain respect it seems that +these estimations are determined by others as +technical viewpoints. One should bear in mind +the forms of wit which are referred to as puns. +There are persons who have the ability, when +they are in a high-spirited mood, to reply with +a pun for a long time to every sentence addressed +to them. Brill<a id='r29'></a><a href='#f29' class='c007'><sup>[29]</sup></a> relates that at a gathering +some one spoke disparagingly of a certain +drama and wound up by saying, <em>“It was so +poor that the first act had to be rewritten.” +“And now it is rerotten,” added the punster of +the gathering.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>At all events we can already infer from the +controversies about the line of demarcation between +puns and play on words that the former +cannot aid us in finding an entirely new technique +<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>of wit. Even if no claims are made for +the pun that it utilizes the manifold application +of the same material, the accent, nevertheless, +falls upon the rediscovering of the familiar and +upon the agreement between both words forming +the pun. Thus the latter is only a subspecies +of the group which reaches its height +in the real play on words.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Displacements</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>There are some witticisms, however, whose +techniques baffle almost every attempt to classify +them under any of the groups so far investigated. +<em>It is related that while Heine and the +poet Soulié were once chatting together in a +Parisian drawing-room, there entered one of +those Parisians whom one usually compared to +Midas, but not alone on account of their money. +He was soon surrounded by a crowd which +treated him with the greatest deference. “Look +over there,” said Soulié to Heine, “and see +how the nineteenth century is worshipping the +Golden Calf.” Heine cast one glance upon the +object of adoration and replied, as if correcting +his friend: “Oh, he must be older than +that”</em> (K. Fischer, p. 82).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Wherein lies the technique of this excellent +witticism? According to K. Fischer it lies in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>the play on words. Thus, for example, he says, +“the words ‘Golden Calf’ may signify Mammon +as well as idol-worship,—in the first case +the gold is paramount; in the second case it is +the animal picture. It may likewise serve to +designate in a rather uncomplimentary way one +who has very much money and very little +brains.” If we apply the test and take away +the expression “Golden Calf” we naturally +also abrogate the wit. We then cause Soulié +to say, “Just see how the people are thronging +about that blockhead only because he is +rich.” To be sure, this is no longer witty. Nor +would Heine’s answer be possible under these +circumstances. But let us remember that it is +not at all a matter of Soulié’s witty comparison, +but of Heine’s retort, which is surely much +more witty. We have then no right to disturb +the phrase “the golden calf” which remains +as a basis for Heine’s words and the +reduction can only be applied to the latter. If +we dilate upon the words, “Oh, he must be +older than that,” we can only proceed as follows:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Oh, he is no longer a calf; he is already a +full-grown ox.” Heme’s wit is therefore based +on the fact that he no longer took the “golden +calf” metaphorically, but personally by referring +it to the moneyed individual himself. If +<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>this double meaning is not already contained +in the opinion of Soulié!</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us see. We believe that we can state +that this reduction has not altogether destroyed +Heine’s joke, but, on the contrary, it has left +its essential element untouched. It reads as if +Soulié were now saying, “Just see how the +nineteenth century is worshipping the golden +calf,” and as if Heine were retorting, “Oh, he +is no longer a calf. He is already an ox.” And +even in this reduced form it is still a witticism. +However, another reduction of Heine’s words +is not possible.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is a pity that this excellent example contains +such complicated technical conditions. +And as it cannot aid us toward enlightenment +we shall leave it to search for another in which +we imagine we can perceive a relationship with +the former one.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is a “bath” joke treating of the dread which +some Jews are said to have for bathing. We demand +no patent of nobility for our examples +nor do we make inquiries about their origin. +The only qualifications we require are that they +should make us laugh and serve our theoretical +interest. It is to be remarked that both these +demands are satisfied best by Jewish jokes.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>Two Jews meet near a bathing establishment. +“Have you taken a bath?” asked one. “How +<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>is that?” replies the other. “Is one missing?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>When one laughs very heartily about a joke +he is not in the best mood to investigate its +technique. It is for this reason that some +difficulties are experienced in delving into their +analyses. “That is a comic misunderstanding” +is the thought that comes to us. Yes, but how +about the technique of this joke? Obviously +the technique lies in the double meaning of the +word <em>take</em>. In the first case the word is used +in a colorless idiomatic sense, while in the second +it is the verb in its full meaning. It is, +therefore, a case where the same word is taken +now in the “full” and now in the “empty” +sense (Group II, f). And if we replace the +expression “take a bath” by the simpler +equivalent “bathed” the wit disappears. The +answer is no longer fitting. The joke, therefore, +lies in the expression “take a bath.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>This is quite correct, yet it seems that in +this case, also, the reduction was applied in +the wrong place, for the joke does not lie in +the question, but in the answer, or rather in the +counter question: “How is that? Is there +one missing?” Provided the same is not destroyed +the answer cannot be robbed of its wit +by any dilation or variation. We also get the +impression that in the answer of the second +Jew the overlooking of the bath is more significant +<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>than the misconception of the word “take.” +However, here, too, things do not look quite +clear and we will, therefore, look for a third +example.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Once more we shall resort to a Jewish joke +in which, however, the Jewish element is incidental +only. Its essence is universally human. +It is true that this example, too, contains undesirable +complications, but luckily they are +not of the kind so far which have kept us from +seeing clearly.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>In his distress a needy man borrowed twenty-five +dollars from a wealthy acquaintance. The +same day he was discovered by his creditor in a +restaurant eating a dish of salmon with mayonnaise. +The creditor reproached him in these +words: “You borrow money from me and then +order salmon with mayonnaise. Is that what +you needed the money for?” “I don’t understand +you,” responded the debtor, “when I have +no money I can’t eat salmon with mayonnaise. +When I have money I mustn’t eat it. Well +then, when shall I ever eat salmon with mayonnaise?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Here we no longer discover any double meaning. +Even the repetition of the words “salmon +with mayonnaise” cannot contain the technique +of the witticism, as it is not the “manifold application +of the same material,” but an actual, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>identical repetition required by the context. +We may be temporarily nonplussed in this +analysis, and, as a pretext, we may wish to dispute +the character of the wit in the anecdote +which causes us to laugh. What else worthy +of notice can be said about the answer of the +poor man? It may be supposed that the striking +thing about it is its logical character, but, +as a matter of fact, the answer is illogical. The +debtor endeavors to justify himself for spending +the borrowed money on luxuries and asks, with +some semblance of right, when he is to be allowed +to eat salmon. But this is not at all +the correct answer. The creditor does not blame +him for eating salmon on the day that he borrowed +the money, but reminds him that in his +condition he has no right to think of such luxuries +at all. The poor <em>bon vivant</em> disregards +this only possible meaning of the reproach, +centers his answer about another point, and acts +as if he did not understand the reproach.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Is it possible that the technique of this joke +lies in this deviation of the answer from the +sense of reproach? A similar changing of the +viewpoint—displacement of the psychic accent—may +perhaps also be demonstrated in the two +previous examples which we felt were related +to this one. This can be successfully shown +and solves the technique of these examples. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>Soulié calls Heine’s attention to the fact that +society worships the “golden calf” in the nineteenth +century just as the Jewish nation once +did in the desert. To this an answer from +Heine like the following would seem fit: “Yes, +that is human nature. Centuries have changed +nothing in it;” or he might have remarked +something equally apposite. But Heine deviates +in his manner from the instigated thought. +Indeed, he does not answer at all. He makes +use of the double meaning found in the phrase +“golden calf” to go off at a tangent. He seizes +upon one of the components of the phrase, +namely, “the calf,” and answers as if Soulié’s +speech placed the emphasis on it—“Oh, he is +no longer a calf, etc.”<a id='r30'></a><a href='#f30' class='c007'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>The deviation is much more evident in the +bath joke. This example requires a graphic +representation. The first Jew asks, “Have +you taken a <em>bath</em>?” The emphasis lies upon +the bath element. The second answers as if the +query were: “Have you <em>taken</em> a bath?” The +displacement would have been impossible if +the question had been: “Have you bathed?” +The witless answer would have been: “Bathed? +What do you mean? I don’t know what that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>means.” However, the technique of the wit lies +in the displacement of the emphasis from “to +bathe” to “to take.”<a id='r31'></a><a href='#f31' class='c007'><sup>[31]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us return to the example “salmon with +mayonnaise,” which is the purest of its kind. +What is new in it will direct us into various +paths. In the first place we have to give +the mechanism of this newly discovered technique. +I propose to designate it as having +<em>displacement</em> for its most essential element. +The deviation of the trend of thought consists +in displacing the psychic accent to another +than the original theme. It is then incumbent +upon us to find out the relationship of the +technique of displacement to the expression of +the witticism. Our example (salmon with +mayonnaise) shows us that the displacement +technique is absolutely independent of the verbal +expression. It does not depend upon words, +but upon the mental trend, and to abrogate it +we are not helped by substitution so long as +the sense of the answer is adhered to. The reduction +is possible only when we change the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>mental trend and permit the gastronomist to +answer directly to the reproach which he eluded +in the conception of the joke. The reduced +conception will then be: “What I like I cannot +deny myself, and it is all the same to me where +I get the money for it. Here you have my +explanation as to why I happen to be eating +salmon with mayonnaise to-day just after you +have loaned me some money.” But that would +not be witticism but a <em>cynicism</em>. It will be +instructive to compare this joke with one +which is closely allied to it in meaning.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A man who was addicted to drink supported +himself in a small city by giving lessons. His +vice gradually became known and he lost most +of his pupils in consequence. A friend of his +took it upon himself to admonish him to reform. +“Look here,” he said, “you could have +the best scholars in town if you would give up +drinking. Why not do it?” “What are you +talking about?” was the indignant reply. “I +am giving lessons in order to be able to drink. +Shall I give up drinking in order to obtain +scholars?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>This joke, too, carries the stamp of logic +which we have noted in the case of “salmon +with mayonnaise,” but it is no longer displacement-wit. +The answer is a direct one. The +cynicism, which is veiled there, is openly admitted +<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>here, “For me drink is the most important +thing.” The technique of this witticism +is really very poor and cannot explain its +effect. It lies merely in the change in order +of the same material, or to be more exact, in +the reversal of the means-and-end relationship +between drink and giving lessons or getting +scholars. As I gave no greater emphasis in +the reduction to this factor of the expression +the witticism is somewhat blurred; it may be +expressed as follows: “What a senseless demand +to make. For me, drink is the most important +thing and not the scholars. Giving +lessons is only a means towards more drink.” +The wit is really dependent upon the expression.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the bath wit, the dependence of the witticism +upon the wording “have you taken a +bath” is unmistakable and a change in the +wording nullifies the joke. The technique in +this case is quite complicated. It is a combination +of double meaning (sub-group f) and +displacement. The wording of the question +admits a double meaning. The joke arises +from the fact that the answer is given not in +the sense expected by the questioner, but has a +different subordinate sense. By making the +displacement retrogressive we are accordingly +in position to find a reduction which leaves the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>double meaning in the expression and still does +away with the wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>“Have you taken a bath?” “Taken what? +A bath? What is that?”</em> But that is no longer +a witticism. It is simply either a spiteful or +playful exaggeration.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In Heme’s joke about the “golden calf” the +double meaning plays a quite similar part. It +makes it possible for the answer to deviate from +the instigated stream of thought—a thing which +happens in the joke about “salmon and mayonnaise”—without +any such dependence upon the +wording. In the reduction Soulié’s speech and +Heine’s answer would be as follows: “It reminds +one very much of the worship of the +golden calf when one sees the people throng +around that man simply because he is rich.” +Heine’s answer would be: “That he is made +so much of on account of his wealth is not the +worst part. You do not emphasize enough the +fact that his ignorance is forgiven on account +of his wealth.” Thus, while the double meaning +would be retained the displacement-wit +would be eliminated.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here we may be prepared for the objection +which might be raised, namely, that we are +seeking to tear asunder these delicate differentiations +which really belong together. Does +not every double meaning furnish occasion for +<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>displacement and for a deviation of the stream +of thought from one sense to another? And +shall we agree that a “double meaning” and +“displacement” should be designated as representatives +of two entirely different types of +wit? It is true that a relation between double +meaning and displacement actually exists, but +it has nothing to do with our differentiation +of the techniques of wit. In cases of double +meaning the wit contains nothing but a word +capable of several interpretations which allows +the hearer to find the transition from one +thought to another, and which with a little +forcing may be compared to a displacement. +In the cases of displacement-wit, however, the +witticism itself contains a stream of thought +in which the displacement is brought about. +Here the displacement belongs to the work +which is necessary for its understanding. +Should this differentiation not be clear to us we +can make use of the reduction method, which is +an unfailing way for tangible demonstration. +We do not deny, however, that there is something +in this objection. It calls our attention +to the fact that we cannot confuse the psychic +processes in the formation of wit (the wit-work) +with the psychic processes in the conception of +the wit (the understanding-work). The object +<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>of our present investigation will be confined +only to the former.<a id='r32'></a><a href='#f32' class='c007'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Are there still other examples of the technique +of displacement? They are not easily +found, but the following witticism is a very +good specimen. It also shows a lack of overemphasized +logic found in our former examples.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A horse-dealer in recommending a saddle +horse to his client said: “If you mount this +horse at four o’clock in the morning you will +be in Monticello at six-thirty in the morning.” +“What will I do in Monticello at six-thirty in +the morning?” asked the client.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Here the displacement is very striking. The +horse-dealer mentions the early arrival in the +small city only with the obvious intention of +proving the efficiency of the horse. The client +disregards the capacity of the animal, about +which he evidently has no more doubts, and +takes up only the data of the example selected +<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>for the test. The reduction of this joke is comparatively +simple.</p> + +<p class='c008'>More difficulties are encountered by another +example, the technique of which is very obscure. +It can be solved, however, through the application +of double meaning with displacement. The +joke relates the subterfuge employed by a +“schadchen” (Jewish marriage broker). It +belongs to a class which will claim more of our +attention later.</p> + +<p class='c008'><i>The “<span lang="de">schadchen</span>” had assured the suitor +that the father of the girl was no longer living. +After the engagement had been announced the +news leaked out that the father was still living +and serving a sentence in prison. The suitor +reproached the agent for deceiving him. +“Well,” said the latter, “what did I tell you? +Do you call that living?”</i></p> + +<p class='c008'>The double meaning lies in the word “living,” +and the displacement consists in the fact that +the “schadchen” avoids the common meaning +of the word, which is a contrast to “death,” and +uses it in the colloquial sense: “You don’t call +that living.” In doing this he explains his +former utterance as a double meaning, although +this manifold application is here quite out of +place. Thus far the technique resembles that +of the “golden calf” and the “bath” jokes. +Here, however, another factor comes into consideration +<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>which disturbs the understanding of +the technique through its obtrusiveness. One +might say that this joke is a “characterization-wit.” +It endeavors to illustrate by example the +marriage agent’s characteristic admixture of +mendacious impudence and repartee. We shall +learn that this is only the “show-side” of the +façade of the witticism, that is, its sense. Its +object serves a different purpose. We shall +also defer our attempt at reduction.<a id='r33'></a><a href='#f33' class='c007'><sup>[33]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>After these complicated examples, which are +not at all easy to analyze, it will be gratifying +to find a perfectly pure and transparent example +of “displacement-wit.” <em>A beggar implored +the help of a wealthy baron for a trip +to Ostend, where he asserted the physicians had +ordered him to take sea baths for his health. +“Very well, I shall assist you,” said the rich +baron, “but is it absolutely necessary for you to +go to Ostend, which is the most expensive of all +watering-places?” “Sir,” was the reproving +reply, “nothing is too expensive for my health.”</em> +Certainly that is a proper attitude, but hardly +proper for the supplicant. The answer is given +from the viewpoint of a rich man. The beggar +acts as if it were his own money that he was +willing to sacrifice for his health, as if money +and health concerned the <em>same</em> person.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Nonsense as a Technical Means</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Let us take up again in this connection the +instructive example of “salmon with mayonnaise.” +It also presents to us a side in which +we noticed a striking display of logical work +and we have learned from analyzing it that +this logic concealed an error of thought, namely, +a displacement of the stream of thought. +Henceforth, even if only by way of contrast +association, we shall be reminded of other jokes +which, on the contrary, present clearly something +contradictory, something nonsensical, or +foolish. We shall be curious to discover wherein +the technique of the witticism lies. I shall +first present the strongest and at the same time +the purest example of the entire group. Once +more it is a Jewish joke.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>Ike was serving in the artillery corps. He +was seemingly an intelligent lad, but he was +unwieldy and had no interest in the service. +One of his superiors, who was kindly disposed +toward him, drew him aside and said to him: +“Ike, you are out of place among us. I would +advise you to buy a cannon and make yourself +independent.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>The advice, which makes us laugh heartily, +is obvious nonsense. There are no cannon to +be bought and an individual cannot possibly +<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>make himself independent as a fighting force +or establish himself, as it were. One cannot +remain one minute in doubt but that this advice +is not pure nonsense, but witty nonsense +and an excellent joke. By what means does +the nonsense become a witticism?</p> + +<p class='c008'>We need not meditate very long. From the +discussions of the authors in the Introduction +we can guess that sense lurks in such witty +nonsense, and that this sense in nonsense transforms +nonsense into wit. In our example the +sense is easily found. The officer who gives +the artilleryman, Ike, the nonsensical advice +pretends to be stupid in order to show Ike how +stupidly he is acting. He imitates Ike as if to +say, “I will now give you some advice which is +exactly as stupid as you are.” He enters into +Ike’s stupidity and makes him conscious of it by +making it the basis of a proposition which must +meet with Ike’s wishes, for if Ike owned a cannon +and took up the art of warfare on his own +account, of what advantage would his intelligence +and ambition be to him? How would +he take care of the cannon and acquaint +himself with its mechanism in order to meet +the competition of other possessors of cannon?</p> + +<p class='c008'>I am breaking off the analysis of this example +to show the same sense in nonsense in a shorter +<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>and simpler, though less glaring case of nonsense-wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Never to be born would be best for mortal +man.</em>” “<em>But</em>,” added the sages of the <cite><span lang="de">Fliegende +Blätter</span></cite>, “<em>hardly one man in a hundred thousand +has this luck</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The modern appendix to the ancient philosophical +saying is pure nonsense, and becomes +still more stupid through the addition of the +seemingly careful “hardly.” But this appendix +in attaching itself to the first sentence incontestably +and correctly limits it. It can thus +open our eyes to the fact that that piece of +wisdom so reverently scanned, is neither more +nor less than sheer nonsense. He who is not +born of woman is not mortal; for him there +exists no “good” and no “best.” The nonsense +of the joke, therefore, serves here to expose +and present another bit of nonsense as in the +case of the artilleryman. Here I can add a +third example which, owing to its context, +scarcely deserves a detailed description. It +serves, however, to illustrate the use of nonsense +in wit in order to represent another element +of nonsense.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A man about to go upon a journey intrusted +his daughter to his friend, begging him to watch +over her chastity during his absence. When +he returned some months later he found that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>she was pregnant. Naturally he reproached +his friend. The latter alleged that he could not +explain this unfortunate occurrence. “Where +has she been sleeping?” the father finally asked. +“In the same room with my son,” replied the +friend. “How is it that you allowed her to +sleep in the same room with your son after I +had begged you so earnestly to take good care +of her?” remonstrated the father. “Well,” +explained the friend, “there was a screen between +them. There was your daughter’s bed +and over there was my son’s bed and between +them stood the screen.” “And suppose he +went behind the screen? What then?” asked +the parent. “Well, in that case,” rejoined the +friend thoughtfully, “it might be possible.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>In this joke—aside from the other qualities +of this poor witticism—we can easily get the +reduction. Obviously, it would read like this: +“You have no right to reproach me. How +could you be so foolish as to leave your daughter +in a house where she must live in the constant +companionship of a young man? As if it were +possible for a stranger to be responsible for +the chastity of a maiden under such circumstances!” +The seeming stupidity of the friend +here also serves as a reflection of the stupidity +of the father. By means of the reduction we +have eliminated the nonsense contained in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>witticism as well as the witticism itself. We +have not gotten rid of the “nonsense” element +itself, as it finds another place in the context of +the sentence after it has been reduced to its +true meaning.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We can now also attempt the reduction of +the joke about the cannon. The officer might +have said: “I know, Ike, that you are an intelligent +business man, but I must tell you that +you are very stupid if you do not realize that +one cannot act in the army as one does in +business, where each one is out for himself +and competes with the other. Military service +demands subordination and co-operation.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The technique of the nonsense-witticisms +hitherto discussed really consists in advancing +something apparently absurd or nonsensical +which, however, discloses a sense serving to +illustrate and represent some other actual +absurdity and nonsense.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Has the employment of contradiction in the +technique of wit always this meaning? Here is +another example which answers this affirmatively. +On an occasion when Phocion’s speech +was applauded he turned to his friends and +asked: “<em>Did I say something foolish?</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>This question seems paradoxical, but we +immediately comprehend its meaning. “What +have I said that has pleased this stupid crowd? +<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>I ought really to be ashamed of the applause, +for if it appealed to these fools, it could not +have been very clever after all.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Other examples teach us that absurdity is +used very often in the technique of wit without +serving at all the purpose of uncovering another +piece of nonsense.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A well-known university teacher who was +wont to spice richly with jokes his rather dry +specialty was once congratulated upon the +birth of his youngest son, who was bestowed +upon him at a rather advanced age. “Yes,” +said he to the well-wishers, “it is remarkable +what mortal hands can accomplish.”</em> This reply +seems especially meaningless and out of place, +for children are called the blessings of God to +distinguish them from creations of mortal hands. +But it soon dawns upon us that this answer has +a meaning and an obscene one at that. The +point in question is not that the happy father +wishes to appear stupid in order to make something +else or some other persons appear stupid. +The seemingly senseless answer causes us astonishment. +It puzzles us, as the authors would +have it. We have seen that the authors deduce +the entire mechanism of such jokes from the +change of the succession of “clearness and confusion.” +We shall try to form an opinion about +this later. Here we content ourselves by remarking +<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>that the technique of this witticism +consists in advancing such confusing and senseless +elements.</p> + +<p class='c008'>An especially peculiar place among the nonsense-jokes +is assumed by this joke of Lichtenberg.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>He was surprised that the two holes were +cut in the pelts of cats just where their eyes +were located.</em>” It is certainly foolish to be +surprised about something that is obvious in +itself, something which is really the explanation +of an identity. It reminds one of a seriously +intended utterance of Michelet (<cite>The Woman</cite>) +which, as I remember it, runs as follows: “<em>How +beautifully everything is arranged by nature. +As soon as the child comes into the world it +finds a mother who is ready to care for it.</em>” +This utterance of Michelet is really silly, but +the one of Lichtenberg is a witticism, which +makes use of the absurdity for some purpose. +There is something behind it. What? At +present that is something we cannot discuss.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Sophistic Faulty Thinking</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We have learned from two groups of examples +that the wit-work makes use of deviations +from normal thought, namely, <em>displacement</em> +and <em>absurdity</em>, as technical means of presenting +<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>witty expressions. It is only just to +expect that other faulty thinking may find a +similar application. Indeed, a few examples of +this sort can be cited.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A gentleman entered a shop and ordered a +fancy cake, which, however, he soon returned, +asking for some liqueur in its stead. He drank +the liqueur, and was about to leave without +paying for it. The shopkeeper held him back. +“What do you want of me?” he asked. +“Please pay for the liqueur,” said the shopkeeper. +“But I have given you the fancy cake +for it.” “Yes, but you have not paid for that +either.” “Well, neither have I eaten it.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>This little story also bears the semblance of +logic which we already know as the suitable +façade for faulty thinking. The error, obviously, +lies in the fact that the cunning customer +establishes a connection between the return +of the fancy cake and its exchange for the +liqueur, a connection which really does not +exist. The state of affairs may be divided into +two processes which as far as the shopkeeper +is concerned are independent of each other. +He first took the fancy cake and returned it, +so that he owes nothing for it. He then took +the liqueur, for which he owes money. One +might say that the customer uses the relation +“for it” in a double sense, or, to speak more +<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>correctly, by means of a double sense he forms +a relation which does not hold in reality.<a id='r34'></a><a href='#f34' class='c007'><sup>[34]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>The opportunity now presents itself for making +a not unimportant confession. We are +here busying ourselves with an investigation of +technique of wit by means of examples, and +we ought to be sure that the examples which +we have selected are really true witticisms. +The facts are, however, that in a series of +cases we fall into doubt as to whether or not +the example in question may be called a joke. +We have no criterion at our disposal before +investigation itself furnishes one. Usage of +language is unreliable and is itself in need of +examination for its authority. To decide the +question we can rely on nothing else but a +certain “feeling,” which we may interpret by +saying that in our judgment the decision follows +certain criteria which are not yet accessible +to our knowledge. We shall naturally not +appeal to this “feeling” for substantial proof. +In the case of the last-mentioned example we +cannot help doubting whether we may present +it as a witticism, as a sophistical witticism, or +<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>merely as a sophism. The fact is that we do +not yet know wherein the character of wit lies.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the other hand the following example, +which evinces, as it were, the complementary +faulty thinking, is a witticism without any +doubt. Again it is a story of a marriage agent. +<em>The agent is defending the girl he has proposed +against the attacks of her prospective fiancé. +“The mother-in-law does not suit me,” the +latter remarks. “She is a crabbed, foolish person.” +“That’s true,” replies the agent, “but +you are not going to marry the mother-in-law, +but the daughter.” “Yes, but she is no longer +young, and she is not pretty, either.” “That’s +nothing: if she is not young or pretty you can +trust her all the more.” “But she hasn’t much +money.” “Why talk of money? Are you going +to marry money? You want a wife, don’t +you?” “But she is a hunchback.” “Well, +what of that? Do you expect her to have no +blemishes at all?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>It is really a question of an ugly girl who is +no longer young, who has a paltry dowry and a +repulsive mother, and who is besides equipped +with a pretty bad deformity, relations which are +not at all inviting to matrimony. The marriage +agent knows how to present each individual +fault in a manner to cause one to become +reconciled to it, and then takes up the unpardonable +<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>hunch back as the one fault which +can be excused in any one. Here again there +is the semblance of logic which is characteristic +of sophisms, and which serves to conceal the +faulty thinking. It is apparent that the girl +possesses nothing but faults, many of which +can be overlooked, but one that cannot be passed +by. The chances for the marriage become very +slim. The agent acts as if he removed each +individual fault by his evasions, forgetting that +each leaves behind some depreciation which is +added to the next one. He insists upon dealing +with each factor individually, and refuses to +combine them into a sum total.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A similar omission forms the nucleus of another +sophism which causes much laughter, +though one can well question its right to be +called a joke.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A. had borrowed a copper kettle from B., and +upon returning it was sued by B. because it had +a large hole which rendered it unserviceable. +His defense was this</em>: “<em>In the first place I +never borrowed any kettle from B., secondly +the kettle had a hole in it when I received it +from B., thirdly the kettle was in perfect condition +when I returned it.</em>” Each separate protest +is good by itself, but taken together they +exclude each other. A. treats individually +what must be taken as a whole, just as the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>marriage agent when he deals with the imperfections +of the bride. One can also say that A. +uses “and” where only an “either—or” is +possible.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another sophism greets us in the following +marriage agent story. <em>The suitor objects because +the bride has a short leg and therefore +limps. The agent contradicts him. “You are +wrong,” he says. “Suppose you marry a +woman whose legs are sound and straight. +What do you gain by it? You are not sure +from day to day that she will not fall down, +break a leg, and then be lame for the rest of +her life. Just consider the pain, the excitement, +and the doctor’s bill. But if you marry +this one nothing can happen. Here you have +a finished job.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Here the semblance of logic is very shallow, +for no one will by any means admit that a +“finished misfortune” is to be preferred to a +mere possibility of such. The error in the +stream of thought will be seen more easily in a +second example.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>In the temple of Cracow sat the great Rabbi +N. praying with his disciples. Suddenly he +emitted a cry and in response to his troubled +disciples said: “The great Rabbi L. died just +now in Lemberg.” The congregation thereupon +went into mourning for the deceased. In the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>course of the next day travelers from Lemberg +were asked how the rabbi had died, and what +had caused his death. They knew nothing +about the event, however, as, they said, they +had left him in the best of health. Finally it +was definitely ascertained that the Rabbi of +Lemberg had not died at the hour on which +Rabbi N. had felt his death telepathically, and +that he was still living. A stranger seized the +opportunity to banter a pupil of the Cracow +rabbi about the episode. “That was a glorious +exhibition that your rabbi made of himself +when he saw the Rabbi of Lemberg die,” he +said. “Why, the man is still living!” “No +matter,” replied the pupil. “To look from +Cracow to Lemberg was wonderful anyhow.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Here the faulty thinking common to both +of the last examples is openly shown. The +value of fanciful ideas is unfairly matched +against reality; possibility is made equivalent +to actuality. To look from Cracow to Lemberg +despite the miles between would have been +an imposing telepathic feat had it resulted in +some truth, but the disciple gives no heed to +that. It might have been possible that the +Rabbi of Lemberg had died at the moment +when the Rabbi of Cracow had proclaimed his +death, but the pupil displaces the accent from +the condition under which the teacher’s act +<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>would be remarkable to the unconditional admiration +of this act. “<i><span lang="la">In magnis rebus voluisse +sat est</span></i>” is a similar point of view. Just as in +this example reality is sacrificed in favor of +possibility, so in the foregoing example the +marriage agent suggests to the suitor that the +possibility of the woman’s becoming lame +through an accident is a far more important +consideration to be taken into account; whereas +the question as to whether or not she is lame +is put altogether into the background.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Automatic Errors of Thought</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Another interesting group attaches itself to +this one of sophistical faulty thinking, a group +in which the faulty thinking may be designated +as <em>automatic</em>. It is perhaps only a stroke of +fate that all of the examples which I shall cite +for this new group are again stories referring +to marriage agents.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>The agent brought along an assistant to a +conference about a bride. This assistant was +to confirm his assertions. “She is as well made +as a pine tree,” said the agent. “Like a pine +tree,” repeated the echo. “She has eyes which +one must appreciate.” “Wonderful eyes,” confirmed +the echo. “She is cultured beyond +words. She possesses extraordinary culture.” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>“Wonderfully cultured,” repeated the assistant. +“However, one thing is true,” confessed the +agent. “She has a slight hunch on her back.” +“And what a hunch!” confirmed the echo.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>The other stories are quite analogous to this +one, but they are cleverer.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>On being introduced to his prospective bride +the suitor was rather unpleasantly surprised, +and drawing aside the marriage agent he reproachfully +whispered to him: “Why have you +brought me here? She is ugly and old. She +squints, has bad teeth, and bleary eyes.” +“You can talk louder,” interrupted the agent. +“She is deaf, too.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A prospective bridegroom made his first call +on his future bride in company with the agent, +and while in the parlor waiting for the appearance +of the family the agent drew the young +man’s attention to a glass closet containing a +handsome silver set. “Just look at these +things,” he said. “You can see how wealthy +these people are.” “But is it not possible that +these articles were just borrowed for the occasion,” +inquired the suspicious young man, “so +as to give the appearance of wealth?” “What +an idea,” answered the agent protestingly. +“Who in the world would lend them anything?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>In all three cases one finds the same thing. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>A person who reacts several times in succession +in the same manner continues in the same +manner on the next occasion where it becomes +unsuited and runs contrary to his intentions. +Falling into the automatism of habit he fails +to adapt himself to the demands of the situation. +Thus in the first story the assistant forgot +that he was taken along in order to influence +the suitor in favor of the proposed bride, and +as he had thus far accomplished his task by +emphasizing through repetition the excellencies +attributed to the lady, he now emphasizes also +her timidly conceded hunch back which he +should have belittled.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The marriage agent in the second story is so +fascinated by the failings and infirmities of the +bride that he completes the list from his own +knowledge, which it was certainly neither his +business nor his intention to do. Finally in +the third story he is so carried away by his +zeal to convince the young man of the family’s +wealth that in order to corroborate his proofs +he blurts out something which must upset all +his efforts. Everywhere the automatism triumphs +over the appropriate variation of +thought and expression.</p> + +<p class='c008'>That is quite easy to understand, although +it must cause confusion when it is brought to +our attention that these three stories could just +<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>as well be termed “comical” as “witty.” Like +every act of unmasking and self-betrayal the +discovery of the psychic automatism also belongs +to technique of the comic. We suddenly +see ourselves here confronted with the problem +of the relationship of wit to the comic element—a +subject which we endeavored to avoid (see +the Introduction). Are these stories only +“comical” and not “witty” also? Does the +comic element employ here the same means as +does the wit? And again, of what does the +peculiar character of wit consist?</p> + +<p class='c008'>We must adhere to the fact that the technique +of the group of witticisms examined last +consists of nothing else but the establishment of +“faulty thinking.” We are forced to admit, +however, that so far the investigation has led +us further into darkness than to illumination. +Nevertheless we do not abandon the hope of +arriving at a result by means of a more thorough +knowledge of the technique of wit which +may become the starting-point for further insight.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Unification</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The next examples of wit with which we wish +to continue our investigation do not give us as +much work. Their technique reminds us very +much of what we already know. Here is one +<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>of Lichtenberg’s jokes. “<em>January</em>,” he says, +“<em>is the month in which one extends good wishes +to his friends, and the rest are months in which +the good wishes are not fulfilled.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>As these witticisms may be called clever +rather than strong, we shall reinforce the impression +by examining a few more.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Human life is divided into two halves; during +the first one looks forward to the second, +and during the second one looks backward to +the first.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Experience consists in experiencing what +one does not care to experience.</em>” (The last +two examples were cited by K. Fischer.)</p> + +<p class='c008'>One cannot help being reminded by these examples +of a group, treated of before, which is +characterized by the “manifold application of +the same material.” The last example especially +will cause us to ask why we have not +inserted it there instead of presenting it here +in a new connection. “Experience” is described +through its own terms just as some of +the examples cited above. Neither would I be +against this correction. However, I am of the +opinion that the other two cases, which are +surely similar in character, contain a different +factor which is more striking and more important +than the manifold application of the +same word which shows nothing here touching +<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>upon double meaning. And what is more, I +wish to emphasize that new and unexpected +identities are here formed which show themselves +in relations of ideas to one another, in +relations of definitions to each other, or to a +common third. I would call this process <em>unification</em>. +Obviously it is analogous to condensation +by compression into similar words. Thus the +two halves of human life are described by the +inter-relationship discovered between them: +during the first part one longs for the second, +and in the second one longs for the first. To +speak more precisely there were two relationships +very similar to each other which were +selected for description. The similarity of the +relationship that corresponds to the similarity of +the words which, just for this reason, might +recall the manifold application of the same +material—<span class='fraction'>(looks forward)<br>(looks backward).</span></p> + +<p class='c008'>In Lichtenberg’s joke, January and the +months contrasted with it are characterized +again by a modified relationship to a third +factor: these are good wishes which one receives +in the first month, but are not fulfilled +during the other months. The differentiation +from the manifold application of the same material +which is really related to double meaning +is here quite clear.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>A good example of unification-wit needing +no explanation is the following:</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>J. B. Rousseau, the French poet, wrote an +ode to posterity (à la postérité). Voltaire, +thinking that the poor quality of the poem in +no way justified its reaching posterity, wittily +remarked, “This poem will not reach its destination”</em> +(K. Fischer).</p> + +<p class='c008'>The last example may remind us of the fact +that it is essentially unification which forms +the basis of the so-called repartee in wit. For +ready repartee consists in using the defense for +aggression and in “turning the tables” or in +“paying with the same coin.” That is, the +repartee consists in establishing an unexpected +identity between attack and counter-attack.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For example, <em>a baker said to a tavern keeper, +one of whose fingers was festering: “I guess +your finger got into your beer.” The tavern +keeper replied: “You are wrong. One of your +rolls got under my finger nail”</em> (Ueberhorst: +<cite><span lang="de">Das Komische</span></cite>, II, 1900).</p> + +<p class='c008'>While Serenissimus was traveling through his +domains he noticed a man in the crowds who +bore a striking resemblance to himself. He +beckoned him to come over and asked: “<em>Was +your mother ever employed in my home?</em>” +“<em>No, sire</em>,” replied the man, “<em>but my father +was.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>While Duke Karl of Würtemberg was riding +horseback he met a dyer working at his trade. +“<em>Can you color my white horse blue?</em>” “<em>Yes, +sire</em>,” was the rejoinder, “<em>if the animal can +stand the boiling!</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>In this excellent repartee, which answers a +foolish question with a condition that is equally +impossible, there occurs another technical +factor which would have been omitted if the +dyer’s reply had been: “No, sire, I am afraid +that the horse could not stand being boiled.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another peculiarly interesting technical +means at the disposal of unification is the addition +of the conjunction “and.” Such correlation +signifies a connection which could not be +understood otherwise. When Heine (<i><span lang="de">Harzreise</span></i>) +says of the city of Göttingen, “<em>In general the +inhabitants of Göttingen are divided into students, +professors, Philistines, and cattle</em>,” we +understand this combination exactly in the sense +which he furthermore emphasized by adding: +“These four social groups are distinguished little +less than sharply.” Again, when he speaks +about the school where he had to submit “<em>to +so much Latin, drubbing, and geography</em>,” he +wants to convey by this combination, which is +made very conspicuous by placing the drubbing +between the two studies, that the schoolboy’s +conception unmistakably described by the drubbing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>should be extended also to Latin and +geography.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In Lipps’s book we find among the examples +of “witty enumeration” (Koordination) the +following verse, which stands nearest to Heine’s +“students, professors, Philistines, and cattle.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>With a fork and with much effort his +mother pulled him from a mess.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“As if effort were an instrument like the +fork,” adds Lipps by way of explanation. But +we get the impression that there is nothing +witty in this sentence. To be sure it is very +comical, whereas Heine’s co-ordination is undoubtedly +witty. We shall, perhaps, recall these +examples later when we shall no longer be +forced to evade the problem of the relationship +between wit and the comic.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Representation Through the Opposite</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We have remarked in the example of the +Duke and the dyer that it would still have been +a joke by means of unification had the dyer +replied, “No, I fear that the horse could not +stand being boiled.” In substituting a “yes” +for the “no” which rightly belonged there, we +meet a new technical means of wit the application +of which we shall study in other examples.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This joke, which resembles the one we have +<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>just cited from K. Fischer, is somewhat simpler. +“<em>Frederick the Great heard of a Silesian +clergyman who had the reputation of communicating +with spirits. He sent for him and received +him with the following question: ‘Can +you call up ghosts?’ ‘At your pleasure, your +majesty,’ replied the clergyman, ‘but they +won’t come.’</em>” Here it is perfectly obvious +that the wit lies in the substitution of its opposite +for the only possible answer, “No.” To +complete this substitution “but” had to be +added to “yes,” so that “yes” plus “but” +gives the equivalent for “no.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>This “representation through the opposite,” as +we choose to call it, serves the mechanism of +wit in several ways. In the following cases it +appears almost in its pure form:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>This woman resembles Venus de Milo in +many points. Like her she is extraordinarily +old, has no teeth, and has white spots on the +yellow surface of her body</em>” (Heine).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here ugliness is depicted by making it agree +with the most beautiful. Of course these agreements +consist of attributes expressed in double +meaning or of matters of slight importance. +The latter applies to the second example.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>The attributes of the greatest men were all +united in himself. Like Alexander his head +was tilted to one side: like Cæsar he always had +<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>something in his hair. He could drink coffee +like Leibnitz, and once settled in his armchair +he forgot eating and drinking like Newton, and +like him had to be awakened. He wore a wig +like Dr. Johnson, and like Cervantes the fly of +his trousers was always open</em>” (Lichtenberg: +<cite>The Great Mind</cite>).</p> + +<p class='c008'>J. V. Falke’s <cite><span lang="de">Lebenserinnerungen an eine +Reise nach Ireland</span></cite> (page 271) furnishes an exceptionally +good example of “representation +through the opposite” in which the use of +words of a double meaning plays absolutely no +part. The scene is laid in a wax figure museum, +like Mme. Tussaud’s. A lecturer discourses on +one figure after another to his audience, which +is composed of old and young people. “<em>This is +the Duke of Wellington and his horse</em>,” he says. +Whereupon a young girl remarks, “<em>Which is +the duke and which is the horse?</em>” “<em>Just as +you like, my pretty child</em>,” is the reply. “<em>You +pay your money and you take your choice.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The reduction of this Irish joke would be: +“It is gross impudence on the part of the +museum’s management to offer such an exhibition +to the public. It is impossible to distinguish +between the horse and the rider (playful +exaggeration), and it is for this exhibit that +one pays one’s hard-earned money!” The indignant +expression is now dramatized and applied +<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>to a trivial occurrence. In the place of +the entire audience there appears one woman +and the riding figure becomes individually determined. +It is necessarily the Duke of Wellington, +who is so very popular in Ireland. But +the insolence of the museum proprietor or lecturer +who takes money from the public and +offers nothing in return is represented by the +opposite, through a speech, in which he extols +himself as a conscientious business man whose +fondest desire is to respect the rights to which +the public is entitled through the admission +fee. One then realizes that the technique of this +joke is not very simple. In so far as a way +is found to allow the swindler to assert his +scrupulosity it may be said that the joke is a +case of “representation through the opposite.” +The fact, however, that he does it on an occasion +where something different is demanded of +him, and the fact that he replies in terms of +commercial integrity when he is expected to discuss +the similarity of the figures, shows that it +is a case of displacement. The technique of +the joke lies in the combination of both technical +means.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Outdoing wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>This example is closely allied to another +small group which might be called “outdoing-wit.” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>Here “yes,” which would be proper in +the reduction, is replaced by “no,” which, owing +to its context, is equivalent to a still stronger +“yes.” The same mechanism holds true when +the case is reversed. The contradiction takes +the place of an exaggerated confirmation. An +example of this nature is seen in the following +epigram from Lessing.<a id='r35'></a><a href='#f35' class='c007'><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>The good Galathee! ’Tis said that she dyes +her hair black, yet it was black when she bought +it.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Lichtenberg’s make-believe mocking defense +of philosophy is another example.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>There are more things in heaven and earth +than are dreamt of in your philosophy</em>,” Prince +Hamlet had disdainfully declared. Lichtenberg +well knew that this condemnation was +by no means severe enough, in that it does not +take into account all that can be said against +philosophy. He therefore added the following: +“<em>But there is also much in philosophy which is +found neither in heaven nor on earth.</em>” To be +sure, his assertion supplements what was lacking +in Hamlet’s philosophical utterance, but in +doing this he adds another and still greater reproach.</p> + +<p class='c008'>More transparent still, because they show +no trace of displacement, are two Jewish +<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>jokes which are, however, of the coarse +kind.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>Two Jews were conversing about bathing.</em> +“<em>I take a bath once a year</em>,” said one, “<em>whether +I need one or not</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is clear that this boastful assurance of his +cleanliness only betrays his state of uncleanliness.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A Jew noticed remnants of food on the beard +of another. “I can tell you what you ate yesterday,” +he remarked. “Well, let’s hear it,” +said another. “Beans,” said the first one. “You +are wrong,” responded the other. “I had beans +the day before yesterday.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>The following example is an excellent “outdoing” +witticism which can be traced easily +to representation through the opposite.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>The king condescended to pay a visit at a +surgical clinic, and found the professor of surgery +engaged in amputating a leg. He watched +the various steps of the operation with interest +and expressed his royal approval with these +loud utterances: “Bravo, bravo, Professor.” +When the operation was over the professor +approached the king, bowed low, and asked: +“Does your majesty also command the amputation +of the other leg?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Whatever the professor may have thought +during this royal applause surely could not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>have been expressed unchanged. His real +thoughts were: “Judging by this applause he +must be under the impression that I am amputating +the poor devil’s diseased leg by order +of and for the pleasure of the king. To be +sure, I have other reasons for performing this +operation.” But instead of expressing these +thoughts he goes to the king and says: “I have +no other reasons but your majesty’s order for +performing this operation. The applause you +accorded me has inspired me so much that I +am only awaiting your majesty’s command to +amputate the other leg also.” He thus succeeded +in making himself understood by expressing +the opposite of what he really thought +but had to keep to himself. Such an expression +of the opposite represents an incredible +exaggeration or outdoing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As we gather from these examples, representation +through the opposite is a means frequently +and effectively used in the technique +of wit. We need not overlook, however, something +else, namely, that this technique is by +no means confined only to wit. When Marc +Antony, after his long speech in the Forum +had changed the mood of the mob listening +to Cæsar’s obsequies, at last repeats the +words,</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“For Brutus was an honorable man,”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>he well knows that the mob will scream the +true meaning of his words at him, namely,</p> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> + <div class='nf-center'> + <div>“They are traitors: nice honorable men!”