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diff --git a/77075-0.txt b/77075-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e54bdcf --- /dev/null +++ b/77075-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9291 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77075 *** + + + + + + MAN’S SUPREME INHERITANCE + Conscious Guidance and Control in Relation to Human Evolution in + Civilization + + + BY + F. MATTHIAS ALEXANDER + + WITH AN INTRODUCTORY WORD BY + PROFESSOR JOHN DEWEY + + + NEW YORK + E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY + 681 FIFTH AVENUE + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918, + BY E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY + + + _First printing_ _January 1918_ + _Second_ „ _May 1918_ + + + Printed in the United States of America + + + + + PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION + + (London, 1910) + + +Among my intimates I once numbered a boatman known as Old Sol, or to his +familiars just Sol, without the courtesy title, for he was not notably +old. I could not say whether his name was an abbreviated form of Solomon +or not, nor if it were, whether the longer name was baptismal or +conferred in later years as a tribute to his undoubted wisdom. I have +thought it possible that the name was not an abbreviation at all, but it +was certainly descriptive of my friend’s habit of optimism in regard to +the weather. For the cockney oarsman who doubtfully contemplated the +weather conditions on the upper Thames, Sol was unwavering in his +encouragement. His certainty that the weather would clear and the sun +come out was so inspiring that the pale-faced Londoner cheerfully faced +the most unpromising outlook, and started out on his uncertain course +upstream, buoyed with a beautiful confidence in Old Sol’s infallibility. +But for me and for his other intimates, regular clients whose custom was +not dependent on the chances of a fine week-end, Sol had another method. +In answer to the usual question, “Well, Sol, what’s it going to do?” he +would first look up into the sky, then step to the edge of the +landing-stage and study as much of the horizon as was within his limit +of vision. After this careful survey he would deliver his opinion +judicially, and I rarely found him at fault in his prophecy. + +Facing my critics, lay and professional, I wish at the outset to +disclaim the methods by which Sol invigorated the casual amateur. I am +not prophesying unlimited sunshine for every one, without regard to +conditions. In this book no mention will be found of royal roads, +panaceas, or grand specifics. I have attempted rather to treat every +reader as Sol treated his intimates. I have looked into the sky and made +a careful survey of the horizon. It is true that I have seen an ideal +and the promise of its fulfilment, but my deductions have been drawn +with patient care from signs which I have studied with diligence; if I +am an optimist, it is because I see the promise of fair weather, and not +because I wish to delude the unwary. And with this I will lay down my +metaphor and come to a practical statement. + +I know that I shall be regarded in many quarters as a revolutionary and +a heretic, for my theory and practice, though founded on a principle as +old as the life of man, are not in accord with, nor even a development +of, the tradition which still obtains. But in thus rejecting tradition I +am, happily, sustained by something more than an unproved theory. +Moreover, on this firm ground I do not stand alone. Though my theory may +appear revolutionary and heretical, it is shared by men of attainment in +science and medicine. On a small scale I have made many converts, and in +now making appeal to a wider circle I am upheld by the knowledge that +what I have to say can no longer be classed as an isolated opinion. + +Not that I should have hesitated to come forward now, even if I had been +without support. During the past thirteen years I have built up a +practice in London which has reached the bounds of my capacity. This +work has not been done by any advancement of a wavering hypothesis. I +have had cases brought to me as the result of the failure of many kinds +of treatment, of rest cures, relaxation cures, hypnotism, faith cures, +physical culture, and the ordinary medical prescriptions, and in the +treatment of these cases, in my own observations, and in the +appreciation of the patients themselves, I have had abundant opportunity +to prove to my own satisfaction that in its application to present needs +my theory has stood the test of practice in every circumstance and +condition. + +That the limits imposed by the present work render it wofully inadequate +I am quite willing to admit, but the necessity for a certain urgency has +been forced upon me, and I have deemed it wiser to outline my subject at +once rather than wait for the time when I shall be ready to publish my +larger work. Indeed, when I think of the material even now at my +command, of the wonderful and ever-increasing list of illustrative cases +that have passed and are still passing through my hands, it seems to me +that this preliminary treatise might well grow, like Frazer’s _Golden +Bough_, from one volume to twelve. In the present volume, however, I +must confine myself to the primary argument and to indicating the +direction in which we may find physical completeness. In the work which +will follow I shall deal with the detailed evidence of the application +of my theory to life, of cases and cures, and all the