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>Or when <i><span lang="la">Simplicissimus</span></i> transcribes a collection +of unheard-of brutalities and cynicisms +as expressions of “people with temperaments,” +this, too, is a representation through the opposite. +However, this is no longer designated as +wit, but as “irony.” Indeed, the only technique +that is characteristic of irony is representation +through the opposite. Besides, one reads and +hears about “ironical wit.” Hence there is no +longer any doubt that technique alone is not +capable of characterizing wit. There must be +something else which we have not yet discovered. +On the other hand, however, the fact +that the reduction of the technique destroys the +wit still remains uncontradicted. For the present +it may be difficult for us to unite for the +explanation of wit the two strong points which +we have already gained.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Indirect Expression</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Since representation through the opposite +belongs to the technical means of wit, we may +also expect that wit could make use of its reverse, +namely, the representation through the +similar and cognate. Indeed, when we continue +<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>our investigation we find that this forms the +technique of a new and especially extensive +group of thought-witticisms. We can describe +the peculiarity of this technique much better +if instead of representation through the “cognate” +we use the expression representation +through “relationships and associations.” We +shall start with the last characteristic and illustrate +it by an example.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Indirect Expression with Allusion</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>It is an American anecdote and runs as +follows. <em>By undertaking a series of risky +schemes, two not very scrupulous business men +had succeeded in amassing an enormous fortune +and were now intent on forcing their way +into good society. Among other things they +thought it advisable to have their portraits +painted by the most prominent and most expensive +painters in the city, men whose works +were considered masterpieces. The costly pictures +were exhibited for the first time at a great +evening gathering, and the hosts themselves led +the most prominent connoisseur and art critic +to the wall of the salon on which both portraits +were hanging side by side, in order to elicit +from him a favorable criticism. He examined +the portraits for a long time, then shook his +<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>head as if he were missing something. At +length he pointed to the bare space between +the pictures, and asked, “And where is the +Savior?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>The meaning of this expression is clear. It +is again the expression of something which cannot +be represented directly. In what way does +this “indirect expression” come about? By a +series of very obvious associations and conclusions +let us work backwards from the verbal +setting.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The query, “<em>where is the Savior?</em>” or “<em>where +is the picture of the Savior?</em>” arouses the conjecture +that the two pictures have reminded the +speaker of a similar arrangement familiar to +him as it is familiar to us. This arrangement, +of which one element is here missing, shows the +figure of the Savior between two other figures. +There is only one such case: Christ hanging +between the two thieves. The missing element +is emphasized by the witticism, and the similarity +rests in the figures at the right and left of +the Savior, which are not mentioned in the jest. +It can only mean that the pictures hanging in +the drawing-room are likewise those of thieves. +This is what the critic wished to, but could +not say, “You are a pair of scoundrels,” or +more in detail, “What do I care about your +portraits? You are a pair of scoundrels, that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>I know.” And by means of a few associations +and conclusive inferences he has said it in a +manner which we designate as “allusion.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We immediately remember that we have +encountered the process of allusion before. +Namely, in double meaning, when one of the +two meanings expressed by the same word +stands out very prominently, because being used +much oftener and more commonly, our attention +is directed to it first, whereas the other +meaning remains in the background because it +is more remote—such cases we wished to describe +as double meaning with allusion. In an +entire series of examples which we have hitherto +examined, we have remarked that their technique +is not simple and we realized that the +process of allusion was the factor that complicated +it. For example, see the contradiction-witticism +in which the congratulations on the +birth of the youngest child are acknowledged by +the remark that it is remarkable what human +hands can accomplish (p. 77).</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the American anecdote we have the process +of allusion without the double meaning, and we +find that the character of this process consists +in completing the picture through mental association. +It is not difficult to guess that the +utilized association can be of more than one +kind. So as not to be confused by large numbers +<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>we shall discuss only the most pronounced +variations, and shall give only a few examples.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The association used in the substitution may +be a mere sound, so that this sub-group may +be analogous to word-wit in the pun. However, +it is not similarity in sound of two words, +but of whole sentences, characteristic combinations +of words, and similar means.</p> + +<p class='c008'>For example, Lichtenberg coined the saying: +“<em>New baths heal well</em>,” which immediately reminds +one of the proverb, “<em>New brooms clean +well</em>,” whose first and last words, as well as +whose whole sentence structure, is the same as +in the first saying. It has undoubtedly arisen +in the witty thinker’s mind as an imitation of +the familiar proverb. Thus Lichtenberg’s saying +is an allusion to the latter. By means of +this allusion something is suggested that cannot +be frankly said, namely, that the efficacy +of the baths taken as cures is due to other +things beside the thermal springs whose attributes +are the same everywhere.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The solution of the technique of another one +of Lichtenberg’s jokes is similar: “<em>The girl +barely twelve modes old.</em>” That sounds something +like the chronological term “<em>twelve +moons</em>” (i.e., months), and may originally have +been a mistake in writing in the permissible +poetical expression. But there is a good deal +<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>of sense in designating the age of a feminine +creature by the changing modes instead of by +the changing of moons.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The connection of similarity may even consist +of a single slight modification. This technique +again runs parallel with a word-technique. +Both kinds of witticisms create almost the +identical impression, but they are more easily +distinguishable by the processes of the wit-work.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following is an example of such a word-witticism +or pun. The great singer, Mary +Wilt, who was famous not merely on account +of the magnitude of her voice, suffered the +mortification of having a title of a play, dramatized +from the well-known novel of Jules +Verne, serve as an allusion to her corpulency. +“<em>The trip around the Wilt</em> (world) <em>in eighty +days</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Or: “<em>Every fathom a queen</em>,” which is a +modification of the familiar Shakespearian +quotation, “<em>Every inch a king</em>,” and served as +an allusion to a prominent woman who was unusually +big physically. There would really be +no serious objection if one should prefer to +classify this witticism as a substitution for condensation +with modification (cf. tête-à-bête, +p. 25).</p> + +<p class='c008'>Discussing the hardships of the medical profession, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>namely, that physicians are obliged to +read and study constantly because remedies and +drugs once considered efficacious are later rejected +as useless, and that despite the physician’s +best efforts the patient often refuses to +pay for the treatment, one of the doctors present +remarked: “<em>Yes, every drug has its day</em>,” to +which another added, “<em>But not every Doc gets +his pay</em>.” These two witty remarks are both +modifications with allusion of the well-known +saying, “<em>Every dog has his day</em>.” But here, +too, the technique could be described as fusion +with modification.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If the modification contents itself with a +change in letters, allusions through modifications +are barely distinguishable from condensation +with substitutive formation, as shown in +this example: “<em>Mellingitis</em>,” <em>the allusion to the +dangerous disease meningitis, refers to the +danger which the conservative members of a +provincial borough in England thought impended +if the socialist candidate Mellon were +elected</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The negative particles make very good allusions +at the cost of very little changing. Heine +referred to Spinoza as:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“My fellow <em>un</em>believer Spinoza.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“We, by the <em>Un</em>grace of God, Laborers, +Bondsmen, Negroes, Serfs,” etc., is a manifesto +<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>(which Lichtenberg quotes no further) of these +unfortunates who probably have more right to +that title than kings and dukes have to the unmodified +one.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Omission</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Finally <em>omission</em>, which is comparable to condensation +without substitutive formation, is also +a form of allusion. For in every allusion there +is really something omitted, namely, the trend +of thought that leads to the allusion. It is +only a question of whether the gap, or the substitute +in the wording of the allusion which +partly fills in the gap, is the more obvious +element. Thus we come back through a series +of examples from the very clear cases of omission +to those of actual allusion.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Omission without substitution is found in +the following example. There lived in Vienna +a clever and bellicose writer whose sharp invectives +had repeatedly brought him bodily +assault at the hands of the persons he assailed. +During a conversation about a new misdeed by +one of his habitual opponents, some one said, +“<em>When X. hears this he will receive another +box on his ear</em>.” The technique of this wit +shows in the first place the confusion about +the apparent contradiction, for it is by no means +<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>clear to us why a box on one’s ear should be +the direct result of having heard something. +The contradiction disappears if one fills in the +gap by adding to the remark: “<em>then he will +write such a caustic article against that person +that, etc.</em>” Allusions through omission and contradiction +are thus the technical means of this +witticism.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Heine remarked about some one: “<em>He praises +himself so much that pastils for fumigation are +advancing in price.</em>” This omission can easily +be filled in. What has been omitted is replaced +by an inference which then strikes back as an +allusion to the same. For self-praise has always +carried an evil odor with it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Once more we encounter the two Jews in +front of the bathing establishment. “<em>Another +year has passed by already</em>,” says one with a +sigh.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These examples leave no doubt that the omission +is meant as an allusion.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A still more obvious omission is contained +in the next example, which is really a genuine +and correct allusion-witticism. Subsequent to +an artists’ banquet in Vienna a joke book was +given out in which, among others, the following +most remarkable proverb could be read:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>A wife is like an umbrella, at worst one may +also take a cab.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>An umbrella does not afford enough protection +from rain. The words “<em>at worst</em>” can +mean only: when it is raining hard. A cab +is a public conveyance. As we have to deal +here with the figure of comparison, we shall put +off the detailed investigation of this witticism +until later on.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Heine’s “Bäder von Lucca” contains a veritable +wasps’ nest of stinging allusions which +make the most artistic use of this form of wit as +polemics against the Count of Platen. Long +before the reader can suspect their application, +a certain theme, which does not lend itself especially +to direct presentation, is preluded by +allusions of the most varied material possible; +e.g., in Hirsch-Hyacinth’s twisting of words: +You are too corpulent and I am too lean; you +possess too much conceit and I the more business +ability; I am a practicus and you are a +diarrheticus, in fine, “You are altogether my +Antipodex”—“Venus Urinia”—the thick Gudel +of Dreckwall in Hamburg, etc. Then the +occurrences of which the poet speaks take a +turn in which it merely seems to show the impolite +sportiveness of the poet, but soon it discloses +the symbolic relation to the polemical intention, +and in this way it also reveals itself as +allusion. At last the attack against Platen +bursts forth, and now the allusions to the subject +<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>of the Count’s love for men seethe and +gush from each one of the sentences which +Heine directs against the talent and the character +of his opponent, e.g.:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Even if the Muses are not well disposed +to him, he has at least the genius of speech in +his power, or rather he knows how to violate +him; for he lacks the free love of this genius, +besides he must perseveringly run after this +youth, and he knows only how to grasp the +outer forms which, in spite of their beautiful +rotundity, never express anything noble.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He has the same experience as the ostrich, +which considers itself sufficiently hidden when +it sticks its head into the sand so that only its +backside is visible. Our illustrious bird would +have done better if he had stuck his backside +into the sand, and had shown us his head.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Allusion is perhaps the commonest and most +easily employed means of wit, and is at the basis +of most of the short-lived witty productions +which we are wont to weave into our conversation. +They cannot bear being separated from +their native soil nor can they exist independently. +Once more we are reminded by the +process of allusion of that relationship which +has already begun to confuse our estimation of +the technique of wit. The process of allusion +is not witty in itself; there are perfectly formed +<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>allusions which have no claims to this character. +Only those allusions which show a “witty” +element are witty, hence the characteristics of +wit, which we have followed even into its technique, +again escape us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I have sometimes called allusion “indirect expression,” +and now recognize that the different +kinds of allusion with representation through +the opposite, as well as the techniques still to be +mentioned, can be united into a single large +group for which “indirect expression” would +be the comprehensive name. Hence, <em>errors of +thought—unification—indirect representation</em>—are +those points of view under which we can +group the techniques of thought-wit which became +known to us.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Representation Through the Minute or the Minutest Element</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>On continuing the investigation of our material +we think we recognize a new sub-group +of indirect representation which though sharply +defined can be illustrated only by few examples. +It is that of representation through a minute +or minutest element; solving the problem by +bringing the entire character to full expression +through a minute detail. Correlating this +group with the mechanism of allusion is made +<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>possible by looking at the triviality as connected +with the thing to be presented and as a +result of it. For example:</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A Jew who was riding in a train had made +himself very comfortable; he had unbuttoned +his coat, and had put his feet on the seat, when +a fashionably dressed gentleman came in. The +Jew immediately put on his best behavior and +assumed a modest position. The stranger +turned over the pages of a book, did some calculation, +and pondered a moment and suddenly +addressed the Jew. “I beg your pardon, how +soon will we have Yom Kippur?” (Day of +Atonement). “Oh, oh!” said the Jew, and +put his feet back on the seat before he answered.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>It cannot be denied that this representation +through something minute is allied to the tendency +of economy which we found to be the final +common element in the investigation of the +technique of word-wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following example is much similar.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>The doctor who had been summoned to help +the baroness in her confinement declared that +the critical moment had not arrived, and proposed +to the baron that they play a game of +cards in the adjoining room in the meantime. +After a while the doleful cry of the baroness +reached the ears of the men. “Ah, mon Dieu, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>que je souffre!” The husband jumped up, but +the physician stopped him saying, “That’s +nothing; let us play on.” A little while later +the woman in labor-pains was heard again: +“My God, my God, what pains!” “Don’t +you want to go in, Doctor?” asked the baron. +“By no means, it is not yet time,” answered the +doctor. At last there rang from the adjacent +room the unmistakable cry, “A-a-a-ai-e-e-e-e-e-e-E-E-E!” +The physician then threw down the +cards and said, “Now it’s time.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>How the pain allows the original nature to +break through all the strata of education, and +how an important decision is rightly made dependent +upon a seemingly inconsequential utterance—both +are shown in this good joke by the +successive changes in the cries of this childbearing +lady of quality.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comparison</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Another kind of indirect expression of which +wit makes use is <em>comparison</em>, which we have not +discussed so far because an examination of comparison +touches upon new difficulties, or rather +it reveals difficulties which have made their +appearance on other occasions. We have already +admitted that in many of the examples +examined we could not banish all doubts as to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>whether they should really be counted as witty, +and have recognized in this uncertainty a serious +shock to the principles of our investigation. +But in no other material do I feel this uncertainty +greater and nowhere does it occur more +frequently than in the case of comparison-wit. +The feeling which usually says to me—and I +dare say to a great many others under the same +conditions—this is a joke, this may be written +down as witty before even the hidden and +essential character of the wit has been uncovered—this +feeling I lack most. If at first I +experience no hesitation in declaring the comparison +to be a witticism, then the next instant +I seem to think that the pleasure I thus found +was of a different quality than that which I am +accustomed to ascribe to a joke. Also the fact +that witty comparisons but seldom can evoke +the explosive variety of laughter by which a +good joke proves itself makes it impossible for +me to cast aside the existing doubts, even when +I limit myself to the best and most effective +examples.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is easy to demonstrate that there are some +especially good and effective examples of comparison +which in no way give us the impression +of witticisms. A beautiful example of this +kind which I have not yet tired of admiring, +and the impression of which still clings to me, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>I shall not deny myself the pleasure of citing. +It is a comparison with which Ferd. Lassalle +concluded one of his famous pleas (<i><span lang="de">Die Wissenschaft +und die Arbeiter</span></i>): “A man like myself +who, as I explained to you, had devoted his +whole life to the motto ‘<span lang="de">Die Wissenschaft und +die Arbeiter</span>’ (Science and the Workingman), +would receive the same impression from a condemnation +which in the course of events confronts +him <em>as would the chemist, absorbed in +his scientific experiments, from the cracking of +a retort. With a slight knitting of his brow at +the resistance of the material, he would, as soon +as the disturbance was quieted, calmly continue +his labor and investigations.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>One finds a rich assortment of pertinent and +witty comparisons in the writings of Lichtenberg +(2 B. of the Göttingen edition, 1853). +I shall take the material for our investigation +from that source.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>It is almost impossible to carry the torch +of truth through a crowd without singeing +somebody’s beard.</em>” This may seem witty, but +on closer examination one notices that the witty +effect does not come from the comparison itself +but from a secondary attribute of the same. +For the expression “the torch of truth” is no +new comparison, but one which has been used +for a long time and which has degenerated into +<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>a fixed phrase, as always happens when a comparison +has the luck to be absorbed into the +common usage of speech. But whereas we +hardly notice the comparison in the saying, +“the torch of truth,” its original full force is +restored it by Lichtenberg, since by building +further on the comparison it results in a deduction. +But the taking of blurred expressions +in their full sense is already known to us as a +technique of wit; it finds a place with the Manifold +Application of the Same Material (p. 35). +It may well be that the witty impression created +by Lichtenberg’s sentence is due only to its relation +to this technique of wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The same explanation will undoubtedly hold +good for another witty comparison by the same +author.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>The man was not exactly a shining light, +but a great candlestick.... He was a professor +of philosophy.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>To call a scholar a shining light, a “<i><span lang="la">lumen +mundi</span></i>,” has long ceased to be an effective comparison, +whether it be originally qualified as a +witticism or not. But here the comparison was +freshened up and its full force was restored to +it by deducting a modification from it and in +this way setting up a second and new comparison. +The way in which the second comparison +came into existence seems to contain +<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>the condition of the witticism and not the two +comparisons themselves. This would then be +a case of Identical Wit-Technique as in the +example of the torch.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following comparison seems witty on +other but similarly classifiable grounds: “<em>I +look upon reviews as a kind of children’s disease</em> +which more or less attacks new-born books. +There are cases on record where the healthiest +died of it, and the puniest have often lived +through it. Many do not get it at all. Attempts +have frequently been made to prevent +the disease by means of <em>amulets of prefaces and +dedications, or to color them up by personal +pronunciamentos; but it does not always help</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The comparison of reviews with children’s +diseases is based in the first place upon their +susceptibility to attack shortly after they have +seen the light of the world. Whether this +makes it witty I do not trust myself to decide. +But when the comparison is continued, it is +found that the later fates of the new books may +be represented within the scope of the same or +by means of similar comparisons. Such a continuation +of a comparison is undoubtedly witty, +but we know already to what technique it owes +its witty flavor; it is a case of <em>unification</em> or the +establishment of an unexpected association. +The character of the unification, however, is not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>changed by the fact that it consists here of a +relationship with the first comparison.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Doubt in Witty Comparisons</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>In a series of other comparisons one is +tempted to ascribe an indisputably existing +witty impression to another factor which again +in itself has nothing to do with the nature of +the comparison. These are comparisons which +are strikingly grouped, often containing a combination +that sounds absurd, which comes into +existence as a result of the comparison. Most +of Lichtenberg’s examples belong to this group.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“It is a pity that one cannot see the <em>learned +bowels</em> of the writers, in order to find out what +they have eaten.” “<em>The learned bowels</em>” is a +confusing, really absurd attribute which is +made clear only by the comparison. How +would it be if the witty impression of this comparison +should be referred entirely and fully to +the confusing character of their composition? +This would correspond to one of the means of +wit well known to us, namely, representation +through absurdity.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Lichtenberg has used the same comparison of +the imbibing of reading and educational material +with the imbibing of physical nourishment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He thought highly of <em>studying in his room</em> +<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>and was heartily in favor of <em>learned stable +fodder</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The same absurd or at least conspicuous attributes, +which as we are beginning to notice are +the real carriers of the wit, mark other comparisons +of the same author.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>This is the weatherside of my moral constitution, +here I can stand almost anything.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Every person has also his <em>moral backside</em> +which he does not show <em>except under the stress +of necessity</em> and which he covers as long as +possible with the <em>pants of good-breeding</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The “moral backside” is the peculiar attribute +which exists as the result of a comparison. +But this is followed by a continuation of the +comparison with a regular play on words +(“necessity”) and a second, still more unusual +combination (“the pants of good-breeding”), +which is possibly witty in itself; for the pants +become witty, as it were, because they are the +pants of good-breeding. Therefore it may not +take us by surprise if we get the impression of +a very witty comparison; we are beginning to +notice that we show a general tendency in our +estimation to extend a quality to the whole +thing when it clings only to one part of it. +Besides, the “pants of good-breeding” remind +us of a similar confusing verse of Heine.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>“<em>Until, at last, the buttons tore from the +pants of my patience.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is obvious that both of the last comparisons +possess a character which one cannot find in all +good, i.e., fitting, comparisons. One might say +that they are in a large manner “debasing,” for +they place a thing of high category, an abstraction +(good-breeding, patience), side by side with +a thing of a very concrete nature of a very low +kind (pants). Whether this peculiarity has +something to do with wit we shall have to +consider in another connection. Let us attempt +to analyze another example in which the degrading +character is exceptionally well defined. +In Nestroy’s farce “<cite><span lang="de">Einen Jux will er sich +machen</span></cite>,” the clerk, Weinberl, who resolves in +his imagination how he will ponder over his +youth when he has some day become a well-established +old merchant, says: “<em>When in the +course of confidential conversation the ice is +chopped up before the warehouse of memory; +when the portal of the storehouse of antiquity +is unlocked again; and when the mattings of +phantasy are stocked full with wares of yore.</em>” +These are certainly comparisons of abstractions +with very common, concrete things, but the +witticism depends—exclusively or only partially—upon +the circumstance that a clerk +makes use of these comparisons which are taken +<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>from the sphere of his daily occupation. But +to bring the abstract in relation to the commonplace +with which he is otherwise filled is an act +of <em>unification</em>. Let us revert to Lichtenberg’s +comparisons.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Peculiar Attributions</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>“<em>The motives for our actions may be arranged +like the thirty-two winds, and their +names may be classified in a similar way, e.g., +Bread-bread-glory or Glory-glory-bread.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>As so often happens in Lichtenberg’s witticisms, +in this case, too, the impression of appropriateness, +cleverness, and ingenuity is so +marked that our judgment of the character of +the witty element is thereby misled. If something +witty is intermingled in such an utterance +with the excellent sense, we probably are deluded +into declaring the whole to be an exceptional +joke. Moreover, I dare say that everything +that is really witty about it results from +the strangeness of the peculiar combination +bread-bread-glory. Thus as far as wit is concerned +it is representation through absurdity.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The peculiar combination or absurd attribution +can alone be represented as a product of a +comparison.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Lichtenberg says: “<em>A twice-sleepy woman—a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>once-sleepy church pew</em>.” Behind each one +there is a comparison with a bed; in both cases +there is besides the comparison also the technical +factor of <em>allusion</em>. Once it is an allusion +to the soporific effect of sermons, and the second +time to the inexhaustible theme of sex.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Having found hitherto that a comparison as +often as it appears witty owes this impression +to its connection with one of the techniques of +wit known to us, there are nevertheless some +other examples which seem to point to the fact +that a comparison as such can also be witty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This is Lichtenberg’s characteristic remark +about certain odes. “They are in poetry what +Jacob Böhm’s immortal writings are in prose—<em>they +are a kind of picnic in which the author +supplies the words, and the readers the meaning</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“When he <em>philosophizes</em>, he generally sheds +<em>an agreeable moonlight</em> over his topics, which is +in the main quite pleasant, but which does not +show any one subject clearly.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Again, Heine’s description: “<em>Her face resembled +a kodex palimpsestus, where under the new +block-lettered text of a church father peek forth +the half-obliterated verses of an ancient Hellenic +erotic poet.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Or, the continued comparison of a very degrading +tendency, in the “Bäder von Lucca.”</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>“<em>The Catholic priest</em> is more like a clerk +who is employed in a big business; the church, +the big house at the head of which is the Pope, +gives him a definite salary. He works lazily +like one who is not working on his own account, +he has many colleagues, and so easily remains +unnoticed in the big business enterprise. He is +concerned only in the credit of the house and +still more in its preservation, since he would be +deprived of his means of sustenance in case +it went bankrupt. <em>The Protestant clergyman</em>, +on the other hand, is his own boss, and carries +on the religious businesses on his own account. +He has no wholesale trade like his Catholic +brother-tradesman, but deals merely at retail; +and since he himself must understand it, he +cannot be lazy. He must praise his <em>articles of +faith</em> to the people and must disparage the +articles of his competitors. Like a true small +trader he stands in his retail store, full of envy +of the industry of all large houses, particularly +the large house in Rome which has so many +thousand bookkeepers and packers on its payroll, +and which owns factories in all four corners +of the world.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the face of this, as in many other examples, +we can no longer dispute the fact that a comparison +may in itself be witty, and that the +witty impression need not necessarily depend +<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>on one of the known techniques of wit. But +we are entirely in the dark as to what determines +the witty character of the comparison, +since it certainly does not cling to the similarity +as a form of expression of the thought, or to +the operation of the comparison. We can do +nothing but include comparison with the different +forms of “indirect representation” which +are at the disposal of the technique of wit, and +the problem, which confronted us more distinctly +in the mechanism of comparison than +in the means of wit hitherto treated, must remain +unsolved. There must surely be a special +reason why the decision whether something is a +witticism or not presents more difficulties in +cases of comparison than in other forms of expression.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This gap in our understanding, however, offers +no ground for complaint that our first investigation +has been unsuccessful. Considering +the intimate connection which we had to be prepared +to ascribe to the different types of wit, +it would have been imprudent to expect that +we could fully explain this aspect of the problem +before we had cast a glance over the others. +We shall have to take up this problem at +another place.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span><em>Review of the Techniques of Wit</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Are we sure that none of the possible techniques +of wit has escaped our investigation? +Not exactly; but by a continued examination +of new material, we can convince ourselves that +we have become acquainted with the most numerous +and most important technical means of +wit-work—at least with as much as is necessary +for formulating a judgment about the nature +of this psychic process. At present no such +judgment exists; on the other hand, we have +come into possession of important indications, +from the direction of which we may expect a +further explanation of the problem. The interesting +processes of condensation with substitutive +formation, which we have recognized as +the nucleus of the technique of word-wit, directed +our attention to the dream-formation in +whose mechanism the identical psychic processes +were discovered. Thither also we are directed +by the technique of the thought-wit, namely displacement, +faulty thinking, absurdity, indirect +expression, and representation through the opposite—each +and all are also found in the technique +of dreams. The dream is indebted to +displacement for its strange appearance, which +hinders us from recognizing in it the continuation +of our waking thoughts; the dream’s use +<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>of absurdity and contradiction has cost it the +dignity of a psychic product, and has misled the +authors to assume that the determinants of +dream-formation are: collapse of mental activity, +cessation of criticism, morality, and logic. +Representation through the opposite is so common +in dreams that even the popular but entirely +misleading books on dream interpretation +usually put it to good account. Indirect +expression, the substitution for the dream-thought +by an allusion, by a trifle or by a +symbolism analogous to comparison, is just exactly +what distinguishes the manner of expression +of the dream from our waking thoughts.<a id='r36'></a><a href='#f36' class='c007'><sup>[36]</sup></a> +Such a far-reaching agreement as found between +the means of wit-work and those of +dream-work can scarcely be accidental. To +show those agreements in detail and to trace +their motivations will be one of our future tasks.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span> + <h3 class='c001'>III<br> <span class='c015'>THE TENDENCIES OF WIT<a id='r37'></a><a href='#f37' class='c007'><sup>[37]</sup></a></span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>Near the end of the preceding chapter as I +was writing down Heine’s comparison of the +Catholic priest to an employee of a large business +house, and the comparison of the Protestant +divine to an independent retail dealer, +I felt an inhibition which nearly prevented me +from using this comparison. I said to myself +that among my readers probably there would +be some who hold in veneration not only religion, +but also its administration and administrators. +These readers might take offense at +the comparison and get so wrought up about +it that it would take away all interest in the +investigation as to whether the comparison +seemed witty in itself or was witty only through +its garnishings. In other examples, e.g., the +one mentioned above concerning the agreeable +moonlight shed by a certain philosophy, there +would be no worry that for some readers it +might be a disturbing influence in our investigation. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>Even the most religious person would +remain in the right mood to form a judgment +about our problem.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is easy to guess the character of the witticism +by the kind of reaction that wit exerts +on the hearer. Sometimes wit is wit for its +own sake and serves no other particular purpose; +then again, it places itself at the service +of such a purpose, i.e., it becomes purposive. +Only that form of wit which has such a tendency +runs the risk of ruffling people who do +not wish to hear it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Theo. Vischer called wit without a tendency +“<em>abstract</em>” wit, I prefer to call it “<em>harmless</em>” +wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As we have already classified wit according +to the material touched by its technique into +word- and thought-wit, it is incumbent upon us +to investigate the relation of this classification +to the one just put forward. Word- and +thought-wit on the one hand, and abstract- and +tendency-wit on the other hand, bear no relation +of dependence to each other; they are two entirely +independent classifications of witty productions. +Perhaps some one may have gotten +the impression that harmless witticisms are preponderately +word-witticisms, whereas the complicated +techniques of thought-witticisms are +mostly made to serve strong tendencies. There +<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>are harmless witticisms that operate through +play on words and sound similarity, and just as +harmless ones which make use of all means of +thought-wit. Nor is it less easy to prove that +tendency-wit as far as technique is concerned +may be merely the wit of words. Thus, for example, +witticisms that “<em>play</em>” with proper +names often show an insulting and offending +tendency, and yet they, too, belong to word-wit. +Again, the most harmless of all jests are word-witticisms. +Examples of this nature are the +popular “shake-up” rhymes (Schüttelreime) +in which the technique is represented through +the manifold application of the same material +with a very peculiar modification:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“Having been forsaken by <em>Dame Luck</em>, he +degenerated into a <em>Lame Duck</em>.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us hope that no one will deny that the +pleasure experienced in this kind of otherwise +unpretentious rhyming is of the same nature as +the one by which we recognize wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Good examples of abstract or harmless +thought-witticisms abound in Lichtenberg’s comparisons +with which we have already become acquainted. +I add a few more. “<em>They sent a +small Octavo to the University of Göttingen; +and received back in body and soul a quarto</em>” +(a fourth-form boy).</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>In order to erect this budding well, one +<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>must lay above all things a good foundation, +and I know of no firmer than by laying immediately +over every pro-layer a contra-layer.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>One man begets the thought, the second +acts as its godfather, the third begets children +by it, the fourth visits it on its death-bed, and +the fifth buries it</em>” (comparison with unification).</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Not only did he disbelieve in ghosts, but he +was not ever afraid of them.</em>” The witticism in +this case lies exclusively in the absurd representation +which puts what is usually considered +less important in the comparative and what is +considered more important in the positive degree. +If we divest it of its dress it says: it is +much easier to use our reason and make light +of the fear of ghosts than to defend ourselves +against this fear when the occasion presents itself. +But this rendering is no longer witty; it +is merely a correct and still too little respected +psychological fact suggesting what Lessing expresses +in his well-known words:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Not all are free who mock their chains.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Harmless and Tendency Wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>I shall take the opportunity presented here +of clearing up what may still lead to a possible +<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>misunderstanding. “Harmless” or “abstract” +wit should in no way convey the same meaning +as “shallow” or “poor” wit. It is meant +only to designate the opposite of the “tendency” +wit to be described later. As shown +in the aforementioned examples, a harmless +jest, i.e., a witticism without a tendency, can +also be very rich in content and express something +worth while. The quality of a witticism, +however, is independent of the wit and represents +the quality of the thought which is here +expressed wittily by means of a special contrivance. +To be sure, just as watch-makers are +wont to enclose very good works in valuable +cases, so it may likewise happen with wit that +the best witty activities are used to invest the +richest thoughts.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Now, if we pay strict attention to the distinction +between thought-content and the witty +wording of thought-wit, we arrive at an insight +which may clear up much uncertainty in our +judgment of wit. For it turns out—astonishing +as it may seem—that our enjoyment of a +witticism is supplied by the combined impression +of content and wit-activity, and that one +of the factors is likely to deceive us about the +extent of the other. It is only the reduction of +the witticism that lays bare to us our mistaken +judgment.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>The same thing applies to word-wit. When +we hear that “<em>experience consists simply of experiencing +what one wishes he had not experienced</em>,” +we are puzzled, and believe that we +have learnt a new truth; it takes some time before +we recognize in this disguise the platitude, +“adversity is the school of wisdom” (K. +Fischer). The excellent wit-activity which +seeks to define “experience” by the almost +exclusive use of the word “experience” deceives +us so completely that we overestimate +the content of the sentence. The same thing +happens in many similar cases and also in +Lichtenberg’s unification-witticism about January +(p. 89), which expresses nothing but what +we already know, namely, that New Year’s +wishes are as seldom realized as other wishes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We find the contrary true of other witticisms, +in which obviously what is striking and correct +in the thought captivates us, so that we call +the saying an excellent witticism, whereas it +is only the thought that is brilliant while the +wit-activity is often weak. It is especially true +of Lichtenberg’s wit that the path of the +thought is often of more value than its witty +expression, though we unjustly extend the +value of the former to the latter. Thus the +remark about the “torch of truth” (p. 115) is +hardly a witty comparison, but it is so striking +<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>that we are inclined to lay stress on the sentence +as exceptionally witty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Lichtenberg’s witticisms are above all remarkable +for their thought-content and their +certainty of hitting the mark. Goethe has +rightly remarked about this author that his +witty and jocose thoughts positively conceal +problems. Or perhaps it may be more correct +to say that they touch upon the solutions of +problems. When, for example, he presents as +a witty thought:</p> + +<p class='c008'>“He always read <em>Agamemnon</em> instead of the +German word <i><span lang="de">angenommen</span></i>, so thoroughly had +he read Homer” (technically this is absurdity +plus sound similarity of words). Thus he discovered +nothing less than the secret of mistakes +in reading.<a id='r38'></a><a href='#f38' class='c007'><sup>[38]</sup></a> The following joke, whose technique +(p. 78) seemed to us quite unsatisfactory, +is of a similar nature.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>He was surprised that there were two holes +cut in the pelts of cats just where the eyes were +located.</em>” The stupidity here exhibited is only +seemingly so; in reality this ingenuous remark +conceals the great problem of teleology in the +structure of animals; it is not at all so self-evident +that the eyelid cleft opens just where the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>cornea is exposed, until the science of evolution +explains to us this coincidence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us bear in mind that a witty sentence +gave us a general impression in which we were +unable to distinguish the amount of thought-content +from the amount of wit-work; perhaps +even a more significant parallel to it will be +found later.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Pleasure Results from the Technique</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>For our theoretical explanation of the nature +of wit, harmless wit must be of greater value +to us than tendency-wit and shallow wit more +than profound wit. Harmless and shallow +plays on words present to us the problem of +wit in its purest form, because of the good +sense therein and because there is no purposive +factor nor underlying philosophy to confuse +the judgment. With such material our understanding +can make further progress.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>At the end of a dinner to which I had been +invited, a pastry called Roulard was served; it +was a culinary accomplishment which presupposed +a good deal of skill on the part of the +cook. “Is it home-made?” asked one of the +guests. “Oh, yes,” replied the host, “it is a +Home-Roulard”</em> (Home Rule).</p> + +<p class='c008'>This time we shall not investigate the technique +<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>of this witticism, but shall center our attention +upon another, and that one the most +important factor. As I remember, this improvised +joke delighted all the guests and made us +laugh. In this case, as in countless others, the +feeling of pleasure of the hearer cannot have +originated from any purposive element nor the +thought-content of the wit; so we are forced to +connect the feeling of pleasure with the technique +of wit. The technical means of wit which +we have described, such as condensation, displacement, +indirect expression, etc., have therefore +the faculty to produce a feeling of pleasure +in the hearer, although we cannot as yet +see how they acquired that faculty. By such +easy stages we get the second axiom for the +explanation of wit; the first one (p. 17) states +that the character of wit depends upon the mode +of expression. Let us remember also that the +second axiom has really taught us nothing new. +It merely isolates a fact that was already contained +in a discovery which we made before. +For we recall that whenever it was possible to +reduce the wit by substituting for its verbal +expression another set of words, at the same +time carefully retaining the sense, it not only +eliminated the witty character but also the +laughableness (<i><span lang="de">Lacheffekt</span></i>) that constitutes the +pleasure of wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>At present we cannot go further without +first coming to an understanding with our philosophical +authorities.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The philosophers who adjudge wit to be a +part of the comic and deal with the latter itself +in the field of æsthetics, characterize the æsthetic +presentation by the following conditions: +that we are not thereby interested in or about +the objects, that we do not need these objects +to satisfy our great wants in life, but that we +are satisfied with the mere contemplation of the +same, and with the pleasure of the thought itself. +“This pleasure, this mode of conception +is purely æsthetical, it depends entirely on itself, +its end is only itself and it fulfills no other +end in life” (K. Fischer, p. 68).</p> + +<p class='c008'>We scarcely venture a contradiction to K. +Fischer’s words—perhaps we merely translate +his thoughts into our own mode of expression—when +we insist that the witty activity is, after +all, not to be designated as aimless or purposeless, +since it has for its aim the evocation of +pleasure in the hearer. I doubt whether we +are able to undertake anything which has no +object in view. When we do not use our +psychic apparatus for the fulfillment of one of +our indispensable gratifications, we let it work +for pleasure, and we seek to derive pleasure +from its own activity. I suspect that this is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>really the condition which underlies all æsthetic +thinking, but I know too little about æsthetics +to be willing to support this theory. About +wit, however, I can assert, on the strength of +the two impressions gained before, that it is +an activity whose purpose is to derive pleasure—be +it intellectual or otherwise—from the +psychic processes. To be sure, there are other +activities which accomplish the same thing. +They may be differentiated from each by the +sphere of psychic activity from which they wish +to derive pleasure, or perhaps by the methods +which they use in accomplishing this. At present +we cannot decide this, but we firmly maintain +that at last we have established a connection +between the technique of wit partly controlled +by the tendency to economize (p. 53) +and the production of pleasure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But before we proceed to solve the riddle of +how the technical means of wit-work can produce +pleasure in the hearer, we wish to mention +that, for the sake of simplicity and more lucidity, +we have altogether put out of the way all +tendency-witticisms. Still we must attempt to +explain what the tendencies of wit are and in +what manner wit makes use of these tendencies.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Hostile and Obscene Wit</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>We are taught above all by an observation +not to put aside the tendency-wit when we +are investigating the origin of the pleasure in +wit. The pleasurable effect of harmless wit +is usually of a moderate nature; all that it +can be expected to produce in the hearer is a +distinct feeling of satisfaction and a slight ripple +of laughter; and as we have shown by fitting +examples (p. 132) at least a part of this +effect is due to the thought-content. The sudden +irresistible outburst of laughter evoked by +the tendency-wit rarely follows the wit without +a tendency. As the technique may be identical +in both, it is fair to assume that by virtue of +its purpose, the tendency-wit has at its disposal +sources of pleasure to which harmless wit has +no access.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is now easy to survey wit-tendencies. +Wherever wit is not a means to its end, i. e., +harmless, it puts itself in the service of but two +tendencies which may themselves be united +under one viewpoint; it is either <em>hostile</em> wit +serving as an aggression, satire, or defense, or +it is <em>obscene</em> wit serving as a sexual exhibition. +Again it is to be observed that the technical +form of wit—be it a word- or thought-witticism—bears +no relation to these two tendencies.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>It is a much more complicated matter to +show in what way wit serves these tendencies. +In this investigation I wish to present first +not the hostile but the exhibition wit. The latter +has indeed very seldom been deemed worthy +of an investigation, as if an aversion had transferred +itself here from the material to the subject; +however, we shall not allow ourselves to +be misled thereby, for we shall soon touch +upon a detail in wit which promises to throw +light on more than one obscure point.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We all know what is meant by a “smutty” +joke. It is the intentional bringing into prominence +of sexual facts or relations through +speech. However, this definition is no sounder +than other definitions. A lecture on the anatomy +of the sexual organs or on the physiology +of reproduction need not, in spite of this definition, +have anything in common with an obscenity. +It must be added that the smutty joke is +directed toward a certain person who excites +one sexually, and who becomes cognizant +of the speaker’s excitement by listening to the +smutty joke, and thereby in turn becomes sexually +excited. Instead of becoming sexually +excited the listener may react with shame and +embarrassment, which merely signifies a reaction +against the excitement and indirectly an +admission of the same. The smutty joke was +<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>originally directed against the woman and is +comparable to an attempt at seduction. If a +man tells or listens to obscene jokes in male +society, the original situation, which cannot be +realized on account of social inhibitions, is +thereby also represented. Whoever laughs at +a smutty joke does the same as the spectator +who laughs at a sexual aggression.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The sexual element which is at the basis of +the obscene joke comprises more than that +which is peculiar to both sexes, and goes beyond +that which is common to both sexes, it +is connected with all these things that cause +shame, and includes the whole domain of the +excrementitious. However, this was the sexual +domain of childhood, where the imagination +fancied a cloaca, so to speak, within which the +sexual elements were either badly or not at all +differentiated from the excrementitious.<a id='r39'></a><a href='#f39' class='c007'><sup>[39]</sup></a> In +the whole mental domain of the psychology of +the neuroses, the sexual still includes the excrementitious, +and it is understood in the old, +infantile sense.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The smutty joke is like the denudation of a +person of the opposite sex toward whom the +joke is directed. Through the utterance of obscene +<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>words the person attacked is forced to +picture the parts of the body in question, or +the sexual act, and is shown that the aggressor +himself pictures the same thing. There is no +doubt that the original motive of the smutty +joke was the pleasure of seeing the sexual displayed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It will only help to clarify the subject if +here we go back to the fundamentals. One of +the primitive components of our libido is the +desire to see the sexual exposed. Perhaps this +itself is a development—a substitution for the +desire to touch which is assumed to be the primary +pleasure. As it often happens, the desire +to see has here also replaced the desire to +touch.<a id='r40'></a><a href='#f40' class='c007'><sup>[40]</sup></a> The libido for looking and touching is +found in every person in two forms, active and +passive, or masculine and feminine; and in accordance +with the preponderance of sex characteristics +it develops preponderately in one or +the other direction. In young children one can +readily observe the desire to exhibit themselves +nude. If the germ of this desire does not experience +the usual fate of being covered up and +repressed, it develops into a mania for exhibitionism, +a familiar perversion among grown-up +men. In women the passive desire to exhibit +<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>is almost regularly covered by the masked reaction +of sexual modesty; despite this, however, +remnants of this desire may always be seen in +women’s dress. I need only mention how flexible +and variable convention and circumstances +make that remaining portion of exhibitionism +still allowed to women.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Transformation of the Obscenity into Obscene Wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>In the case of men a great part of this striving +to exhibit remains as a part of the libido +and serves to initiate the sexual act. If this +striving asserts itself on first meeting the +woman it must make use of speech for two motives. +First, in order to make itself known to +the woman; and secondly, because the awakening +of the imagination through speech puts +the woman herself in a corresponding excitement +and awakens in her the desire to passive +exhibitionism. This speech of courtship is not +yet smutty, but may pass over into the same. +Wherever the yieldingness of the woman manifests +itself quickly, smutty speech is short-lived, +for it gives way to the sexual act. It +is different if the rapid yielding of the woman +cannot be counted upon, but instead there appears +the defense reaction. In that case the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>sexually exciting speech changes into obscene +wit as its own end; as the sexual aggression +is inhibited in its progress towards the act, it +lingers at the evocation of the excitement and +derives pleasure from the indications of the +same in the woman. In this process the aggression +changes its character in the same way +as any libidinous impulse confronted by a +hindrance; it becomes distinctly hostile and +cruel, and utilizes the sadistical components of +the sexual impulse against the hindrance.