substance of +experience. + +And there are many reasons why I should hesitate no longer in making my +preliminary appeal, chief among them being the appalling physical +deterioration that can be seen by any intelligent observer who will walk +the streets of London or New York, for example, and note the form and +aspect of the average individuals who make up the crowd. So much for the +surface signs. What inferences can we not draw from the statistics? To +take three instances only: What of the disproportionate and apparently +undeniable increase in the cases of cancer, appendicitis, and insanity? +For that increase goes on despite the fact that we have taken the +subject seriously to heart. Now I would not fall into the common fallacy +of _post hoc ergo propter hoc_, and say that because the increase of +these evils has gone hand in hand with our endeavours to raise the +standard by physical culture theories, relaxation exercises, rest cures, +and _hoc genus omne_, therefore the one is the result of the other; but, +lacking more definite proof on the first point, I do maintain that if +physical culture exercises, etc., had done all that was expected of them +they must be considered a complete failure in the checking of the three +evils I have instanced. + +Are these troubles, then, still to increase? Are we to wait while the +bacteriologist patiently investigates the nature of these diseases, +until he triumphantly isolates some characteristic germ and announces +that here, at last, is the dread bacillus of cancer?[1] Should we even +then be any nearer a cure? Could we rely on inoculation, and even if we +could, what is to be the end? Are we to be inoculated against every +known disease till our bodies become depressed and enervated +sterilities, incapable of action on their own account? I pray not, for +such a physical condition would imply a mental condition even more +pitiable. The science of bacteriology has its uses, but they are the +uses of research rather than of application. Bacteriology reveals a few +of the agents active in disease, but it says nothing about the +conditions which permit these agents to become active. Therefore I look +to that wonderful instrument, the human body, for the true solution of +our difficulty, an instrument so inimitably adaptable, so full of +marvellous potentialities of resistance and recuperation, that it is +able, when properly used, to overcome all the forces of disease which +may be arrayed against it. + +In this thing I do not address myself to any one class or section of the +community. I have tried in what follows to avoid, so far as may be, any +terminology, any medical or scientific phrases and technicalities, and +to speak to the entire intelligent public. I wish the scheme I have here +adumbrated to be taken up universally, and not to be restricted to the +advantage of any one body, medical or otherwise. I wish to do away with +such teachers as I am myself. My place in the present economy is due to +a misunderstanding of the causes of our present physical disability, and +when this disability is finally eliminated the specialised practitioner +will have no place, no uses. This may be a dream of the future, but in +its beginnings it is now capable of realisation. Every man, woman, and +child holds the possibility of physical perfection; it rests with each +of us to attain it by personal understanding and effort. + + F. MATTHIAS ALEXANDER. + + 16 Ashley Place, + Westminster, + London. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PART I. + MAN’S SUPREME INHERITANCE + PAGE + I. FROM PRIMITIVE CONDITIONS TO PRESENT NEEDS 3 + II. PRIMITIVE REMEDIES AND THEIR DEFECTS 13 + III. SUBCONSCIOUSNESS AND INHIBITION 29 + IV. CONSCIOUS CONTROL 44 + V. APPLIED CONSCIOUS CONTROL 57 + VI. HABITS OF THOUGHT AND OF BODY 73 + VII. RACE CULTURE AND THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 108 + VIII. EVOLUTIONARY STANDARDS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN THE CRISIS OF + 1914 157 + + PART II. + CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL + I. SYNOPSIS OF CLAIM 181 + II. THE ARGUMENT 193 + III. THE PROCESSES OF CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL 199 + IV. CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL IN PRACTICE 237 + V. APPREHENSION AND RE-EDUCATION 249 + VI. INDIVIDUAL ERRORS AND DELUSIONS 260 + VII. NOTES AND INSTANCES 273 + + PART III. + THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF A NEW METHOD OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION + I. THE THEORY OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION 317 + II. ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED AND FACTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN THE + THEORY AND PRACTICE OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION 323 + III. THE PRACTICE OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION 332 + + + + + INTRODUCTORY WORD + + +Many persons have pointed out the strain which has come upon human +nature in the change from a state of animal savagery to present +civilisation. No one, it seems to me, has grasped the meaning, dangers +and possibilities of this change more lucidly and completely than Mr. +Alexander. His account of the crises which have ensued upon this +evolution is a contribution to a better understanding of every phase of +contemporary life. His interpretation centres primarily about the crisis +in the physical and moral health of the individual produced by the +conflict between the functions of the brain and the nervous system on +one side and the functions of digestion, circulation, respiration and +the muscular system on the other; but there is no aspect of the +maladjustments of modern life which does not receive illumination. + +Frank acknowledgment of this internecine warfare in the very heart of +our civilisation is not agreeable. For this reason it is rarely faced in +its entirety. We prefer to deal with its incidents and episodes as if +they were isolated accidents and could be overcome one by one in +isolation. Those who have seen the conflict have almost always proposed +as a remedy either a return to nature, a relapse to the simple life, or +else flight to some mystic obscurity. Mr. Alexander exposes the +fundamental error in the empirical and palliative methods. When the +organs through which any structure, be it physiological, mental or +social, are out of balance, when they are unco-ordinated, specific and +limited attempts at a cure only exercise the already disordered +mechanism. In “improving” one organic structure, they produce a +compensatory maladjustment, usually more subtle and more difficult to +deal with, somewhere else. The ingeniously inclined will have little +difficulty in paralleling Mr. Alexander’s criticism of “physical culture +methods” within any field of our economic and political life. + +In his criticism of return or relapse to the simpler conditions from +which civilised man has departed Mr. Alexander’s philosophy appears in +its essential features. All such attempts represent an attempt at +solution through abdication of intelligence. They all argue, in effect, +that since the varied evils have come through development of conscious +intelligence, the remedy is to let intelligence sleep, while the +pre-intelligent forces, out of which it developed, do their work. The +pitfalls into which references to the unconscious and subconscious +usually fall have no existence in Mr. Alexander’s treatment. He gives +these terms a definite and real meaning. They express reliance upon the +primitive mind of sense, of unreflection, as against reliance upon +_reflective_ mind. Mr. Alexander sees the remedy not in a futile +abdication of intelligence in order that lower forces may work, but in +carrying the power of intelligence further, in making its function one +of positive and constructive control. As a layman, I am incompetent to +pass judgment upon the particular technique through which he would bring +about a control of intelligence over the bodily organism so as not +merely to cure but to prevent the present multitudinous maladies of +adjustment. But he does not stop with a pious recommendation of such +conscious control; he possesses and offers a definite method for its +realisation, and even a layman can testify, as I am glad to do, to the +efficacy of its working in concrete cases. + +It did not remain for the author of these pages to eulogise self-mastery +or self-control. But these eulogies have too frequently remained in the +hortatory and moralistic state. Mr. Alexander has developed a definite +procedure, based upon a scientific knowledge of the organism. Popular +fear of anything sounding like materialism has put a heavy burden upon +humanity. Men are afraid, without even being aware of their fear, to +recognise the most wonderful of all the structures of the vast +universe—the human body. They have been led to think that a serious +notice and regard would somehow involve disloyalty to man’s higher life. +The discussions of Mr. Alexander breathe reverence for this wonderful +instrument of our life, life mental and moral as well as that life which +somewhat meaninglessly we call bodily. When such a religious attitude +toward the body becomes more general, we shall have an atmosphere +favourable to securing the conscious control which is urged. + +In the larger sense of education, this whole book is concerned with +education. But the writer of these lines was naturally especially +attracted to the passages in which Mr. Alexander touches on the problems +of education in the narrower sense. The meaning of his principles comes +out nowhere better than in his criticisms of repressive schools on one +hand and schools of “free expression” on the other. He is aware of the +perversions and distortions that spring from that unnatural suppression +of childhood which too frequently passes for school training. But he is +equally aware that the remedy is not to be sought through a blind +reaction in abolition of all control except such as the moment’s whim or +the accident of environment may provide. One gathers that in this +country, Mr. Alexander has made the acquaintance of an extremely rare +type of “self-expressive” school, but all interested in educational +reform may well remember that freedom of physical action and free +expression of emotion are means, not ends, and that as means they are +justified only in so far as they are used as conditions for developing +power of intelligence. The substitution of control by intelligence for +control by external authority, not the negative principle of no control +or the spasmodic principle of control by emotional gusts, is the only +basis upon which reformed education can build. To come into possession +of intelligence is the sole human title to freedom. The spontaneity of +childhood is a delightful and precious thing, but in its original naïve +form it is bound to disappear. Emotions become sophisticated unless they +become enlightened, and the manifestation of sophisticated emotion is in +no sense genuine self-expression. True spontaneity is henceforth not a +birthright but the last term, the consummated conquest, of an art—the +art of conscious control to the mastery of which Mr. Alexander’s book so +convincingly invites us. + + JOHN DEWEY. + + + + + PART I + MAN’S SUPREME INHERITANCE + + + + + I + FROM PRIMITIVE CONDITIONS TO PRESENT NEEDS + + “Our contemporaries of this and the rising generation appear to be + hardly aware that we are witnessing the last act of a long drama, a + tragedy and comedy in one, which is being silently played, with no + fanfare of trumpets or roll of drums, before our eyes on the stage of + history. Whatever becomes of the savages, the curtain must soon + descend on savagery forever.”