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Thus the unyieldingness of the woman is +therefore the next condition for the development +of smutty wit; to be sure, this resistance +must be of the kind to indicate merely a deferment +and make it appear that further efforts +will not be in vain. The ideal case of such +resistance on the part of the woman usually results +from the simultaneous presence of another +man, a third person, whose presence almost +excludes the immediate yielding of the woman. +This third person soon becomes of the greatest +importance for the development of the smutty +wit, but next to him the presence of the +woman must be taken account of. Among +rural people or in the ordinary hostelry one +can observe that not till the waitress or the +hostess approaches the guests does the obscene +wit come out; in a higher order of society just +<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>the opposite happens, here the presence of a +woman puts an end to smutty talk. The men +reserve this kind of conversation, which originally +presupposed the presence of bashful +women, until they are alone, “by themselves.” +Thus gradually the spectator, now turned the +listener, takes the place of the woman as the +object of the smutty joke, and through such +a change the smutty joke already approaches +the character of wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Henceforth our attention may be centered +upon two factors, first upon the rôle that the +third person—the listener—plays, and secondly, +upon the intrinsic conditions of the smutty joke +itself.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Tendency-wit usually requires three persons. +Besides the one who makes the wit there is a +second person who is taken as the object of +the hostile or sexual aggression, and a third +person in whom the purpose of the wit to produce +pleasure is fulfilled. We shall later on +inquire into the deeper motive of this relationship, +for the present we shall adhere to the +fact which states that it is not the maker of +the wit who laughs about it and enjoys its +pleasurable effect, but it is the idle listener who +does. The same relationship exists among the +three persons connected with the smutty joke. +The process may be described as follows: As +<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>soon as the libidinous impulse of the first person, +to satisfy himself through the woman, is +blocked, he immediately develops a hostile attitude +towards this second person and takes the +originally intruding third person as his confederate. +Through the obscene speech of the first +person the woman is exposed before the third +person, who as a listener is fascinated by the +easy gratification of his own libido.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is curious that common people so +thoroughly enjoy such smutty talk, and that it +is a never-lacking activity of cheerful humor. +It is also worthy of notice that in this complicated +process which shows so many characteristics +of tendency-wit, no formal demands, such +as characterize wit, are made upon “smutty +wit.” The unveiled nudity affords pleasure to +the first and makes the third person laugh.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Not until we come to the refined and cultured +does the formal determination of wit +arise. The obscenity becomes witty and is tolerated +only if it is witty. The technical means +of which it mostly makes use is allusion, i.e., +substitution through a trifle, something remotely +related, which the listener reconstructs +in his imagination as a full-fledged and direct +obscenity. The greater the disproportion between +what is directly offered in the obscenity +and what is necessarily aroused by it in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>mind of the listener, the finer is the witticism +and the higher it may venture in good society. +Besides the coarse and delicate allusions, the +witty obscenity also utilizes all other means of +word- and thought-wit, as can be easily demonstrated +by examples.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Function of Wit in the Service of the Tendency</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>It now becomes comprehensible what wit accomplishes +through this service of its tendency. +It makes possible the gratification of a craving +(lewd or hostile) despite a hindrance which +stands in the way; it eludes the hindrance and +so derives pleasure from a source that has become +inaccessible on account of the hindrance. +The hindrance in the way is really nothing +more than the higher degree of culture and education +which correspondingly increases the inability +of the woman to tolerate the stark sex. +The woman thought of as present in the final +situation is still considered present, or her influence +acts as a deterrent to the men even in +her absence. One often notices how cultured +men are influenced by the company of girls of +a lower station in life to change witty obscenities +to broad smut.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The power which renders it difficult or impossible +<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>for the woman, and in a lesser degree +for the man, to enjoy unveiled obscenities we +call “repression,” and we recognize in it the +same psychic process which keeps from consciousness +in severe nervous attacks whole complexes +of emotions with their resultant affects, +and has shown itself to be the principal factor +in the causation of the so-called psychoneuroses. +We acknowledge to culture and higher civilization +an important influence in the development +of repressions, and assume that under +these conditions there has come about a change +in our psychic organization which may also +have been brought along as an inherited disposition. +In consequence of it, what was once +accepted as pleasureful is now counted unacceptable +and is rejected by means of all the +psychic forces. Owing to the repression +brought about by civilization many primary +pleasures are now disapproved by the censor +and lost. But the human psyche finds renunciation +very difficult; hence we discover that +tendency-wit furnishes us with a means to make +the renunciation retrogressive and thus to regain +what has been lost. When we laugh over +a delicately obscene witticism, we laugh at the +identical thing which causes laughter in the ill-bred +man when he hears a coarse, obscene joke; +in both cases the pleasure comes from the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>same source. The coarse, obscene joke, however, +could not incite us to laughter, because +it would cause us shame or would seem to us +disgusting; we can laugh only when wit comes +to our aid.</p> + +<p class='c008'>What we had presumed in the beginning +seems to have been confirmed, namely, that +tendency-wit has access to other sources of +pleasure than harmless wit, in which all the +pleasure is somehow dependent upon the technique. +We can also reiterate that owing to +our feelings we are in no position to distinguish +in tendency-wit what part of the pleasure +originates from the technique and what +part from the tendency. <em>Strictly speaking, we +do not know what we are laughing about.</em> In +all obscene jokes we succumb to striking mistakes +of judgment about the “goodness” of +the joke as far as it depends upon formal conditions; +the technique of these jokes is often +very poor while their laughing effect is +enormous.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Invectives Made Possible Through Wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We next wish to determine whether the rôle +of wit in the service of the hostile tendency +is the same.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Right from the start we meet with similar +<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>conditions. Since our individual childhood +and the childhood of human civilization, our +hostile impulses towards our fellow-beings have +been subjected to the same restrictions and the +same progressive repressions as our sexual +strivings. We have not yet progressed so far +as to love our enemies, or to extend to them +our left cheek after we are smitten on the +right. Furthermore, all moral codes about the +subjection of active hatred bear even to-day +the clearest indications that they were originally +meant for a small community of clansmen. As +we all may consider ourselves members of some +nation, we permit ourselves for the most part +to forget these restrictions in matters touching +a foreign people. But within our own circles +we have nevertheless made progress in the +mastery of hostile emotions. Lichtenberg +drastically puts it when he says: “Where nowadays +one says, ‘I beg your pardon,’ formerly +one had recourse to a cuff on the ear.” Violent +hostility, no longer tolerated by law, has +been replaced by verbal invectives, and the better +understanding of the concatenation of human +emotions robs us, through its consequential +“<i><span lang="fr">Tout comprendre c’est tout pardonner</span></i>,” +more and more of the capacity to become angry +at our fellowman who is in our way. Having +been endowed with a strong hostile disposition +<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>in our childhood, higher personal civilization +teaches us later that it is undignified to use +abusive language; even where combat is still +permitted, the number of things which may be +used as means of combat has been markedly +restricted. Society, as the third and dispassionate +party in the combat to whose interest it +is to safeguard personal safety, prevents us +from expressing our hostile feelings in action; +and hence, as in sexual aggression, there has +developed a new technique of invectives, the +aim of which is to enlist this third person +against our enemy. By belittling and humbling +our enemy, by scorning and ridiculing +him, we indirectly obtain the pleasure of his +defeat by the laughter of the third person, +the inactive spectator.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are now prepared for the rôle that wit +plays in hostile aggression. Wit permits us +to make our enemy ridiculous through that +which we could not utter loudly or consciously +on account of existing hindrances; in other +words, <em>wit affords us the means of surmounting +restrictions and of opening up otherwise +inaccessible pleasure-sources</em>. Moreover, the +listener will be induced by the gain in pleasure +to take our part, even if he is not altogether +convinced,—just as we on other occasions, +when fascinated by harmless witticism, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>were wont to overestimate the substance of the +sentence wittily expressed. “To prejudice +the laughter in one’s own favor” is a completely +pertinent saying in the German language.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One may recall Mr. N.’s witticism given in the +last chapter (p. 28). It is of an insulting nature, +as if the author wished to shout loudly: +But the minister of agriculture is himself an ox! +But he, as a man of culture, could not put +his opinion in this form. He therefore appealed +to wit which assured his opinion a reception +at the hands of the listeners which, +in spite of its amount of truth, never would +have been received if in an unwitty form. +Brill cites an excellent example of a similar +kind: <em>Wendell Phillips, according to a recent +biography by Dr. Lorenzo Sears, was on one +occasion lecturing in Ohio, and while on a +railroad journey going to keep one of his appointments +met in the car a number of clergymen +returning from some sort of convention. +One of the ministers, feeling called upon to +approach Mr. Phillips, asked him, “Are you +Mr. Phillips?” “I am, sir.” “Are you trying +to free the niggers?” “Yes, sir; I am an +abolitionist.” “Well, why do you preach your +doctrines up here? Why don’t you go over +into Kentucky?” “Excuse me, are you a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>preacher?” “I am, sir.” “Are you trying to +save souls from hell?” “Yes, sir, that’s my +business.” “Well, why don’t you go there?”</em> +The assailant hurried into the smoker amid a +roar of unsanctified laughter. This anecdote +nicely illustrates the tendency-wit in the +service of hostile aggression. The minister’s +behavior was offensive and irritating, yet +Wendell Phillips as a man of culture could +not defend himself in the same manner as a +common, ill-bred person would have done, and +as his inner feelings must have prompted him +to do. The only alternative under the circumstances +would have been to take the affront +in silence, had not wit showed him the way, +and enabled him by the technical means of +unification to turn the tables on his assailant. +He not only belittled him and turned him +into ridicule, but by his clever retort, “Well, +why don’t you go there?” fascinated the other +clergymen, and thus brought them to his side.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Although the hindrance to the aggression +which the wit helped to elude was in these +cases of an inner nature—the æsthetic resistance +against insulting—it may at other +times be of a purely outer nature. So it was +in the case when Serenissimus asked the +stranger who had a striking resemblance to +himself: “Was your mother ever in my home?” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>and he received the ready reply, “No, but +my father was.” The stranger would certainly +have felled the imprudent inquirer who +dared to make an ignominious allusion to the +memory of his mother; but this imprudent +person was Serenissimus, who may not be felled +and not even insulted unless one wishes to +pay for this revenge with his life. The only +thing left was to swallow the insult in silence; +but luckily wit pointed out the way of requiting +the insult without personally imperiling +one’s self. It was accomplished simply by +treating the allusion with the technical means +of unification and employing it against the +aggressor. The impression of wit is here so +thoroughly determined by the tendency that +in view of the witty rejoinder we are inclined +to forget that the aggressor’s inquiry is itself +made witty by allusion.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Rebellion Against Authority Through Wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The prevention of abuse or insulting retorts +through outer circumstances is so often the +case that tendency-wit is used with special +preference as a weapon of attack or criticism +of superiors who claim to be an authority. +Wit then serves as a resistance against such +authority and as an escape from its pressure. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>In this factor, too, lies the charm of caricature, +at which we laugh even if it is badly done +simply because we consider its resistance to +authority a great merit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If we keep in mind that tendency-wit is so +well adapted as a weapon of attack upon what +is great, dignified, and mighty, that which is +shielded by internal hindrances or external +circumstance against direct disparagement, we +are forced to a special conception of certain +groups of witticisms which seem to occupy +themselves with inferior and powerless persons. +I am referring to the marriage-agent stories,—with +a few of which we have become familiar +in the investigation of the manifold techniques +of thought-wit. In some of these examples, +“But she is deaf, too!” and “Who in the world +would ever lend these people anything!” the +agent was derided as a careless and thoughtless +person who becomes comical because the truth +escapes his lips automatically, as it were. But +does on the one hand what we have learned +about the nature of tendency-wit, and on the +other hand the amount of satisfaction in these +stories, harmonize with the misery of the persons +at whom the joke seems to be pointed? +Are these worthy opponents of the wit? Or, +is it not more plausible to suppose that the +wit puts the agent in the foreground only in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>order to strike at something more important; +does it, as the saying goes, strike the saddle +pack, when it is meant for the mule? This +conception can really not be rejected.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The above-mentioned interpretation of the +marriage-agent stories admits of a continuation. +It is true that I need not enter into +them, that I can content myself with seeing +the farcical in these stories, and can dispute +their witty character. However, such subjective +determination of wit actually exists. We +have now become cognizant of it and shall +later on have to investigate it. It means that +only that is a witticism which I wish to consider +as such. What may be wit to me, may +be only an amusing story to another. But if +a witticism admits of doubt, that can be due +only to the fact that it is possessed of a show-side,—in +our examples it happens to be a +façade of the comic,—upon which one may be +satisfied to bestow a single glance while another +may attempt to peep behind. We also suspect +that this façade is intended to dazzle the prying +glance which is to say that such stories +have something to conceal.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At all events, if our marriage-agent stories +are witticisms at all, they are all the better +witticisms because, thanks to their façade, they +are in a position to conceal not only what they +<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>have to say but also that they have something—forbidden—to +say. But the continuation of +the interpretation, which reveals this hidden +part and shows that these stories having a comical +façade are tendency-witticisms, would be +as follows: Every one who allows the truth to +escape his lips in an unguarded moment is +really pleased to have rid himself of this +thought. This is a correct and far-reaching +psychological insight. Without the inner assent +no one would allow himself to be overpowered +by the automatism which here brings the +truth to light.<a id='r41'></a><a href='#f41' class='c007'><sup>[41]</sup></a> The marriage agent is thus +transformed from a ludicrous personage into +an object deserving of pity and sympathy. +How blest must be the man, able at last to unburden +himself of the weight of dissimulation, +if he immediately seizes the first opportunity +to shout out the last fragment of truth! As +soon as he sees that his case is lost, that the +prospective bride does not suit the young man, +he gladly betrays the secret that the girl has +still another blemish which the young man had +overlooked, or he makes use of the chance to +present a conclusive argument in detail in +order to express his contempt for the people +<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>who employ him: “Who in the world would +ever lend these people anything!” The ludicrousness +of the whole thing now reverts upon +the parents,—hardly mentioned in the story,—who +consider such deceptions justified to clutch +a man for their daughter; it also reflects upon +the wretched state of the girls who get married +through such contrivances, and upon the +want of dignity of the marriage contracted +after such preliminaries. The agent is the +right person to express such criticisms, for he +is best acquainted with these abuses; but he +may not raise his voice, because he is a poor +man whose livelihood depends altogether on +turning these abuses to his advantage. But the +same conflict is found in the national spirit +which has given rise to these and similar +stories; for he is aware that the holiness of wedlock +suffers severely by reference to some of +the methods of marriage-making.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We recall also the observation made during +the investigation of wit-technique, namely, that +absurdity in wit frequently stands for derision +and criticism in the thought behind the witticism, +wherein the wit-work follows the dream-work. +This state of affairs, we find, is here +once more confirmed. That the derision and +criticism are not aimed at the agent, who appears +in the former examples only as the whipping +<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>boy of the joke, is shown by another series +in which the agent, on the contrary, is pictured +as a superior person whose dialectics are a +match for any difficulty. They are stories +whose façades are logical instead of comical—they +are sophistic thought-witticisms. In one +of them (p. 83) the agent knows how to circumvent +the limping of the bride by stating +that in her case it is at least “a finished job”; +another woman with straight limbs would be +in constant danger of falling and breaking +a leg, which would be followed by sickness, +pains, and doctor’s fees—all of which can be +avoided by marrying the one already limping. +Again in another example (p. 81) the agent +is clever enough to refute by good arguments +each of the whole series of the suitor’s +objections against the bride; only to the +last, which cannot be glossed over, he rejoins, +“Do you expect her to have no blemishes +at all?” as if the other objections had +not left behind an important remnant. It is +not difficult to pick out the weak points of the +arguments in both examples, a thing which we +have done during the investigation of the technique. +But now something else interests us. +If the agent’s speech is endowed with such a +strong semblance of logic, which on more careful +examination proves to be merely a semblance, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>then the truth must be lurking in the +fact that the witticism adjudges the agent to +be right. The thought does not dare to admit +that he is right in all seriousness, and replaces +it by the semblance which the wit brings forth; +but here, as it often happens, the jest betrays +the seriousness of it. We shall not err if we +assume that all stories with logical façades +really mean what they assert even if these assertions +are deliberately falsely motivated. +Only this use of sophism for the veiled presentation +of the truth endows it with the character +of wit, which is mainly dependent upon +tendency. What these two stories wish to indicate +is that the suitor really makes himself +ridiculous when he collects together so sedulously +the individual charms of the bride which +are transient after all, and when he forgets at +the same time that he must be prepared to +take as his wife a human being with inevitable +faults; whereas, the only virtue which might +make tolerable marriage with the more or less +imperfect personality of the woman,—mutual +attachment and willingness for affectionate +adaptation,—is not once mentioned in the +whole affair.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Ridicule of the suitor as seen in these examples +in which the agent quite correctly assumes +the rôle of superiority, is much more +<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>clearly depicted in other examples. The more +pointed the stories, the less wit-technique they +contain; they are, as it were, merely border-line +cases of wit with whose technique they +have only the façade-formation in common. +However, in view of the same tendency and +the concealment of the same behind the façade, +they obtain the full effect of wit. The poverty +of technical means makes it clear also that +many witticisms of that kind cannot dispense +with the comic element of jargon which acts +similarly to wit-technique without great sacrifices.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The following is such a story, which with all +the force of tendency-wit obviates all traces +of that technique. <em>The agent asks: “What +are you looking for in your bride?” The +reply is: “She must be pretty, she must be +rich, and she must be cultured.” “Very well,” +was the agent’s rejoinder. “But what you +want will make three matches.”</em> Here the reproach +is no longer embodied in wit, but is +made directly to the man.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In all the preceding examples the veiled aggression +was still directed against persons; in +the marriage-agent jokes it is directed against +all the parties involved in the betrothal—the +bridegroom, bride, and her parents. The object +of attack by wit may equally well be institutions, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>persons, in so far as they may act +as agents of these, moral or religious precepts, +or even philosophies of life which enjoy so +much respect that they can be challenged in no +other way than under the guise of a witticism, +and one that is veiled by a façade at that. No +matter how few the themes upon which tendency-wit +may play, its forms and investments +are manifold. I believe that we shall do well +to designate this species of tendency-wit by a +special name. To decide what name will be +appropriate is possible only after analyzing a +few examples of this kind.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Witty Cynicism</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>I recall the two little stories about the impecunious +gourmand who was caught eating +“salmon with mayonnaise,” and about the tippling +tutor; these witty stories, which we have +learned to regard as sophistical displacement-wit, +I shall continue to analyze. We have +learned since then that when the semblance of +logic is attached to the façade of a story, the +actual thought is as follows: The man is +right; but on account of the opposing contradiction, +I did not dare to admit the fact except +for one point in which his error is easily +demonstrable. The “point” chosen is the correct +<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>compromise between his right and his +wrong; this is really no decision, but bespeaks +the conflict within ourselves. Both stories are +simply epicurean. They say, Yes, the man is +right; nothing is greater than pleasure, and it +is fairly immaterial in what manner one procures +it. This sounds frightfully immoral, and +perhaps it is, but fundamentally it is nothing +more than the “<em>Carpe diem</em>” of the poet who +refers to the uncertainty of life and the bareness +of virtuous renunciation. If we are repelled +by the idea that the man in the joke +about “salmon with mayonnaise” is in the +right, then it is merely due to the fact that it +illustrates the sound sense of the man in indulging +himself—an indulgence which seems to +us wholly unnecessary. In reality each one of +us has experienced hours and times during +which he has admitted the justice of this +philosophy of life and has reproached our system +of morality for knowing only how to +make claims upon us without reimbursing us. +Since we no longer lend credence to the idea +of a hereafter in which all former renunciations +are supposed to be rewarded by gratification—(there +are very few pious persons if one +makes renunciation the password of faith)—“<em>Carpe +diem</em>” becomes the first admonition. I +am quite ready to postpone the gratification, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>but how do I know whether I shall still be +alive to-morrow?</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span lang="it">Di doman’ non c’e certezza.</span>”<a id='r42'></a><a href='#f42' class='c007'><sup>[42]</sup></a></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>I am quite willing to give up all the paths +to gratification interdicted by society, but am +I sure that society will reward me for this renunciation +by opening for me—even after a +certain delay—one of the permitted paths? +One can plainly tell what these witticisms +whisper, namely, that the wishes and desires of +man have a right to make themselves perceptible +next to our pretentious and inconsiderate +morality. And in our times it has been said in +emphatic and striking terms that this morality +is merely the selfish precept of the few rich +and mighty who can gratify their desires at +any time without deferment. As long as the art +of healing has not succeeded in safeguarding +our lives, and as long as the social organizations +do not do more towards making conditions +more agreeable, just so long cannot the +voice within us which is striving against the +demands of morality, be stifled. Every honest +person finally makes this admission—at least +to himself. The decision in this conflict is possible +only through the roundabout way of a +new understanding. One must be able to knit +<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>one’s life so closely to that of others, and to +form such an intimate identification with +others, that the shortening of one’s own term +of life becomes surmountable; one should not +unlawfully fulfill the demands of one’s own +needs, but should leave them unfulfilled, because +only the continuance of so many unfulfilled +demands can develop the power to recast +the social order. But not all personal +needs allow themselves to be displaced in such +a manner and transferred to others, nor is +there a universal and definite solution of the +conflict.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We now know how to designate the witticisms +just discussed; they are cynical witticisms, +and what they conceal are cynicisms.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Among the institutions which cynical wit is +wont to attack there is none more important +and more completely protected by moral precepts, +and yet more inviting of attack, than the +institution of marriage. Most of the cynical +jokes are directed against it. For no demand +is more personal than that made upon sexual +freedom, and nowhere has civilization attempted +to exert a more stringent suppression +than in the realm of sexuality. For our purposes +a single example suffices: the “Entries +in the Album of Prince Carnival” mentioned +on page 108.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>“<em>A wife is like an umbrella, at worst one +may always take a cab.</em>”</p> + +<p class='c008'>We have already elucidated the complicated +technique of this example; it is a puzzling and +seemingly impossible comparison which however, +as we now see, is not in itself witty; it +shows besides an allusion (cab = public conveyance), +and as the strongest technical means +it also shows an omission which serves to make +it still more unintelligible. The comparison +may be worked out in the following manner. +A man marries in order to guard himself +against the temptations of sensuality, but it +then turns out that after all marriage affords +no gratification for one of stronger needs, just +as one takes along an umbrella for protection +against rain only to get wet in spite of it. In +both cases one must search for better protection; +in one case one must take a public cab, +in the other women procurable for money. +Now the wit has almost entirely been replaced +by cynicism. That marriage is not the organization +which can satisfy a man’s sexuality, one +does not dare to say loudly and frankly unless +indeed it be one like Christian v. Ehrenfels,<a id='r43'></a><a href='#f43' class='c007'><sup>[43]</sup></a> +who is forced to it by the love of truth and the +zeal of reform. The strength of this witticism +<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>lies in the fact that it has expressed the +thought even though it had to be done through +all sorts of roundabout ways.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Cynical Witticisms and Self-criticism</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>A particularly favorable case for tendency-wit +results if the intended criticism of the +inner resistance is directed against one’s own +person, or, more carefully expressed, against a +person in whom one takes interest, that is, a +composite personality such as one’s own people. +This determination of self-criticism may +make clear why it is that a number of the most +excellent jokes of which we have shown here +many specimens should have sprung into existence +from the soil of Jewish national life. +They are stories which were invented by Jews +themselves and which are directed against Jewish +peculiarities. The Jewish jokes made up +by non-Jews are nearly all brutal buffooneries +in which the wit is spared by the fact that the +Jew appears as a comic figure to a stranger. +The Jewish jokes which originate with Jews +admit this, but they know their real shortcomings +as well as their merits, and the interest +of the person himself in the thing to be criticised +produces the subjective determination of +the wit-work which would otherwise be difficult +to bring about. Incidentally I do not know +<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>whether one often finds a people that makes +merry so unreservedly over its own shortcomings.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As an illustration I can point to the story +cited on page 112 in which the Jew in the train +immediately abandons all sense of decency of +deportment as soon as he recognizes the new +arrival in his coupé as his coreligionist. We +have come to know this joke as an illustration +by means of a detail—representation through +a trifle; it is supposed to represent the democratic +mode of thought of the Jew who recognizes +no difference between master and servant, +but unfortunately this also disturbs discipline +and co-operation. Another especially +interesting series of jokes presents the relationship +between the poor and the rich Jews: their +heroes are the “shnorrer,”<a id='r44'></a><a href='#f44' class='c007'><sup>[44]</sup></a> and the charitable +gentleman or the baron. <em>The shnorrer, who +was a regular Sunday-dinner guest at a certain +house, appeared one day accompanied by +a young stranger, who prepared to seat himself +at the table. “Who is that?” demanded the +host. “He became my son-in-law last week,” +was the reply, “and I have agreed to supply +his board for the first year.”</em> The tendency of +these stories is always the same, and is most +distinctly shown in the following story. <em>The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>shnorrer supplicates the baron for money to +visit the bathing resort Ostend, as the physician +has ordered him to take sea baths for +his ailment. The baron remarks that Ostend +is an especially expensive resort, and that a +less fashionable place would do just as well. +But the shnorrer rejects that proposition by +saying, “Herr Baron, nothing is too expensive +for my health.”</em> That is an excellent displacement-witticism +which we could have taken as +a model of its kind. The baron is evidently +anxious to save his money, but the shnorrer replies +as if the baron’s money were his own, +which he may then consider secondary to his +health. One is forced to laugh at the insolence +of the demand, but these jokes are exceptionally +unequipped with a façade to becloud the +understanding. The truth is that the shnorrer +who mentally treats the rich man’s money as +his own, really possesses almost the right to +this mistake, according to the sacred codes of +the Jews. Naturally the resistance which is +responsible for this joke is directed against the +law which even the pious find very oppressing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Another story relates <em>how on the steps of a +rich man’s house a shnorrer met one of his own +kind. The latter counseled him to depart, saying, +“Do not go up to-day, the Baron is out +of sorts and refuses to give any one more than +<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>a dollar.” “I will go up anyway,” replied the +first. “Why in the world should I make him, +a present of a dollar? Is he making me any +presents?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>This witticism makes use of the technique of +absurdity by permitting the shnorrer to declare +that the baron gives him nothing at the same +moment in which he is preparing to beg him +for the donation. But the absurdity is only +apparent, for it is almost true that the rich +man gives him nothing, since he is obligated by +the mandate to give alms, and strictly speaking +must be thankful that the shnorrer gives +him an opportunity to be charitable. The +ordinary, bourgeois conception of alms is at +cross-purposes with the religious one; it openly +revolts against the religious conception in the +<em>story about the baron who, having been deeply +touched by the shnorrer’s tale of woe, rang +for his servants and said: “Throw him out of +the house; he is breaking my heart.”</em> This obvious +exposition of the tendency again creates +a case of border-line wit. From the no longer +witty complaint: “It is really no advantage to +be a rich man among Jews. The foreign +misery does not grant one the pleasure of one’s +own fortune,” these last stories are distinguished +only by the illustration of a single situation.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>Other stories as the following, which, technically +again presenting border-lines of wit, +have their origin in a deeply pessimistic cynicism. +<em>A patient whose hearing was defective +consulted a physician who made the correct +diagnosis, namely, that the patient probably +drank too much whiskey and consequently was +becoming deaf. He advised him to desist from +drinking and the patient promised to follow +his advice. Some time thereafter the doctor +met him on the street and inquired in a loud +voice about his condition. “Thank you, Doctor,” +was the reply, “there is no necessity for +speaking so loudly, I have given up drinking +whiskey and consequently I hear perfectly.” +Some time afterwards they met again. The +doctor again inquired into his condition in the +usual voice, but noticed that he did not make +himself understood. “It seems to me that you +are deaf again because you have returned to +drinking whiskey,” shouted the doctor in the +patient’s ear. “Perhaps you are right,” answered +the latter, “I have taken to drinking +again, and I shall tell you why. As long as I +did not drink I could hear, but all that I +heard was not as good as the whiskey.”</em> +Technically this joke is nothing more than an +illustration. The jargon and the ability of the +<em>raconteur</em> must aid the producing of laughter. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>But behind it there lies the sad question, “Is +not the man right in his choice?”</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is the manifold hopeless misery of the +Jews to which these pessimistical stories allude, +which urged me to add them to tendency-wit.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Critical and Blasphemous Witticisms</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Other jokes, cynical in a similar sense, +and not only stories about Jews, attack religious +dogmas and the belief in God Himself. +The story about the “telepathic look of the +rabbi,” whose technique consisted in the faulty +thinking which made phantasy equal to reality, +(the conception of displacement is also tenable) +is such a cynical or critical witticism directed +against miracle-workers and also, surely, +against belief in miracles. Heine is reported +to have made a directly blasphemous joke as +he lay dying. <i>When the kindly priest commended +him to God’s mercy and inspired him +with the hope that God would forgive him his +sins, he replied: “<span lang="fr">Bien sûr qu’il me pardonnera; +c’est son métier.</span>”</i> That is a derogatory +comparison; technically its value lies only in +the allusion, for a métier—business or vocation—is +plied either by a craftsman or a physician, +and what is more he has only a single métier. +The strength of the wit, however, lies in its +<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>tendency. The joke is intended to mean nothing +else, but: Certainly he will forgive me; that +is what he is here for, and for no other purpose +have I engaged him (just as one retains +one’s doctor or one’s lawyer). Thus, the helpless +dying man is still conscious of the fact that +he has created God for himself and has clothed +Him with the power in order to make use of +Him as occasion arises. The so-called creature +makes itself known as the Creator only a short +time before his extinction.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Skeptical Wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>To the three kinds of tendency-wit discussed +so far—exhibitionistic or obscene wit, aggressive +or hostile wit, and cynical wit (critical, blasphemous)—I +desire to add a fourth and the +most uncommon of all, whose character can be +elucidated by a good example.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>Two Jews met in a train at a Galician railway +station. “Where are you traveling?” +asked one. “To Cracow,” was the reply. “Now +see here, what a liar you are!” said the first +one, bristling. “When you say that you are +traveling to Cracow, you really wish me to believe +that you are traveling to Lemberg. Well, +but I am sure that you are really traveling to +Cracow, so why lie about it?”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>This precious story, which creates an impression +of exaggerated subtlety, evidently operates +by means of the technique of absurdity. +The second Jew has put himself in the way of +being called a liar because he has said that he +is traveling to Cracow, which is his real goal! +However, this strong technical means—absurdity—is +paired here with another technique—representation +through the opposite, for, according +to the uncontradicted assertion of the +first, the second one is lying when he speaks +the truth, and speaks the truth by means of a +lie. However, the more earnest content of this +joke is the question of the conditions of truth; +again the joke points to a problem and makes +use of the uncertainty of one of our commonest +notions. Does it constitute truth if one +describes things as they are and does not concern +himself with the way the hearers will interpret +what one has said? Or is this merely +Jesuitical truth, and does not the real truthfulness +consist much more in having a regard for +the hearer and of furnishing him an exact picture +of his own mind? I consider jokes of this +type sufficiently different from the others to +assign them a special place. What they attack +is not a person nor an institution, but the certainty +of our very knowledge—one of our +speculative gifts. Hence the name “skeptical” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>witticism will be the most expressive for +them.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the course of our discussion of the tendencies +of wit we have gotten perhaps many an +elucidation and certainly found numerous incentives +for further investigations. But the results +of this chapter combine with those of the preceding +chapter to form a difficult problem. If +it be true that the pleasure created by wit is dependent +upon the technique on one hand and +upon the tendency on the other hand, under +what common point of view can these two utterly +different pleasure-sources of wit he +united?</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span> + <h2 class='c005'>B. SYNTHESIS</h2> +</div> +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span> + <h3 class='c001'>IV<br> <span class='c015'>THE PLEASURE MECHANISM AND THE PSYCHOGENESIS OF WIT</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We can now definitely assert that we know +from what sources the peculiar pleasure arises +furnished us by wit. We know that we can be +easily misled to mistake our sense of satisfaction +experienced through the thought-content +of the sentence for the actual pleasure derived +from the wit, on the other hand, the latter itself +has two intrinsic sources, namely, the wit-technique +and the wit-tendency. What we now +desire to ascertain is the manner in which +pleasure originates from these sources and the +mechanism of this resultant pleasure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It seems to us that the desired explanation +can be more easily ascertained in tendency-wit +than in harmless wit. We shall therefore commence +with the former.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The pleasure in tendency-wit results from +the fact that a tendency, whose gratification +would otherwise remain unfulfilled, is actually +gratified. That such gratification is a source +of pleasure is self-evident without further discussion. +But the manner in which wit brings +<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>about gratification is connected with special +conditions from which we may perhaps gain +further information. Here two cases must be +differentiated. The simpler case is the one in +which the gratification of the tendency is opposed +by an external hindrance which is eluded +by the wit. This process we found, for example, +in the reply which Serenissimus received +to his query whether the mother of the stranger +he addressed had ever sojourned in his home, +and likewise in the question of the art critic +who asked: “And where is the Savior?” when +the two rich rogues showed him their portraits. +In one case the tendency serves to answer one +insult with another; in the other case it offers +an affront instead of the demanded expert +opinion; in both cases the tendency was opposed +by purely external factors, namely, the +powerful position of the persons who are the +targets of the insult. Nevertheless it may seem +strange to us that these and analogous tendency-witticisms +have not the power to produce +a strong laughing effect, no matter how much +they may gratify us.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is different, however, if no external factors +but internal hindrances stand in the way +of the direct realization of the tendency, that +is, if an inner feeling opposes the tendency. +This condition, according to our assumption, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>was present in the aggressive joke of Mr. N. +(p. 28) and in the one of Wendell Phillips, in +whom a strong inclination to use invectives was +stifled by a highly developed æsthetic sense. +With the aid of wit the inner resistances in +these special cases were overcome and the inhibition +removed. As in the case of external +hindrances, the gratification of the tendency is +made possible, and a suppression with its concomitant +“psychic damming” is thus obviated. +So far the mechanism of the development of +pleasure would seem to be identical in both +cases.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At this place, however, we are inclined to +feel that we should enter more deeply into the +differentiation of the psychological situation between +the cases of external and internal hindrance, +as we have a faint notion that the removal +of the inner hindrance might possibly +result in a disproportionately higher contribution +to pleasure. But I propose that we rest +content here, that we be satisfied for the present +with this one collection of evidence which +adheres to what is essential to us. The only +difference between the cases of outer and inner +hindrances consists in the fact that here an already +existing inhibition is removed, while +there the formation of a new inhibition is +avoided. We hardly resort to speculation when +<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>we assert that a “<em>psychic expenditure</em>” is required +for the formation as well as for the retention +of a psychic inhibition. Now if we find +that in both cases the use of the tendency-wit +produces pleasure, then it may be assumed +<em>that such resultant pleasure corresponds to the +economy of psychic expenditure</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Thus we are once more confronted with the +principle of <em>economy</em> which we noticed first in +the study of the technique of word-wit. But +whereas the economy we believed to have found +at first was in the use of few or possibly the +same words, we can here foresee an economy +of psychic expenditure in general in a far more +comprehensive sense, and we think it possible +to come nearer to the nature of wit through +a better determination of the as yet very obscure +idea of “psychic expenditure.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>A certain amount of haziness which we could +not dissipate during the study of the pleasure +mechanism in tendency-wit we accept as a +slight punishment for attempting to elucidate +more complicated problem before the simpler +one, or the tendency-wit before the harmless +wit. We observe that “<em>economy in the expenditure +of inhibitions or suppressions</em>” seems +to be the secret of the pleasurable effect of +tendency-wit, and we now turn to the mechanism +of the pleasure in harmless wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>While examining appropriate examples of +harmless witticisms, in which we had no fear +of false judgment through content or tendency, +we were forced to the conclusion that the +techniques of with themselves are pleasure-sources; +now we wish to ascertain whether the +pleasure may be traced to the economy in +psychic expenditure. In a group of these witticisms +(plays on words) the technique consisted +in directing the psychic focus upon the +sound instead of upon the sense of the word, +and in allowing the (acoustic) word-disguise +to take the place of the meaning accorded to it +by its relations to reality. We are really justified +in assuming that great relief is thereby afforded +to the psychic work, and that in the +serious use of words we refrain from this convenient +procedure only at the expense of a +certain amount of exertion. We can observe +that abnormal mental states, in which the possibility +of concentrating psychic expenditure on +one place is probably restricted, actually allow +to come to the foreground word-sound associations +of this kind rather than the significance of +the words, and that such patients react in their +speech with “outer” instead of “inner” associations. +Also in children who are still accustomed +to treat the word as an object we +notice the inclination to look for the same +<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>meaning in words of the same or of similar +sounds, which is a source of great amusement +to adults. If we experience in wit an unmistakable +pleasure because through the use of the +same or similar words we reach from one set +of ideas to a distant other one, (as in “Home-Roulard” +from the kitchen to politics), we can +justly refer this pleasure to the economy of +psychic expenditure. The pleasure of the wit +resulting from such a “short-circuit” appears +greater the more remote and foreign the two +series of ideas which become related through +the same word are to each other, or the greater +the economy in thought brought about by the +technical means of wit. We may add that in +this case wit makes use of a means of connection +which is rejected by and carefully avoided +in serious thinking.<a id='r45'></a><a href='#f45' class='c007'><sup>[45]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>A second group of technical means of wit—unification, +similar sounding words, manifold +application, modification of familiar idioms, allusions +to quotations—all evince one common +character, namely, that one always discovers +something familiar where one expects to find +something new instead. To discover the familiar +is pleasurable and it is not difficult to +recognize such pleasure as economy-pleasure +and to refer it to the economy of psychic expenditure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>That the discovery of the familiar—“recognition”—causes +pleasure seems to be universally +admitted. Groos says:<a id='r46'></a><a href='#f46' class='c007'><sup>[46]</sup></a> “Recognition +is everywhere bound up with feelings of pleasure +<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>where it has not been made too mechanical, +(as perhaps in dressing...). Even the mere +quality of acquaintanceship is easily accompanied +by that gentle delight which Faust experiences +when, after an uncanny experience, he +steps into his study.” If the act of recognition +is so pleasureful, we may expect that man +merges into the habit of practicing this activity +for its own sake, that is, he experiments +playfully with it. In fact, Aristotle recognized +in the joy of rediscovery the basis of artistic +pleasure, and it cannot be denied that this +principle must not be overlooked even if it has +not such a far-reaching significance as Aristotle +assumes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Groos then discusses the games, whose character +consists of heightening the pleasure of +rediscovery by putting hindrances in its path, +or in other words by raising a “psychic dam” +which is removed by the act of recognition. +However, his attempted explanation leaves the +assumption that recognition as such is pleasurable, +in that he attributes the pleasure of recognition +connected with these games to the +pleasure in power or to the surmounting of a +difficulty. I consider this latter factor as secondary, +and I find no occasion for abandoning +the simpler explanation, that the recognition +<em>per se</em>, i.e., through the alleviation of the psychic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>expenditure, is pleasurable, and that the +games founded upon this pleasure make use +of the damming-mechanism merely in order to +intensify their effect.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We know also that the source of pleasure in +rhyme, alliteration, refrain, and other forms of +repetition of similar sounding words in poetry, +is due merely to the discovery of the familiar. +A “sense of power” plays no perceptible rôle +in these techniques, which show so marked an +agreement with the “manifold application” in +wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Considering the close connection between recognition +and remembering, the assumption is +no longer daring that there exists also a pleasure +in remembering, i.e., that the act of remembering +in itself is accompanied by a feeling of +pleasure of a similar origin. Groos seems to +have no objection to such an assumption, but +he again deducts the pleasure of remembering +from the “sense of power” in which he seeks—as +I believe unjustly—the principal basis of +pleasure in almost all games.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Factor of Actuality</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The use of another technical expedient of +wit, which has not yet been mentioned, is also +dependent upon “the rediscovery of the familiar.” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>I refer to the factor of <em>actuality</em> +(dealing with actual persons, things, or events), +which in many witticisms provides a prolific +source of pleasure and explains several peculiarities +in the life history of wit. There are +witticisms which are entirely free from this condition, +and in a treatise on wit it is incumbent +upon us to make use of such examples almost +exclusively. But we must not forget that we +laughed perhaps more heartily over such perennial +witticisms than over others; witticisms +whose application now would be difficult, because +they would require long commentaries, +and even with that aid the former effect could +not be attained. These latter witticisms contained +allusions to persons and occurrences +which were “actual” at the time, which had +stimulated general interest and were endowed +with tension. After the cessation of this +interest, after the settlement of these particular +affairs, the witticisms lost a part of +their pleasurable effect, and a very considerable. +Thus, for example, the joke which +my friendly host made when he called +the dish that was being served a “Home-Roulard,” +seems to me by no means as good +now as when the question of Home Rule was +a continuous headline in the political columns +of our newspaper. If I now attempt to express +<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>my appreciation of this joke by stating +that this one word led us from the idea of the +kitchen to the distant field of politics, and +saved us a long mental detour, I should have +been forced at that time to change this description +as follows: “That this word led us from +the idea of the kitchen to the very distant field +of politics; but that our lively interest was all +the keener because this question was constantly +absorbing us.” The same thing is true of +another joke: “<em>This girl reminds me of +Dreyfus; the army does not believe in her innocence</em>,” +which has become blurred in spite of +the fact that its technical means has remained +unchanged. The confusion arising from the +comparison with, and the double meaning of, +the word “innocence” cannot do away with the +fact that the allusion, which at that time +touched upon a matter pregnant with excitement, +now recalls an interest set at rest. The +many irresistible jokes about the present war +will sink in our estimation in a very short time.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A great many witticisms in circulation reach +a certain age or rather go through a course +composed of a flourishing season and a mature +season, and then sink into complete oblivion. +The need that people feel to draw pleasure +from their mental processes continually creates +new witticisms which are supported by current +<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>interests of the day. The vitality of actual witticisms +is not their own, it is borrowed by way +of allusion from those other interests, the expiration +of which determines the fate of the +witticism. The factor of actuality which may +be added as a transitory pleasure-source of wit, +although it is productive in itself, cannot be +simply put on the same basis as the rediscovery +of the familiar. It is much more a question of +a special qualification of the familiar which +must be aided by the quality of freshness and +recency and which has not been affected by forgetfulness. +In the formation of the dream one +also finds that there is a special preference for +what is recent, and one cannot refrain from inferring +that the association with what is recent +is rewarded or facilitated by a special pleasure +premium.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Unification, which is really nothing more +than repetition in the sphere of mental association +instead of in material, has been accorded +an especial recognition as a pleasure-source +of wit by G. Th. Fechner.<a id='r47'></a><a href='#f47' class='c007'><sup>[47]</sup></a> He says: +“In my opinion the principle of uniform connection +of the manifold, plays the most important +rôle in the field under discussion; it +needs, however, the support of subsidiary determinations +in order to drive across the threshold +<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>the pleasure with its peculiar character +which the cases here belonging can furnish.”<a id='r48'></a><a href='#f48' class='c007'><sup>[48]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>In all of these cases of repetition of the same +association or of the same word-material, of refinding +the familiar and recent, we surely cannot +be prevented from referring the pleasure +thereby experienced to the economy in psychic +expenditure; providing that this viewpoint +proves fertile for the explanation of single +facts as well as for bringing to light new generalities. +We are fully conscious of the fact +that we have yet to make clear the manner in +which this economy results and also the meaning +of the expression “psychic expenditure.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>The third group of the technique of wit, +mostly thought-wit, which includes false logic, +displacement, absurdity, representation through +the opposite, and other varieties, may seem at +first sight to present special features and to be +unrelated to the techniques of the discovery +of the familiar, or the replacing of object-associations +by word-associations. But it will not +be difficult to demonstrate that this group, too, +shows an economy or facilitation of psychic +expenditure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is quite obvious that it is easier and more +convenient to turn away from a definite trend +of thought than to stick to it; it is easier to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>mix up different things than to distinguish +them; and it is particularly easier to travel +over modes of reasoning unsanctioned by logic; +finally in connecting words or thoughts it is +especially easy to overlook the fact that such +connections should result in sense. All this is +indubitable and this is exactly what is done by +the techniques of the wit in question. It will +sound strange, however, to assert that such +processes in the wit-work may produce pleasure, +since outside of wit we can experience only +unpleasant feelings of defense against all these +kinds of inferior achievement of our mental activity.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Word-pleasure and Pleasure in Nonsense</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The “pleasure in nonsense,” as we may call +it for short, is, in the seriousness of our life, +crowded back almost to the vanishing point. +To demonstrate it we must enter into the study +of two cases in one of which it is still visible +and in the other becomes visible for the second +time. I refer to the behavior of the learning +child and to the behavior of the adult under unstable +toxic influences. When the child learns +to control the vocabulary of its mother tongue +it apparently takes great pleasure in “experimenting +playfully” with that material +<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>(Groos); it connects words without regard for +their meaning in order to obtain pleasure from +the rhyme and rhythm. Gradually the child +is deprived of this pleasure until only the senseful +connection of words is allowed him. But +even in later life there is still a tendency to +overstep the acquired restrictions in the use of +words, a tendency which manifests itself in +disfiguring the same by definite appendages, +and in changing their forms by means of certain +contrivances (reduplication, trembling +speech) or even by developing an individual +language for use in playing,—efforts which reappear +also among the insane of a certain category.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I believe that whatever the motive which +actuated the child when it began such playings, +in its further development the child indulges in +them fully conscious that they are nonsensical +and derives pleasure from this stimulus which +is interdicted by reason. It now makes use +of play in order to withdraw from the pressure +of critical reason. More powerful, however, +are the restrictions which must develop in education +along the lines of right thinking and in +the separation of reality from fiction, and it is +for this reason that the resistance against the +pressures of thinking and reality is far-reaching +and persistent; even the phenomena of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>phantasy formation come under this point of +view. The power of reason usually grows so +strong during the later part of childhood and +during that period of education which extends +over the age of puberty, that the pleasure in +“freed nonsense” rarely dares manifest itself. +One fears to utter nonsense; but it seems to +me that the inclination characteristic of boys +to act in a contradictory and inexpedient manner +is a direct outcome of this pleasure in nonsense. +In pathological cases one often sees +this tendency so accentuated that it again controls +the speeches and answers of the pupils. +In the case of some college students who +merged into neuroses I could convince myself +that the unconscious pleasure derived from the +nonsense produced by them is just as much +responsible for their mistakes as their actual +ignorance.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Reproduction of Old Liberties</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The student does not give up his demonstrations +against the pressures of thinking and +reality whose domination becomes unceasingly +intolerant and unrestricted. A good part of +the tendency of students to skylarking is responsible +for this reaction. Man is an “untiring +pleasure seeker”—I can no longer recall +<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>which author coined this happy expression—and +finds it extremely difficult to renounce +pleasure once experienced. With the hilarious +nonsense of “sprees” (<i><span lang="de">Bierschwefel</span></i>), college +cries, and songs, the student attempts to preserve +that pleasure which results from freedom +of thought, a freedom of which he is more and +more deprived through scholastic discipline. +Even much later, when as a mature man he +meets with others at scientific congresses and +class reunions and feels himself a student +again, he must read at the end of the session +the “<i><span lang="de">Kneipzeitung</span></i>,” or the comic college paper, +which distorts the newly gained knowledge into +the nonsensical and thus compensates him for the +newly added mental inhibitions.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The very terms “<i><span lang="de">Bierschwefel</span></i>” and “<i><span lang="de">Kneipzeitung</span></i>” +are proof that the reason which has +stifled the pleasure in nonsense has become so +powerful that not even temporarily can it be +abandoned without toxic agency. The change +in the state of mind is the most valuable thing +that alcohol offers man, and that is the reason +why this “poison” is not equally indispensable +for all people. The hilarious humor, whether +due to endogenous origin or whether produced +toxically, weakens the inhibiting forces among +which is reason and thus again makes accessible +pleasure-sources which are burdened by +<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>suppression. It is very instructive to see how +the demand made upon wit sinks with the rise +in spirits. The latter actually replace wit, just +as wit must make an effort to replace the mental +state in which the otherwise inhibited pleasure +possibilities (pleasure in nonsense among +the rest) assert themselves.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“With little wit and much comfort.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Under the influence of alcohol the adult +again becomes a child who derives pleasure +from the free disposal of his mental stream +without being restricted by the pressure of +logic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We hope we have shown that the technique +of absurdity in wit corresponds to a source of +pleasure. We need hardly repeat that this +pleasure results from the economy of psychic +expenditure or alleviation from the pressure +of reason.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On reviewing again the wit-technique classified +under three headings we notice that the +first and last of these groups—the replacement +of object-association by word-association, and +the use of absurdity as a restorer of old liberties +and as a relief from the pressure of +intellectual upbringing—can be taken collectively. +Psychic relief may in a way be compared +to economy, which constitutes the technique +of the second group. Alleviation of the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>already existing psychic expenditure, and economy +in the yet to be offered psychic expenditure, +are two principles from which all techniques +of wit and with them all pleasure in +these techniques can be deduced. The two +forms of the technique and the resultant pleasures +correspond more or less in general to the +division of wit into word- and thought-witticisms.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Play and Jest</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The preceding discussions have led us unexpectedly +to an understanding of the history of +the development of psychogenesis of wit which +we shall now examine still further. We have +become acquainted with the successive steps in +wit, the development of which up to tendency-wit +will undoubtedly reveal new relationships +between the different characters of wit. Antedating +wit there exists something which we +may designate as “play” or “jest.” Play—we +shall retain this name—appears in children +while they are learning how to use words and +connect thoughts; this playing is probably the +result of an impulse which urges the child to +exercise its capacities (Groos). During this +process it experiences pleasurable effects which +originate from the repetition of similarities, +the rediscovery of the familiar, sound-associations, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>etc., which may be explained as an unexpected +economy of psychic expenditure. +Therefore it surprises no one that these resulting +pleasures urge the child to practice playing +and impel it to continue without regard +for the meaning of words or the connections +between sentences. Playing with words and +thoughts, motivated by certain pleasures in +economy, would thus be the first step of wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This playing is stopped by the growing +strength of a factor which may well be called +criticism or reason. The play is then rejected +as senseless or as directly absurd, and by virtue +of reason it becomes impossible. Only accidentally +is it now possible to derive pleasure +from those sources of rediscovery of the familiar, +etc., which is explained by the fact that +the maturing person has then merged into a +playful mood which, as in the case of merriment +in the child, removes inhibitions. In this +way only is the old pleasure-giving playing +made possible, but as men do not wish to wait +for these propitious occasions and also hate to +forego this pleasure, they seek means to make +themselves independent of these pleasant states. +The further development of wit is directed by +these two impulses; the one striving to elude +reason and the other to substitute for the adult +an infantile state of mind.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>This gives rise to the second stage of wit, the +<em>jest</em> (<i><span lang="de">Scherz</span></i>). The object of the jest is to +bring about the resultant pleasure of playing +and at the same time appease the protesting +reason which strives to suppress the pleasant +feeling. There is but one way to accomplish this. +The senseless combination of words or +the absurd linking of thoughts must make sense +after all. The whole process of wit production +is therefore directed towards the discovery of +words and thought constellations which fulfill +these conditions. The jest makes use of almost +all the technical means of wit, and usage of +language makes no consequential distinction +between jest (<i><span lang="de">Scherz</span></i>) and wit (<i><span lang="de">Witz</span></i>). What +distinguishes the jest from wit is the fact that +the pith of the sentence withdrawn from criticism +does not need to be valuable, new, or even +good; it matters only that it can be expressed, +even though what it may say is obsolete, superfluous, +and useless. The most conspicuous factor +of the jest is the gratification it affords by +making possible that which reason forbids.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A mere jest is the following of Professor +Kästner, who taught physics at Göttingen in +the 16th century, and who was fond of making +jokes. Wishing to enroll a student named +Warr in his class, he asked him his age, and +upon receiving the reply that he was thirty +<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>years of age he exclaimed: “Aha, so I have +the honor of seeing the thirty years’ War.”<a id='r49'></a><a href='#f49' class='c007'><sup>[49]</sup></a> +When asked what vocations his sons followed +Rokitansky jestingly answered: “Two are healing +and two are howling,” (two physicians and +two singers). The reply was correct and therefore +unimpeachable, but it added nothing to +what is contained in the parenthetic expression. +There is no doubt that the answer assumed +another form only because of the pleasure +which arises from the unification and assonance +of both words.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I believe that we now see our way clear. In +estimating the techniques of wit we were constantly +disturbed by the fact that these are not +peculiar to wit alone, and yet the nature of wit +seemed to depend upon them, since their removal +by means of reduction nullified the character +as well as the pleasure of wit. Now we +become aware that what we have described as +techniques of wit—and which in a certain sense +we shall have to continue to call so—are really +the sources from which wit derives pleasure; +nor does it strike us as strange that other +processes draw from the same sources with the +same object in view. The technique, however, +which is peculiar to and belongs to wit alone +consists in a process of safeguarding the use +<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>of this pleasure-forming means against the +protest of reason which would obviate the pleasure. +We can make few generalizations about +this process. The wit-work, as we have already +remarked, expresses itself in the selection of +such word-material and such thought-situations +as to permit the old play with words and +thoughts to stand the test of reason; but to accomplish +this end the cleverest use must be +made of all the peculiarities of the stock of +words and of all constellations of mental combinations. +Later on perhaps we shall be in a +position to characterize the wit-work by a +definite attribute; for the present it must remain +unexplained how our wit makes its advantageous +selections. The tendency and capacity +of wit to guard the pleasure-forming +word and thought combinations against reason, +already makes itself visible as an essential criterion +in jests. From the beginning its object +is to remove inner inhibitions and thereby render +productive those pleasure-sources which have +become inaccessible, and we shall find that it +remains true to this characteristic throughout +the course of its entire development.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are now in a position to prescribe a correct +place for the factor “sense in nonsense,” +(see Introduction, page 8), to which the authors +ascribe so much significance in respect to the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>recognition of wit and the explanation of the +pleasurable effect. The two firmly established +points in the determination of wit—its tendency +to carry through the pleasureful play, and its +effort to guard it against the criticism of reason—make +it perfectly clear why the individual +witticism, even though it appear nonsensical +from one point of view, must appear full of +meaning or at least acceptable from another. +How it accomplishes this is the business of the +wit-work; if it is not successful it is relegated +to the category of “nonsense.” Nor do we find +it necessary to deduce the resultant pleasure +of wit from the conflict of feelings which +emerge either directly or by way of “confusion +and clearness,” from the simultaneous +sense and nonsense of the wit. There is just +as little necessity for our delving deeper into +the question how pleasure can come from the +succession of that part of the wit considered +senseless and from that part recognized as +senseful. The psychogenesis of wit has taught +us that the pleasure of wit arises from word-play +or from the liberation of nonsense, and +that the sense of wit is meant only to +guard this pleasure against suppression through +reason.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Jest and Wit</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Thus the problem of the essential character +of wit could almost be explained by means of +the jest. We may follow the development of +the jest until it reaches its height in the tendency-wit. +The jest gives tendency a prior +position when it is a question of supplying us +with pleasure, and it is content when its utterance +does not appear utterly senseless or insipid. +But if this utterance is substantial and +valuable the jest changes into wit. A thought, +which would have been worthy of our interest +even when expressed in the most unpretentious +form, is now invested in a form which must in +itself excite our sense of satisfaction. Such +an association we cannot help thinking certainly +has not come into existence unintentionally; +we must make effort to divine the intention +at the bottom of the formation of wit. +An incidental observation, made once before, +will put us on the right track. We have already +remarked that a good witticism gives +us, so to speak, a general feeling of satisfaction +without our being able to decide offhand +which part of the pleasure comes from the +witty form and which part from the excellent +thought contained in the context (p. 131). We +are deceiving ourselves constantly about this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>division; sometimes we overvalue the quality of +the wit on account of our admiration for the +thought contained therein, and then again we +overestimate the value of the thought on account +of the pleasure afforded us by the witty +investment. We know not what gives us pleasure +nor at what we are laughing. This uncertainty +of our judgment, assuming it to be +a fact, may have given the motive for the +formation of wit in the literal sense. The +thought seeks the witty disguise because it +thereby recommends itself to our attention and +can thus appear to us more important and valuable +than it really is; but above all because +this disguise fascinates and confuses our reason. +We are apt to attribute to the thought +the pleasure derived from the witty form, and +we are not inclined to consider improper what +has given us pleasure, and in this way deprive +ourselves of a source of pleasure. For if wit +made us laugh it was because it established in +us a mood most unfavorable to reason, which +in turn has forced upon us that state of mind +which was once contented with mere playing +and which wit has attempted to replace with +all the means at its command. Although we +have already established the fact that such wit +is harmless and does not yet show a tendency, +we may not deny that, strictly speaking, it is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>the jest alone which shows no tendency; that +is, it serves to produce pleasure only. For wit +is really never purposeless even if the thought +contained therein shows no tendency and +merely serves a theoretical, intellectual interest. +Wit carries out its purpose in advancing the +thought by magnifying it and by guarding it +against reason. Here again it reveals its original +nature in that it sets itself up against an +inhibiting and restrictive power, or against the +critical judgment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The first use of wit, which goes beyond the +mere production of pleasure, points out the +road to be followed. Wit is now recognized +as a powerful psychic factor whose weight can +decide the issue if it falls into this or that side +of the scale. The great tendencies and impulses +of our psychic life enlist its service for +their own purposes. The original purposeless +wit, which began as play, becomes related in a +<em>secondary</em> manner to tendencies from which +nothing that is formed in psychic life can +escape for any length of time. We already +know what it can achieve in the service of the +exhibitionistic, aggressive, cynical, and sceptical +tendencies. In the case of obscene wit, +which originated in the smutty joke, it makes +a confederate of the third person who originally +disturbed the sexual situation, by giving +<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>him pleasure through the utterance which +causes the woman to be ashamed in his presence. +In the case of the aggressive tendency, +wit by the same means changes the original indifferent +hearers into active haters and scorners, +and in this way confronts the enemy with +a host of opponents where formerly there was +but one. In the first case it overcomes the inhibitions +of shame and decorum by the pleasure +premium which it offers. In the second +case it overthrows the critical judgment which +would otherwise have examined the dispute in +question. In the third and fourth cases where +wit is in the service of the cynical and sceptical +tendency, it shatters the respect for institutions +and truths in which the hearer had believed, +first by strengthening the argument, +and secondly by resorting to a new method of +attack. Where the argument seeks to draw +the hearer’s reason to its side, wit strives to +push aside this reason. There is no doubt that +wit has chosen the way which is psychologically +more efficacious.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Development into Tendency-wit</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>What impressed us in reviewing the achievements +of tendency-wit was the effect it produced +on the hearer. It is more important, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>however, to understand the effect produced by +wit on the psychic life of the person who makes +it, or more precisely expressed, on the psychic +life of the person who conceives it. Once before +we have expressed the intention, which we +find occasion to repeat here, that we wish to +study the psychic processes of wit in regard +to its apportionment between two persons. +We can assume for the present that the psychic +process aroused by wit in the hearer is usually +an imitation of the psychic processes of the wit +producer. The outer inhibitions which are to +be overcome in the hearer correspond to the +inner inhibitions of the wit producer. In the +latter the expectation of the outer hindrance +exists, at least as an inhibiting idea. The inner +hindrance, which is overcome in tendency-wit, +is evident in some single cases; for example, in +Mr. N.’s joke (p. 28) we can assume that it +not only enables the hearer to enjoy the pleasure +of the aggression through injuries but it +also makes it possible for him to produce the +wit in the first place. Of the different kinds +of inner inhibitions or suppressions one is +especially worthy of our interest because it is +the most far-reaching. We designate that +form by the term “repression.” It is characterized +by the fact that it excludes from consciousness +certain former emotions and their +<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>products. We shall learn that tendency-wit +itself is capable of liberating pleasure from +sources that have undergone repression. If the +overcoming of outer hindrances can be referred, +in the manner indicated above, to inner +inhibitions and repressions we may say that +tendency-wit proves more clearly than any +other developmental stage of wit that the main +character of wit-making is to set free pleasure +by removing inhibitions. It reinforces tendencies +to which it gives its services by bringing them +assistance from repressed emotions; or it puts +itself at the disposal of the repressed tendencies +directly.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One may readily concede that these are the +functions of tendency-wit, but one must nevertheless +admit that we do not understand in +what manner these functions can succeed in +accomplishing their end. The power of tendency-wit +consists in the pleasure which it derives +from the sources of word-plays and liberated +nonsense, and if one can judge from +the impressions received from purposeless jests, +one cannot possibly consider the amount of the +pleasure so great as to believe that it has the +power to annul deep-rooted inhibitions and repressions. +As a matter of fact we do not deal +here with a simple propelling power but rather +with a more complicated mechanism. Instead +<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>of covering the long circuitous route through +which I arrived at an understanding of this relationship, +I shall endeavor to demonstrate it by +a short synthetic route.</p> + +<p class='c008'>G. Th. Fechner has established the principle +of æsthetic assistance or enhancement which he +explains in the following words: “<em>From the +unopposed meeting of pleasurable states (Bedingungen) +which individually accomplish little, +there results a greater, often much greater +resultant pleasure than is warranted by the +sum of the pleasure values of the separate +states, or a greater result than could be accounted +for as the sum of the individual effects; +in fact the mere meeting of this kind can +result in a positive pleasure product which +overflows the threshold of pleasure when the +factors taken separately are too weak to accomplish +this. The only condition is that in +comparison to others they must produce a +greater sense of satisfaction.</em>”<a id='r50'></a><a href='#f50' class='c007'><sup>[50]</sup></a> I am of the +opinion that the theme of wit does not give us +the opportunity to test the correctness of this +principle which is demonstrable in many other +artistic fields. But from wit we have learned +something, which at least comes near this principle, +namely, that in a co-operation of many +<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>pleasure-producing factors we are in no position +to assign to each one the resultant part +which really belongs to it (see p. 131). But the +situation assumed in the principle of assistance +can be varied, and for these new conditions we +can formulate the following combination of +questions which are worthy of a reply. What +usually happens if in one constellation there is +a meeting of pleasurable and painful conditions? +Upon what depends the result and the +previous intimations of the result? Tendency-wit +particularly shows these possibilities. +There is one feeling or impulse which strives +to liberate pleasure from a certain source and +under unrestricted conditions certainly would +liberate it, but there is another impulse which +works against this development of pleasure, +that is, which inhibits or suppresses it. The +suppressing stream, as the result shows, must +be somewhat stronger than the one suppressed, +which however is by no means destroyed.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Fore-pleasure Principle</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>But now there appears another impulse +which strives to set free pleasure by this identical +process, even though from different sources +it thus acts like the suppressed stream. What +can be the result in such a case? An example +can make this clearer than this schematization. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>There is an impulse to insult a certain person; +but this is so strongly opposed by a feeling +of decorum and æsthetic culture that the impulse +to insult must be crushed. If, for example, +by virtue of some changed emotional state +the insult should happen to break through, this +insulting tendency would subsequently be painfully +perceived. Therefore the insult is omitted. +There is a possibility, however, of making +good wit from the words or thoughts which +would have served in the insult; that is, pleasure +can be set free from other sources without +being hindered by the same suppression. But +the second development of pleasure would have +to be foregone if the insulting quality of the +wit were not allowed to come out, and as the +latter is allowed to come to the surface, it is +connected with the new release of pleasure. +Experience with tendency-wit shows that under +such circumstances the suppressed tendency +can become so strengthened by the aid of wit-pleasure +as to overcome the otherwise stronger +inhibition. One resorts to insults because wit +is thereby made impossible. But the satisfaction +thus obtained is not produced by wit +alone; it is incomparably greater, in fact it is +by so much greater than the pleasure of the +wit, that we must assume that the former suppressed +tendency has succeeded in breaking +<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>through, perhaps without the need of an outlet. +Under these circumstances tendency-wit +causes the most prolific laughter.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Perhaps the investigation of the determinations +of laughter will aid us in forming a +clearer picture of the process of the aid of wit +against suppression. But we see even now +that the case of tendency-wit is a special case +of the principle of aid. A possibility of the +development of pleasure enters into a situation +in which another pleasure possibility is so +hindered that individually it would not result +in pleasure. The result is a development of +pleasure which is greater by far than the added +possibility. The latter acted, as it were, as an +<em>alluring premium</em>; with the aid of a small sum +of pleasure a very large and almost inaccessible +amount is obtained. I have good grounds +for thinking that this principle corresponds to +an arrangement which holds true in many +widely separated spheres of the psychic life, +and I consider it appropriate to designate the +pleasure serving to liberate the large sum of +pleasure as <em>fore-pleasure</em> and the principle as +the <em>principle of fore-pleasure</em>.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Play-pleasure and Removal-pleasure</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The effect of tendency-wit may now be +formulated as follows: It enters the service of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>tendencies in order to produce new pleasure by +removing suppressions and repressions. This it +does, using wit-pleasure as fore-pleasure. +When we now review its development we may +say that wit has remained true to its nature +from beginning to end. It begins as play in +order to obtain pleasure from the free use of +words and thoughts. As soon as the growing +reason forbids this senseless play with words +and thoughts, it turns to the jest or joke in +order to hold to these sources of pleasure and +in order to be able to gain new pleasure from +the liberation of the absurd. In the rôle of +harmless wit it assists the thoughts and fortifies +them against the impugnment of the critical +judgment, whereby it makes use of the +principle of intermingling the pleasure-sources. +Finally, it enters into the great struggling +suppressed tendencies in order to remove inner +inhibitions in accordance with the principle of +fore-pleasure. Reason, critical judgment, and +suppression, these are the forces which it combats +in turn. It firmly holds on to the original +word-pleasure-sources, and beginning with the +stage of the jest opens for itself new pleasure-sources +by removing inhibition. The pleasure +which it produces, be it play-pleasure or removal-pleasure, +can at all times be traced to +the economy of psychic expenditure, in so far +<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>as such a conception does not contradict the +nature of pleasure, and proves itself productive +also in other fields.<a id='r51'></a><a href='#f51' class='c007'><sup>[51]</sup></a></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span> + <h3 class='c001'>V<br> <span class='c015'>THE MOTIVES OF WIT AND WIT AS A SOCIAL PROCESS</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>It seems superfluous to speak of the motives +of wit, since the purpose of obtaining pleasure +must be recognized as a sufficient motive of the +wit-work. But on the one hand it is not impossible +that still other motives participate in +the production of wit, and on the other hand, +in view of certain well-known experiences, the +theme of the subjective determination of wit +must be discussed.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Two things above all urge us to it. Though +wit-making is an excellent means of obtaining +pleasure from the psychic processes, we know +that not all persons are equally able to make +use of it. Wit-making is not at the disposal +of all, in general there are but a few persons +to whom one can point and say that they are +witty. Here wit seems to be a special ability +somewhere within the region of the old “psychic +faculties,” and this shows itself in its appearance +as fairly independent of the other +faculties such as intelligence, phantasy, memory, +etc. A special talent or psychic determination +<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>permitting or favoring wit-making +must be presupposed in all wit-makers.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I am afraid that we shall not get very far +in the exploration of this theme. Only now +and then do we succeed in proceeding from +the understanding of a single witticism to the +knowledge of the subjective determinations in +the mind of the wit-maker. It is quite accidental +that the example of wit with which we +began our investigation of the wit-technique +permits us also to gain some insight into the +subjective determination of the witticism. I +am referring to Heine’s witticism, to which also +Heymans and Lipps have paid attention.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>I was sitting next to Solomon Rothschild +and he treated me just as an equal, quite famillionaire</em>” +(“Bäder von Lucca”).</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Subjective Determination of the “Famillionaire” Witticism</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Heine put this word in the mouth of a comical +person, Hirsch-Hyacinth, collector, operator +and tax appraiser from Hamburg, and +valet of the aristocratic baron, Cristoforo Gumpelino +(formerly Gumpel). Evidently the +poet has experienced great pleasure in these +productions, for he allows Hirsch-Hyacinth to +talk big and puts in his mouth the most amusing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>and most candid utterances; he positively +endows him with the practical wisdom of a +Sancho Panza. It is a pity that Heine, as it +seems, had no liking for this dramatic figure +and that he drops the delightful character so +soon. From many passages it would seem that +the poet himself is speaking behind the transparent +mask of Hirsch-Hyacinth, and we are +quite convinced that this person is nothing but +a parody of the poet himself. Hirsch tells of +reasons why he has discarded his former name +and now calls himself Hyacinth. “Besides I +have the advantage,” he continues, “of having +an H on my seal already, and therefore I am +in no need of having a new letter engraved.” +But Heine himself resorted to this economy +when he changed his surname “Harry” to +“Heinrich” at his baptism. Every one acquainted +with the life of the poet will recall +that in Hamburg, where one also meets the +personage Hirsch-Hyacinth, Heine had an uncle +of the same name, who played the greatest +rôle in Heine’s life as the wealthy member of +the family. The uncle’s name was likewise Solomon, +just like the elderly Rothschild who +treated the impecunious Hirsch on such a famillionaire +basis. What seems to be merely +a jest in the mouth of Hirsch-Hyacinth soon +reveals a background of earnest bitterness +<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>when we attribute it to the nephew Harry-Heinrich. +For he belonged to the family, nay, +more, it was his earnest wish to marry a +daughter of this uncle, but she refused him, +and his uncle always treated him on a somewhat +famillionaire basis, as a poor relative. +His rich relatives in Hamburg always dealt +with him condescendingly. I recall the story +of one of his old aunts by marriage who, when +she was still young and pretty, sat next to some +one at a family dinner who seemed to her unprepossessing +and whom the other members +of the family treated shabbily. She did not +feel herself called upon to be any more condescending +towards him. Only many years +later did she discover that the careless and +neglected cousin was the poet Heinrich Heine. +We know from many a record how keenly +Heine suffered from these repulses at the +hands of his wealthy relatives in his youth and +during later years. The witticism “famillionaire” +grew out of the soil of such a subjective +emotional feeling.</p> + +<p class='c008'>One may suspect similar subjective determinations +in many other witticisms of the great +scoffers, but I know of no other example by +which one can show this in such a convincing +way. It is therefore hazardous to venture a +more definite opinion about the nature of this +<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>personal determination. Furthermore, one is +not inclined in the first place to claim similar +complicated conditions for the origin of each +and every witticism. Neither are the witty +productions of other celebrated men better +suited to give us the desired insight into the +subjective determination of wit. In fact, one +gets the impression that the subjective determination +of wit production is oftentimes not +unrelated to persons suffering from neurotic +diseases, when, for example, one learns that +Lichtenberg was a confirmed hypochondriac +burdened with all kinds of eccentricities. The +great majority of witticisms, especially those +produced from current happenings, are anonymous; +one might be inquisitive to know what +kind of people they are who originate them. +The physician occasionally has an opportunity +to make a study of persons who, if not renowned +wits, are recognized in their circle as +witty and as originators of many passable witticisms; +he is often surprised to find such persons +showing dissociated personalities and a +predisposition to nervous affections. However, +owing to insufficient data, we certainly cannot +maintain that such a psychoneurotic constitution +is a regular or necessary subjective condition +for wit-making.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A clearer case is afforded by Jewish witticisms +<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>which, as before mentioned, are made exclusively +by Jews themselves, whereas Jewish +stories of different origin rarely rise above the +level of the comical strain or of brutal mockery +(p. 166). The determination for the self-participation +here, as in Heine’s joke “famillionaire,” +seems to be due to the fact that +the person finds it difficult to express directly +his criticism or aggression and is thus compelled +to resort to by-ways.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Other subjective determinations or favorable +conditions for wit-making are less shrouded +in darkness. The motive for the production of +harmless wit is usually the ambitious impulse +to display one’s spirit or to “show off.” It is +an impulse comparable to the impulse toward +sexual exhibition. The existence of numerous +inhibited impulses whose suppression retains +some weakness produces a state favorable for +the production of tendency-wit. Thus certain +single components of the sexual constitution +may appear as motives for wit-formation. A +whole series of obscene witticisms lead one to +the conclusion that a person who gives origin +to such wit conceals a desire to exhibit. Persons +having a powerful sadistical component in +their sexuality, which is more or less inhibited +in life, are most successful with the tendency-wit +of aggression.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>The Impulse to Impart Wit</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>The second fact which impels one to examine +the subjective determination of wit is the common +experience that nobody is satisfied with +making wit for himself. Wit-making is inseparably +connected with the desire to impart it; +in fact this impulse is so strong that it is often +realized after overcoming strong objections. +In the comic, too, one experiences pleasure by +imparting it to another person; but this is not +imperative; one can enjoy the comic alone +when one happens on it. Wit, on the other +hand, must be imparted. Apparently the +process of wit-formation does not end with the +conception of wit. There remains something +which strives to complete the mysterious process +of wit-formation by imparting it.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We cannot conjecture, in the first place, +what may have motivated the impulse to impart +wit. But in wit we notice another peculiarity +which again distinguishes it from the +comic. If I encounter the latter I can laugh +heartily over it alone; I am naturally pleased +if by imparting it to some one else I make him +laugh too. In the case of wit, however, which +occurs to me or which I have made, I cannot +laugh over it in spite of the unmistakable feeling +of pleasure which I experience in the witticism. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>It is possible that my need to impart +the witticism to another is in some way connected +with the resultant laughter, which is +manifest in the other, but denied to me.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But why do I not laugh over my own joke? +And what rôle does the other person play in +it?</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us consider the last query first. In the +comic usually two persons come into consideration. +Besides my own ego there is another person +in whom I find something comic; if objects +appear comical to me, it takes place by +means of a sort of personification which is not +uncommon in our notional life. The comic +process is satisfied with these two persons, the +ego and the object person; there may also be +a third person, but it is not obligatory. Wit +as a play with one’s own words and thoughts +at first dispenses with an object person, but +already, upon the first step of the jest, it demands +another person to whom it can impart +its result, if it has succeeded in safeguarding +play and nonsense against the remonstrance +of reason. The second person in wit does not, +however, correspond to the object person, but +to the third person who is the other person in +the comic. It seems that in the jest the decision +as to whether wit has fulfilled its task is +transferred to the other person, as if the ego +<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>were not quite certain of its opinion in the +matter. The harmless wit is also in need of +the other person’s support in order to ascertain +whether it has accomplished its purpose. +If wit enters the service of sexual or hostile +tendencies, it can be described as a psychic +process among three persons, just as in the +comic, with the exception that there the third +person plays a different rôle. The psychic +process of wit is consummated here between +the first person—the ego, and the third person—the +stranger, and not, as in the comic, between +the ego and the object person.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Also, in the case of the third person of wit, +the wit is confronted with subjective determinations +which can make the goal of the pleasure-stimulus +unattainable. As Shakespeare says +in <cite>Love’s Labor’s Lost</cite> (Act V, Scene 2):</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“A jest’s prosperity lies in the ear</div> + <div class='line'>Of him that hears it, never in the tongue</div> + <div class='line'>Of him that makes it.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>He whose thoughts run in sober channels is +incompetent to declare whether or not the jest +is a good one. He himself must be in a jovial, +or at least indifferent, state of mind in order +to become the third person of the jest. The +same hindrance is present in the case of both +<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>harmless and tendency-wit; but in the latter +the antagonism to the tendency which wishes +to serve wit, appears as a new hindrance. The +readiness to laugh about an excellent smutty +joke cannot manifest itself if the exposure concerns +an honored kinsman of the third person. +In an assemblage of divines and pastors no one +would dare to refer to Heine’s comparison of +Catholic and Protestant priests as retail dealers +and employees of a wholesale business. In +the presence of my opponent’s friends the wittiest +invectives with which I might assail him +would not be considered witticisms but invectives, +and in the minds of my hearers it would +create not pleasure, but indignation. A certain +amount of willingness or a certain indifference, +the absence of all factors which might +evoke strong feelings in opposition to the tendency, +are absolute conditions for the participation +of the third person in the completion of +the wit-process.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Third Person of the Witticism</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Wherever such hindrances to the operation +of wit fail, we see the phenomenon which we +are now investigating, namely, that the pleasure +which the wit has provided manifests itself +more clearly in the third person than in the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>originator of the wit. We must be satisfied to +use the expression “more clearly” where we +should be inclined to ask whether the pleasure +of the hearer is not more intensive than that of +the wit producer, because we are obviously +lacking the means of measuring and comparing +it. We see, however, that the hearer shows his +pleasure by means of explosive laughter after +the first person, in most cases with a serious +expression on his face, has related the joke. +If I repeat a witticism which I have heard, I +am forced, in order not to spoil its effect, to +conduct myself during its recital exactly like +him who made it. We may now put the question +whether from this determination of +laughter over wit we can draw conclusions concerning +the psychic process of wit-formation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Now it cannot be our intention to take into +consideration everything that has been asserted +and printed about the nature of laughter. We +are deterred from this undertaking by the +statement which Dugas, one of Ribot’s pupils, +put at the beginning of his book <cite><span lang="fr">Psychologie +du rire</span></cite> (1902). “<span lang="fr">Il n’est pas de fait plus +banal et plus étudié que le rire, il n’en est pas +qui ait eu le don d’exciter davantage la curiosité +du vulgaire et celle des philosophes, il n’ent +est pas sur lequel on ait recueilli plus d’observations +et bâti plus de théories, et avec cela +<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>il n’en est pas qui demeure plus inexpliqué, on +serait tenté de dire avec les sceptiques qu’il +faut être content de rire et de ne pas chercher +à savoir pourquoi on rit, d’autant que peut-être +le réflexion tue le rire, et qu’il serait alors contradictoire +qu’elle en découvrit les causes</span>” +(page 1).</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the other hand, we must make sure to +utilize for our purposes a view of the mechanism +of laughter which fits our own realm of +thought excellently. I refer to the attempted +explanation of H. Spencer in his essay entitled +<em>Physiology of Laughter</em>.<a id='r52'></a><a href='#f52' class='c007'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>According to Spencer laughter is a phenomenon +of discharge of psychic irritation, and an +evidence of the fact that the psychic utilization +of this irritation has suddenly met with a +hindrance. The psychological situation, which +discharges itself in laughter, he describes in the +following words: “Laughter naturally results +only when consciousness is unawares transferred +from great things to small—only when +there is what we call a descending incongruity.”<a id='r53'></a><a href='#f53' class='c007'><sup>[53]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>In an almost analogous sense the French +authors (Dugas) designate laughter as a +“détente,” a manifestation of release of tension, +and A. Bain’s theory, “Laughter a relief +from restraint,” seems to me to approach +Spencer’s conceptions nearer than many +authors would have us believe.</p> + +<p class='c008'>However, we experience the desire to modify +Spencer’s thought; to give a more definite +meaning to some of the ideas and to change +others. We would say that laughter arises +when the sum total of psychic energy, formerly +used for the occupation of certain psychic +channels, has become unutilizable so that it can +experience absolute discharge. We know what +criticism such a declaration invites, but for our +<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>defense we dare cite a pertinent quotation from +Lipps’s treatise on <cite><span lang="de">Komik und Humor</span></cite>, an +analysis which throws light on other problems +besides the comic and humor. He says: “In +the end individual psychological problems always +lead us fairly deeply into psychology, so +that fundamentally no psychological problem +may be considered by itself” (p. 71). The +terms “psychic energy,” “discharge,” and the +treatment of psychic energy as a quantity have +become habitual modes of thinking since I began +to explain to myself the fact of psychopathology +philosophically. Being of the same +opinion as Lipps I have essayed to represent +in my <cite>Interpretation of Dreams</cite> the unconscious +psychic processes as real entities, and +I have not represented the conscious contents +as the “real psychic activity.”<a id='r54'></a><a href='#f54' class='c007'><sup>[54]</sup></a> Only when I +speak about the “investing energy (<i><span lang="de">Besetzung</span></i>) +<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>of psychic channels,” do I seem to deviate +from the analogies that Lipps uses. The +knowledge that I have gained about the fact +that psychic energy can be displaced from one +idea to another along certain association channels, +and about the almost indestructible conservation +of the traces of psychic processes, +have actually made it possible for me to attempt +such a representation of the unknown. +In order to obviate the possibility of a misunderstanding +I must add that I am making no +attempt to proclaim that cells and fibers, or +the neuron system in vogue nowadays, represent +these psychic paths, even if such paths +would have to be represented by the organic +elements of the nervous system in a manner +which cannot yet be indicated.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Laughter as a Discharge</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Thus, according to our assumption, the conditions +for laughter are such that a sum of +psychic energy hitherto employed in the occupation +of some paths may experience free discharge. +And since not all laughter, (but +surely the laughter of wit), is a sign of pleasure, +we shall be inclined to refer this pleasure +to the release of previously existing static +energy (<i><span lang="de">Besetzungsenergie</span></i>). When we see +<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>that the hearer of the witticism laughs, while +the creator of the same cannot, then that must +indicate that in the hearer a sum of damming +energy has been released and discharged, +whereas during the wit-formation, either in the +release or in the discharge, inhibitions resulted. +One can characterize the psychic process in the +hearer, in the third person of the witticism, +hardly more pointedly than by asserting that +he has bought the pleasure of the witticism +with very little expenditure on his part. One +might say that it is presented to him. The +words of the witticism which he hears necessarily +produce in him that idea or thought-connection +whose formation in him was also resisted +by great inner hindrances. He would have +had to make an effort of his own in order to +bring it about spontaneously like the first person, +or he would have had to put forth at least +as much psychic expenditure as to equalize the +force of the suppression or repression of the +inhibition. This psychic expenditure he has +saved himself; according to our former discussion +(p. 80) we should say that his pleasure +corresponds to this economy. Following our +understanding of the mechanism of laughter +we should be more likely to say that the static +energy utilized in the inhibition has now suddenly +become superfluous and neutralized because +<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>a forbidden idea came into existence on +the way to auditory perception and is therefore +ready to be discharged through laughter. +Essentially both statements amount to the +same thing, for the economized expenditure +corresponds exactly to the now superfluous inhibition. +The latter statement is more obvious, +for it permits us to say that the hearer of the +witticism laughs with the amount of psychic +energy which was liberated by the suspension +of inhibition energy; that is, he laughs away, +as it were, this amount of psychic energy.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Why the First Person Does Not Laugh</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>If the person in whom the witticism is +formed cannot laugh, then it indicates, as we +have just remarked, that there is a deviation +from the process in the case of the third person +which concerns either the suspension of the +inhibition energy or the discharge possibility of +the same. But the first of the two cases is inconclusive, +as we must presently see. The inhibition +energy of the first person must have +been dissipated, for otherwise there would have +been no witticism, the formation of which had +to overcome just such a resistance. Otherwise, +too, it would have been impossible for the first +person to experience the wit-pleasure which the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>removal of the inhibition forced us to deduce. +But there remains a second possibility, namely, +that even though he experienced pleasure the +first person cannot laugh, because the possibility +of discharge has been disturbed. In the +production of laughter such discharge is essential; +an interruption in the possibility of discharge +might result from the attachment of +the freed occupation energy to some immediate +endopsychic possibility. It is well that we have +become cognizant of this possibility; we shall +soon pay more attention to it. But with the +wit-maker still another condition leading to the +same result is possible. Perhaps, after all, no +appreciable amount of energy has been liberated, +in spite of the successful release of occupation +energy. In the first person of the witticism +wit-work actually takes place which +must correspond to a certain amount of fresh +psychic expenditure. Thus the first person +contributes the power which removes the inhibitions +and which surely results in a gain of +pleasure for himself; in the case of tendency-wit +it is indeed a very big gain, since the fore-pleasure +gained from the wit-work takes upon +itself the further removal of inhibitions. But +the expenditure of the wit-work is, in every +case, derived from the gain which is the result +of the removal of inhibitions; it is the same +<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>expenditure which escapes from the hearer of +the witticism. To confirm what was said above +it may be added that the witticism loses its +laughter effect in the third person as soon as +an expenditure of mental work is exacted of +him. The allusions of the witticism must be +striking, and the omissions easily supplemented; +with the awakening of conscious interest in +thinking, the effect of the witticism is regularly +made impossible. Here lies the real distinction +between the witticism and the riddle. It may +be that the psychic constellations during wit-work +are not at all favorable to the free discharge +of the energy gained. We are not here +in a position to gain a deeper understanding; +our inquiry as to why the third person laughs +we have been able to clear up better than the +question why the first person does not laugh.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At any rate, if we have well in mind these +views about the conditions of laughter and +about the psychic process in the third person, +we have arrived at a place where we can satisfactorily +elucidate an entire series of peculiarities +which are familiar in wit, but which have +not been understood. Before an amount of +interlocked energy, capable of discharge, is to +be liberated in the third person, there are several +conditions which must be fulfilled or which at +least are desirable. 1. It must be definitely +<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>established that the third person really produces +this expenditure of energy. 2. Care +must be taken that when the latter becomes +freed that it should find another psychic use +instead of offering itself to the motor discharge. +3. It can be of advantage only if the +energy to be liberated in the third person is +first strengthened and heightened. Certain +processes of wit-work which we can gather together +under the caption of secondary or auxiliary +techniques serve all these purposes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The first of these conditions determines one +of the qualifications of the third person as +hearer of the witticism. He must throughout +be so completely in psychic harmony with the +first person that he makes use of the same inner +inhibitions which the wit-work has overcome in +the first person. Whoever is focused on smutty +jokes will not be able to derive pleasure from +clever exhibitionistic wit. Mr. N.’s aggressions +will not be understood by uncultured people +who are wont to give free rein to their pleasure +gained by insulting others. Every witticism +thus demands its own public, and to laugh +over the same witticisms is a proof of absolute +psychic agreement. We have indeed arrived at +a point where we are at liberty to examine even +more thoroughly the process in the third person’s +mind. The latter must be able habitually +<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>to produce the same inhibition which the joke +has surmounted in the first person, so that, as +soon as he hears the joke, there awakens within +him compulsively and automatically a readiness +for this inhibition. This readiness for the inhibition, +which I must conceive as a true expenditure +analogous to the mobilization of an +army, is simultaneously recognized as superfluous +or as belated, and is thus immediately +discharged in its nascent state through the +channel of laughter.<a id='r55'></a><a href='#f55' class='c007'><sup>[55]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>The second condition for the production of +the free discharge, a cutting off of any other +outlets for the liberated energy, seems to me of +far greater importance. It furnishes the theoretical +explanation for the uncertainty of the +effect of wit; if the thoughts expressed in the +witticism evoke very exciting ideas in the +hearer, (depending on the agreement or antagonism +between the wit’s tendencies and the +train of thought dominating the hearer), the +witty process either receives or is refused attention. +Of still greater theoretical interest, +however, are a series of auxiliary wit-techniques +which obviously serve the purpose of +diverting the attention of the listeners from the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>wit-process so as to allow the latter to proceed +automatically. I advisedly use the term “automatically” +rather than “unconsciously” because +the latter designation might prove misleading. +It is only a question of keeping the +psychic process from getting more than its +share of attention during the recital of the witticism, +and the usefulness of these auxiliary +techniques permits us to assume rightfully that +it is just the occupation of attention which has +a large share in the control and in the fresh +utilization of the freed energy of occupation.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Automatism of the Wit-process</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>It seems to be by no means easy to avoid +the endopsychic utilization of energy that has +become superfluous, for in our mental processes +we are constantly in the habit of transferring +such emotional outputs from one path to +another without losing any of their energy +through discharge. Wit prevents this in the +following way. In the first place it strives +for the shortest possible expression in order +to expose less points of attack to the attention. +Secondly, it strictly adheres to the condition +that it be easily understood (<em>v. s.</em>), for as soon +as it has recourse to mental effort or demands +a choice between different mental paths, it +<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>imperils the effect not only through the unavoidable +mental expenditure, but also through +the awakening of attention. Besides this, wit +also makes use of the artifice of diverting the +attention by offering to it something in the expression +of the witticism which fascinates it so +that meanwhile the liberation of inhibition +energy and its discharge can take place undisturbed. +The omissions in the wording of wit +already carry out this intention. They impel +us to fill in the gaps and in this way they keep +the wit-process free from attention. The technique +of the riddle, as it were, which attracts +attention is here pressed into the service of the +wit-work. The façade formations, which we +have already discovered in many groups of +tendency-wit, are still more effective (see p. +155). The syllogistical façades excellently fulfill +the purpose of riveting the attention by an +allotted task. While we begin to ponder +wherein the given answer was lacking already +we are laughing; our attention has been surprised, +and the discharge of the liberated emotional +inhibition has been effected. The same +is true of witticisms possessing a comic façade +in which the comic serves to assist the wit-technique. +A comic façade promotes the effect +of wit in more than one way; it makes +possible not only the automatism of the wit-process +<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>by riveting the attention, but also it +facilitates the discharge of wit by sending +ahead a discharge from the comic. Here the +effect of the comic resembles that of a fascinating +fore-pleasure, and we can thus understand +that many witticisms are able to dispense entirely +the fore-pleasures produced by other +means of wit, and make use of only the comic +as a fore-pleasure. Among the true techniques +of wit it is especially displacement and representation +through absurdity which, besides +other properties, also develop the deviation of +attention so desirable for the automatic discharge +of the wit-process.