—J. G. FRAZER. + + +The long process of evolution still moves quietly to its unknown +accomplishment. Struggle and starvation, the hard fight for existence +working with fine impartiality, remorselessly eliminate the weak and +defective. New variations are developed and old types no further +adaptable become extinct, and thus life fighting for life improves +towards a sublimation we cannot foresee. But at some period of the +world’s history an offshoot of a dominant type began to develop new +powers that were destined to change the face of the world. + +Speculations as to what first influenced that strange and wonderful +development do not come within the province of this treatise, but I +should like in passing to point out that the theory and practice of my +system are influenced by no particular religion nor school of +philosophy, but in one sense may be said to embrace them all. For +whatever name we give to the Great Origin of the Universe, in the words +of a friend of mine, “we can all of us agree ... that we mean the same +thing, namely, that high power within the soul of man which enables him +to will or to act or to speak, not loosely or wildly, but in subjection +to an all-wise and invisible Authority.” The name that we give to that +Authority will in no way affect the principles which I am about to +state. In subscribing to them the mechanist may still retain his belief +in a theory of chemical reactions no less than the Christian his faith +in a Great Redeemer. But through whatever influence these new powers in +man came into being I maintain that they held strange potentialities, +and, among others, that which now immediately concerns us, the +potentiality to counteract the force of evolution itself. + +This is, indeed, at once the greatest triumph of our intellectual growth +and also the self-constituted danger which threatens us from within. Man +has arisen above nature, he has bent circumstance to his will, and +striven against the mighty force of evolution. He has pried into the +great workshop and interfered with the machinery, endeavouring to become +master of its action and to control the workings of its component parts. +But the machine has as yet proved too intricate for his complete +comprehension. He has learned gradually the uses of a few parts which he +is able to operate, but they are only a small fraction of the whole. + +What then is man’s position to-day, and what is his danger? His position +is this. In emerging from the contest with nature he has ceased to be a +natural animal. He has evolved curious powers of discrimination, of +choice, and of construction. He has changed his environment, his food, +and his whole manner of living. He has enquired into the laws which +govern heredity and into the causes of disease. But his knowledge is +still limited and his emergence incomplete. The power of the force we +know as evolution still holds him in chains, though he has loosened his +bonds and may at last free himself entirely. Thus we come to man’s +danger. + +Evolution—a term we use here and elsewhere in this connection as that +which is best understood to indicate the whole operation of natural +selection and all that it connotes—has two clearly defined functions; by +one of these it develops, by the other it destroys. By an infinitely +slow action it has developed such wonders as the human eye or hand; by a +process somewhat less tedious it allows any organ that has become +useless to perish, such as the pineal eye or (in process) the vermiform +appendix, and, if we can estimate the future course, the teeth and hair. + +By the change he has effected in his mode of life, man is no longer +necessarily dependent upon his physical organism for the means of his +subsistence, and in cases where he is still so dependent, such as those +of the agriculturist, the artisan, and others who earn a living by +manual labour, he employs his muscles in new ways, in mechanical +repetitions of the same act, or in modes of labour which are far removed +from those called forth by primitive conditions. In some ways the +physical type which represents the rural labouring population is, in my +opinion, even more degenerate than the type we find in cities, and +mentally there can be no comparison between the two. The truth is that +man, whether living in town or country, has changed his habitat and with +it his habits, and in so doing has involved himself in a new danger, for +though evolution may be cruel in its methods, it is the cruelty of a +discipline without which our bodies become relaxed, our muscles +atrophied, and our functions put out of gear. + +The antagonism of conscious as opposed to natural selection[2] has now +been in existence for many thousands of years, but it is only within the +last century or less that the effect upon man’s constitution has become +so marked that the danger of deterioration or decay has been thrust upon +the attention, not only of scientific observers, but of the average, +intelligent individual. No examination of history is necessary in this +place to set out a reason for this comparatively sudden realisation of +physical unfitness. Briefly, the civilisation of the past hundred years +has been unlike the many that have preceded it, in that it has not been +confined to any single nation or empire. In the past history of the +world an intellectual civilisation such as that of Egypt, of Persia, of +Greece, or of Rome, perished from internal causes, of which the chief +was a certain moral and physical deterioration which rendered the nation +unequal to a struggle with younger, more vigorous and—this is +important—wilder, more natural peoples. Thus we have good cause for +believing that the danger we have indicated, though as yet incipient +only, was a determining cause in the downfall of past civilisations. But +we must not overlook the fact that destructive wars and devastating +plagues held sway in the earlier history of mankind, and whilst the +latter acted as an instrument of evolution in destroying the unfit, the +former, by decreasing the population, threw a burden of initiative and +energy on the remnant, necessitating the use of active physical +qualities in the business of all kinds of production. + +Now the conditions have altered. Greater scientific attainments in every +direction than have ever been known have combated, and will probably in +the future overcome the devastating diseases which have decimated the +populations of cities, whilst a higher ethical ideal constantly tends to +oppose the horrible and repugnant barbarism of war which, with the +spread of civilisation even to the peoples of the Orient, becomes to our +senses more and more fratricidal, a fight of brother against brother. + +A hundred years ago Malthus, a prophet if not a seer, recognised our +danger and within the past quarter of a century a dozen theorists have +proposed remedies less stringent than those advocated by Malthus, but +almost equally futile. Among the theorists are those perhaps unconscious +reactionaries who advocate the simple life, by a return to natural food +and conditions, in endlessly varying ways. To them in their search for +natural foods and conditions we would point out that countless +generations separate us from primitive man, a lapse of time during which +our functions have become gradually adapted to new habits and +environment, and that if it were possible by universal agreement for the +peoples of Europe to return instantly to primitive methods of living, +the effect would be no less disastrous than the reversal of the process, +the sudden thrusting of our civilisation upon savage tribes whereby, to +quote one or two recent examples only, the aborigines of North America, +New Zealand, and Japan (the Ainu tribes) have become, or are rapidly +becoming, extinct. + +When therefore we point out man’s power of adaptability in this +connexion, the emphasis is thrown on the slowness with which that +adaptability is passed on to our descendants and on the relative +permanence of the new powers acquired. For our purpose the argument +remains good whether we admit or deny the inheritability of acquired +characteristics, our point being that in either case the process is +necessarily a slow one, though it is plainly more rapid if the +hypothesis be true.[3] + +From the savage to the civilised state, man passed, as I say, so slowly +that the passing in the early stages caused neither difficulties nor +changes sufficiently marked to force themselves on our recognition. In +other words, the subject of these changes was unconscious of them, and +the habit of depending upon these sensory appreciations +(“feeling-tones,” or “sense of feeling”) dominant by right in the savage +or subconsciously directed state, remained firmly established in the +civilised experiences, so that to-day man walks, talks, sits, stands, +performs in fact the innumerable mechanical acts of daily life without +giving a thought to the psychical and physical processes involved. + +It is not surprising that the results have proved unsatisfactory. The +evils of a personal bad habit do not reveal themselves in a day or in a +week, perhaps not in a year, a remark that is also true of the benefits +of a good habit. The effects of the racial habits I am now describing +have gone on unnoticed for untold centuries. But in the last hundred +years the evil has become so marked that its effect has at last forced +itself upon our attention. The failure of subconscious guidance in +modern civilisation is now being widely admitted, and the consideration +of this fact has led a few to the logical conclusion that conscious +guidance and control is the one method of adapting ourselves not only to +present conditions but to any possible conditions that may arise. We +have passed beyond the animal stage in evolution and can never return to +it. + +For these reasons it becomes necessary, if we would be consistent, to +reject at once all propositions for improving our future well-being +which can by any possibility be described as reactionary. Even in this +brief résumé of man’s history one tendency stands out clearly enough, +the tendency to advance. When that first offshoot from a dominant type +began to develop new powers of intellect, a form was initiated which +must either progress or perish. Atavism must be counteracted by the +powers of the mind, and