<a id='r56'></a><a href='#f56' class='c007'><sup>[56]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>We already surmise, and later will be able +to see more clearly, that in this condition of +deviation of attention we have disclosed no unessential +<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>characteristic of the psychic process +in the hearer of wit. In conjunction with this, +we can understand something more. First, +how it happens that we rarely ever know in a +joke why we are laughing, although by analytical +investigation we can determine the +cause. This laughing is the result of an automatic +process which was first made possible by +keeping our conscious attention at a distance. +Secondly, we arrive at an understanding of +that characteristic of wit as a result of which +wit can exert its full effect on the hearer only +when it is new and when it comes to him as +a surprise. This property of wit, which causes +wit to be short-lived and forever urges the +production of new wit, is evidently due to the +fact that it is inherent in the surprising or the +unexpected to succeed but once. When we repeat +<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>wit the awakened memory leads the attention +to the first hearing. This also explains +the desire to impart wit to others who have not +heard it before, for the impression made by +wit on the new hearer replenishes that part of +the pleasure which has been lost by the lack of +novelty. And an analogous motive probably +urges the wit producer to impart his wit to +others.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Elements Favoring the Wit-process</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>As elements favoring the wit-process, even +if we can no longer consider them essentials, +I present in the third place three technical +aids to wit-work which are destined to increase +the sums of energy to be discharged and thus +enhance the effect of the wit. These technical +aids also very often accentuate the attention +directed to the wit, but they neutralize its influence +by simultaneously fascinating it and +impeding its movements. Everything that +provokes interest and confusion exerts its influence +in these two directions. This is especially +true of the nonsense and contrast elements, +and above all the “contrast of ideas,” +which some authors consider the essential character +of wit, but in which I see only a means +to reinforce the effect of wit. All that is confusing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>evokes in the hearer that condition of +distribution of energy which Lipps has designated +as “psychic damming”; and, doubtless, +he has a right to assume that the force of the +“discharge” varies with the success of the +damming process which precedes it. Lipps’s exposition +does not explicitly refer to wit, but to +the comic in general, yet it seems quite probable +that the discharge in wit, releasing a gush +of inhibition energy, is brought to its height +in a similar manner by means of the damming.</p> + +<p class='c008'>At length we are aware that the technique +of wit is really determined by two kinds of +tendencies, those which make possible the +formation of wit in the first person, and those +guaranteeing that the witticism produces in the +third person as much pleasurable effect as possible. +The Janus-like double-facedness of +wit, which safeguards its original resultant +pleasure against the impugnment of critical +reason, belongs to the first tendency together +with the mechanism of fore-pleasure; the other +complications of technique produced by the +conditions discussed in this chapter concern the +third person of the witticism. Thus wit in itself +is a double-tongued villain which serves +two masters at the same time. Everything +that aims toward gaining pleasure is calculated +by the witticism to arouse the third person, as +<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>if inner, unsurmountable inhibitions in the first +person were in the way of the same. Thus one +gets the full impression of the absolute necessity +of this third person for the completion of +the wit-process. But while we have succeeded +in obtaining a good insight concerning the nature +of this process in the third person, we feel +that the corresponding process in the first person +is still shrouded in darkness. So far we +have not succeeded in answering the first of +our two questions: Why can we not laugh +over wit made by ourselves? and: Why are we +urged to impart our own witticisms to others? +We can only suspect that there is an intimate +connection between the two facts yet to be explained, +and that we must impart our witticisms +to others for the reason that we ourselves +are unable to laugh over them. From +our examinations of the conditions in the third +person for pleasure gaining and pleasure discharging +we can draw the conclusion that in +the first person the conditions for discharge +are lacking and that those for gaining pleasure +are only incompletely fulfilled. Thus it is not +to be disputed that we enhance our pleasure +in that we attain the—to us impossible—laughter +in this roundabout way from the impression +of the person who was stimulated to +laughter. Thus we laugh, so to speak, <i><span lang="fr">par +<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>ricochet</span></i>, as Dugas expresses it. Laughter +belongs to those manifestations of psychic +states which are highly infectious; if I make +some one else laugh by imparting my wit to +him, I am really using him as a tool in order +to arouse my own laughter. One can really +notice that the person who at first recites the +witticism with a serious mien later joins the +hearer with a moderate amount of laughter. +Imparting my witticisms to others may thus +serve several purposes. First, it serves to give +me the objective certainty of the success of the +wit-work; secondly, it serves to enhance my +own pleasure through the reaction of the hearer +upon myself; thirdly, in the case of repeating +a not original joke, it serves to remedy the loss +of pleasure due to the lack of novelty.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Economy and Full Expenditure</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>At the end of these discussions about the +psychic processes of wit, in so far as they are +enacted between two persons, we can glance +back to the factor of economy which impressed +us as an important item in the psychological +conception of wit since we offered the first explanation +of wit-technique. Long ago we dismissed +the nearest but also the simplest conception +of this economy, where it was a matter +<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>of avoiding psychic expenditure in general by +a maximum restriction in the use of words and +by the production of associations of ideas. We +had then already asserted that brevity and +laconisms are not witty in themselves. The +brevity of wit is a peculiar one; it has to be +a “witty” brevity. The original pleasure +gain produced by playing with words and +thoughts resulted, to be sure, from simple +economy in expenditure, but with the development +of play into wit the tendency to economize +also had to shift its goals, for whatever +might be saved by the use of the same words +or by avoiding new thought connections would +surely be of no account when compared to the +colossal expenditure of our mental activity. +We may be permitted to make a comparison +between the psychic economy and a business +enterprise. So long as the latter’s transactions +are very small, good policy demands that expenses +be kept low and that the costs of operation +be minimized as much as possible. +The economy still follows the absolute height +of the expenditure. Later on when the volume +of business has increased, the importance +of the business expenses dwindles; increases in +the expenditure totals matter little so long as +the transactions and returns can be sufficiently +increased. Keeping down running expenses +<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>would be parsimonious; in fact, it would mean +a direct loss. Nevertheless it would be equally +false to assume that with a very great expenditure +there would be no more room for saving. +The manager inclined to economize would now +make an effort to save on particular things and +would feel satisfied if the same establishment, +with its costly upkeep, could reduce its expenses +at all, no matter how small the saving +would seem in comparison to the entire expenditure. +In quite an analogous manner the +detailed economy in our complicated psychic +affairs remains a source of pleasure, as may be +shown by everyday occurrences. Whoever +used to have a gas lamp in his room, but now +uses electric light, will experience for a long +time a definite feeling of pleasure when he +presses the electric light button; this pleasure +continues as long as at that moment he remembers +the complicated arrangements necessary +to light the gas lamp. Similarly the economy +of expenditure in psychic inhibition brought +about by wit—small though it may be in comparison +to the sum total of psychic expenditure—will +remain a source of pleasure for us, +because we thereby save a particular expenditure +which we were wont to make and which +as before we were ready to make. That the +expenditure is expected and prepared for is a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>factor which stands unmistakably in the foreground.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A localized economy, as the one just considered, +will not fail to give us momentary pleasure, +but it will not bring about a lasting alleviation +so long as what has been saved here +can be utilized in another place. Only when +this disposal into a different path can be +avoided, will the special economy be transformed +into a general alleviation of the psychic +expenditures. Thus, with clearer insight into +the psychic processes of wit, we see that the factor +of alleviation takes the place of economy. +Obviously the former gives us the greater feeling +of pleasure. The process in the first person +of the witticism produces pleasure by removing +inhibitions and by diminishing local expenditure; +it does not, however, seem to come +to rest until it succeeds through the intervention +of the third person in attaining general +relief through discharge.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span> + <h2 class='c005'>C. THEORETICAL PART</h2> +</div> +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span> + <h3 class='c001'>VI.<br> <span class='c015'>THE RELATION OF WIT TO DREAMS AND TO THE UNCONSCIOUS</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>At the end of the chapter which dealt with +the elucidation of the technique of wit (p. 125) +we asserted that the processes of condensation +with and without substitutive formation, displacement, +representation through absurdity, +representation through the opposite, indirect +representation, etc., all of which we found participated +in the formation of wit, evinced a +far-reaching agreement with the processes of +“dream-work.” We promised, at that time, +first to examine more carefully these similarities, +and secondly, so far as such indications +point to search for what is common to both wit +and dreams. The discussion of this comparison +would be much easier for us if we could +assume that one of the subjects to be compared—the +“dream-work”—were well known. +But we shall probably do better not to take +this assumption for granted. I received the +impression that my book <cite>The Interpretation +of Dreams</cite> created more “confusion” than +“enlightenment” among my colleagues, and I +<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>know that the wider reading circles have contented +themselves to reduce the contents of +the book to a catchword, “Wish fulfillment”—a +term easily remembered and easily abused.</p> + +<p class='c008'>However, in my continued occupation with +the problems considered therein, for the study +of which my practice as a psychotherapeutist +affords me much opportunity, I found nothing +that would impel me to change or improve on +my ideas; I can therefore peacefully wait until +the reader’s comprehension has risen to my +level, or until an intelligent critic has pointed +out to me the basic faults in my conception. +For the purposes of comparison with wit, I +shall briefly review the most important features +of dreams and dream-work.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We know dreams by the recollection which +usually seems fragmentary and which occurs +upon awakening. It is then a structure made +up mostly of visual or other sensory impressions, +which represents to us a deceptive picture +of an experience, and may be mingled +with mental processes (the “knowledge” in +the dream) and emotional manifestations. +What we thus remember as a dream I call +“the manifest dream-content.” The latter is +often altogether absurd and confused, at other +times it is merely one part or another that is +so affected. But even if it be entirely coherent, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>as in the case of some anxiety dreams, it stands +out in our psychic life as something strange, +for the origin of which one cannot account. +Until recently the explanation for these peculiarities +of the dream has been sought in the +dream itself in that it was considered roughly +speaking an indication of a muddled, dissociated, +and “sleepy” activity of the nervous elements.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As opposed to this view I have shown that +the excessively peculiar “manifest” dream-content +can regularly be made comprehensible, +and that it is a disfigured and changed +transcription of certain correct psychic formations +which deserve the name of “latent dream-thoughts.” +One gains an understanding of +the latter by resolving the manifest dream-content +into its component parts without regard +for its apparent meaning, and then by following +up the threads of associations which emanate +from each one of the now isolated elements. +These become interwoven and in the +end lead to a structure of thoughts, which is +not only entirely accurate, but also fits easily +into the familiar associations of our psychic +processes. During this “analysis” the dream-content +loses all of the peculiarities so strange +to us; but if the analysis is to be successful, +we must firmly cast aside the critical objections +<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>which incessantly arise against the reproduction +of the individual associations.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Dream-work</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>From the comparison of the remembered +manifest dream-content with the latent dream-thoughts +thus discovered there arises the conception +of “dream-work.” The entire sum of +the transforming processes which have changed +the latent dream-thought into the manifest +dream is called the dream-work. The astonishment +which formerly the dream evoked in +us is now perceived to be due to the dream-work.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The function of the dream-work may be +described in the following manner. A structure +of thoughts, mostly very complicated, +which has been built up during the day and +not brought to settlement—a day remnant—clings +firmly even during night to the energy +which it had assumed—the underlying center +of interest—and thus threatens to disturb sleep. +This day remnant is transformed into a dream +by the dream-work and in this way rendered +harmless to sleep. But in order to make possible +its employment by the dream-work, this +day remnant must be capable of being cast +into the form of a wish, a condition that is not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>difficult to fulfill. The wish emanating from +the dream-thoughts forms the first step and +later on the nucleus of the dream. Experience +gained from analyses—not the theory of the +dream—teaches us that with children a fond +wish left from the waking state suffices to +evoke a dream, which is coherent and senseful, +but almost always short, and easily recognizable +as a “wish fulfillment.” In the case of +adults the universally valid condition for the +dream-creating wish seems to be that the latter +should appear foreign to conscious thinking, +that is, it should be a repressed wish, or that +it should supply consciousness with reinforcement +from unknown sources. Without the assumption +of the unconscious activity in the +sense used above, I should be at a loss to develop +further the theory of dreams and to explain +the material gleaned from experience in +dream-analyses. The action of this unconscious +wish upon the logical conscious material of +dream-thoughts now results in the dream. The +latter is thereby drawn down into the unconscious, +as it were, or to speak more precisely, +it is exposed to a treatment which usually +takes place at the level of unconscious mental +activity, and which is characteristic of this +mental level. Only from the results of the +“dream-work” have we thus far learned to +<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>know the qualities of this unconscious mental +activity and its differentiation from the “foreconscious” +which is capable of consciousness.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Unconscious</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>A novel and difficult theory that runs +counter to our habitual modes of thinking can +hardly gain in lucidity by a condensed exposition. +I can therefore accomplish little more +in this discussion than refer the reader to the +detailed treatment of the unconscious in my +<cite>Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, and also to Lipps’s +work, which I consider most important. I +am aware that he who is under the spell of +a good old philosophical training, or stands +aloof from a so-called philosophical system, +will oppose the assumption of the “unconscious +psychic processes” in Lipps’s sense and in mine +and will desire to prove the impossibility of it +preferably by means of definitions of the term +psychic. But definitions are conventional and +changeable. I have often found that persons +who dispute the unconscious on the grounds of +its absurdity or impossibility have not received +their impressions from those sources from +which I, at least, have found it necessary to +draw, in order to become aware of its existence. +These opponents had never witnessed the effect +<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>of a posthypnotic suggestion, and they +were immensely surprised at the evidence I +imparted to them gleaned from my analysis of +unhypnotized neurotics. They had never +gained the conception of the unconscious as +something which one does not really know, +while cogent proofs force one to supplement +this idea by saying that one understands by +the unconscious something capable of consciousness, +something concerning which one has +not thought and which is not in the field of +vision of consciousness. Nor had they attempted +to convince themselves of the existence +of such unconscious thoughts in their own +psychic life by means of an analysis of one +of their own dreams, and when I attempted +this with them, they could perceive their +own mental occurrences only with astonishment +and confusion. I have also gotten +the impression that these are essentially affective +resistances which stand in the way of +the acceptation of the “unconscious,” and that +they are based on the fact that no one is desirous +of becoming acquainted with his unconscious, +and it is most convenient to deny altogether +its possibility.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Condensation and Displacement in the Dream-work</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>The dream-work, to which I return after +this digression, subjects the thought material +uttered in the optative mood to a very peculiar +elaboration. First of all it proceeds from the +optative to the indicative mood; it substitutes +“it is” for “would it were!” This “it +is” is destined to become part of an hallucinatory +representation which I have called the +“regression” of the dream-work. This regression +represents the path from the mental +images to the sensory perceptions of the same, +or if one chooses to speak with reference to +the still unfamiliar—not to be understood +anatomically—topic of the psychic apparatus, +it is the region of the thought-formation to the +region of the sensory perception. Along this +road which runs in an opposite direction to the +course of development of psychic complications +the dream-thoughts gain in clearness; a plastic +situation finally results as a nucleus of the +manifest “dream picture.” In order to arrive +at such a sensory representation the dream-thoughts +have had to experience tangible +changes in their expression. But while the +thoughts are changed back into mental images +they are subjected to still greater changes, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>some of which are easily conceivable as necessary, +while others are surprising. As a necessary +secondary result of the regression one +understands that nearly all relationships within +the thoughts which have organized the same +are lost to the manifest dream. The dream-work +takes over, as it were, only the raw material +of the ideas for representation, and not +the thought-relations which held each other in +check; or at least it reserves the freedom of +leaving the latter out of the question. On the +other hand, there is a certain part of the dream-work +which cannot be traced to the regression +or to the recasting into mental images; it is +just that part which is significant to us for the +analogy to wit-formation. The material of the +dream-thoughts experiences an extraordinary +compression or <em>condensation</em> during the dream-work. +The starting-points of this condensation +are those points which are common to two +or more dream-thoughts because they naturally +pertain to both or because they are inevitable +consequences of the contents of two or more +dream-thoughts, and since these points do not +regularly suffice for a prolific condensation +new artificial and fleeting common points come +into existence, and for this purpose preferably +words are used which combine different meanings +in their sounds. The newly framed common +<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>points of condensation enter as representatives +of the dream-thoughts into the manifest +dream-content, so that an element of the dream +corresponds to a point of junction or intersection +of the dream-thoughts, and with regard +to the latter it must in general be called “overdetermined.” +The process of condensation is +that part of the dream-work which is most +easily recognizable; it suffices to compare the +recorded wording of a dream with the written +dream-thoughts gained by means of analysis, +in order to get a good impression of the productiveness +of dream condensation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is not easy to convince one’s self of the +second great change that takes place in the +dream-thoughts through the agency of the +dream-work. I refer to that process which I +have called the dream <em>displacement</em>. It manifests +itself by the fact that what occupies the +center of the manifest dream and is endowed +with vivid sensory intensity has occupied a +peripheral and secondary position in the dream-thoughts, +and <em>vice versa</em>. This process causes +the dream to appear out of proportion when +compared with the dream-thoughts, and it is +because of this displacement that it seems +strange and incomprehensible to the waking +state. In order that such a displacement +should occur it must be possible for the occupation +<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>energy to pass uninhibited from important +to insignificant ideas,—a process which +in normal conscious thinking can only give the +impression of “faulty thinking.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Transformation into expressive activity, condensation, +and displacement are the three +great functions which we can ascribe to the +dream-work. A fourth, to which too little attention +was given in <cite>The Interpretation of +Dreams</cite>, does not come into consideration here +for our purpose. In a consistent elucidation +of the ideas dealing with the “topic of the +psychic apparatus” and “regression,” which +alone can lend value to these working hypotheses, +an effort would have to be made to +determine at what stages of regression the various +transformations of the dream-thoughts occur. +As yet no serious effort has been made +in this direction, but at least we can speak +definitely about displacement when we say that +it must arise in the thought material while the +latter is in the level of the unconscious processes. +One will probably have to think of +condensation as a process that extends over the +entire course up to the outposts of the perceptive +region; but in general it suffices to assume +that there is a simultaneous activity of all the +forces which participate in the formation of +dreams. In view of the reserve which one must +<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>naturally exercise in the treatment of such +problems, and in consideration of the inability +to discuss here the main objections to these +problems, I should like to trust somewhat to +the assertion that the process of the dream-work +which prepares the dream is situated in +the region of the unconscious. Roughly speaking, +one can distinguish three general stages +in the formation of the dream; first, the transference +of the conscious day remnants into the +unconscious, a transference in which the conditions +of the sleeping state must co-operate; +secondly, the actual dream-work in the +unconscious; and thirdly, the regression of +the elaborated dream material to the region +of perception, whereby the dream becomes +conscious.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The forces participating in the dream-formation +may be recognized as the following: the +wish to sleep; the sum of occupation energy +which still clings to the day remnants after the +depression brought about by the state of sleep; +the psychic energy of the unconscious wish +forming the dream; and the opposing force of +the “<em>censor</em>,” which exercises its authority in +our waking state, and is not entirely abolished +during sleep. The task of dream-formation is, +above all, to overcome the inhibition of the +censor, and it is just this task that is fulfilled +<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>by the displacement of the psychic energy +within the material of the dream-thoughts.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Formula for Wit-work</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Now we recall what caused us to think of +the dream while investigating wit. We found +that the character and activity of wit were +bound up in certain forms of expression and +technical means, among which the various +forms of condensation, displacement, and indirect +representation were the most conspicuous. +But the processes which led to the same results—condensation, +displacement, and indirect expression—we +learned to know as peculiarities +of dream-work. Does not this analogy almost +force us to the conclusion that wit-work and +dream-work must be identical at least in one +essential point? I believe that the dream-work +lies revealed before us in its most important +characters, but in wit we find obscured just +that portion of the psychic processes which we +may compare with the dream-work, namely, +the process of wit-formation in the first person. +Shall we not yield to the temptation to +construct this process according to the analogy +of dream-formation? Some of the characteristics +of dreams are so foreign to wit that that +part of the dream-work corresponding to them +<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>cannot be carried over to the wit-formation. The +regression of the stream of thought to perception +certainly falls away as far as wit is concerned. +However, the other two stages of +dream-formation, the sinking of a foreconscious<a id='r57'></a><a href='#f57' class='c007'><sup>[57]</sup></a> +thought into the unconscious, and the +unconscious elaboration, would give us exactly +the result which we might observe in wit if we +assumed this process in wit-formation. Let us +decide to assume that this is the proceeding of +wit-formation in the case of the first person. +<em>A foreconscious thought is left for a moment +to unconscious elaboration and the results are +forthwith grasped by the conscious perception.</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>Before, however, we attempt to prove the +details of this assertion we wish to consider an +objection which may jeopardize our assumption. +We start with the fact that the techniques of +wit point to the same processes which become +known to us as peculiarities of dream-work. +Now it is an easy matter to say in opposition +that we would not have described the techniques +of wit as condensation, displacement, +etc., nor would we have arrived at such a comprehensive +agreement in the means of representation +of wit and dreams, if our previous +knowledge of dream-work had not influenced +our conception of the technique of wit; so that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>at the bottom we find that wit confirms only +those tentative theories which we brought to it +from our study of dreams. Such a genesis of +agreement would be no certain guarantee of its +stability beyond our preconceived judgment. +No other author has thought of considering +condensation, displacement, and indirect expression +as active factors of wit. This might +be a possible objection, but nevertheless it +would not be justified. It might just as well +be said that in order to recognize the real +agreement between dreams and wit our ordinary +knowledge must be augmented by a +specialized knowledge of dream-work. However, +the decision will really depend only upon +the question whether the examining critic can +prove that such a conception of the technique +of wit in the individual examples is forced, and +that other nearer and farther-reaching interpretations +have been suppressed in favor of +mine; or whether the critic will have to admit +that the tentative theories derived from the +study of dreams can be really confirmed +through wit. My opinion is that we have +nothing to fear from such a critic and that +our processes of reduction have confidently +pointed out in which forms of expression +we must search for the techniques of wit. +That we designated these techniques by names +<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>which previously anticipated the result of the +agreement between the technique of wit and +the dream-work was our just prerogative, and +really nothing more than an easily justified +simplification.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There is still another objection which would +not be vital, but which could not be so completely +refuted. One might think that the +techniques of wit that fit in so well considering +the ends we have in view deserve recognition, +but that they do not represent all possible +techniques of wit or even all those in use. +Also that we have selected only the techniques +of wit which were influenced by and would suit +the pattern of the dream-work, whereas others +ignored by us would have demonstrated that +such an agreement was not common to all +cases. I really do not trust myself to make the +assertion that I have succeeded in explaining +all the current witticisms with reference to +their techniques, and I therefore admit the +possibility that my enumeration of wit-techniques +may show many gaps. But I have not +purposely excluded from my discussion any +form of technique that was clear to me, and I +can affirm that the most frequent, the most essential, +and the most characteristic technical +means of wit have not eluded my attention.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Wit as an Inspiration</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Wit possesses still another character which +entirely corresponds to our conception of the +wit-work as originally discovered in our study +of dreams. It is true that it is common to hear +one say “I <em>made</em> a joke,” but one feels that +one behaves differently during this process +than when one pronounces a judgment or offers +an objection. Wit shows in a most pronounced +manner the character of an involuntary +“inspiration” or a sudden flash of +thought. A moment before one cannot tell +what kind of joke one is going to make, though +it lacks only the words to clothe it. One +usually experiences something indefinable +which I should like most to compare to an +absence, or sudden drop of intellectual tension; +then all of a sudden the witticism appears, +usually simultaneously with its verbal investment. +Some of the means of wit are also +utilized in the expression of thought along +other lines, as in the cases of comparison and +allusion. I can purposely will to make an allusion. +In doing this I have first in mind (in +the inner hearing) the direct expression of my +thought, but as I am inhibited from expressing +the same through some objection from the situation +in question, I almost resolve to substitute +<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>the direct expression by a form of indirect +expression, and then I utter it in the form +of an allusion. But the allusion that comes +into existence in this manner having been +formed under my continuous control is never +witty, no matter how useful it may be. On +the other hand, the witty allusion appears +without my having been able to follow +up these preparatory stages in my mind. +I do not wish to attribute too much value to +this procedure, it is scarcely decisive, but it +does agree well with our assumption that in +wit-formation a stream of thought is dropped +for a moment and suddenly emerges from the +unconscious as a witticism.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Witticisms also evince a peculiar behavior +along the lines of association of ideas. Frequently +they are not at the disposal of our +memory when we look for them; on the other +hand, they often appear unsolicited and at +places in our train of thought where we cannot +understand their presence. Again, these are +only minor qualities, but none the less they +point to their unconscious origin.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Let us now collect the properties of wit +whose formation can be referred to the unconscious. +Above all there is the peculiar brevity +of wit which, though not an indispensable, is a +marked and distinctive characteristic feature. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>When we first encountered it we were inclined +to see in it an expression of a tendency to +economize, but owing to very evident objections +we ourselves depreciated the value of this +conception. At present we look upon it more +as a sign of the unconscious elaboration which +the thought of wit has undergone. The +process of condensation which corresponds to +it in dreams we can correlate with no other +factor than with the localization in the unconscious, +and we must assume that the conditions +for such condensations which are lacking in the +foreconscious are present in the unconscious +mental process.<a id='r58'></a><a href='#f58' class='c007'><sup>[58]</sup></a> It is to be expected that in +the process of condensation some of the elements +subjected to it become lost, while others +which take over their occupation energy are +strengthened by the condensation or are built +up too energetically. The brevity of wit, like +the brevity of dreams, would thus be a necessary +concomitant manifestation of the condensation +which occurs in both cases; both +times it is a result of the condensation process. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>The brevity of wit is indebted also to this +origin for its peculiar character which though +not further assignable produces a striking impression.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Unconscious and the Infantile</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We have defined above the one result +of condensation—the manifold application +of the same material, play upon words, and +similarity of sound—as a localized economy, +and have also referred the pleasure produced +by harmless wit to that economy. At a later +place we have found that the original purpose +of wit consisted in producing this kind of pleasure +from words, a process which was permitted +to the individual during the stage of playing, +but which became banked in during the course +of intellectual development or by rational criticism. +Now we have decided upon the assumption +that such condensations as serve the technique +of wit originate automatically and without +any particular purpose during the process +of thinking in the unconscious. Have we not +here two different conceptions of the same fact +which seem to be incompatible with each other? +I do not think so. To be sure, there are two +different conceptions, and they demand to be +brought in unison, but they do not contradict +<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>each other. They are merely somewhat +strange to each other, and as soon as we have +established a relationship between them we +shall probably gain in knowledge. That such +condensations are sources of pleasure is in perfect +accord with the supposition that they +easily find in the unconscious the conditions +necessary for their origin; on the other hand, +we see the motivation for the sinking into the +unconscious in the circumstance that the pleasure-bringing +condensation necessary to wit +easily results there. Two other factors also, +which upon first examination seem entirely +foreign to each other and which are brought +together quite accidentally, will be recognized +on deeper investigation as intimately +connected, and perhaps may be found to +be substantially the same. I am referring +to the two assertions that on the one hand +wit could form such pleasure-bringing condensations +during its development in the stage +of playing, that is, during the infancy of reason; +and, on the other hand, that it accomplishes +the same function on higher levels by +submerging the thought into the unconscious. +For the infantile is the source of the unconscious. +The unconscious mental processes are +no others than those which are solely produced +during infancy. The thought which sinks into +<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>the unconscious for the purpose of wit-formation +only revisits there the old homestead of +the former playing with words. The thought +is put back for a moment into the infantile +state in order to regain in this way childish +pleasure-sources. If, indeed, one were not already +acquainted with it from the investigation +of the psychology of the neuroses, wit would +surely impress one with the idea that the peculiar +unconscious elaboration is nothing else +but the infantile type of the mental process. +Only it is by no means an easy matter to +grasp, in the unconscious of the adult, this peculiar +infantile manner of thinking, because it +is usually corrected, so to say, <i><span lang="la">statu nascendi</span></i>. +However, it is successfully grasped in a series +of cases, and then we always laugh about the +“childish stupidity.” In fact every exposure +of such an unconscious fact affects us in a +“comical” manner.<a id='r59'></a><a href='#f59' class='c007'><sup>[59]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>It is easier to comprehend the character of +these unconscious mental processes in the utterances +of patients suffering from various psychic +<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>disturbances. It is very probable that, +following the assumption of old Griesinger, +we would be in a position to understand the +deliria of the insane and to turn them to good +account as valuable information, if we would +not make the demands of conscious thinking +upon them, but instead treat them as we do +dreams by means of our art of interpretation.<a id='r60'></a><a href='#f60' class='c007'><sup>[60]</sup></a> +In the dream, too, we were able to show the +“return of psychic life to the embryonal state.”<a id='r61'></a><a href='#f61' class='c007'><sup>[61]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>In discussing the processes of condensation +we have entered so deeply into the signification +of the analogy between wit and dreams that we +can here be brief. As we know that displacements +in dream-work point to the influence of +the censor of conscious thought, we will consequently +be inclined to assume that an inhibiting +force also plays a part in the formation of +wit when we find the process of displacement +among the techniques of wit. We also know +that this is commonly the case; the endeavor of +wit to revive the old pleasure in nonsense or +the old pleasure in word-play meets with resistance +in every normal state, a resistance +which is exerted by the protest of critical reason, +and which must be overcome in each individual +<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>case. But a radical distinction between +wit and dreams is shown in the manner +in which the wit-work solves this difficulty. In +the dream-work the solution of this task is +brought about regularly through displacements +and through the choice of ideas which are remote +enough from the objectionable ones to +secure passage through the censor; the latter +themselves are but offsprings of those whose +psychic energy they have taken upon themselves +through full transference. The displacements +are therefore not lacking in any +dream and are far more comprehensive; they not +only comprise the deviations from the trend of +thought but also all forms of indirect expression, +the substitution for an important but offensive +element of one seemingly indifferent and harmless +to the censor which form very remote allusions +to the first, they include substitution also +occurring through symbols, comparisons, or +trifles. It is not to be denied that parts of this +indirect representation really originate in the +foreconscious thoughts of the dream,—as, for +example, symbolical representation and representation +through comparisons—because otherwise +the thought would not have reached the state +of the foreconscious expression. Such indirect +expressions and allusions, whose reference +to the original thought is easily findable, are +<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>really permissible and customary means of expression +even in our conscious thought. The +dream-work, however, exaggerates the application +of these means of indirect expression to an +unlimited degree. Under the pressure of the +censor any kind of association becomes good +enough for substitution by allusion; the displacement +from one element to any other is +permitted. The substitution of the inner associations +(similarity, causal connection, etc.) +by the so-called outer associations (simultaneity, +contiguity in space, assonance) is particularly +conspicuous and characteristic of the +dream-work.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Difference between Dream-technique and Wit-technique</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>All these means of displacement also occur +as techniques of wit, but when they do occur +they usually restrict themselves to those limits +prescribed for their use in conscious thought; +in fact they may be lacking, even though wit +must regularly solve a task of inhibition. One +can comprehend this retirement of the process +of displacement in wit-work when one remembers +that wit usually has another technique at +its disposal through which it defends itself +against inhibitions. Indeed, we have discovered +<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>nothing more characteristic of it than just +this technique. For wit does not have recourse +to compromises as does the dream, nor does it +evade the inhibition; it insists upon retaining +the play with words or nonsense unaltered, but +thanks to the ambiguity of words and multiplicity +of thought-relations, it restricts itself to +the choice of cases in which this play or nonsense +may appear at the same time admissible +(jest) or senseful (wit). Nothing distinguishes +wit from all other psychic formations +better than this double-sidedness and this double-dealing; +by emphasizing the “sense in nonsense,” +the authors have approached nearest +the understanding of wit, at least from this angle.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Considering the unexceptional predominance +of this peculiar technique in overcoming inhibitions +in wit, one might find it superfluous that +wit should make use of the displacement-technique +even in a single case. But on the one +hand certain kinds of this technique remain +useful for wit as objects and sources of pleasure—as, +for example, the real displacement +(deviation of the trend of thought) which in +fact shares in the nature of nonsense,—and on +the other hand one must not forget that the +highest stage of wit, tendency-wit, must frequently +overcome two kinds of inhibitions which +<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>oppose both itself and its tendency (p. 147), +and that allusion and displacements are qualified +to facilitate this latter task.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The numerous and unrestricted application +of indirect representation, of displacements, +and especially of allusions in the dream-work, +has a result which I mention not because of +its own significance but because it became for +me the subjective inducement to occupy myself +with the problem of wit. If a dream +analysis is imparted to one unfamiliar with the +subject and unaccustomed to it, and the peculiar +ways of allusions and displacements +(objectionable to the waking thoughts but +utilized by the dream-work) are explained, the +hearer experiences an uncomfortable impression; +he declares these interpretations to be +“witty,” but it seems obvious to him that these +are not successful jokes but forced ones which +run contrary to the rules of wit. This impression +can be easily explained; it is due to the +fact that the dream-work operates with the +same means as wit, but in the application of +the same the dream exceeds the bounds which +wit restricts. We shall soon learn that in consequence +of the rôle of the third person wit +is bound by a certain condition which does not +affect the dream.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Irony—Negativism</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Among those techniques which are common +to both wit and dreams representation through +the opposite and the application of absurdity +are especially interesting. The first belongs +to the strongly effective means of wit as shown +in the examples of “outdoing wit” (p. <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>). +The representation through the opposite, unlike +most of the wit-techniques, is unable to +withdraw itself from conscious attention. He +who intentionally tries to make use of wit-work, +as in the case of the “habitual wit,” soon +discovers that the easiest way to answer an assertion +with a witticism is to concentrate one’s +mind on the opposite of this assertion and +trust to the chance flash of thought to brush +aside the feared objection to this opposite by +means of a different interpretation. Maybe +the representation through its opposite is indebted +for such a preference to the fact that +it forms the nucleus of another pleasurable +mode of mental expression, for an understanding +of which we do not have to consult the unconscious. +I refer to <em>irony</em>, which is very similar +to wit and is considered a subspecies of +the comic. The essence of irony consists in imparting +the very opposite of what one intended +to express, but it precludes the anticipated +<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>contradiction by indicating through the inflections, +concomitant gestures, and through slight +changes in style—if it is done in writing—that +the speaker himself means to convey the opposite +of what he says. Irony is applicable +only in cases where the other person is prepared +to hear the reverse of the statement +actually made, so that he cannot fail to be inclined +to contradict. As a consequence of this +condition ironic expressions are particularly +subject to the danger of being misunderstood. +To the person who uses it, it gives the advantage +of readily avoiding the difficulties to which +direct expressions, as, for example, invectives, +are subject. In the hearer it produces comic +pleasure, probably by causing him to make +preparations for contradiction, which are immediately +found to be unnecessary. Such a +comparison of wit with a form of the comical +that is closely allied to it might strengthen us +in the assumption that the relation of wit to +the unconscious is the peculiarity that also distinguishes +it from the comical.<a id='r62'></a><a href='#f62' class='c007'><sup>[62]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>In dream-work, representation through the +opposite has a far more important part to play +than in wit. The dream not only delights in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>representing a pair of opposites by means of +one and the same composite image, but in addition +it often changes an element from the +dream-thoughts into its opposite, thus causing +considerable difficulty in the work of interpretation. +In the case of any element capable of +having an opposite it is impossible to tell +whether it is to be taken negatively or positively +in the dream-thoughts.<a id='r63'></a><a href='#f63' class='c007'><sup>[63]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>I must emphasize that as yet this fact has +by no means been understood. Nevertheless, +it seems to give indications of an important +characteristic of unconscious thinking which in +all probability results in a process comparable +to “judging.” Instead of setting aside judgments +the unconscious forms “repressions.” +The repression may correctly be described as +a stage intermediate between the defense reflex +and condemnation.<a id='r64'></a><a href='#f64' class='c007'><sup>[64]</sup></a></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>The Unconscious as the Psychic Stage of the Wit-work</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Nonsense, or absurdity, which occurs so +often in dreams and which has made them the +object of so much contempt, has never really +come into being as the result of an accidental +shuffling of conceptual elements, but may in +every case be proven to have been purposely +admitted by the dream-work. Nonsense and +absurdity are intended to express embittered +criticism and scornful contradiction within the +dream-thoughts. Absurdity in the dream-content +thus stands for the judgment: “It’s pure +nonsense,” expressed in dream-thoughts. In +my work on the Interpretation of Dreams, +I have placed great emphasis on the demonstration +of this fact because I thought that I +could in this manner most strikingly controvert +the error expressed by many that the +dream is no psychic phenomenon at all—an +error which bars the way to an understanding +of the unconscious. Now we have learnt (in +the analysis of certain tendency-witticisms on +p. 73) that nonsense in wit is made to serve +the same purposes of expression. We also +know that a nonsensical façade of a witticism +is peculiarly adapted to enhance the psychic +expenditure in the hearer and hence also to increase +<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>the amount to be discharged through +laughter. Moreover, we must not forget that +nonsense in wit is an end in itself, since the +purpose of reviving the old pleasure in nonsense +is one of the motives of the wit-work. +There are other ways to regain the feeling of +nonsense in order to derive pleasure from it; +caricature, exaggeration, parody, and travesty +utilize the same and thus produce “comical +nonsense.” If we subject these modes of expression +to an analysis similar to the one used +in studying wit, we shall find that there is no +occasion in any of them for resorting to unconscious +processes in our sense for the purpose +of getting explanations. We are now +also in a position to understand why the +“witty” character may be added as an embellishment +to caricature, exaggeration, and +parody; it is the manifold character of the performance +upon the “psychic stage”<a id='r65'></a><a href='#f65' class='c007'><sup>[65]</sup></a> that +makes this possible.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I am of the opinion that by transferring the +wit-work into the system of the unconscious we +have made a distinct gain, since it makes it possible +for us to understand the fact that the +various techniques to which wit admittedly adheres +are on the other hand not its exclusive +<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>property. Many doubts, which have arisen in +the beginning of our investigation of these +techniques and which we were forced temporarily +to leave, can now be conveniently cleared +up. Hence we shall give due consideration to +the doubt which expresses itself by asserting +that the undeniable relation of wit to the unconscious +is correct only for certain categories +of tendency-wit, while we are ready to claim +this relation for all forms and all the stages of +development of wit. We may not shirk the duty +of testing this objection.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We may assume that we deal with a sure +case of wit-formation in the unconscious when +it concerns witticisms that serve unconscious +tendencies, or those strengthened by unconscious +tendencies, as, for example, most “cynical” +witticisms. For in such cases the unconscious +tendency draws the foreconscious +thought down into the unconscious in order to +remodel it there; a process to which the study +of the psychology of the neuroses has added +many analogies with which we are acquainted. +But in the case of tendency-wit of other varieties, +namely, harmless wit and the jest, this +power seems to fall away, and the relation of +the wit to the unconscious is an open question.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But now let us consider the case of the witty +expression of a thought that is not without +<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>value in itself and that comes to the surface in +the course of the association of mental +processes. In order that this thought may become +a witticism, it is of course necessary that +it make a choice among the possible forms of +expression in order to find the exact form that +will bring along the gain in word-pleasure. +We know from self-observation that this choice +is not made by conscious attention; but the +selection will certainly be better if the occupation +energy of the foreconscious thought is +lowered to the unconscious. For in the unconscious, +as we have learnt from the dream-work, +the paths of association emanating from a +word are treated on a par with associations +from objects. The occupation energy from +the unconscious presents by far the more favorable +conditions for the selection of the expression. +Moreover, we may assume without +going farther that the possible expression +which contains the gain in word-pleasure exerts +a lowering effect on the still fluctuating self-command +of the foreconscious, similar to that +exerted in the first case by the unconscious +tendency. As an explanation for the simpler +case of the jest we may imagine that an ever watchful +intention of attaining the gain in +word-pleasure seizes the opportunity offered +in the foreconscious of again drawing the investing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>energy down into the unconscious, according +to the familiar scheme.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I earnestly wish that it were possible for me +on the one hand to present one decisive point +in my conception of wit more clearly, and on +the other hand to fortify it with compelling +arguments. But as a matter of fact it is not +a question here of two failures, but of one +and the same failure. I can give no clearer +exposition because I have no further testimony +on behalf of my conception. The latter has +developed as the result of my study of the +technique and of comparison with dream-work, +and indeed from this one side only. I now +find that the dream-work is altogether excellently +adapted to the peculiarities of wit. This +conception is now concluded; if the conclusion +leads us not to a familiar province, but rather +to one that is strange and novel to our modes +of thought, the conclusion is called a “hypothesis,” +and the relation of the hypothesis to +the material from which it is drawn is justly +not accepted as “proof.” The hypothesis is +admitted as “proved” only if it can be reached +by other ways and if it can be shown to be the +junction point for other associations. But +such proof, in view of the fact that our knowledge +of unconscious processes has hardly begun, +cannot be had. Realizing then that we are +<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>on soil still virgin, we shall be content to project +from our viewpoint of observation one narrow +slender plank into the unexplored region.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We shall not build a great structure on such +a foundation as this. If we correlate the different +stages of wit to the mental dispositions +favorable to them we may say: The <em>jest</em> has +its origin in the happy mood; what seems to +be peculiar to it is an inclination to lower the +psychic static energies (<i><span lang="de">Besetzungen</span></i>). The +jest already makes use of all the characteristic +techniques of wit and satisfies the fundamental +conditions of the same through the choice of +such an assortment of words or mental associations +as will conform not only to the requirements +for the production of pleasure, but also +conform to the demands of the intelligent critic. +We shall conclude that the sinking of the mental +energy to the unconscious stage, a process +facilitated by the happy mood, has already +taken place in the case of the jest. The mood +does away with this requirement in the case of +<em>harmless</em> wit connected with the expression of +a valuable thought; here we must assume a +particular <em>personal adaptation</em> which finds it as +easy to come to expression as it is for the foreconscious +thought to sink for a moment into +the unconscious. An ever watchful tendency +to renew the original resultant pleasure of wit +<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>exerts thereby a lowering effect upon the still +fluctuating foreconscious expression of the +thought. Most people are probably capable of +making jests when in a happy mood; aptitude +for joking independent of the mood is found +only in a few persons. Finally, the most powerful +incentive for wit-work is the presence of +strong tendencies which reach back into the unconscious +and which indicate a particular fitness +for witty productions; these tendencies +might explain to us why the subjective conditions +of wit are so frequently fulfilled in the +case of neurotic persons. Even the most inapt +person may become witty under the influence +of strong tendencies.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Differences Between Wit and Dreams</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>This last contribution, the explanation of +wit-work in the first person, though still hypothetical, +strictly speaking, ends our interest +in wit. There still remains a short comparison +of wit to the more familiar dream and we may +expect that, outside of the one agreement already +considered, two such diverse mental activities +should show nothing but differences. +The most important difference lies in their social +behavior. The dream is a perfectly asocial +psychic product. It has nothing to tell to anyone +<span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>else, having originated in an individual as +a compromise between conflicting psychic +forces it remains incomprehensible to the person +himself and has therefore altogether no +interest for anybody else. Not only does the +dream find it unnecessary to place any value +on intelligibleness, but it must even guard +against being understood, as it would then be +destroyed; it can only exist in disguised form. +For this reason the dream may make use +freely of the mechanism that controls unconscious +thought processes to the extent of producing +undecipherable disfigurements. Wit, on +the other hand, is the most social of all those +psychic functions whose aim is to gain pleasure. +It often requires three persons, and the +psychic process which it incites always requires +the participation of at least one other person. +It must therefore bind itself to the condition +of intelligibleness; it may employ disfigurement +made practicable in the unconscious +through condensation and displacement, to no +greater extent than can be deciphered by the +intelligence of the third person. As for the +rest, wit and dreams have developed in altogether +different spheres of the psychic life, and +are to be classed under widely separated categories +of the psychological system. No matter +how concealed the dream is still a wish, while +<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>wit is a developed play. Despite its apparent +unreality the dream retains its relation to the +great interests of life; it seeks to supply what +is lacking through a regressive detour of hallucinations; +and it owes its existence solely to +the strong need for sleep during the night. +Wit, on the other hand, seeks to draw a small +amount of pleasure from the free and unencumbered +activities of our psychic apparatus, +and later to seize this pleasure as an incidental +gain. It thus <em>secondarily</em> reaches to important +functions relative to the outer world. The +dream serves preponderately to guard from +pain while wit serves to acquire pleasure; in +these two aims all our psychic activities meet.