reaction is a form of atavism. No return to +earlier conditions can increase our knowledge of the secret springs of +life, or aid our formulation of world-laws by the understanding of which +we may hope to control the future course of development. + +The physical, mental, and spiritual potentialities of the human being +are greater than we have ever realised, greater, perhaps, than the human +mind in its present evolutionary stage is capable of realising. And the +present world crisis surely furnishes us with sufficient evidence that +the familiar processes we call civilisation and education are not, +alone, such as will enable us to come into that supreme inheritance +which is the complete control of our own potentialities. One of the most +startling fallacies of human thought has been the attempt to inaugurate +rapid and far-reaching reforms in the religious, moral, social, +political, educational, and industrial spheres of human activity, whilst +the individuals by whose aid these reforms can be made practical and +effective, have remained dependent upon subconscious guidance with all +that it connotes. Such attempts have always been made by men or women +who were almost completely ignorant of the one fundamental principle +which would so have raised the standard of evolution, that the people +upon whom they sought to impose these reforms might have passed from one +stage of development to another without risk of losing their mental, +spiritual, or physical balance. + +For in the mind of man lies the secret of his ability to resist, to +conquer and finally to govern the circumstance of his life, and only by +the discovery of that secret will he ever be able to realise completely +the perfect condition of _mens sana in corpore sano_. + + + + + II + PRIMITIVE REMEDIES AND THEIR DEFECTS + + “... Having heard that Henry Taylor was ill, Carlyle rushed off from + London to Sheen with a bottle of medicine, which had done Mrs. Carlyle + good, without in the least knowing what was ailing Henry Taylor, or + for what the medicine was useful.”—_Life of_ TENNYSON. + + +The danger of that mental, nervous, and muscular debility, which is the +outcome of the conditions resulting from the trend of our development, +has been widely recognised during the past fifty years, and we must turn +aside for a moment to consider certain phases of its treatment as +indicated by the well-known and widely applied terms “physical culture,” +“relaxation” and “deep breathing.” + +With regard to “physical culture,” it must be clearly understood that I +do not allude to any one system or practice, but speak in the widest +terms; terms which are applicable alike to the most primitive forms of +dumb-bell exercise, or to the most elaborate series of evolutions +designed to counteract the effect of a particular malady. But lest my +application of the term be misunderstood, I will explain that where I +write “physical culture” thus, between inverted commas and with a +hyphen, I mean it to stand for “a series of _mechanical_ exercises, +simple or complicated, designed to strengthen a bodily function by the +development of a set of muscles or of the complete system of muscles”; +but where I use the words physical culture, currently and without a +hyphen, I denote a general system for the improvement of the entire +physical economy by a just co-ordination and control of all the parts of +the system, particularly excluding any method which tends to the +hypertrophy of any one energy without regard to the balance of the +whole. + +In the first place it will be recognised from what I have already said, +that the whole theory upon which the present “physical culture” school +is based is but another aspect of that reversion to nature which we have +stigmatised as a form of atavism. It is an attempt to stiffen the new +garment of our intellectual development by lining it with the old fabric +of so-called “natural exercise.” “Physical culture” as defined, is what +one might term the obvious, uninspired method which naturally presents +itself as a remedy for the ills arising from an artificial condition. +The logic of it is of the simplest, and proceeds from the major premise +that bodily defects arise from the disuse and misuse of muscles and +energies in an artificial civilisation, which muscles and energies in a +natural state would be continually called upon to provide the means of +livelihood. + +From this it seems obvious to argue that if we contrive an artificial +mechanical means of exercising these muscles for, let us say, one, two, +or three hours a day, they will resume their natural functions, and so—— +The lacuna cannot be satisfactorily filled. If we carry on the argument +to its logical conclusion the fallacy is made evident. For the method +arising from this argument creates civil war within the body. There is +no co-ordination, and the outcome must be strife. This point will be at +once made clear by an instance which must be taken to represent a +broadly typical case, an allegory rather than a special example of +particular application. + +Let us take for example the case of John Doe, whose work keeps him +indoors from 9 a. m. to 6 p. m., and makes a very urgent call upon his +mental and nervous powers. By the time he is thirty-five, possibly five +or ten years earlier, John Doe is suffering from anæmia, indigestion, +nervous debility, lassitude, insomnia, heart weakness, and heaven only +knows what other troubles. His bodily functions are irregular, his +muscular system partly atrophied and unresponsive, his nerves irritated, +and his general condition—there is really no better word—“jumpy.” + +Incidentally I must add that his mind is inoperative in many directions. +He has a bad mental attitude towards the physical acts of everyday life. +For him his body is a mechanism, the intricate workings of which he +never pauses to examine, but which he drives or forces through a certain +series of evolutions similar in kind to those it has always performed +within his experience. When this mechanism fails, it has to be forced on +again by tonics and stimulants or given a “rest,” which is followed by a +return to the old methods of propulsion. + +However, John Doe, who has already postponed far too long his search for +a remedy, at last takes a course of “physical culture,” although his +time is severely limited, and his exercises are confined to an hour or +two morning and evening. At first he may say that he feels a wonderful +benefit and probably advises every friend he meets in the city to follow +his example. I am quite willing to grant that Doe may be benefited, I +will even admit that if he continues his exercises it is possible he may +not fall back into the same state of nervous prostration into which he +fell originally, but the point I wish to make quite clear is that his +cure did not in itself possess the elements of permanence. It was merely +a tinkering or botching-up of the fabric of his body. For if we consider +his case from a purely detached standpoint, we must see that Doe +attempted to develop two systems or modes of life which could not in the +nature of things work harmoniously together. On the one hand, for two, +three, or four hours a day, he was occupied in mechanically developing +his muscular system without any reference to the _manner_ in which he +drove his machine, stimulating and accelerating the supply of blood +which therefore required increased oxygenation or reinforced lung power; +in brief, he was exercising those functions and energies which in a +primitive state would have been called upon during the greater part of +his waking life to supply him with food. On the other hand, for the +remaining twelve hours or so during which he was engaged in his +profession, in the eating of meals or in reading, in playing indoor +games or in similar sedentary occupations, the newly developed powers +were being neglected and a call was being made upon the old nervous +energies and centres of control. John Doe’s physical body thus had two +existences, excluding the natural condition of sleep, one fiercely +active, muscular, dynamic, the other sedentary, nervous, static. + +These two existences are not correlated, they are antagonistic; they do +not mutually support each other, they conflict. John Doe’s body becomes +the scene of a civil war, and the heart, lungs, and other semi-automatic +organs are in a state of perpetual re-adjustment to opposing conditions, +as they are called upon to support one side or the other in the +perpetual combat. Such a condition cannot tend in the long run to the +improvement of mankind as a whole. + +For, as I shall show later,[4] in the case of John Doe and in all +parallel cases, the consciousness of the person concerned is not changed +in regard to the use of the muscular mechanism. Even if he exercise for +six hours daily, on taking up his ordinary occupations once more he will +immediately revert to the same muscular habits he has already acquired +in connexion with such occupations. For it is clear that John Doe has a +wrong mental attitude towards the uses of his muscular mechanism in the +acts of everyday life. He has been using muscles to do work for which +they were never intended, whilst others, which should have been +continuously employed, have remained undeveloped, inert, and imperfectly +controlled. We may say in truth that he is suffering from mental and +physical delusions with regard to the uses of his body. To mention but +one of many instances of his lack of recognition of the true uses and +functions of his muscular system, we shall notice that whenever he +thrusts his head forward or throws it back his shoulders always +accompany the movement in either direction, this movement of the +shoulders being entirely unconscious and made without any recognition of +the fact that they are being moved. Now in this condition of mental and +physical delusion, the unfortunate man tries to do something with these +mechanisms which he is unable to control, hoping that by the mere +performance of certain physical exercises he can restore his body to a +condition of perfect physical health. + +It may be well at this point, seeing that I have admitted the +possibility of some preliminary benefit to John Doe from his first +experience of the “physical culture” exercises, to show more in detail +why that benefit was not maintained. The fact is that when this man +realised the seriousness of his digestive troubles he was simply +recognising a symptom and not a primary cause or causes of his +increasing disorders. A proper psycho-physical examination would have +revealed bad habits in his waking and sleeping moments which tended more +or less to reduce his intra-thoracic capacity to a minimum; such a +minimum is not only harmfully inadequate but also renders due +functioning of the vital organs practically impossible. + +Incidentally it may be of value to consider what this condition of +minimum intra-thoracic capacity really means and to note some of the +influences upon the whole organism. For as this thoracic cavity contains +many