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span> + <h3 class='c001'>VII<br> <span class='c015'>WIT AND THE VARIOUS FORMS OF THE COMIC</span></h3> +</div> + +<p class='c006'>We have approached the problems of the +comic in an unusual manner. It appeared to us +that wit, which is usually regarded as a subspecies +of the comic, offered enough peculiarities +to warrant our taking it directly under consideration, +and thus it came about that we avoided +discussing its relation to the more comprehensive +category of the comic as long as it was +possible to do so, yet we did not proceed without +picking up on the way some hints that +might be valuable for studying the comic. We +found it easy to ascertain that the comic differs +from wit in its social behavior. The comic can +be content with only two persons, one who +finds the comical, and one in whom it is found. +The third person to whom the comical may be +imparted reinforces the comic process, but adds +nothing new to it. In wit, however, this third +person is indispensable for the completion of +the pleasure-bearing process, while the second +person may be omitted, especially when it is +not a question of aggressive wit with a tendency. +<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>Wit is made, while the comical is found; +it is found first of all in persons, and only +later by transference may be seen also in objects, +situations, and the like. We know, too, +in the case of wit that it is not strange persons, +but one’s own mental processes that contain +the sources for the production of pleasure. +In addition we have heard that wit occasionally +reopens inaccessible sources of the +comic, and that the comic often serves wit as +a façade to replace the fore-pleasure usually +produced by the well-known technique (p. +236). All of this does not really point to a +very simple relationship between wit and the +comic. On the other hand, the problems of the +comic have shown themselves to be so complicated, +and have until now so successfully defied +all attempts made by the philosophers to +solve them, that we have not been able to +justify the expectation of mastering it by a +sudden stroke, so to speak, even if we approach +it along the paths of wit. Incidentally we +came provided with an instrument for investigating +wit that had not yet been made use of +by others; namely, the knowledge of dream-work. +We have no similar advantage at our +disposal for comprehending the comic, and we +may therefore expect that we shall learn nothing +about the nature of the comic other than +<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>that which we have already become aware of +in wit; in so far as wit belongs to the comic +and retains certain features of the same unchanged +or modified in its own nature.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Naïve</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The species of the comic that is most closely +allied to wit is the <em>naïve</em>. Like the comic the +naïve is found universally and is not made like +in the case of wit. The naïve cannot be made +at all, while in the case of the pure comic the +question of making or evoking the comical may +be taken into account. The naïve must result +without our intervention from the speech +and actions of other persons who take the place +of the <em>second</em> person in the comic or in wit. +The naïve originates when one puts himself +completely outside of inhibition, because it +does not exist for him; that is, if he seems to +overcome it without any effort. What conditions +the function of the naïve is the fact that +we are aware that the person does not possess +this inhibition, otherwise we should not call it +naïve but impudent, and instead of laughing +we should be indignant. The effect of the +naïve, which is irresistible, seems easy to understand. +An expenditure of that inhibition energy +which is commonly already formed in us +<span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>suddenly becomes inapplicable when we hear +the naïve and is discharged through laughter; +as the removal of the inhibition is direct, and +not the result of an incited operation, there is +no need for a suspension of attention. We behave +like the hearer in wit, to whom the economy +of inhibition is given without any effort +on his part.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In view of the understanding about the +genesis of inhibitions which we obtained while +tracing the development of play into wit, it +will not surprise us to learn that the naïve is +mostly found in children, although it may also +be observed in uneducated adults, whom we +look on as children as far as their intellectual +development is concerned. For the purposes +of comparison with wit, naïve speech is naturally +better adapted than naïve actions, for +speech and not actions are the usual forms of +expression employed by wit. It is significant, +however, that naïve speeches, such as those of +children, can without straining also be designated +as “naïve witticisms.” The points of +agreement as well as demonstration between +wit and naïveté will become clear to us upon +consideration of a few examples.<a id='r66'></a><a href='#f66' class='c007'><sup>[66]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A little girl of three years was accustomed +to hear from her German nurse the exclamatory +<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>word “Gesundheit” (God bless you!; literally, +may you be healthy!) whenever she happened +to sneeze. While suffering from a severe +cold during which the profuse coughing +and sneezing caused her considerable pain, she +pointed to her chest and said to her father, +“Daddy, Gesundheit hurts.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'><em>Another little girl of four years heard her +parents refer to a Jewish acquaintance as a +Hebrew, and on later hearing the latter’s wife +referred to as Mrs. X, she corrected her +mother, saying, “No, that is not her name; if +her husband is a Hebrew she is a Shebrew.”</em></p> + +<p class='c008'>In the first example the wit is produced +through the use of a contiguous association in +the form of an abstract thought for the concrete +action. The child so often heard the +word “Gesundheit” associated with sneezing +that she took it for the act itself. While the +second example may be designated as word-wit +formed by the technique of sound similarity. +The child divided the word Hebrew into +He-brew and having been taught the genders +of the personal pronouns, she naturally +imagined that if the man is a He-brew his wife +must be a She-brew. Both examples could +have originated as real witticisms upon which +we would have unwillingly bestowed a little +mild laughter. But as examples of naïveté +<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>they seem excellent and cause loud laughter. +But what is it here that produces the difference +between wit and naïveté? Apparently it is +neither the wording nor the technique, which is +the same for both wit and the naïve, but a factor +which at first sight seems remote from both. +It is simply a question whether we assume that +the speakers had the intention of making a witticism +or whether we assume that they—the +children—wished to draw an earnest conclusion, +a conclusion held in good faith though based +on uncorrected knowledge. Only the latter +case is one of naïveté. It is here that our attention +is first called to the mechanism in which +the second person places himself into the psychic +process of the person who produces the +wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The investigation of a third example will +confirm this opinion. A brother and a sister, +the former ten and the latter twelve years old, +produce a play of their own composition before +an audience of uncles and aunts. The scene +represents a hut on the seashore. In the first +act the two dramatist-actors, a poor fisherman +and his devoted wife, complain about the hard +times and the difficulty of getting a livelihood. +The man decides to sail over the wide ocean +in his boat in order to seek wealth elsewhere, +and after a touching farewell the curtain is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>drawn. The second act takes place several +years later. The fisherman has come home +rich with a big bag of money and tells his wife, +whom he finds waiting in front of the hut, +what good luck he has had in the far countries. +His wife interrupts him proudly, saying: “Nor +have I been idle in the meanwhile,” and opens +the hut, on whose floor the fisherman sees +twelve large dolls representing children asleep. +At this point of the drama the performers +were interrupted by an outburst of laughter +on the part of the audience, a thing which they +could not understand. They stared dumfounded +at their dear relatives, who had thus +far behaved respectably and had listened attentively. +The explanation of this laughter +lies in the assumption on the part of the audience +that the young dramatists know nothing +as yet about the origin of children, and were +therefore in a position to believe that a wife +would actually boast of bearing offspring +during the prolonged absence of her husband, +and that the husband would rejoice with her +over it. But the results achieved by the dramatists +on the basis of this ignorance may be +designated as nonsense or absurdity.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These examples show that the naïve occupies +a position midway between wit and the +comic. As far as wording and contents are +<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>concerned, the naïve speech is identical with +wit; it produces a misuse of words, a bit of +nonsense, or an obscenity. But the psychic +process of the first person or producer which, +in the case of wit, offered us so much that was +interesting and puzzling, is here entirely absent. +The naïve person imagines that he is +using his thoughts and expressions in a simple +and normal manner; he has no other purpose +in view, and receives no pleasure from his +naïve production. All the characteristics of +the naïve lie in the conception of the hearer, +who corresponds to the third person in the case +of wit. The producing person creates the +naïve without any effort. The complicated +technique, which in wit serves to paralyze the +inhibition produced by the critical reason, does +not exist here, because the person does not possess +this inhibition, and he can therefore readily +produce the senseless and the obscene without +any compromise. The naïve may be added +to the realm of wit if it comes into existence +after the important function of the censor, as +observed in the formula for wit-formation, has +been reduced to zero.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If the affective determination of wit consists +in the fact that both persons should be +subject to about the same inhibitions or inner +resistances, we may say now that the determination +<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>of the naïve consists in the fact that one +person should have inhibitions which the other +lacks. It is the person provided with inhibitions +who understands the naïve, and it is he +alone who gains the pleasure produced by the +naïve. We can easily understand that this +pleasure is due to the removal of inhibitions. +Since the pleasure of wit is of the same origin—a +kernel of word-pleasure and nonsense-pleasure, +and a shell of removal- and release-pleasure,—the +similarity of this connection to +the inhibition thus determines the inner relationship +between the naïve and wit. In both +cases pleasure results from the removal of inner +inhibitions. But the psychic process of the +recipient person (which in the naïve regularly +corresponds with our ego, whereas in wit we +may also put ourselves in place of the producing +person) is by as much more complicated in +the case of the naïve as it is simpler in the producing +person in wit. For one thing, the +naïve must produce the same effect upon the +receiving person as wit does, this may be fully +confirmed by our examples, for just as in wit +the removal of the censor has been made possible +by the mere effort of hearing the naïve. +But only a part of the pleasure created by the +naïve admits of this explanation, in other cases +of naïve utterances, even this portion would be +<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>endangered, as, for example, while listening to +naïve obscenities. We would react to a naïve +obscenity with the same indignation felt toward +a real obscenity, were it not for the fact +that another factor saves us from this indignation +and at the same time furnishes the more +important part of the pleasure derived from +the naïve.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This other factor is the result of the condition +mentioned before, namely, that in order to +recognize the naïve we have to be cognizant of +the fact that there are no inner inhibitions in +the producing person. It is only when this is +assured that we laugh instead of being indignant. +Hence we take into consideration the +psychic state of the producing person; we +imagine ourselves in this same psychic state +and endeavor to understand it by comparing +it to our own. This putting ourselves into the +psychic state of the producing person and comparing +it with our own results in an economy +of expenditure which we discharge through +laughing.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We might prefer the simpler explanation, +namely, that when we reflect that the person +has no inhibition to overcome our indignation +becomes superfluous; the laughing therefore +results at the cost of economized indignation. +In order to avoid this conception, which is, in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>general, misleading, I shall distinguish more +sharply between two cases that I had treated +as one in the above discussion. The naïve, as +it appears to us, may either be in the nature +of a witticism, as in our example, or an obscenity, +or of anything generally objectionable; +which becomes especially evident if the naïve +is expressed not in speech but in action. +This latter case is really misleading; for +it might lead one to assume that the pleasure +originated from the economized and transformed +indignation. The first case is the illuminating +one. The naïve speech in the example +“Hebrew” can produce the effect of a +light witticism and give no cause for indignation; +it is certainly the more rare, or the more +pure and by far the more instructive case. In +so far as we think that the child took the syllable +“he” in “Hebrew” seriously, and without +any additional reason identified it with the +masculine personal pronoun, the increase in +pleasure as a result of hearing it has no longer +anything to do with the pleasure of the wit. +We shall now consider what has been said +from two viewpoints, first how it came into +existence in the mind of the child, and secondly, +how it would occur to us. In following +this comparison we find that the child has +discovered an identity and has overcome barriers +<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>which exist in us, and by continuing still +further it may express itself as follows: “If +you wish to understand what you have heard, +you may save yourself the expenditure necessary +for holding these barriers in place.” The +expenditure which became freed by this comparison +is the source of pleasure in the naïve, +and is discharged through laughter; to be sure, +it is the same expenditure which we would +have converted into indignation if our understanding +of the producing person, and in this +case the nature of his utterance, had not precluded +it. But if we take the case of the naïve +joke as a model for the second case, viz., the +objectionable naïve, we shall see that here, too, +the economy in inhibition may originate directly +from the comparison. That is, it is unnecessary +for us to assume an incipient and +then a strangulated indignation, an indignation +corresponding to a different application of +the freed expenditure, against which, in the +case of wit, complicated defensive mechanisms +were required.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Source of Comic Pleasure in the Naïve</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>This comparison and this economy of expenditure +that occur as the result of putting +one’s self into the psychic process of the producing +person can have an important bearing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>on the naïve only if they do not belong to the +naïve alone. As a matter of fact we suspect +that this mechanism which is so completely +foreign to wit is a part—perhaps the essential +part—of the psychic process of the comic. +This aspect—it is perhaps the most important +aspect of the naïve—thus represents +the naïve as a form of the comic. +Whatever is added to the wit-pleasure by the +naïve speeches in our examples is “comical” +pleasure. Concerning the latter we might be +inclined to make a general assumption that +this pleasure originates through an economized +expenditure by comparing the utterance of +some one else with our own. But since we are +here in the presence of very broad views we +shall first conclude our consideration of the +naïve. The naïve would thus be a form of the +comic, in so far as its pleasure originates from +the difference in expenditure which results in +our effort to understand the other person; and +it resembles wit through the condition that the +expenditure saved by the comparison must be +an inhibition expenditure.<a id='r67'></a><a href='#f67' class='c007'><sup>[67]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span>Before concluding we shall rapidly point out +a few agreements and differences between the +conceptions at which we have just arrived and +those that have been known for a long time +in the psychology of the comic. The putting +one’s self into the psychic process of another +and the desire to understand him is obviously +nothing else than the “comic burrowing” +(<i><span lang="de">komisches Leihen</span></i>) which has played a part +in the analysis of the comic ever since the time +of Jean Paul; the “comparing” of the psychic +process of another with our own corresponds +to a “psychological contrast,” for which we here +at last find a place, after we did not know +what to do with it in wit. But in our explanation +of comic pleasure we take issue with +many authors who contend that this pleasure +originates through the fluctuation of our attention +to and fro between contrasting ideas. +We are unable to see how such a mechanism +could produce pleasure, and we point to the +fact that in the comparing of contrasts there +results a difference in expenditure which, if +not used for anything else, becomes capable of +discharge and hence a source of pleasure.<a id='r68'></a><a href='#f68' class='c007'><sup>[68]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>It is with misgiving only that we approach +the problem of the comic. It would be presumptuous +to expect from our efforts any decisive +contribution to the solution of this problem +after the works of a large number of excellent +thinkers have not resulted in an explanation +that is in every respect satisfactory. As a matter +of fact, we intend simply to follow out into +the province of the comic certain observations +that have been found valuable in the study of wit.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Occurrence and Origin of the Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The comical appears primarily as an unintentional +discovery in the social relations of +human beings. It is found in persons, that is, +in their movements, shapes, actions, and characteristic +traits. In the beginning it is found +probably only in their psychical peculiarities +and later on in their mental qualities, especially +in the expression of these latter. Even animals +and inanimate objects become comical as the +result of a widely used method of personification. +However, the comical can be considered +apart from the person in whom it is found, if +the conditions under which a person becomes +<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>comical can be discerned. Thus arises the comical +situation, and this knowledge enables us +to make a person comical at will by putting +him into situations in which the conditions necessary +for the comic are bound up with his actions. +The discovery that it is in our power to +make another person comical opens the way to +unsuspected gains in comic pleasure, and forms +the foundation of a highly developed technique. +It is also possible to make one’s self +just as comical as others. The means which +serve to make a person comical are transference +into comic situations, imitations, disguise, +unmasking, caricature, parody, travesty, +and the like. It is quite evident that these +techniques may enter into the service of hostile +or aggressive tendencies. A person may be +made comical in order to render him contemptible +or in order to deprive him of his claims +to dignity and authority. But even if such a +purpose were regularly at the bottom of all attempts +to make a person comical this need not +necessarily be the meaning of the spontaneous +comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As a result of this superficial survey of the +manifestations of the comic we can readily see +that the comic originates from wide-spread +sources, and that conditions so specialized as +those found in the naïve cannot be expected +<span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>in the case of the comic. In order to get a +clue to the conditions that are applicable to +the comic the selection of the first example is +most important. We will examine first the +comic movement because we remember that +the most primitive stage performance, the +pantomime, uses this means to make us laugh. +The answer to the question, Why do we laugh +at the actions of clowns? would be that they +appear to us immoderate and inappropriate; +that is, we really laugh over the excessive expenditure +of energy. Let us look for the +same condition outside of the manufactured +comic, that is, under circumstances where it +may unintentionally be found. The child’s +motions do not appear to us comical, even if it +jumps and fidgets, but it is comical to see a +little boy or girl follow with the tongue the +movement of his pen-holder when he is trying +to master the art of writing; we see in these +additional motions a superfluous expenditure +of energy which under similar conditions we +should save. In the same way we find it comical +to see unnecessary motions or even +marked exaggeration of expressive motions in +adults. Among the genuinely comic cases we +might mention the motions made by the bowler +after he has released the ball while he is following +its course as though he were still able +<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>to control it; all grimaces which exaggerate +the normal expression of the emotions are comical, +even if they are involuntary, as in the +case of persons suffering from St. Vitus’ +dance (chorea); the impassioned movements +of a modern orchestra leader will appear comical +to every unmusical person, who cannot +understand why they are necessary. Indeed, +the comic element found in bodily shapes and +physiognomy is a branch of the comic of motion, +in that they are conceived as though they were +the result of motion that either has been carried +too far or is purposeless. Wide exposed eyes, +a crook-shaped nose bent towards the mouth, +handle-like ears, a hunch back, and all similar +physical defects probably produce a comical +impression only in so far as the movements +that would be necessary to produce these +features are imagined, whereby the nose and +other parts of the body are pictured as more +movable than they actually are. It is certainly +comical if some one can “wiggle his +ears,” and it would undoubtedly be a great +deal more comical if he could raise and lower +his nose. A large part of the comical impression +that animals make upon us is due to the fact that +we perceive in them movements which we cannot +imitate.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Comic of Motion</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>But how does it come about that we laugh +as soon as we have recognized that the actions +of some one else are immoderate and inappropriate? +I believe that we laugh because we +compare the motions observed in others with +those which we ourselves should produce if we +were in their place. The two persons must +naturally be compared in accordance with the +same standard, but this standard is my own +innervation expenditure connected with my +idea of motion in the one case as well as the +other. This assertion is in need of discussion +and amplification.</p> + +<p class='c008'>What we are here putting into juxtaposition +is, on the one hand, the psychic expenditure of +a given idea, and on the other hand, the content +of this idea. We maintain that the +former is not primarily and principally independent +of the latter—the content of the +idea—particularly because the idea of something +great requires a larger expenditure +than the idea of something small. As long as +we are concerned only with the idea of different +coarse movements we shall encounter no +difficulties in the theoretical determination of +our thesis or in establishing its proof through +observation. It will be shown that in this case +<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>an attribute of the idea actually coincides with +an attribute of the object conceived, although +psychology warns us of confusions of this sort.</p> + +<p class='c008'>I obtain an idea of a definite coarse movement +by performing this motion or by imitating +it, and in so doing I set a standard for +this motion in my feelings of innervation.<a id='r69'></a><a href='#f69' class='c007'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Now if I perceive a similar more or less +coarse motion in some one else, the surest way +to the understanding—to apperception—of the +same is to carry it out imitatively and the comparison +will then enable me to decide in which +motion I expended more energy. Such an impulse +to imitate certainly arises on perceiving +a movement. But in reality I do not carry +out the imitation any more than I still spell +out words simply because I have learnt to read +by means of spelling. Instead of imitating the +movement by my muscles I substitute the idea +of the same through my memory traces of the +expenditures necessary for similar motions. +Perceiving, or “thinking,” differs above all +<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>from acting or carrying out things by the fact +that it entails a very much smaller displacement +of energy and keeps the main expenditure +from being discharged. But how is the +quantitative factor, the more or less big element +of the movement perceived, given expression +in the idea? And if the representation +of the quantity is left off from the idea that +is composed of qualities, how am I to differentiate +the ideas of different big movements, +how am I to compare them?</p> + +<p class='c008'>Here, physiology shows the way in that it +teaches us that even while an idea is in the +process of conception innervations proceed to +the muscles, which naturally represent only a +moderate expenditure. It is now easy to assume +that this expenditure of innervation +which accompanies the conception of the idea +is utilized to represent the quantitative factor +of the idea, and that when a great motion is +imagined it is greater than it would be in the +case of a small one. The conception of greater +motions would thus actually be greater, that +is, it would be a conception accompanied by +greater expenditure.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Ideational Mimicry</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Observation shows directly that human beings +are in the habit of expressing the big and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>small things in their ideation content by means +of a manifold expenditure or by means of a +sort of <em>ideational mimicry</em>.</p> + +<p class='c008'>When a child or a person of the common +people or one belonging to a certain race imparts +or depicts something, one can easily observe +that he is not content to make his ideas +intelligible to the hearer through the choice of +correct words alone, but that he also represents +the contents of the same through his expressive +motions. Thus he designates the +quantities and intensities of “a high mountain” +by raising his hands over his head, and +those of “a little dwarf” by lowering his +hand to the ground. If he broke himself of +the habit of depicting with his hands, he would +nevertheless do it with his voice, and if he +should also control his voice, one may be sure +that in picturing something big he would distend +his eyes, and describing something little +he would press his eyes together. It is not his +own affects that he thus expresses, but it is +really the content of what he imagines.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Shall we now assume that this need for +mimicry is first aroused through the demand +for imparting, whereas a good part of this +manner of representation still escapes the attention +of the hearer? I rather believe that this +mimicry, though less vivid, exists even if all +<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>imparting is left out of the question, that it +comes about when the person imagines for +himself alone, or thinks of something in a +graphic manner; that then such a person, just +as in talking, expresses through his body the +idea of big and small which manifests itself at +least through a change of innervation in the +facial expressions and sensory organs. Indeed, +I can imagine that the bodily innervation +which is consensual to the content of the idea +conceived is the beginning and origin of mimicry +for purposes of communication. For, in +order to be in a position to serve this purpose, +it is only necessary to increase it and make it +conspicuous to the other. When I take the +view that this “expression of the ideation content” +should be added to the expression of the +emotions, which are known as a physical by-effect +of psychic processes, I am well aware +that my observations which refer to the category +of the big and small do not exhaust +the subject. I myself could add still other +things, even before reaching to the phenomenon +of tension through which a person +physically indicates the accumulation of his attention +and the <i><span lang="fr">niveau</span></i> of abstraction upon +which his thoughts happen to rest. I maintain +that this subject is very important, and I believe +that tracing the ideation mimicry in other +<span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span>fields of æsthetics would be just as useful for +the understanding of the comic as it is here.</p> + +<p class='c008'>To return to the comic movement, I repeat +that with the perception of a certain motion +the impulse to conceive it will be given through +a certain expenditure. In the “desire to +understand,” in the apperception of this movement +I produce a certain expenditure, and I +behave in this part of the psychic process just +as if I put myself in the place of the person +observed. Simultaneously I probably grasp +the aim of the motion, and through former experiences +I am able to estimate the amount of +expenditure necessary to attain this aim. I +thereby drop out of consideration the person +observed and behave as if I myself wished to +attain the aim of the motion. These two ideational +possibilities depend on a comparison of +the motion observed with my own inhibited +motion. In the case of an immoderate or inappropriate +movement on the part of the other, +my greater expenditure for understanding becomes +inhibited <i><span lang="la">statu nascendi</span></i> during the mobilization +as it were, it is declared superfluous +and stands free for further use or for discharge +through laughing. If other favorable +conditions supervened this would be the nature +of the origin of pleasure in comic movement,—an +innervation expenditure which, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>when compared with one’s own motion, becomes +an inapplicable surplus.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comparison of Two Kinds of Expenditure as Pleasure-sources</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We now note that we must continue our +discussion by following two different paths; +first, to determine the conditions for the discharge +of the surplus; secondly, to test +whether the other cases of the comic can be +conceived similarly to our conception of comic +motion.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We shall turn first to the latter task and +after considering comic movement and action +we shall turn to the comic found in the psychic +activities and peculiarities of others.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As an example of this kind we may consider +the comical nonsense produced by ignorant +students at examinations; it is more difficult, +however, to give a simple example of +the peculiarities. We must not be confused +by the fact that nonsense and foolishness which +so often act in a comical manner are nevertheless +not perceived as comical in all cases, just +as the same things which once made us laugh +because they seemed comical later may appear +to us contemptible and hateful. This fact, +which we must not forget to take into account, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>seems only to show that besides the comparison +familiar to us other relations come into consideration +for the comic effect,—conditions +which we can investigate in other connections.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The comic found in the mental and psychic +attributes of another person is apparently +again the result of a comparison between him +and my own ego. But it is remarkable that it +is a comparison which mostly furnishes the +result opposite to that obtained through comic +movement and action. In the latter case it is +comical if the other person assumes a greater +expenditure than I believe to be necessary for +me; in the case of psychic activity it is just +the reverse, it is comical if the other person +economizes in expenditure, which I consider +indispensable; for nonsense and foolishness are +nothing but inferior activities. In the first +case I laugh because he makes it too difficult +for himself, and in the latter case because he +makes it too easy for himself. In the case of +the comic effect it seems to be a question only +of the difference between the two energy expenditures—the +one of “feeling one’s self into +something” (<i><span lang="de">Einfühlung</span></i>)—and the other of +the ego—and it makes no difference in whose +favor this difference inclines. This peculiarity, +which at first confuses our judgment, disappears, +however, when we consider that it is in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span>accord with our personal development towards +a higher stage of culture, to limit our muscular +work and increase our mental work. By +heightening our mental expenditure we produce +a diminution of motion expenditure for +the same activity. Our machines bear witness +to this cultural success.<a id='r70'></a><a href='#f70' class='c007'><sup>[70]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>Thus it coincides with a uniform understanding +that that person appears comical to us who +puts forth too much expenditure in his psychical +activities and too little in his mental activities; +and it cannot be denied that in both cases our +laughing is the expression of a pleasurably +perceived superiority which we adjudge to +ourselves in comparison with him. If the relation +in both cases becomes reversed, that is, +if the somatic expenditure of the other is less +and the psychic expenditure greater, then we +no longer laugh, but are struck with amazement +and admiration.<a id='r71'></a><a href='#f71' class='c007'><sup>[71]</sup></a></p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comic of Situation.</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The origin of the comic pleasure discussed here, +that is, the origin of such pleasure in a comparison +<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>of the other person with one’s own self +in respect to the difference between the identification +expenditure (<i><span lang="de">Einfühlungsaufwand</span></i>) +and normal expenditure—is genetically probably +the most important. It is certain, however, +that it is not the only one. We have learned +before to disregard any such comparison between +the other person and one’s self, and to +obtain the pleasure-bringing difference from +one side only, either from identification, or +from the processes in one’s own ego, proving +thereby that the feeling of superiority bears +no essential relations to comic pleasure. A +comparison is indispensable, however, for the +origin of this pleasure, and we find this comparison +between two energy expenditures +which rapidly follow each other and refer to +the same function. It is produced either in +ourselves by way of identification with the +other, or we find it without any identification +in our own psychic processes. The first case, +in which the other person still plays a part, +though he is not compared with ourselves, results +when the pleasure-producing difference +of energy expenditures comes into existence +through outer influences which we can comprehend +as a “situation,” for which reason this +species of comic is also called the “comic of +situation.” The peculiarities of the person who +<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>furnishes the comic do not here come into essential +consideration; we laugh when we admit +to ourselves that had we been placed in the +same situation we should have done the same +thing. Here we draw the comic from the relation +of the individual to the often all-too-powerful +outer world, which is represented in +the psychic processes of the individual by the +conventions and necessities of society, and even +by his bodily needs. A typical example of the +latter is when a person engaged in an activity, +which claims all his psychic forces, is suddenly +disturbed by a pain or excremental need. The +opposite case which furnishes us the comic +difference through identification, lies between +the great interest which existed before the +disturbance occurred and the minimum left +for his psychic activity after the disturbance +made its appearance. The person who +furnishes us this difference again becomes +comical through inferiority; but he is only inferior +in comparison with his former ego and +not in comparison with us, for we know that +in a similar case we could not have behaved +differently. It is remarkable, however, that +we find this inferiority of the person only in +the case where we “feel ourselves” into some +one, that is, we can only find it comical in the +other, whereas we ourselves are conscious only +<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>of painful emotions when such or similar embarrassments +happen to us. It is by keeping +away the painful from our own person that we +are probably first enabled to enjoy as pleasurable +the difference which resulted from the +comparison of the changing energy.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comic of Expectation</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>The other source of the comic, which we find +in our own changes of investing energy, lies +in our relations to the future, which we are +accustomed to anticipate through our ideas of +expectation. I assume that a quantitatively +determined expenditure underlies our every +idea of expectation, which in case of disappointment +becomes diminished by a certain difference, +and I again refer to the observations +made before concerning “ideational mimicry.” +But it seems to me easier to demonstrate +the real mobilized psychic expenditure for the +cases of expectation. It is well known concerning +a whole series of cases that the manifestation +of expectation is formed by motor +preliminaries; this is first of all true of cases +in which the expected events make demands +on my motility, and these preparations are +quantitatively determinable without anything +further. If I am expecting to catch a ball +<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>thrown at me, I put my body in states of tension +in order to enable me to withstand the +collision with the ball, and the superfluous motions +which I make if the ball turns out to be +light make me look comical to the spectators. +I allowed myself to be misled by the expectation +to exert an immoderate expenditure of +motion. A similar thing happens if, for example, +I lift out a basket of fruit which I took +to be heavy but which was hollow and formed +out of wax in order to deceive me. By its upward +jerk my arm betrays the fact that I have +prepared a superfluous innervation for this +purpose and hence I am laughed at. In fact +there is at least one case in which the expectation +expenditure can be directly demonstrated +by means of physiological experimentation with +animals. In Pawlof’s experiments with salivary +secretions of dogs who, provided with salivary +fistulæ, are shown different kinds of food, +it is noticed that the amount of saliva secreted +through the fistulæ depends on whether the +conditions of the experiment have strengthened +or disappointed the dogs’ expectation to be +fed with the food shown them.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Even where the thing expected lays claims +only to my sensory organs, and not to my motility, +I may assume that the expectation manifests +itself in a certain motor emanation causing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>tension of the senses, and I may even conceive +the suspension of attention as a motor +activity which is equivalent to a certain amount +of expenditure. Moreover, I can presuppose +that the preparatory activity of expectation +is not independent of the amount of the expected +impression, but that I represent mimically +the bigness and smallness of the same +by means of a greater or smaller preparatory +expenditure, just as in the case of imparting +something and in the case of thinking when +there is no expectation. The expectation expenditure +naturally will be composed of many +components, and also for my disappointment +diverse factors will come into consideration; it +is not only a question whether the realized +event is perceptibly greater or smaller than the +expected one, but also whether the expectation +is worthy of the great interest which I had offered +for it. In this manner I am instructed +to consider, besides the expenditure for the +representation of bigness and smallness (the +conceptual mimicry), also the expenditure for +the tension of attention (expectation expenditure), +and in addition to these two expenditures +there is in all cases the abstraction expenditure. +But these other forms of expenditure +can easily be reduced to the one of bigness +and smallness, for what we call more interesting, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span>more sublime, and even more abstract, +are only particularly qualified special +cases of what is greater. Let us add to this +that, among other things, Lipps holds that the +quantitative, not the qualitative, contrast is +primarily the source of comic pleasure, and we +shall be altogether content to have chosen the +comic element of motion as the starting-point +of our investigation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In working out Kant’s thesis, “The comic +is an expectation dwindled into nothing,” +Lipps made the attempt in his book, often +cited here, to trace the comic pleasure altogether +to expectation. Despite the many instructive +and valuable results which this attempt +brought to light I should like to agree +with the criticism expressed by other authors, +namely, that Lipps has formulated a field of +origin of the comic which is much too narrow, +and that he could not subject its phenomena +to his formula without much forcing.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Caricature</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Human beings are not satisfied with enjoying +the comic as they encounter it in life, but +they aim to produce it purposely, thus we discover +more of the nature of the comic by +studying the methods employed in producing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>the comic. Above all one can produce comical +elements in one’s personality for the amusement +of others, by making one’s self appear +awkward or stupid. One then produces the +comic exactly as if one were really so, by complying +with the condition of comparison which +leads to the difference of expenditure; but one +does not make himself laughable or contemptible +through this; indeed, under certain circumstances +one can even secure admiration. The +feeling of superiority does not come into existence +in the other when he knows that the actor +is only shamming, and this furnishes us a good +new proof that the comic is independent in +principle of the feeling of superiority.</p> + +<p class='c008'>To make another comical, the method most +commonly employed is to transfer him into +situations wherein he becomes comical regardless +of his personal qualities, as a result of human +dependence upon external circumstances, +especially social factors; in other words, one +resorts to the comical situation. This transferring +into a comic situation may be real as +in practical jokes, such as placing the foot in +front of one so that he falls like a clumsy person, +or making one appear stupid by utilizing +his credulity to make him believe some nonsense, +etc., or it can be feigned by means of +speech or play. It is a good aid in aggression, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>in the service of which production of the +comic is wont to place itself in order that the +comic pleasure may be independent of the +reality of the comic situation; thus every person +is really defenseless against being made +comical.</p> + +<p class='c008'>But there are still other means of making +one comical which deserve special attention +and which in part also show new sources of +comic pleasure. <em>Imitation</em>, for example, belongs +here; it accords the hearer an extraordinary +amount of pleasure and makes its +subject comic, even if it still keeps away from +the exaggeration of caricature. It is much +easier to fathom the comic effect of caricature +than that of simple imitation. Caricature, +parody and travesty, like their practical +counterpart—unmasking, range themselves +against persons and objects who command +authority and respect and who are exalted in +some sense—these are procedures tending towards +degradation.<a id='r72'></a><a href='#f72' class='c007'><sup>[72]</sup></a> In the transferred psychic +sense, the exalted is equivalent to something +great and I want to make the statement, +or more accurately to repeat the statement, +that psychic greatness like somatic greatness +<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>is exhibited by means of an increased expenditure. +It needs little observation to ascertain +that when I speak of the exalted I give a different +innervation to my voice, I change my +facial expression, an attempt to bring my entire +bearing as it were into complete accord +with the dignity of that which I present. I +impose upon myself a dignified restriction not +much different than if I were coming into the +presence of an illustrious personage, monarch, +or prince of science. I can scarcely err when +I assume that this added innervation of conceptual +mimicry corresponds to an increased +expenditure. The third case of such an added +expenditure I readily find when I indulge in +abstract trains of thought instead of in the +concrete and plastic ideas. If I can now +imagine that the mentioned processes for degrading +the illustrious are quite ordinary, that +during their activity I need not be on my +guard and in whose ideal presence I may, to +use a military formula, put myself “at ease,” +all that saves me the added expenditure of +dignified restriction. Moreover, the comparison +of this manner of presentation instigated +by identification with the manner of presentation +to which I have been hitherto accustomed +which seeks to present itself at the +same time, again produces a difference in +<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>expenditure which can be discharged through +laughter.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As is known, caricature brings about the +degradation by rendering prominent one feature, +comic in itself, from the entire picture of +the exalted object, a feature which would be +overlooked if viewed with the entire picture. +Only by isolating this feature can the comic +effect be obtained which spreads in our memory +over the whole picture. This has, however, +this condition; the presence of the exalted +itself must not force us into a disposition of +reverence. Where such a comical feature is +really lacking then caricature unhesitatingly +creates it by exaggerating one that is not comical +in itself. It is again characteristic of the +origin of comic pleasure that the effect of the +caricature is not essentially impaired through +such a falsifying of reality.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Unmasking</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'><em>Parody</em> and <em>travesty</em> accomplish the degradation +of the exalted by other means; they +destroy the uniformity between the attributes +of persons familiar to us and their speech and +actions; by replacing either the illustrious persons +or their utterances by lowly ones. +Therein they differ from caricature, but not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>through the mechanism of the production of +the comic pleasure. The same mechanism also +holds true in <em>unmasking</em>, which comes into +consideration only where some one has attached +to himself dignity and authority which in +reality should be taken from him. We have +seen the comic effect of unmasking through +several examples of wit, for example, in the +story of the fashionable lady who in her first +labor-pains cries: “Ah, mon Dieu!” but to +whom the physician paid no attention until she +screamed: “A-a-a-ai-e-e-e-e-e-e-E-E-E!” Being +now acquainted with the character of the +comic, we can no longer dispute that this story +is really an example of comical unmasking and +has no just claim to the term witticism. It +recalls wit only through the setting, through +the technical means of “representation through +a trifle”; here it is the cry which was found +sufficient to indicate the point. The fact remains, +however, that our feeling for the niceties +of speech, when we call on it for judgment, +does not oppose calling such a story a +witticism. We can find the explanation for +this in the reflection that usage of speech does +not enter scientifically into the nature of wit +so far as we have evolved it by means of this +painstaking examination. As it is a function +of the activities of wit to reopen hidden +<span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span>sources of comic pleasure (p. 150), every artifice +which does not bring to light barefaced +comic may in looser analogy be called a witticism. +This is especially true in the case of +unmasking, though in other methods of comic-making +the appellation also holds good.<a id='r73'></a><a href='#f73' class='c007'><sup>[73]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>In the mechanism of “unmasking” one can +also utilize those processes of comic-making +already known to us which degrade the dignity +of individuals in that they call attention to one +of the common human frailties, but particularly +to the dependence of his mental functions +upon physical needs. Unmasking them +becomes equivalent to the reminder: This or +that one who is admired like a demigod is +only a human being like you and me after all. +Moreover, all efforts in this mechanism serve +to lay bare the monotonous psychic automatism +which is behind wealth and apparent freedom +of psychic achievements. We have become +acquainted with examples of such “unmasking” +through the witticisms dealing with marriage +agents, and at that time to be sure we +felt doubt whether we could rightly count +these stories as wit. Now we can decide with +more certainty that the anecdote of the echo +who reinforces all assertions of the marriage +<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>agent and in the end reinforces the latter’s +admission that the bride has a hunch back with +the exclamation “And what a hunch!” is essentially +a comic story, an example of the unmasking +of the psychic automatism. But here +the comic story serves only as a façade; to +any one who wishes to note the hidden meaning +of the marriage agent, the whole remains a +splendidly put together piece of wit. He who +does not penetrate so far sees only the comic +story. The same is true of the other witticism +of the agent who, to refute an objection, finally +confirms the truth through the exclamation: +“But who in the world would lend them +anything?” This is a comic unmasking which +serves as a façade for a witticism. Still the +character of the wit is here quite evident, as +the speech of the agent is at the same time an +expression through the opposite. In trying to +prove that the people are rich he proves at the +same time that they are not rich but very poor. +Wit and the comic unite here and teach us +that a statement may be simultaneously witty +and comical.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We eagerly grasp the opportunity to return +from the comic of unmasking to wit, for +our real task is to explain the relation between +wit and comic and not to determine the nature +of the comic. Hence to the case of uncovering +<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>the psychic automatism, wherein our +feeling left us in doubt as to whether the matter +was comical or witty, we add another, the +case of nonsense-wit, wherein likewise wit and +the comic fuse. But our investigation will +ultimately show us that in this second case the +meeting of wit and comic may be theoretically +deduced.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the discussion of the techniques of wit +we have found that giving free play to such +modes of thinking as are common in the unconscious +and which in consciousness are conceived +only as “faulty thinking,” furnishes the +technical means of a great many witticisms. +We had then doubted their witty character +and were inclined to classify them simply as +comic stories. We could come to no decision +regarding our uncertainty because in the first +place the real character of wit was not familiar +to us. Later we found this character by following +the analogy to the dream-work as to +the compromise formed by the wit-work between +the demands of the rational critic and +the impulse not to abandon the old word-pleasure +and nonsense-pleasure. What thus came +into existence as a compromise, when the foreconscious +thought was left for a moment to +unconscious elaboration, satisfied both demands +in all cases, but it presented itself to the critic, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>in various forms and had to stand various criticisms +from it. In one case wit succeeded in +surreptitiously assuming the form of an unimportant +but none the less admissible proposition; +a second time it smuggled itself into the +expression of a valuable thought. But within +the outer limit of the compromise activity it +made no effort to satisfy the critic, and defiantly +utilizing the pleasure-sources at its disposal, +it appeared before the critic as pure +nonsense. It had no fear of provoking contradiction +because it could rely on the fact that +the hearer would decipher the disfigurement of +the expression through the operation of his unconscious +and thus give back to it its meaning.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Now in what case will wit appear to the +critic as nonsense? Particularly when it makes +use of those modes of thought, which are common +in the unconscious, but forbidden in conscious +thought; that is, when it resorts to +faulty thinking. Some of the modes of thinking, +of the unconscious, have also been retained +in conscious thinking, for example, +many forms of indirect expression, allusions, +etc., even though their conscious use +has to be much restricted. Using these +techniques wit will arouse little or no opposition +on the part of the critic; but this only +happens when it also uses that technical means +<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>with which conscious thought no longer cares +to have anything to do. Wit can still further +avoid offending if it disguises the faulty thinking +by investing it with a semblance of logic +as in the story of the fancy cake and liqueur, +salmon with mayonnaise, and similar ones. +But should it present the faulty thinking undisguised, +the critic is sure to protest.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Meeting of Wit and the Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>In this case, something else comes to the aid +of wit. The faulty thinking, which as a form +of thinking of the unconscious, wit utilizes for +its technique, appears comical to the critic, +although this is not necessarily the case. The +conscious giving of free play to the unconscious +and to those forms of thinking which are rejected +as faulty, furnishes a means for the production +of comic pleasure. This can be easily +understood, as a greater expenditure is surely +needed for the production of the foreconscious +investing energy than for the giving of free +play to the unconscious. When we hear the +thought which is formed like one from the unconscious +we compare it to its correct form, +and this results in a difference of expenditure +which gives origin to comic pleasure. A witticism +which makes use of such faulty thinking +as its technique and therefore appears absurd +<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>can produce a comic impression at the same +time. If we do not strike the trail of the wit, +there remains to us only the comic or funny +story.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The story of the borrowed kettle, which +showed a hole on being returned, whereupon +the borrower excused himself by stating that +in the first place he had not borrowed the kettle; +secondly, that it already had a hole when +he borrowed it; and thirdly, that he had returned +it intact without any hole (p. 82), is an +excellent example of a purely comic effect +through giving free play to one’s unconscious +modes of thinking. Just this mutual neutralization +of several thoughts, each of which is well +motivated in itself, is the province of the unconscious. +Corresponding to this, the dream in +which the unconscious thoughts become manifest, +also shows an absence of either—or.<a id='r74'></a><a href='#f74' class='c007'><sup>[74]</sup></a> +These are expressed by putting the thoughts +next to one another. In that dream example +given in my <cite>Interpretation of Dreams</cite>,<a id='r75'></a><a href='#f75' class='c007'><sup>[75]</sup></a> which +in spite of its complication I have chosen as +a type of the work of interpretation, I seek +to rid myself of the reproach that I have not +removed the pains of a patient by psychic +treatment. My arguments are: 1. she is herself +<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>to blame for her illness, because she does +not wish to accept my solution, 2. her pains +are of organic origin, therefore none of my +concern, 3. her pains are connected with her +widowhood, for which I am certainly not to +blame, 4. her pains resulted from an injection +with a dirty syringe, which was given by +another. All these motives follow one another +just as though one did not exclude the +other. In order to escape the reproach that +it was nonsense I had to insert the words +“either—or” instead of the “and” of the +dream.</p> + +<p class='c008'><em>A similar comical story is the one which tells +of a blacksmith in a Hungarian village who has +committed a crime punishable by death; the +bürgomaster, however, decreed that not the +smith but a tailor was to be hanged, as there +were two tailors in the village but only one +blacksmith, and the crime had to be expiated.</em> +Such a displacement of guilt from one person +to another naturally contradicts all laws of +conscious logic, but in no ways the mental +trends of the unconscious. I am in doubt +whether to call this story comic, and still I put +the story of the kettle among the witticisms. +Now I admit that it is far more correct to designate +the latter as comic rather than witty. +But now I understand how it happens that my +<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>feelings, usually so reliable, can leave me in +the lurch as to whether this story be comic +or witty. The case in which I cannot come +to a conclusion through my feelings is the one +in which the comic results through the uncovering +of modes of thought which exclusively +belong to the unconscious. A story of that +kind can be comic and witty at the same time; +but it will impress me as being witty even if +it be only comic, because the use of the faulty +thinking of the unconscious reminds me of +wit, just as in the case of the arrangements +for the uncovering of the hidden comic discussed +before (p. 325).</p> + +<p class='c008'>I must lay great stress upon making clear +this most delicate point of my analysis, namely, +the relation of wit to the comic, and will therefore +supplement what has been said with some +negative statements. First of all, I call attention +to the fact that the case of the meeting +of wit and comic treated here (p. 327) is not +identical with the preceding one. I grant it +is a fine distinction, but it can be drawn with +certainty. In the preceding case the comic +originated from the uncovering of the psychic +automatism. This is in no way peculiar to the +unconscious alone and it does not at all play a +conspicuous part in the technique of wit. Unmasking +appears only accidentally in relation +<span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span>with wit, in that it serves another technique of +wit, namely, representation through the opposite. +But in the case of giving free play to +unconscious ways of thinking the union of wit +and comic is an essential one, because the +same method which is used by the first person +in wit as the technique of releasing pleasure +will naturally produce comic pleasure in the +third person.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We might be tempted to generalize this last +case and seek the relation of wit to the comic +in the fact that the effect of wit upon the third +person follows the mechanism of comic pleasure. +But there is no question about that; contact +with the comic is not in any way found +in all nor even in most witticisms; in most +cases wit and the comic can be cleanly separated. +As often as wit succeeds in escaping +the appearance of absurdity, which is to say +in most witticisms of double meaning or of allusion, +one cannot discover any effect in the +hearer resembling the comic. One can make +the test with examples previously cited or with +some new ones given here.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Congratulatory telegram to be sent to a +gambler on his 70th birthday.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<i><span lang="fr">Trente et quarante</span></i>”<a id='r76'></a><a href='#f76' class='c007'><sup>[76]</sup></a> (word-division with +allusion).</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>Madame de <em>Maintenon</em> was called Madame +de <i><span lang="fr">Maintenant</span></i> (modification of a name).</p> + +<p class='c008'>We might further believe that at least all +jokes with nonsense façades appear comical +and must impress us as such. But I recall +here the fact that such witticisms often have +a different effect on the hearer, calling forth +confusion and a tendency to rejection (see footnote, +p. 212). Therefore it evidently depends +whether the nonsense of the wit appears comical +or common plain nonsense, and the conditions +for this we have not yet investigated. Accordingly +we hold to the conclusion that wit, judging +by its nature, can be separated from the +comic, and that it unites with it on the one +hand only in certain special cases, on the other +in the tendency to gain pleasure from intellectual +sources.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the course of these examinations concerning +the relations of wit and the comic there +revealed itself to us that distinction which we +must emphasize as most significant, and which +at the same time points to a psychologically +important characteristic of the comic. We had +to transfer to the unconscious the source of +wit-pleasure; there is no occasion which can be +discovered for the same localization of the +comic. On the contrary all analyses which we +have made thus far indicate that the source +<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>of comic pleasure lies in the comparison of +two expenditures, both of which we must +adjudge to the foreconscious. Wit and the +comic can above all be differentiated in the +psychic localization; <em>wit is, so to speak, the +contribution to the comic from the sphere of +the unconscious</em>.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comic of Imitation</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>We need not blame ourselves for digressing +from the subject, for the relation of wit to the +comic is really the occasion which urged us to +the examination of the comic. But it is time +for us to return to the point under discussion, +to the treatment of the means which serve to +produce the comic. We have advanced the +discussion of caricature and unmasking, because +from both of them we can borrow several +points of similarity for the analysis of the +comic of <em>imitation</em>. Imitation is mostly replaced +by caricature, which consists in the exaggeration +of certain otherwise not striking +traits, and also bears the character of degradation. +Still this does not seem to exhaust the +nature of imitation; it is incontestable that in +itself it represents an extraordinarily rich +source of comic pleasure, for we laugh particularly +over faithful imitations. It is not easy +<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>to give a satisfactory explanation of this if we +do not accept Bergson’s view,<a id='r77'></a><a href='#f77' class='c007'><sup>[77]</sup></a> according to +which the comic of imitation is put next to the +comic produced by uncovering the psychic +automatism. Bergson believes that everything +gives a comic impression which manifests itself +in the shape of a machine-like inanimate movement +in the human being. His law is that +“the attitudes, gestures, and movements of +the human body are laughable in exact proportion +as that body reminds us of a mere +machine.” He explains the comic of imitation +by connecting it with a problem formulated +by Pascal in his <cite>Thoughts</cite>, why is it that we +laugh at the comparison of two faces that are +alike although neither of them excites laughter +by itself. “The truth is that a really living +life should never repeat itself. Wherever +there is repetition or complete similarity, we +always suspect some mechanism at work behind +the living.” Analyze the impression you get +from two faces that are too much alike, and +you will find that you are thinking of two +copies cast in the same mould, or two impressions +of the same soul, or two reproductions of +the same negative,—in a word, of some manufacturing +process or other. This deflection of +life towards the mechanical is here the real +<span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>cause of laughter (l. c., p. 34). We might say, it +is the degradation of the human to the mechanical +or inanimate. If we accept these +winning arguments of Bergson, it is moreover +not difficult to subject his view to our own +formula. Taught by experience that every +living being is different and demands a definite +amount of expenditure from our understanding, +we find ourselves disappointed when, as +a result of a perfect agreement or deceptive +imitation, we need no new expenditure. But +we are disappointed in the sense of being relieved, +and the expenditure of expectation +which has become superfluous is discharged +through laughter. The same formula will also +cover all cases of comic rigidity considered by +Bergson, such as professional habits, fixed +ideas, and modes of expression which are repeated +on every occasion. All these cases aim +to compare the expenditure of expectation +with what is commonly required for the understanding, +whereby the greater expectation depends +on observation of individual variety and +human plasticity. Hence in imitation the +source of comic pleasure is not the comic of +situation but that of expectation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As we trace the comic pleasure in general +to comparison, it is incumbent upon us to investigate +also the comic element of the comparison +<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>itself, which likewise serves as a means +of producing the comic. Our interest in this +question will be enhanced when we recall that +in the case of comparison the “feeling” as +to whether something was to be classed as +witty or merely comical often left us in the +lurch (v. p. 114).</p> + +<p class='c008'>The subject really deserves more attention +than we can bestow upon it. The main quality +for which we ask in comparison is whether +it is pertinent, that is, whether it really calls +our attention to an existing agreement between +two different objects. The original pleasure +in refinding the same thing (Groos, p. 103) +is not the only motive which favors the use +of comparison. Besides this there is the fact +that comparison is capable of a utilization +which facilitates intellectual work; when for +example, as is usually the case, one compares +the less familiar to the more familiar, the abstract +to the concrete, and explains through +this comparison the more strange and the more +difficult objects. With every such comparison, +especially of the abstract to the concrete, +there is a certain degradation and a certain +economy in abstraction expenditure (in the +sense of a conceptual mimicry) yet this naturally +does not suffice to render prominent +the character of the comic. The latter does not +<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>emerge suddenly from the freed pleasure of +the comparison but comes gradually; there +are many cases which only touch the comic, in +which one might doubt whether they show the +comic character. The comparison undoubtedly +becomes comical when the <i><span lang="fr">niveau</span></i> difference +of the expenditure of abstraction between the +two things compared becomes increased, if +something serious and strange, especially of +intellectual or moral nature is compared to +something banal and lowly. The former release +of pleasure and the contribution from +the conditions of conceptual mimicry may perhaps +explain the gradual change—which is determined +by quantitative relations,—from the +universally pleasurable to the comic, which +takes place during the comparison. I am +certainly avoiding misunderstandings in that +I emphasize that I deduce the comic pleasure +in the comparison, not from the contrast of +the two things compared but from the difference +of the two abstraction expenditures. +The strange which is difficult to grasp, the abstract +and really intellectually sublime, through +its alleged agreement with a familiar lowly +one, in the imagination of which every abstraction +expenditure disappears, is now itself unmasked +as something equally lowly. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span>comic of comparison thus becomes reduced to +a case of degradation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The comparison, as we have seen above, can +now be witty without a trace of comic admixture, +especially when it happens to evade the +degradation. Thus the comparison of Truth +to a torch which one cannot carry through a +crowd without singeing somebody’s beard is +pure wit, because it takes an obsolete expression +(“The torch of truth”) at its full value +and not at all in a comical sense, and because +the torch as an object does not lack a certain +distinction, though it is a concrete object. +However, a comparison may just as well be +witty as comic, and what is more one may be +independent of the other, in that the comparison +becomes an aid for certain techniques of +wit, as, for example, unification or allusion. +Thus Nestroy’s comparison of memory to a +“Warehouse” (p. 120) is simultaneously comical +and witty, first, on account of the extraordinary +degradation to which the psychological +conception must consent in the comparison +to a “Warehouse,” and secondly, because he +who utilizes the comparison is a clerk, and in +this comparison he establishes a rather unexpected +unification between psychology and his +vocation. Heine’s verse, “until at last the +buttons tore from the pants of my patience,” +<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>seems at first an excellent example of a comic +degrading comparison, but on closer reflection +we must ascribe to it also the attribute of wittiness, +since the comparison as a means of allusion +strikes into the realm of the obscene and +causes a release of pleasure from the obscene. +Through a union not altogether incidental the +same material also gives us a resultant pleasure +which is at the same time comical and +witty; it does not matter whether or not the +conditions of the one promote the origin of the +other, such a union acts confusingly on the +“feeling” whose function it is to announce to +us whether we have before us wit or the comic, +and only a careful examination independent +of the disposition of pleasure can decide the +question.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As tempting as it would be to trace these +more intimate determinations of comic pleasure, +the author must remember that neither +his previous education nor his daily vocation +justifies him in extending his investigations beyond +the spheres of wit, and he must confess +that it is precisely the subject of comic comparison +which makes him feel his incompetence.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We are quite willing to be reminded that +many authors do not recognize the clear notional +and objective distinction between wit +and comic, as we were impelled to do, and that +<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>they classify wit merely as “the comic of +speech” or “of words.” To test this view let +us select one example of intentional and one +of involuntary comic of speech and compare +it with wit. We have already mentioned before +that we are in a good position to distinguish +comic from witty speech. “With a +fork and with effort, his mother pulled him +out of the mess,” is only comical, but Heine’s +verse about the four castes of the population +of Göttingen: “Professors, students, Philistines, +and cattle,” is exquisitely witty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As an example of the intentional comic of +speech I will take as a model Stettenheim’s +<cite>Wippchen</cite>. We call Stettenheim witty because +he possesses the cleverness that evokes +the comic. The wit which one “has” in contradistinction +to the wit which one “makes,” +is indeed correctly conditioned by this ability. +It is true that the letters of Wippchen are +also witty in so far as they are interspersed +with a rich collection of all sorts of witticisms, +some of which very successful ones, (as “festively +undressed” when he speaks of a parade +of savages), but what lends the peculiar character +to these productions is not these isolated +witticisms, but the superabundant flow +of comic speech contained therein. Originally +<em>Wippchen</em> was certainly meant to represent +<span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>a satirical character, a modification of Freytag’s +Schmock, one of those uneducated persons +who trade in the educational treasure of +the nation and abuse it; but the pleasure in +the comic effect experienced in representing +this person seems gradually to have pushed to +the background the author’s satirical tendency. +Wippchen’s productions are for the most part +“comic nonsense.” The author has justly +utilized the pleasant mood resulting from the +accumulation of such achievements to present +beside the altogether admissible material all +sorts of absurdities which would be intolerable +in themselves. Wippchen’s nonsense appears +to be of a specific nature only on account of +its special technique. If we look closer into +some of these “witticisms,” we find that some +forms which have impressed their character on +the whole production are especially conspicuous. +Wippchen makes use mostly of compositions +(fusions), of modifications of familiar +expressions and quotations. He replaces some +of the banal elements in these expressions by +others which are usually more pretentious and +more valuable. This naturally comes near to +the techniques of wit.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>The Comic of Speech</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Some of the fusions taken from the preface +and the first pages are the following: “<em>Turkey’s +money is like the hay of the sea.</em>” This +is only a condensation of the two expressions, +“Money like hay,” “Money like the sands of +the sea.” Or: “<em>I am nothing but a leafless pillar +which tells of a vanished splendor</em>,” which +is a fusion of “leafless trunk” and “a pillar +which, etc.” Or: “<em>Where is Ariadne’s thread +which leads out of the Scylla of this Augean +stable?</em>” for which three different Greek myths +contribute an element each.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The modifications and substitutions can be +treated collectively without much forcing; their +character can be seen from the following examples +which are peculiar to Wippchen, they are +regularly permeated by a different wording +which is more fluent, most banal, and reduced +to mere platitudes.</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>To hang my paper and ink high.</em>” The +saying: “To hang one’s bread-basket high,” +expresses metaphorically the idea of placing +one under difficult conditions. But why not +stretch this figure to other material?</p> + +<p class='c008'>“<em>Already in my youth Pegasus was alive in +me.</em>” When the word “pegasus” is replaced +by “the poet,” one can recognize it as an expression +<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>often used in autobiographies. Naturally +“pegasus” is not the proper word to +replace the words “the poet,” but it has +thought associations to it and is a high-sounding +word.</p> + +<p class='c008'>From Wippchen’s other numerous productions +some examples can be shown which present +the pure comic. As an example of comic +disillusionment the following can be cited: +“<em>For hours the battle raged, finally it remained +undecisive</em>”; an example of comical +unmasking (of ignorance) is the following: +“<em>Clio, the Medusa of history</em>,” or quotations +like the following: “<i><span lang="la">Habent sua fata morgana.</span></i>” +But our interest is aroused more by +the fusions and modifications because they recall +familiar techniques of wit. We may compare +them to such modification witticisms as +the following: “He has a great future behind +him,” and Lichtenberg’s modification witticisms +such as: “New baths heal well,” etc. Should +Wippchen’s productions having the same technique +be called witticisms, or what distinguishes +them from the latter?</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is surely not difficult to answer this. +Let us remember that wit presents to the +hearer a double face, and forces him to two +different views. In nonsense-witticisms such +as those mentioned last, one view, which considers +<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>only the wording, states that they are +nonsense; the other view, which, in obedience +to suggestion, follows the road that leads +through the hearer’s unconscious, finds very +good sense in these witticisms. In Wippchen’s +wit-like productions one of these views of wit +is empty, as if stunted. It is a Janus head +with only one countenance developed. One +would get nowhere should he be tempted to +proceed by means of this technique to the unconscious. +The condensations lead to no case +in which the two fused elements really result +in a new sense; they fall to pieces when an +attempt is made to analyze them. As in wit, +the modifications and substitutions lead to a +current and familiar wording, but they themselves +tell us little else and as a rule nothing +that is of any possible use. Hence the only +thing remaining to these “witticisms” is the +nonsense view. Whether such productions, +which have freed themselves from one of the +most essential characters of wit, should be +called “bad” wit or not wit at all, every one +must decide as he feels inclined.</p> + +<p class='c008'>There is no doubt that such stunted wit produces +a comic effect for which we can account +in more than one way. Either the comic +originates through the uncovering of the unconscious +modes of thinking in a manner similar +<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>to the cases considered above, or the wit +originates by comparison with perfect wit. +Nothing prevents us from assuming that we +here deal with a union of both modes of origin +of the comic pleasure. It is not to be denied +that it is precisely the inadequate dependence +on wit which here shapes the nonsense into +comic nonsense.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Comic of Inadequacy</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>There are, of course, other quite apparent +cases, in which such inadequacy produced by +the comparison with wit, makes the nonsense +irresistibly comic. The counterpart to wit, the +riddle, can perhaps give us better examples +for this than wit itself. A facetious question +states: <em>What is this: It hangs on the wall and +one can dry his hands on it? It would be a +foolish riddle if the answer were: a towel. On +the contrary this answer is rejected with the +statement: No, it is a herring,—“But, for +mercy’s sake,” is the objection, “a herring +does not hang on the wall.”—“But you can +hang it there,”—“But who wants to dry his +hands on a herring?”—“Well,” is the soft +answer, “you don’t have to.”</em> This explanation +given through two typical displacements +show how much this question lacks of being a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>real riddle, and because of this absolute insufficiency +it impresses one as irresistibly comic, +rather than mere nonsensical foolishness. +Through such means, that is, by not restricting +essential conditions, wit, riddles, and other +forms, which in themselves produce no comic +pleasure, can be made into sources of comic +pleasure.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is not so difficult to understand the case +of the involuntary comic of speech which we +can perhaps find realized with as much frequency +as we like in the poems of Frederika +Kempner.<a id='r78'></a><a href='#f78' class='c007'><sup>[78]</sup></a></p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in8'>ANTI-VIVISECTION.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>Fraternal sentiment should urge us</div> + <div class='line'>To champion the Guinea-pig,</div> + <div class='line'>For has it not a soul like ours,</div> + <div class='line'>Although most likely not as big?</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c019'>Or a conversation between a loving couple.</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line in12'>THE CONTRAST.</div> + </div> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>The young wife whispers “I’m so happy,”</div> + <div class='line'>“And I!” chimes in her husband’s voice,</div> + <div class='line'>“Because your virtues, dearest help-mate,</div> + <div class='line'>Reveal the wisdom of my choice.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>There is nothing here which makes one think +of wit. Doubtless, however, it is the inadequacy +of these “poetic productions,” as the very extraordinary +clumsiness of the expressions which +recall the most commonplace or newspaper +style, the ingenious poverty of thoughts, the +absence of every trace of poetic manner of +thinking or speaking,—it is all these inadequacies +which make these poems comic. Nevertheless +it is not at all self-evident that we +should find Kempner’s poems comical; many +similar productions we merely consider very +bad, we do not laugh at them but are rather +vexed with them. But here it is the great disparity +in our demand of a poem which impels +us to the comic conception; where this difference +is less, we are inclined to criticise rather +than laugh. The comic effect of Kempner’s +poetic productions is furthermore assured by +the additional circumstances of the lady author’s +unmistakably good intentions, and by +the fact that her helpless phrases disarm our +feeling of mockery and anger. We are now +reminded of a problem the consideration of +which we have so far postponed. The difference +of expenditure is surely the main condition +of the comic pleasure, but observation +teaches that such difference does not always +produce pleasure. What other conditions must +<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>be added, or what disturbances must be +checked in order that pleasure should result +from the difference of expenditure? But before +proceeding with the answers to these +questions we wish to verify what was said in +the conclusions of the former discussion, +namely, that the comic of speech is not synonymous +with wit, and that wit must be something +quite different from speech comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As we are about to attack the problem just +formulated, concerning the conditions of the +origin of comic pleasure from the difference of +expenditure, we may permit ourselves to facilitate +this task so as to cause ourselves some +pleasure. To give a correct answer to this +question would amount to an exhaustive +presentation of the nature of the comic for +which we are fitted neither by ability nor authority. +We shall therefore again be content to +elucidate the problem of the comic only +so far as it distinctly separates itself from +wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>All theories of the comic were objected to +by the critics on the ground that in defining +the comic these theories overlooked the essential +element of it. This can be seen from the +following theories, with their objections. The +comic depends on a contrasting idea; yes, in +so far as this contrast effects one comically and +<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>in no other way. The feeling of the comic results +from the dwindling away of an expectation; +yes, if the disappointment does not prove +to be painful. There is no doubt that these +objections are justified, but they are overestimated +if one concludes from them that the essential +characteristic mark of the comic has +hitherto escaped our conception. What depreciates +the general validity of these definitions +are conditions which are indispensable for the +origin of the comic pleasure, but which will be +searched in vain for the nature of comic pleasure. +The rejection of the objections and the +explanations of the contradictions to the definitions +of the comic will become easy for us, +only after we trace back comic pleasure to the +difference resulting from a comparison of two +expenditures. Comic pleasure and the effect +by which it is recognized—laughter, can originate +only when this difference is no longer +utilizable and when it is capable of discharge. +We gain no pleasurable effect, or at most a +flighty feeling of pleasure in which the comic +does not appear, if the difference is put to +other use as soon as it is recognized. Just +as special precautions must be taken in wit, +in order to guard against making new use of +expenditure recognized as superfluous, so also +can comic pleasure originate only under relations +<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>which fulfil this latter condition. The +cases in which such differences of expenditure +originate in our ideational life are therefore +uncommonly numerous, while the cases in +which the comic originates from them is comparatively +very rare.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Conditions of Isolation of the Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Two observations obtrude themselves upon +the observer who reviews even only superficially +the origin of comic pleasure from the difference +of expenditure; first, that there are cases in +which the comic appears regularly and as if +necessarily; and, in contrast to these cases, +others in which this appearance depends on the +conditions of the case and on the viewpoint of +the observer; but secondly, that unusually +large differences very often triumph over unfavorable +conditions, so that the comic feeling +originates in spite of it. In reference to the +first point one may set up two classes, the inevitable +comic and the accidental comic, although +one will have to be prepared from the +beginning to find exceptions in the first class +to the inevitableness of the comic. It would +be tempting to follow the conditions which are +essential to each class.</p> + +<p class='c008'>What is important in the second class are +<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>the conditions of which one may be designated +as the “isolation” of the comic case. A closer +analysis renders conspicuous relations something +like the following:</p> + +<p class='c008'>a) The favorable condition for the origin +of comic pleasure is brought about by a general +happy disposition in which “one is in the +mood for laughing.” In happy toxic states almost +everything seems comic, which probably +results from a comparison with the expenditure +in normal conditions. For wit, the comic, +and all similar methods of gaining pleasure +from the psychic activities, are nothing but +ways to regain this happy state—euphoria—from +one single point, when it does not exist +as a general disposition of the psyche.</p> + +<p class='c008'>b) A similar favorable condition is produced +by the expectation of the comic or by +putting one’s self in the right mood for comic +pleasure. Hence when the intention to make +things comical exists and when this feeling is +shared by others, the differences required are +so slight that they probably would have been +overlooked had they been experienced in unpremeditated +occurrences. He who decides to +attend a comic lecture or a farce at the theater +is indebted to this intention for laughing over +things which in his everyday life would hardly +produce in him a comic effect. He finally +<span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span>laughs at the recollection of having laughed, at +the expectation of laughing, and at the appearance +of the one who is to present the comic, +even before the latter makes the attempt to +make him laugh. It is for this reason that +people admit that they are ashamed of that +which made them laugh at the theater.</p> + +<p class='c008'>c) Unfavorable conditions for the comic result +from the kind of psychic activity which +may occupy the individual at the moment. +Imaginative or mental activity tending towards +serious aims disturbs the discharging capacity +of the investing energies which the activity +needs for its own displacements, so that only +unexpected and great differences of expenditure +can break through to form comic pleasure. +All manner of mental processes far +enough removed from the obvious to cause a +suspension of ideational mimicry are unfavorable +to the comic; in abstract contemplation +there is hardly any room left for the comic, +except when this form of thinking is suddenly +interrupted.</p> + +<p class='c008'>d) The occasion for releasing comic pleasure +vanishes when the attention is fixed on the +comparison capable of giving rise to the comic. +Under such circumstances the comic force is +lost from that which is otherwise sure to produce +a comic effect. A movement or a mental +<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>activity cannot become comical to him whose +interest is fixed at the time of comparing this +movement with a standard which distinctly +presents itself to him. Thus the examiner does +not see the comical in the nonsense produced +by the student in his ignorance; he is simply +annoyed by it, whereas the offender’s classmates +who are more interested in his chances +of passing the examination than in what he +knows, laugh heartily over the same nonsense. +The teacher of dancing or gymnastics seldom +has any eyes for the comic movements of his +pupils, and the preacher entirely loses sight of +humanity’s defects of character, which the +writer of comedy brings out with so much effect. +The comic process cannot stand examination +by the attention, it must be able to proceed +absolutely unnoticed in a manner similar +to wit. But for good reasons, it would contradict +the nomenclature of “conscious processes” +which I have used in <cite>The Interpretation +of Dreams</cite>, if one wished to call it of +necessity <em>unconscious</em>. It rather belongs to +the <em>foreconscious</em>, and one may use the fitting +name “automatic” for all those processes +which are enacted in the foreconscious and +dispense with the attention energy which is +connected with consciousness. The process +of comparison of the expenditures must remain +<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>automatic if it is to produce comic +pleasure.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Conditions Disturbing the Discharge</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>e) It is exceedingly disturbing to the comic +if the case from which it originates gives rise +at the same time to a marked release of affect. +The discharge of the affective difference +is then as a rule excluded. Affects, disposition, +and the attitude of the individual in occasional +cases make it clear that the comic comes or +goes with the viewpoint of the individual person; +that only in exceptional cases is there an +absolute comic. The dependence or relativity +of the comic is therefore much greater than +of wit, which never happens but is regularly +made, and at its production one may already +give attention to the conditions under which +it finds acceptance. But affective development +is the most intensive of the conditions which +disturb the comic, the significance of which is +well known.<a id='r79'></a><a href='#f79' class='c007'><sup>[79]</sup></a> It is therefore said that the +comic feeling comes most in tolerably indifferent +cases which evince no strong feelings or +interests. Nevertheless it is just in cases with +affective release that one may witness the production +of a particularly strong expenditure-difference +<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>in the automatism of discharge. +When Colonel Butler answers Octavio’s admonitions +with “bitter laughter,” exclaiming:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“Thanks from the house of Austria!”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c019'>his bitterness has thus not prevented the laughter +which results from the recollection of the +disappointment which he believes he has experienced; +and on the other hand, the magnitude +of this disappointment could not have been +more impressively depicted by the poet than +by showing it capable of affecting laughter in +the midst of the storm of unchained affects. +It is my belief that this explanation may be +applicable in all cases in which laughing occurs +on other than pleasurable occasions, and in +conjunction with exceedingly painful or tense +affects.</p> + +<p class='c008'>f) If we also mention that the development +of the comic pleasure can be promoted by +means of any other pleasurable addition to the +case which acts like a sort of contact-effect +(after the manner of the fore-pleasure principle +in the tendency-wit), then we have discussed +surely not all the conditions of comic +pleasure, yet enough of them to serve our purpose. +We then see that no other assumption +so easily covers these conditions, as well as the +inconstancy and dependence of the comic effect, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>as this: the assumption that comic pleasure +is derived from the discharge of a difference, +which under many conditions can be diverted +to a different use than discharge.</p> + +<p class='c006'>It still remains to give a thorough consideration +of the comic of the sexual and obscene, +but we shall only skim over it with a few observations. +Here, too, we shall take the act +of exposing one’s body as the starting-point. +An accidental exposure produces a comical +effect on us, because we compare the ease with +which we attained the enjoyment of this view +with the great expenditure otherwise necessary +for the attainment of this object. The case +thus comes nearer to the naïve-comic, but it is +simpler than the latter. In every case of exhibitionism +in which we are made spectators—or, +in the case of the smutty joke hearers,—we +play the part of the third person, and the +person exposed is made comical. We have +heard that it is the purpose of wit to replace +obscenity and in this manner to reopen a +source of comic pleasure that has been lost. +On the contrary, spying out an exposure forms +no example of the comic for the one spying, +because the effort he exerts thereby abrogates +the condition of comic pleasure; the only thing +remaining is the sexual pleasure in what is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>seen. If the spy relates to another what he +has seen, the person looked at again becomes +comical, because the viewpoint that predominates +is that the expenditure was omitted +which would have been necessary for the concealment +of the private parts. At all events, +the sphere of the sexual or obscene offers the +richest opportunities for gaining comic pleasure +beside the pleasurable sexual stimulation, +as it exposes the person’s dependence on his +physical needs (degradation) or it can uncover +behind the spiritual love the physical demands +of the same (unmasking.)</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Psychogenesis of the Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>An invitation to seek the understanding of +the comic in its psychogenesis comes surprisingly +from Bergson’s well written and +stimulating book <em>Laughter</em>. Bergson, whose +formula for the conception of the comic character +has already become known to us—“mechanization +of life,” “the substitution of +something mechanical for the natural”—reaches +by obvious associations from automatism +to the automaton, and seeks to trace +a series of comic effects to the blurred memories +of children’s toys. In this connection he once +reaches this viewpoint, which, to be sure, he soon +<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>drops; he seeks to trace the comic to the after-effect +of childish pleasure. “Perhaps we +ought even to carry simplification still farther, +and, going back to our earliest recollection, +try to discover in the games that amused us +as children the first faint traces of the combinations +that make us laugh as grown-up +persons.”... “Above all, we are too apt +to ignore the childish element, so to speak, +latent in most of our joyful emotions” (p. 67). +As we have now traced wit to that childish +playing with words and thoughts which is +prohibited by the rational critic, we must be +tempted to trace also these infantile roots of +the comic, conjectured by Bergson.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As a matter of fact we meet a whole series +of conditions which seem most promising, when +we examine the relation of the comic to the +child. The child itself does not by any means +seem comic to us, although its character fulfills +all conditions which, in comparison to our own, +would result in a comic difference. Thus we +see the immoderate expenditure of motion as +well as the slight psychic expenditure, the control +of the psychic activities through bodily +functions, and other features. The child gives +us a comic impression only when it does not +behave as a child but as an earnest grown-up, +and even then it affects us only in the same +<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>manner as other persons in disguise; but as +long as it retains the nature of the child our +perception of it furnishes us a pure pleasure, +which perhaps recalls the comic. We call it +naïve in so far as it displays to us the absence +of inhibitions, and we call naïve-comic those of +its utterances which in another we would have +considered obscene or witty.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the other hand the child lacks all feeling +for the comic. This sentence seems to say +no more than that this comic feeling, like many +others, first makes its appearance in the course +of psychic development; and that would by no +means be remarkable, especially since we must +admit that it shows itself distinctly even during +years which must be accredited to childhood. +Nevertheless it can be demonstrated +that the assertion that the child lacks feeling +for the comic has a deeper meaning than one +would suppose. In the first place it will readily +be seen that it cannot be different, if our +conception is correct, that the comic feeling results +from a difference of expenditure produced +in the effort to understand the other. +Let us again take comic motion as an example. +The comparison which furnishes the difference +reads as follows, when put in conscious formulæ: +“So he does it,” and: “So I would do +it,” or “So I have done it.” But the child +<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>lacks the standard contained in the second +sentence, it understands simply through imitation; +it just does it. Education of the child +furnishes it with the standard: “So you shall +do it,” and if it now makes use of the same +in comparisons, the nearest conclusion is: “He +has not done it right, and I can do it better.” +In this case it laughs at the other, it laughs +at him with a feeling of superiority. There +is nothing to prevent us from tracing this +laughter also to a difference of expenditure; +but according to the analogy with the examples +of laughter occurring in us we may conclude +that the comic feeling is not experienced +by the child when it laughs as an expression +of superiority. It is a laughter of pure pleasure. +In our own case whenever the judgment +of our own superiority occurs we smile rather +than laugh, or if we laugh, we are still able +to distinguish clearly this conscious realization +of our superiority from the comic which makes +us laugh.</p> + +<p class='c008'>It is probably correct to say that in many +cases which we perceive as “comical” and +which we cannot explain, the child laughs out +of pure pleasure, whereas the child’s motives +are clear and assignable. If, for instance, +some one slips on the street and falls, we laugh +because this impression—we know not why—is +<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>comical. The child laughs in the same case +out of a feeling of superiority or out of joy +over the calamity of others. It amounts to +saying: “You fell, but I did not.” Certain +pleasure motives of the child seems to be lost +for us grown-ups, but as a substitute for these +we perceive under the same conditions the +“comic” feeling.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Infantile and the Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>If we were permitted to generalize, it would +seem very tempting to transfer the desired +specific character of the comic into the awakening +of the infantile, and to conceive the +comic as a regaining of “lost infantile laughing.” +One could then say, “I laugh every time +over a difference of expenditure between the +other and myself, when I discover in the other +the child.” Or expressed more precisely, the +whole comparison leading to the comic would +read as follows:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“He does it this way—I do it differently—</div> + <div class='line'>He does it just as I did when I was a child.”</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c008'>This laughter would thus result every time +from the comparison between the ego of the +grown-up and the ego of the child. The uncertainty +itself of the comic difference, causing +<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>now the lesser and now the greater expenditure +to appear comical to me, would correspond +to the infantile determination; the comic +therein is actually always on the side of the infantile.</p> + +<p class='c008'>This is not contradicted by the fact that the +child itself as an object of comparison does not +make a comic impression on me but a purely +pleasurable one, nor by the fact that this comparison +with the infantile produces a comic +effect only when any other use of the difference +is avoided. For the conditions of the +discharge come thereby into consideration. +Everything that confines a psychic process in +an association of ideas works against the discharge +of the surplus occupation of energy +and directs the same to other utilization; whatever +isolates a psychic act favors the discharge. +By consciously focussing on the child as the +person of comparison, the discharge necessary +for the production of comic pleasure therefore +becomes impossible; only in foreconscious energetic +states is there a similar approach to the +isolation which we may moreover also ascribe +to the psychic processes in the child. The addition +to the comparison: “Thus I have also +done it as a child,” from which the comic effect +would emanate, could come into consideration +for the average difference only when no +<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>other association could obtain control over the +freed surplus.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If we still continue with our attempt to find +the nature of the comic in the foreconscious +association of the infantile, we have to go a +step further than Bergson and admit that the +comparison resulting in the comic need not +necessarily awake old childish pleasure and +play, but that it is enough if it touches the +childish nature in general, perhaps even childish +pain. Herein we deviate from Bergson, +but remain consistent with ourselves, when we +connect the comic pleasure not with remembered +pleasure but always with a comparison. +This is possible, for cases of the first kind comprise +in a measure those which are regularly +and irresistibly comic. Let us now draw up +the scheme of the comic possibilities instanced +above. We stated that the comic difference +would be found either</p> + +<p class='c008'>(a) through a comparison between the other +and one’s self, or (b) through a comparison altogether +within the other, or (c) through a +comparison altogether within one’s self.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In the first case the other would appear to +me as a child, in the second he would put himself +on the level of a child, and in the third I +would find the child in myself. To the first +class belong the comic of movement and of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span>forms, of psychic activity and of character. +The infantile corresponding to it would be the +motion-impulse and the inferior mental and +moral development of the child, so that the fool +would perhaps become comical to me by reminding +me of a lazy child, and the bad person +by reminding me of a naughty child. +The only time one might speak of a childish +pleasure lost to grown-ups would be where the +child’s own motion pleasure came into consideration.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The second case, in which the comic altogether +depends on identification with the other, +comprises numerous possibilities such as the +comic situation, exaggeration (caricature), imitation, +degradation, and unmasking. It is +under this head that the presentation of infantile +viewpoints mostly take place. For the +comic situation is largely based on embarrassment, +in which we feel again the helplessness +of the child. The worst of these embarrassments, +the disturbance of other activities +through the imperative demands of natural +wants, corresponds to the child’s lack of control +of the physical functions. Where the +comic situation acts through repetitions it is +based on the pleasure of constant repetition +peculiar to the child (asking questions, telling +stories), through which it makes itself a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>nuisance to grown-ups. Exaggeration, which +also affords pleasure even to the grown-up in +so far as it is justified by his reason, corresponds +to the characteristic want of moderation +in the child, and its ignorance of all quantitative +relations which it later really learns to +know as qualitative. To keep within bounds, +to practice moderation even in permissible feelings +is a late fruit of education, and is gained +through opposing inhibitions of the psychic +activity acquired in the same association. +Wherever this association is weakened as in the +unconscious of dreams and in the monoideation +of the psychoneuroses, the want of moderation +of the child again makes its appearance.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The understanding of comic imitation has +caused us many difficulties so long as we left +out of consideration the infantile factor. But +imitation is the child’s best art and is the impelling +motive of most of its playing. The +child’s ambition is not so much to distinguish +himself among his equals as to imitate the big +fellows. The relation of the child to the +grown-up determines also the comic of degradation, +which corresponds to the lowering of the +grown-up in the life of the child. Few things +can afford the child greater pleasure than when +the grown-up lowers himself to its level, disregards +his superiority, and plays with the child +<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>as its equal. The alleviation which furnishes +the child pure pleasure is a debasement used by +the adult as a means of making things comic +and as a source of comic pleasure. As for unmasking +we know that it is based on degradation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The infantile determination of the third case, +the comic of expectation, presents most of the +difficulties; this really explains why those authors +who put this case to the foreground in +their conception of the comic, found no occasion +to consider the infantile factor in their +studies of the comic. The comic of expectation +is farthest from the child’s thoughts, the +ability to understand this is the latest quality +to appear in him. Most of those cases which +produce a comic effect in the grown-up are +probably felt by the child as a disappointment. +One can refer, however, to the blissful expectation +and gullibility of the child in order +to understand why one considers himself as +comical “as a child,” when he succumbs to +comic disappointment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>If the preceding remarks produce a certain +probability that the comic feeling may be +translated into the thought; everything is comic +that does not fit the grown-up, I still do not +feel bold enough,—in view of my whole position +to the problem of the comic—to defend +<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>this last proposition with the same earnestness +as those that I formulated before. I am unable +to decide whether the lowering to the level +of the child is only a special case of comic +degradation, or whether everything comical +fundamentally depends on the degradation to +the level of the child.<a id='r80'></a><a href='#f80' class='c007'><sup>[80]</sup></a></p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Humor</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>An examination of the comic, however superficial +it may be, would be most incomplete if +it did not devote at least a few remarks to the +consideration of <em>humor</em>. There is so little +doubt as to the essential relationship between +the two that a tentative explanation of the +comic must furnish at least one component for +the understanding of humor. It does not matter +how much appropriate and important material +was presented as an appreciation of humor, +which, as one of the highest psychic functions, +enjoys the special favor of thinkers, we +still cannot elude the temptation to express +its essence through an approach to the formulæ +given for wit and the comic.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>We have heard that the release of painful +emotions is the strongest hindrance to the +comic effect. Just as aimless motion causes +harm, stupidity mischief, and disappointment +pain;—the possibility of a comic effect eventually +ends, at least for him who cannot defend +himself against such pain, who is himself affected +by it or must participate in it, whereas +the disinterested party shows by his behavior +that the situation of the case in question contains +everything necessary to produce comic +effect. Humor is thus a means to gain pleasure +despite the painful affects which disturb +it; it acts as a substitute for this affective development, +and takes its place. If we are in +a situation which tempts us to liberate painful +affects according to our habits, and motives +then urge us to suppress these affects <i><span lang="la">statu +nascendi</span></i>, we have the conditions for humor. +In the cases just cited the person affected by +misfortune, pain, etc., could obtain humoristic +pleasure while the disinterested party laughs +over the comic pleasure. We can only say that +the pleasure of humor results at the cost of +this discontinued liberation of affect; it originates +through the <em>economized expenditure of +affect</em>.</p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>The Economy in Expenditure of Affect</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>Humor is the most self-sufficient of the +forms of the comic; its process consummating +itself in one single person and the participation +of another adds nothing new to it. I can +enjoy the pleasure of humor originating in myself +without feeling the necessity of imparting +it to another. It is not easy to tell what happens +dining the production of humoristic pleasure +in a person; but one gains a certain insight +by investigating these cases of humor +which have emanated from persons with whom +we have entered into a sympathetic understanding. +By sympathetically understanding +the humoristic person in these cases one gets +the same pleasure. The coarsest form of humor, +the so-called humor of the gallows or +grim-humor (<i><span lang="no">Galgenhumor</span></i>), may enlighten +us in this regard. The rogue, on being led to +execution on Monday, remarked: “Yes, this +week is beginning well.” This is really a witticism, +as the remark is quite appropriate in itself, +on the other hand it is displaced in the +most nonsensical fashion, as there can be no +further happening for him this week. But it +required humor to make such wit, that is, to +overlook what distinguished the beginning of +this week from other weeks, and to deny the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>difference which could give rise to motives for +very particular emotional feelings. The case +is the same when on the way to the gallows he +requests a neckerchief for his bare neck, in +order to guard against taking cold, a precaution +which would be quite praiseworthy under +different circumstances, but becomes exceedingly +superfluous and indifferent in view of +the impending fate of this same neck. We +must say that there is something like greatness +of soul in this <em>blague</em>, in this clinging to his +usual nature and in deviating from that which +would overthrow and drive this nature into +despair. This form of grandeur of humor thus +appears unmistakably in cases in which our +admiration is not inhibited by the circumstances +of the humoristic person.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In Victor Hugo’s <cite>Ernani</cite> the bandit who +entered into a conspiracy against his king, +Charles I, of Spain, (Charles V, as the German +Emperor), falls into the hands of his +most powerful enemy; he foresees his fate; as +one convicted of high treason his head will +fall. But this prospect does not deter him +from introducing himself as a hereditary +Grandee of Spain and from declaring that he +has no intention of waiving any prerogative +belonging to such personage. A Grandee of +<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>Spain could appear before his royal master +with his head covered. Well:</p> + +<div class='lg-container-b c018'> + <div class='linegroup'> + <div class='group'> + <div class='line'>“<span lang="fr">Nos têtes ont le droit</span></div> + <div class='line'><span lang="fr">De tomber couvertes devant de toi.</span>”<a id='r81'></a><a href='#f81' class='c007'><sup>[81]</sup></a></div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class='c019'>This is excellent humor and if we do not laugh +on hearing it, it is because our admiration covers +the humoristic pleasure. In the case of the +rogue who did not wish to take cold on the +way to the gallows we roar with laughter. +The situation which should have driven this +criminal to despair, might have evoked in us +intense pity, but this pity is inhibited because +we understand that he who is most concerned +is quite indifferent to the situation. As a result +of this understanding the expenditure for +pity, which was already prepared in us, became +inapplicable and we laughed it off. The indifference +of the rogue, which we notice has +cost him a great expenditure of psychic labor, +infects us as it were.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Economy of sympathy is one of the most +frequent sources of humoristic pleasure. +Mark Twain’s humor usually follows this +mechanism. When he tells us about the life of +his brother, how, as mi employee in a large +road-building enterprise, he was hurled into +the air through a premature explosion of a +<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>blast, to come to earth again far from the place +where he was working, feelings of sympathy +for this unfortunate are invariably aroused in +us. We should like to inquire whether he sustained +no injury in this accident; but the continuation +of the story that the brother lost a +half-day’s pay for being away from the place +he worked diverts us entirely from sympathy +and makes us almost as hard-hearted as that +employer, and just as indifferent to the possible +injury to the victim’s health. Another time +Mark Twain presents us his pedigree, which he +traces back almost as far back as one of the +companions of Columbus. But after describing +the character of this ancestor, whose entire +possessions consisted of several pieces of linen +each bearing a different mark, we cannot help +laughing at the expense of the stored-up piety, +a piety which characterized our frame of mind +at the beginning of this family history. The +mechanism of humoristic pleasure is not disturbed +by our knowing that this family history +is a fictitious one, and that this fiction serves +a satirical tendency to expose the embellishments +which result in imparting such pedigrees +to others; it is just as independent of the conditions +of reality as the manufactured comic. +Another of Mark Twain’s stories relates how +his brother constructed for himself subterranean +<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>quarters into which he brought a bed, a +table, and a lamp, and that as a roof he used +a large piece of sail-cloth with a hole through +the centre; how during the night after the +room was completed, a cow being driven home +fell through the opening in the ceiling on to +the table and extinguished the lamp; how his +brother helped patiently to hoist the animal out +and to rearrange everything; how he did the +same thing when the same disturbance was repeated +the following night; and then every +succeeding night; such a story becomes comical +through repetition. But Mark Twain +closes with the information that in the forty-sixth +night when the cow again fell through, +his brother finally remarked that the thing was +beginning to grow monotonous; and here we +can no longer restrain our humoristic pleasure, +for we had long expected to hear how the +brother would express his anger over this +chronic <i><span lang="fr">malheur</span></i>. The slight humor which we +draw from our own life we usually produce at +the expense of anger instead of irritating ourselves.<a id='r82'></a><a href='#f82' class='c007'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p> + +<div> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span> + <h4 class='c016'><em>Forms of Humor</em></h4> +</div> + +<p class='c017'>The forms of humor are extraordinarily +varied according to the nature of the emotional +feelings which are economized in favor of humor, +as sympathy, anger, pain, compassion, +<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>etc. And this series seems incomplete because +the sphere of humor experiences a constant enlargement, +as often as an artist or writer succeeds +in mastering humoristically the, as yet, +unconquered emotional feelings and in making +them, through artifices similar to those in the +above example, a source of humoristic pleasure. +Thus the artists of <i><span lang="la">Simplicissimus</span></i> +have worked wonders in gaining humor at the +expense of fear and disgust. The manifestations +of humor are above all determined by two +peculiarities, which are connected with the conditions +of its origin. In the first place, humor +may appear fused with wit or any other form +of the comic; whereby it is entrusted with the +task of removing a possible emotional development +which would form a hindrance to the +pleasurable effect. Secondly, it can entirely +set aside this emotional development or only +partially, which is really the more frequent +case, because the simpler function and the different +forms of “broken”<a id='r83'></a><a href='#f83' class='c007'><sup>[83]</sup></a> humor, results in +that humor which smiles under its tears. It +withdraws from the affect a part of its energy +and gives instead the accompanying humoristic +sound.</p> + +<p class='c008'>As may be noticed by former examples the +<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>humoristic pleasure gained by entering into +sympathy with a thing results from a special +technique resembling displacement through +which the liberation of affect held ready is disappointed +and the energy occupation is deflected +to other, and, not often, to secondary +matters. This does not help us, however, to +understand the process by which the displacement +from the development of affect proceeds +in the humoristic person himself. We see that +the recipient intimates the producer of the +humor in his psychic processes, but we +discover nothing thereby concerning the +forces which make this process possible in +the latter.</p> + +<p class='c008'>We can only say, when, for example, somebody +succeeds in paying no heed to a painful +affect because he holds before himself the +greatness of the world’s interest as a contrast +to his own smallness, that we see in this no +function of humor but one of philosophic +thinking, and we gain no pleasure even if we +put ourselves into his train of thought. The +humoristic displacement is therefore just as +impossible in the light of conscious attention as +is the comic comparison; like the latter it is +connected with the condition to remain in the +foreconscious—that is to say, to remain automatic.</p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>One reaches some solution of humoristic displacement +if one examines it in the light of a +defense process. The defense processes are +the psychic correlates of the flight reflex and +follow the task of guarding against the origin +of pain from inner sources; in fulfilling this +task they serve the psychic function as an +automatic adjustment, which finally proves +harmful and therefore must be subjected to +the control of the conscious thinking. A +definite form of this defense, the failure of repression, +I have demonstrated as the effective +mechanism in the origin of the psychoneuroses. +Humor can now be conceived as the loftiest +variant of this defense activity. It disdains to +withdraw from conscious attention the ideas +which are connected with the painful affect, as +repression does, and thus it overcomes the defense +automatism. It brings this about by +finding the means to withdraw the energy resulting +from the liberation of pain which is held +in readiness and through discharge changes the +same into pleasure. It is even credible that it is +again the connection with the infantile that +puts at humor’s disposal the means for this +function. Only in childhood did we experience +intensively painful affects over which to-day as +grown-ups we would laugh; just as a humorist +laughs over his present painful affects. The +<span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>elevation of his ego, of which humoristic displacement +gives evidence,—the translation of +which would read: I am too big to have these +causes affect me painfully—he could find in +the comparison of his present ego with his infantile +ego. This conception is to some extent +confirmed by the rôle which falls to the infantile +in the neurotic processes of repression.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>The Relation of Humor to Wit and Comic</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>On the whole humor is closer to the comic +than wit. Like the former its psychic localization +is in the foreconscious, whereas wit, +as we had to assume, is formed as a compromise +between the unconscious and the foreconscious. +On the other hand, humor has no share +in the peculiar nature in which wit and the +comic meet, a peculiarity which perhaps we have +not hitherto emphasized strongly enough. It +is a condition for the origin of the comic that +we be induced to apply—either <em>simultaneously</em> +or in rapid succession—to the same thought +function two different modes of ideas, between +which the “comparison” then takes place and +thus forms the comic difference. Such differences +originate between the expenditure of the +stranger and one’s own, between the usual expenditure +and the emergency expenditure, between +<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>an anticipated expenditure and one +which has already occurred.<a id='r84'></a><a href='#f84' class='c007'><sup>[84]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'>The difference between two forms of conception +resulting simultaneously, which work with +different expenditures, comes into consideration +in wit, in respect to the hearer. The one +of these two conceptions, by taking the hints +contained in the witticism, follows the train of +thought through the unconscious, while the +other conception remains on the surface and +presents the witticism like any wording from +the foreconscious which has become conscious. +Perhaps it would not be considered an unjustified +statement if we should refer the pleasure +of the witticism heard to the difference between +these two forms of presentation.</p> + +<p class='c008'>Concerning wit we here repeat our former +statement concerning its Janus-like double-facedness, +a simile we used when the relation +between wit and the comic still appeared to us +unsettled.<a id='r85'></a><a href='#f85' class='c007'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p> + +<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>The character thus put into the foreground +becomes indistinct when we deal with humor. +To be sure, we feel the humoristic pleasure +where an emotional feeling is evaded, which we +might have expected as a pleasure usually belonging +to the situation; and in so far humor +really falls under the broadened conception of +the comic of expectation. But in humor it is +no longer a question of two different kinds of +presentations having the same content; the +fact that the situation comes under the domination +of a painful emotional feeling which +should have been avoided, puts an end to possible +comparison with the nature in the comic +and in wit. The humoristic displacement is +really a case of that different kind of utilization +of a freed expenditure which proved to +be so dangerous for the comic effect.</p> + +<h4 class='c016'><em>Formulæ for Wit, Comic, and Humor</em></h4> + +<p class='c017'>Now, that we have reduced the mechanism +of humoristic pleasure to a formula analogous +<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>to the formula of comic pleasure and of wit, +we are at the end of our task. It has seemed +to us that the pleasure of wit originates from +an <em>economy of expenditure in inhibition</em>, of +the comic from an <em>economy of expenditure in +thought</em>, and of humor from an <em>economy of expenditure +in feeling</em>. All three activities of +our psychic apparatus derive pleasure from +economy. They all strive to bring back from +the psychic activity a pleasure which has really +been lost in the development of this activity. +For the euphoria which we are thus striving +to obtain is nothing but the state of a bygone +time in which we were wont to defray our +psychic work with slight expenditure. It is +the state of our childhood in which we did not +know the comic, were incapable of wit, and did +not need humor to make us happy.</p> + +<div class='chapter'> + <span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span> + <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul class='index c002'> + <li class='center'>A</li> + <li class='c020'>Abstract wit, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Absurdity, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Actuality, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Æsthetics, <a href='#Page_vi'>vi</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Agassiz, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Aggression, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Alluring-premiums, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Allusions, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ambiguity, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ambitious impulse, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Application of same material, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Aristotle, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Attributions, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Automatic process, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Automatisms, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li> + <li class='center'>B</li> + <li class='c020'>Bain, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bergson, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Blasphemous witticisms, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Bleuler, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> + <li class='c020'><em>Bonmot</em>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Brevity, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Brill, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> + <li class='center'>C</li> + <li class='c020'>Caricature, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Censor, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Characterization-wit, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Child, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Childhood, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Comic, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a> + <ul> + <li>element, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> + <li>façade, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a></li> + <li>its origin, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></li> + <li>its psychogenesis, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> + <li>of expectation, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></li> + <li>of imitation, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Comic, of speech, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a> + <ul> + <li>motion, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li> + <li>pleasure, its origin, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a></li> + <li>situations, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Comical character, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Comparison, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a> + <ul> + <li>with unification, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Composition, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Condensation, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a> + <ul> + <li>examples of, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> + <li>in dreams, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> + <li>with modification and substitution, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Conflict, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Contrast, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Critical witticisms, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Cynical tendency, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a> + <ul> + <li>witticisms and self-criticism, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Cynicism, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> + <ul> + <li>pessimistic, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='center'>D</li> + <li class='c020'>Darwin, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Defence, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a> + <ul> + <li>reaction, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Derision, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a></li> + <li class='c020'>De Quincey, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Disguise, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Displacement, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> + <ul> + <li>in dreams, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Displacement-wit, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Don Quixote, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Double meaning, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a> + <ul> + <li>and displacement, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> + <li>of a name, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Doubt in witty comparisons, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Dream-formation, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Dream-work, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Dreams, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Dugas, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li> + <li class='c020 center'><span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>E</li> + <li class='c020'>Economy, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a> + <ul> + <li>of psychic expenditure, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Ehrenfels, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Exaggeration, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Exhibitionism, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li class='center'>F</li> + <li class='c020'>Façade, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Facetious questions, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Falke, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Falstaff, Sir John, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Faulty thinking, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Fechner, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Fischer, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Flaubert, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Foreconscious, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Fore-pleasure, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> + <li class='center'>G</li> + <li class='c020'>Goethe, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Grim-humor, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Groos, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Gross, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> + <li class='center'>H</li> + <li class='c020'>Harmless wit, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a> + <ul> + <li>and tendency-wit, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Heine, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Heymans, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Holmes, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Hugo, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Humor, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a> + <ul> + <li>Mark Twain’s, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='center'>I</li> + <li class='c020'>Imitations, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Impulse to impart wit, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Indirect expression, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a> + <ul> + <li>with allusion, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Infantile and the comic, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Inhibitions, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a> + <ul> + <li>expenditure of, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Insults, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Invectives, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Ironical wit, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Irony, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li> + <li class='center'>J</li> + <li class='c020'>Jest, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Johnson, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Jokes, cynical, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a> + <ul> + <li>good or poor, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> + <li>Jewish, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> + <li>smutty, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='center'>K</li> + <li class='c020'>Kant, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kleinpaul, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Kraepelin, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> + <li class='center'>L</li> + <li class='c020'>Lassalle, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Laugh, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Laughter as a discharge, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a> + <ul> + <li>its determination, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Lessing, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Libido, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Lichtenberg, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Lipps, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> + <li class='center'>M</li> + <li class='c020'>Manifold application, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Matthews, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Michelet, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Modification, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Moll, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Morality, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Motives, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> + <li class='center'>N</li> + <li class='c020'>Naïve, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a> + <ul> + <li>characteristics of, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li> + <li>examples of, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span>Negativism, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nestroy, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nonsense, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Nonsense-witticisms, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> + <li class='center'>O</li> + <li class='c020'>Obscene wit, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Obscenity, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Omission, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Outdoing wit, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li class='center'>P</li> + <li class='c020'>Parody, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pascal, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Paul, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Persons in tendency-wit, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Perversion, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Phillips, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Play, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a> + <ul> + <li>and jest, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> + <li>on words, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Playing with words, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Pleasure in nonsense, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a> + <ul> + <li>mechanisms of wit, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> + <li>sources, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Psychic energy, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Psychoneuroses, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Puns, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> + <li class='center'>R</li> + <li class='c020'>Recognition, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Regression, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Representation through the opposite, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a> + <ul> + <li>through the minute, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Repression, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Riddle, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Rousseau, J. B., <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Rousseau, J. J., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> + <li class='center'>S</li> + <li class='c020'>Sancho Panza, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Satire, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Schnitzler, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sense in nonsense, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sexual elements, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Shakespeare, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Shake-up rhymes, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sky-larking, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Smutty jokes, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Society, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sophism, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sophistic displacement, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a> + <ul> + <li>faulty thinking, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Soulié, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Sound, similarity, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Spencer, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Spinoza, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Stettenheim, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Subjective determinations, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Substitutive formation, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> + <li class='center'>T</li> + <li class='c020'>Tendencies of wit, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Tendency to economy, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Tendency-wit, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a> + <ul> + <li>its effect, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Thought-wit, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a> + <ul> + <li>its techniques, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Travesty, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li> + <li class='center'>U</li> + <li class='c020'>Ueberhorst, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unconscious, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a> + <ul> + <li>and the infantile, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Unification, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Unmasking, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li> + <li class='center'>V</li> + <li class='c020'>Vischer, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Voltaire, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> + <li class='center'>W</li> + <li class='c020'>Winslow, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Wish fulfilment, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Wit, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a> + <ul> + <li>and comic, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li> + <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>and dreams, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> + <li>and rebellion against authority, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></li> + <li>as an inspiration, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li> + <li>as a social process, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li> + <li>by word-division, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> + <li>definitions of, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> + <li>desire to impart it, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> + <li>double-facedness of, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> + <li>harmless, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> + <li>hostile and obscene, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> + <li>in the service of tendencies, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> + <li>ironical, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> + <li>its motives, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li> + <li>its subjective determinations, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></li> + <li>its tendencies, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Wit, literature of, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a> + <ul> + <li>outdoing, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></li> + <li>pleasure mechanisms of, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> + <li>psychogenesis of, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> + <li>shallow, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> + <li>skeptical, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> + <li>technique of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Wit-work, its formula, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Witticism and riddle, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a> + <ul> + <li>critical, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + <li class='c020'>Witticisms, blasphemous, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Witty nonsense, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Woman, unyieldingness of, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Word-division, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Word-pleasure, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></li> + <li class='c020'>Word-wit, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class='c021'> +<div class='footnote' id='f1'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Monograph Series, Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases +Pub. Co., 2nd Ed., 1912.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f2'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Monograph Series, Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases +Pub. Co., 2nd Ed., 1916.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f3'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. The Macmillan Co., New York, and Allen & Unwin, London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f4'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. The Macmillan Co., New York, and T. Fisher Unwin, London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f5'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. This expression is used advisedly in order to distinguish it +from other methods of “analysis,” which Professor Freud fully +disavows. Cf. <cite>The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement</cite>, +translated by A. A. Brill, <cite>The Psychoanalytic Review</cite>, June-Sept., +1916.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f6'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Cf. the works of Freud, Abraham, Rank, and others.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f7'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. Cf. Freud: <cite>Totem and Taboo</cite>, a translation in preparation, +and the works of Jones, Rank and Sachs, Jung, and Storfer.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f8'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. Cf. Freud, Berny, Rank, and Sachs, and Sperber.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f9'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. Cf. Freud: <cite>Leonardo da Vinci</cite>, a translation in preparation, +and the works of many others.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f10'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. Cf. <em>v.</em> Hug-Hellmuth: <cite><span lang="de">Aus dem Seelenleben des Kindes</span></cite>, and +the works of Jones, Pfister, and many others.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f11'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. Cf. the works of Freud, Putnam, Hitschmann, Winterstein, +and others.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f12'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. <cite><span lang="de">Beiträge zur Aesthetik</span></cite>, edited by Theodor Lipps and Richard +Maria Werner, VI,—a book to which I am indebted for the +courage and capacity to undertake this attempt.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f13'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. J. V. Falke: <cite><span lang="de">Lebenserinnerungen</span></cite>, 1897.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f14'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. Since this joke will occupy us again and we do not wish to +disturb the discussion following here, we shall find occasion later +to point out a correction in Lipps’s given interpretation which +follows our own.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f15'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. The same holds true for Lipps’s interpretation.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f16'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. <cite>Psychanalysis</cite>: Its Theories and Application, 2nd Ed., p. 331.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f17'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. This same witticism was supposed to have been coined before +by Heine concerning Alfred de Musset.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f18'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. One of the complications involved in the technique of this +example lies in the fact that the modification through which the +omitted abuse is substituted is to be taken as an allusion to the +latter, for it leads to it only through a process of deduction.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f19'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. Another factor which I shall mention later on is also effective +in the technique of this witticism. It has to do with the inner +character of the modification (representation through the opposite—contradiction). +The technique of wit does not hesitate to +make use simultaneously of several means, with which, however, +we can only become acquainted in their sequential order.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f20'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. Translation of 4th Ed. by A. A. Brill, the Macmillan Co., +New York, and Allen & Unwin, London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f21'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. <cite>The Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, p. 280.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f22'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. Cited by Brill: <cite>Psychanalysis</cite>, p. 335.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f23'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. l. c., p. 334.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f24'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. The excellence of these jokes depends upon the fact that they, +at the same time, present another technical means of a much +higher order.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f25'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. Given by Translator.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f26'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. This resembles an excellent joke of Oliver Wendell Holmes +cited by Brill: “Put not your trust in money, but put your money +in trust.” A contradiction is here announced which does not +appear. At all events it is a good example of the untranslatableness +of the witticisms of such technique.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f27'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. Brill cites a very analogous modification wit: <cite><span lang="la">Amantes—Amentes</span></cite> +(lovers—lunatics).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f28'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. Compare here K. Fischer (p. 85), who applies the term “double +meaning” to those witticisms in which both meanings are not +equally prominent, but where one overshadows the other. I +have applied this term differently. Such a nomenclature is a matter +of choice. Usage of speech has rendered no definite decision +about them.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f29'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. L. c., page 339.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f30'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. Heine’s answer is a combination of two wit-techniques—a displacement +and an allusion—for he does not say directly: “He +is an ox.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f31'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. The word “take,” owing to its meanings, lends itself very +well towards the formation of plays upon words, a pure example +of which I wish to cite as a contrast to the displacement mentioned +above. While walking with his friend, in front of a +café, a well-known stock-plunger and bank director made this +proposal: “Let us go in and take something.” His friend +held him back and said: “My dear sir, remember there are people +in there.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f32'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. For the latter see a later chapter. It will perhaps not be +superfluous to add here a few words for better understanding. +The displacement regularly occurs between a statement and an +answer, and turns the stream of thought to a direction different +from the one started in the statement. The justification for +separating the displacement from the double meaning is best +seen in the examples where both are combined, that is, where the +wording of the statement admits of a double meaning which +was not intended by the speaker, but which reveals in the +answer the way to the displacement (see examples).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f33'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. See Chapter III.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f34'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. A similar nonsense technique results when the joke aims to +maintain a connection which seems to be removed through the +special conditions of its content. A joke of this sort is related +by J. Falke (l. c.): “<em>Is this the place where the Duke of Wellington +spoke these words?</em>” “<em>Yes, this is the place; but he never +spoke these words.</em>”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f35'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. Following an example of the <cite>Greek Anthology</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f36'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Cf. my <cite>Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, Chap. VI, <cite>The Dream Work</cite>, +translated by A. A. Brill, The Macmillan Co., New York, and +Allen & Unwin, London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f37'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. The word tendency encountered hereafter in the expression +“Tendency-Wit” (Tendenz Witz) is used adjectively in the same +sense as in the familiar phrase “Tendency Play.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f38'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. Cf. my <cite>Psychopathology of Everyday Life</cite>, translated by A. +A. Brill, The Macmillan Co., New York, and T. Fisher Unwin, +London.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f39'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. Cf. <cite>Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex</cite>, 2nd Ed., 1916, +translated by A. A. Brill, Monograph Series, <cite>Journal of Nervous +and Mental Diseases</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f40'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. Moll’s <cite><span lang="da">Kontrektationstrieb</span></cite> (<span lang="de">Untersuchungen über die Libido +sexualies, 1898</span>).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f41'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. It is the same mechanism that controls “slips of the tongue” +and other phenomena of self-betrayal. Cf. <cite>The Psychopathology +of Everyday Life</cite>.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f42'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. “There is nothing certain about to-morrow,” Lorenzo del +Medici.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f43'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. See his essays in the <cite><span lang="de">Politisch-anthropologischen Revue</span></cite>, II, +1903.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f44'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. An habitual beggar.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f45'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. If I may be permitted to anticipate what later is discussed +in the text I can here throw some light upon the condition which +seems to be authoritative in the usage of language when it is a +question of calling a joke “good” or “poor.” If by means of +a double meaning or slightly modified word I have gotten from +one idea to another by a short route, and if this does not also +simultaneously result in senseful association between the two +ideas, then I have made a “poor” joke. In this poor joke one +word or the “point” forms the only existing association between +the two widely separated ideas. The joke “Home-Roulard” +used above is such an example. But a “good” joke +results if the infantile expectation is right in the end and if with +the similarity of the word another essential similarity in meaning +is really simultaneously produced—as in the examples Traduttore—Traditore +(translator—traitor), and Amantes—Amentes +(lovers—lunatics). The two disparate ideas which are here +linked by an outer association are held together besides by a +senseful connection which expresses an important relationship +between them. The outer association only replaces the inner connection; +it serves to indicate the latter or to clarify it. Not only +does “translator” sound somewhat similar to “traitor,” but he +is a sort of a traitor whose claims to that name are good. The +same may be said of Amantes—Amentes. Not only do the words +bear a resemblance, but the similarity between “love” and +“lunacy” has been noted from time immemorial.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The distinction made here agrees with the differentiation, to be +made later, between a “witticism” and a “jest.” However, it +would not be correct to exclude examples like Home-Roulard +from the discussion of the nature of wit. As soon as we take +into consideration the peculiar pleasure of wit, we discover that +the “poor” witticisms are by no means poor as witticisms, i.e., +they are by no means unsuited for the production of pleasure.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f46'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. <cite><span lang="de">Die Spiele der Menschen</span></cite>, 1899, p. 153.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f47'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. <cite><span lang="de">Vorschule der Aesthetik</span></cite>, 1, XVII.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f48'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. Chapter XVII.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f49'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. Kleinpaul: <cite><span lang="de">Die Rätsel der Sprache</span></cite>, 1890.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f50'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. <cite><span lang="de">Vorschule der Aesthetik</span></cite>, Vol. 1, V, p. 51, 2nd Ed., Leipzig, +1897.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f51'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. The nonsense-witticisms, which have been somewhat slighted +in this treatise, deserve a short supplementary comment.</p> + +<p class='c008'>In view of the significance attributed by our conception to the +factor “sense in nonsense,” one might be tempted to demand +that every witticism should be a nonsense-joke. But this is not +necessary, because only the play with thoughts inevitably leads +to nonsense, whereas the other source of wit-pleasure, the play +with words, makes this impression incidental and does not regularly +invoke the criticism connected with it. The double root of +wit-pleasure—from the play with words and thoughts, which +corresponds to the most important division into word- and thought-witticisms—sets +its face against a short formulation of general +principles about wit as a tangible aggravation of difficulties. +The play with words produces laughter, as is well known, in consequence +of the factor of recognition described above, and therefore +suffers suppression only in a small degree. The play with +thoughts cannot be motivated through such pleasure: it has +suffered a very energetic suppression and the pleasure which it +can give is only the pleasure of released inhibitions. Accordingly +one may say that wit-pleasure shows a kernel of the original +play-pleasure and a shell of removal-pleasure. Naturally we +do not grant that the pleasure in nonsense-wit is due to the +fact that we have succeeded in making nonsense despite the suppression, +while we do notice that the play with words gives us +pleasure. Nonsense, which has remained fixed in thought-wit, +acquires secondarily the function of stimulating our attention +through confusion, it serves as a reinforcement of the effect of +wit, but only when it is insistent, so that the confusion can +anticipate the intellect by a definite fraction of time. That +nonsense in wit may also be employed to represent a judgment +contained within the thought has been demonstrated by the example +on p. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>. But even this is not the primal signification of +nonsense in wit.</p> + +<p class='c008'>A series of wit-like productions for which we have no appropriate +name, but which may lay claim to the designation of +“witty nonsense,” may be added to the nonsense-jokes. They +are very numerous, but I shall cite only two examples: As the +fish was served to a guest at the table he put both hands twice +into the mayonnaise and then ran them through his hair. Being +looked at by his neighbor with astonishment he seemed to have +noticed his mistake and excused himself, saying: “Pardon me, +I thought it was spinach.”</p> + +<p class='c008'>Or: “Life is like a suspension bridge,” said the one. “How is +that?” asked the other. “How should I know?” was the answer.</p> + +<p class='c008'>These extreme examples produce an effect through the fact that +they give rise to the expectation of wit, so that one makes the +effort to find the hidden sense behind the nonsense. But none +is found, they are really nonsense. Under that deception it was +possible for one moment to liberate the pleasure in nonsense. +These witticisms are not altogether without tendencies, they furnish +the narrator a certain pleasure in that they deceive and +annoy the hearer. The latter then calms his anger by resolving +that he himself should take the place of the narrator.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f52'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. H. Spencer, <cite>The Physiology of Laughter</cite> (first published in +<cite>Macmillan’s Magazine</cite> for March, 1860), Essays, Vol. 11, 1901.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f53'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. Different points in this declaration would demand an exhaustive +inquiry into an investigation of the pleasure of the +comic, a thing that other authors have already done, and which, +at all events, does not touch our discussion. It seems to me +that Spencer was not happy in his explanation of why the discharge +happens to find just that path, the excitement of which +results in the physical picture of laughter. I should like to add +one single contribution to the subject of the physiological explanation +of laughter, that is, to the derivation or interpretation +of the muscular actions that characterize laughter—a subject +that has been often treated before and since Darwin, but which +has never been conclusively settled. According to the best of +my knowledge the grimaces and contortions of the corners of the +mouth that characterize laughter appear first in the satisfied and +satiated nursling when he drowsily quits the breasts. There it +is a correct motion of expression since it bespeaks the determination +to take no more nourishment, an “enough,” so to speak, +or rather a “more than enough.” This primal sense of pleasurable +satiation may have furnished the smile, which ever remains +the basic phenomenon of laughter, the later connection with the +pleasurable processes of discharge.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f54'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. Cf. <cite>The Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, Chap. VII, also <cite>On the +Psychic Force</cite>, etc., in the above cited book of Lipps (p. 123), +where he says: “This is the general principle: The dominant +factors of the psychic life are not represented by the contents +of consciousness but by those psychic processes which are unconscious. +The task of psychology, provided it does not limit +itself to a mere description of the content of consciousness, must +also consist of revealing the nature of these unconscious processes +from the nature of the contents of consciousness and its temporal +relationship. Psychology must itself be a theory of these +processes. But such a psychology will soon find that there +exist quite a number of characteristics of these processes which +are unrepresented in the corresponding contents of consciousness.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f55'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. Heymans (<cite><span lang="de">Zeitschrift für Psychol.</span></cite>, XI) has taken up the +viewpoint of the nascent state in a somewhat different connection.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f56'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. Through an example of displacement-wit I desire to discuss +another interesting character of the technique of wit. The +genial actress Gallmeyer when once asked how old she was is +said to have answered this unwelcome question with abashed and +downcast eyes, by saying, “In Brünn.” This is a very good +example of displacement. Having been asked her age, she replied +by naming the place of her birth, thus anticipating the +next query, and in this manner she wishes to imply: “This is a +question which I prefer to pass by.” And still we feel that the +character of the witticism does not here come to expression undimmed. +The deviation from the question is too obvious; the +displacement is much too conspicuous. Our attention understands +immediately that it is a matter of an intentional displacement. +In other displacement-witticisms the displacement +is disguised and our attention is riveted by the effort to discover +it. In one of the displacement-witticisms (p. 69) the reply +to the recommendation of the horse—“What in the world should +I do in Monticello at 6:30 in the morning?”—the displacement is +also an obtrusive one, but as a substitute for it it acts upon +the attention in a senseless and confusing manner, whereas in +the interrogation of the actress we know immediately how to +dispose of her displacement answer.</p> + +<p class='c008'>The so-called “facetious questions” which may make use of +the best techniques deviate from wit in other ways. An example +of the facetious question with displacement is the following: +“What is a cannibal who devours his father and mother?—Answer: +An orphan.—And when he has devoured all his other relatives?—Sole-heir.—And +where can such a monster ever find +sympathy?—In the dictionary under S.” The facetious questions +are not full witticisms because the required witty answers +cannot be guessed like the allusions, omissions, etc., of wit.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f57'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. Cf. <cite>The Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, Chapter VII.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f58'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. Besides the dream-work and the technique of wit I have been +able to demonstrate condensation as a regular and significant +process in another psychic occurrence, in the mechanism of +normal (not purposive) forgetting. Singular impressions put +difficulties in the way of forgetting; impressions in any way +analogous are forgotten by becoming fused at their points of +contact. The confusion of analogous impressions is one of the +first steps in forgetting.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f59'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. Many of my patients while under psychoanalytic treatment +are wont to prove regularly by their laughter that I have succeeded +in demonstrating faithfully to their conscious perception +the veiled unconscious; they laugh also when the content of +what is disclosed does not at all justify this laughter. To be sure, +it is conditional that they have approached this unconscious +closely enough to grasp it when the physician has conjectured it +and presented it to them.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f60'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. In doing this we must not forget to reckon with the distortion +brought about by the censor which is still active in the +psychoses.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f61'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. <cite>The Interpretation of Dreams.</cite></p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f62'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. The character of the comical which is referred to as its +“dryness” also depends in the broadest sense upon the differentiation +of the things spoken from the antics accompanying it.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f63'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. <cite>The Interpretation of Dreams</cite>, p. 296.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f64'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. This very remarkable and still inadequately understood behavior +of antagonistic relationships is probably not without value +for the understanding of the symptom of negativism in neurotics +and in the insane. Cf. the two latest works on the subject: Bleuler, +“Über die negative Suggestibilität,” <cite><span lang="de">Psych.-Neurol. Wochenschrift</span></cite>, +1904, and Otto Groos’s <cite><span lang="de">Zur Differential diagnostik negativistischer +Phänomene</span></cite>, also my review of the <cite><span lang="de">Gegensinn der +Urworte</span></cite>, in <cite><span lang="de">Jahrb. f. Psychonalyse</span></cite> II, 1910.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f65'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. An expression of G. T. Fechner’s which has acquired significance +from the point of view of my conception.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f66'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. Given by Translator.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f67'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. I have everywhere identified the naïve with the naïve-comic, +a practice which is certainly not permissible in all cases. But +it is sufficient for our purposes to study the characteristics of the +naïve as exhibited by the “naïve joke” and the “naïve obscenity.” +It is our intention to proceed from here with the investigation of +the nature of the comic.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f68'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. Also Bergson (<cite>Laughter</cite>, An essay on the Meaning of the +Comic, translated by Brereton and Rothwell, The Macmillan Co., +1914) rejects with sound arguments this sort of explanation of +comic pleasure, which has unmistakably been influenced by the +effort to create an analogy to the laughing of a person tickled. +The explanation of comic pleasure by Lipps which might, in +connection with his conception of the comic, be represented as an +“unexpected trifle,” is of an entirely different nature.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f69'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. The recollection of this innervation expenditure will remain +the essential part of the idea of this motion, and there will +always be methods of thought in my psychic life in which the +idea will be represented by nothing else than this expenditure. +In other connections a substitute for this element may possibly +be put in the form of other ideas, for instance the visual idea +of the object of the motion, or it may be put in the form of the +word-idea; and in certain types of abstract thought a sign instead +of the full content itself may suffice.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f70'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. “What one has not in his head,” as the saying goes, “he +must have in his legs.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f71'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. The problem has been greatly confused by the general conditions +determining the comic, whereby the comic pleasure is seen +to have its source now in a too-muchness and now in a not-enoughness.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f72'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. Degradation: A. Bain (<cite>The Emotions and the Will</cite>, 2nd Ed., +1865) states: “The occasion of the ludicrous is the degradation +of some person of interest possessing dignity, in circumstances +that excite no other strong emotion” (p. 248).</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f73'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. “Thus every conscious and clever evocation of the comic is +called wit, be it the comic of views or situations. Naturally we +cannot use this view of wit here.” Lipps, l. c., p. 78.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f74'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. At the most this is inserted by the dreamer as an explanation.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f75'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. l. c., p. 294.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f76'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. “Trente et quarante” is a gambling game.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f77'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. Bergson, l. c., p. 29.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f78'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. Sixth Ed., Berlin, 1891.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f79'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. “You may well laugh, that no longer concerns you.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f80'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. That comic pleasure has its source in the “quantitative contrast,” +in the comparison of big and small, which ultimately also +expresses the essential relation of the child to the grown-up, +would indeed be a peculiar coincidence if the comic had nothing +else to do with the infantile.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f81'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. “Our heads have the right to fall covered before thee.”</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f82'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. The excellent humoristic effect of a character like that of +the fat knight, Sir John Falstaff, is based on economised contempt +and indignation. To be sure we recognise in him the +unworthy glutton and fashionably dressed swindler, but our condemnation +is disarmed through a whole series of factors. We +understand that he knows himself to be just as we estimate him; +he impresses us through his wit; and besides that, his physical +deformity produces a contact-effect in favor of a comic conception +of his personality instead of a serious one; as if our demands +for morality and honor must recoil from such a big +stomach. His activities are altogether harmless and are almost +excused by the comic lowness of those he deceives. We admit +that the poor devil has a right to live and enjoy himself like any +one else, and we almost pity him because in the principal situation +we find him a puppet in the hands of one much his superior. +It is for this reason that we cannot bear him any grudge and +turn all we economize in him in indignation into comic pleasure +which he otherwise provides. Sir John’s own humor really +emanates from the superiority of an ego which neither his physical +nor his moral defects can rob of its joviality and security.</p> + +<p class='c008'>On the other hand the courageous knight Don Quixote de la +Mancha is a figure who possesses no humor, and in his seriousness +furnishes us a pleasure which can be called humoristic +although its mechanism shows a decided deviation from that of +humor. Originally Don Quixote is a purely comic figure, a big +child whose fancies from his books on knighthood have gone to +his head. It is known that at first the poet wanted to show only +that phase of his character, and that the creation gradually outgrew +the author’s original intentions. But after the poet endowed +this ludicrous person with the profoundest wisdom and +noblest aims and made him the symbolic representation of an +idealism, a man who believed in the realization of his aims, who +took duties seriously and promises literally, he ceased to be a +comic personality. Like humoristic pleasure which results from +a prevention of emotional feelings it originates here through the +disturbance of comic pleasure. However, in these examples we +already depart perceptibly from the simple cases of humor.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f83'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. A term which is used in quite a different sense in the <cite>Aesthetik</cite> +of Theo. Vischer.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f84'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. If one does not hesitate to do some violence to the conception +of expectation, one may ascribe—according to the process +of Lipps—a very large sphere of the comic to the comic of expectation; +but probably the most original cases of the comic which +result through a comparison of a strange expenditure with one’s +own will fit least into this conception.</p> +</div> +<div class='footnote' id='f85'> +<p class='c008'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. The characteristic of the “double face” naturally did not +escape the authors. Melinaud, from whom I borrowed the above +expression, conceives the condition for laughing in the following +formula: “<span lang="fr">Ce qui fait rire c’est qui est à la fois, d’un coté, +absurde et de l’autre, familier</span>” (“<span lang="fr">Pourquoi rit-on?</span>” <cite><span lang="fr">Revue de +deux mondes</span></cite>, February, 1895). This formula fits in better with +wit than with the comic, but it really does not altogether cover +the former. Bergson (l. c., p. 96) defines the comic situation by +the “reciprocal interference of series,” and states: “A situation +is invariably comic when it belongs simultaneously to two altogether +independent series of events and is capable of being +interpreted in two entirely different meanings at the same time.” +According to Lipps the comic is “the greatness and smallness of +the same.”</p> +</div> + +<div class='pbb'> + <hr class='pb c003'> +</div> +<div class='tnotes x-ebookmaker'> + +<div class='chapter ph2'> + +<div class='nf-center-c0'> +<div class='nf-center c004'> + <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</div> + </div> +</div> + +</div> + + <ul class='ul_1 c002'> + <li>Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + + </li> + <li>Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75915 ***</div> + </body> + <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.57e (with regex) on 2025-03-29 22:18:34 GMT --> +</html> + diff --git a/75915-h/images/cover.jpg b/75915-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e869414 --- /dev/null +++ b/75915-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75915-h/images/i_title.jpg b/75915-h/images/i_title.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba80fb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/75915-h/images/i_title.jpg |