of the vital organs, the whole abdominal viscera is directly or +indirectly influenced by its capacity. Minimum thoracic capacity means +that the organs within the thorax are harmfully compressed and that the +heart and lungs do not get a proper chance to function adequately. A +harmful strain is thrown upon the heart, the lungs are not adequately +employed or sufficiently aerated, and the lung tissue deteriorates. The +proper distribution of the blood is interfered with because of the undue +accumulation in the splanchnic area, to the detriment of the lung +supply. As the lungs are the chief distributors of blood it will be +understood that this condition of minimum thoracic capacity interferes +with the circulation and general nutrition. The respiratory processes +are employed in sucking in air instead of creating a partial vacuum in +the lungs by a co-ordinated thoracic expansion which will give +atmospheric pressure its opportunity.[5] There is an undue +intra-abdominal pressure and harmful flaccidity of the abdominal +muscles, which means dropping of the viscera, imperfect functioning of +the liver, kidneys, bladder, etc., stagnation in the bowels and +irritation and distention of the colon, intestines, etc.; in other +words, indigestion, constipation and all the concomitant disorders and +general impairment of the vital functioning. Let us, for a moment, think +of the thoracic and abdominal cavities as one fairly stiff oblong rubber +bag filled with different parts of a working machine which are +interrelated and interdependent, and which are held in position by their +attachment to the different parts of the inner surface of this bag. We +will then suppose, for the sake of our illustration, that the +circumference of the inner upper half of this bag is three inches more +than that of the lower half. As long as this general capacity of the bag +is maintained the working standard of efficiency of the machinery is +indicated as the maximum. Let us then, in our mind’s eye, decrease the +capacity of the upper part of the bag and increase that of the lower +half until the inner circumference of the latter is three inches more +than the former. We can at once picture the effect upon the whole of the +vital organs therein contained, their general disorganisation, the +harmful irritation caused by undue compression, the interference with +the natural movement of the blood, of the lymph and of the fluids +contained in the organs of digestion and elimination. In fact we find a +condition of stagnation, fermentation, etc., causing the manufacture of +poisons which more or less clog the mental and physical organism, and +which constitutes a process of slow poisoning. + +Now to revert to the experiences of John Doe. I have already stated that +when he first tried physical exercises at home or in the gymnasium as a +remedy for his digestive disorders, he experienced a sense of relief. +This was only natural, seeing that he was leading a more or less +sedentary life. Why, then, was the effect of these exercises gradually +diminished until he considered the physical treatment a comparative +failure? This brings us to the point of real interest. The fact is that +any increased amount of exercise does give a sense of relief to those +who lead sedentary lives, but unfortunately this sense of relief is too +often a delusive mental exaggeration of the real changes in the right +direction. It is not often a reliable register of benefits derived which +make for permanent relief. Students of these questions know that the man +whose conditions we are analysing has already developed debauched +_kinæsthetic_ systems which permit defective registrations of different +sensations or feeling-tones, and hence it is very difficult for the +person so constituted to arrive at a reliable estimate of the extent of +his improvement through such faulty senses. We know, too, that, so far +as he is concerned, the improvement is not permanent, a fact which he +readily admits. There are scientific reasons for accepting the accuracy +of this conclusion, and I will endeavour to explain the position. Let us +admit, for the sake of our explanation, that benefits actually accrued +in various directions in the early stages of his physical exercises. +Whatever these benefits may have been, and however great they were, I +contend that it was always certain that sooner or later if he persisted +in the physical exercises, he would gradually develop defects which +would counterbalance and finally outweigh the benefits we have admitted. + +The following are some of the reasons which support these contentions. I +shall deal more fully with them in later chapters. + +1. _A Defective Kinæsthetic System._ Experience has proved to us that +the conditions present, when he took up the exercises, go hand in hand +with an incorrect and defective kinæsthetic system. + +The mere performance of physical exercises could not give him a new and +correct kinæsthetic sense in connexion with the use of the mental and +physical organism in his acts of everyday life. + +2. _Erroneous Preconceived Ideas._ It is impossible for me to set down +the myriad dangers with which he is beset in consequence of erroneous +preconceptions during his daily practice on “physical culture” lines. +The pages of a fairly large book will be necessary to do even meagre +justice to this subject. But I can assure my readers that this is +demonstrably true and I am daily convincing the most sceptical by +practical procedures. + +3. _Defective Sense-Registration and Delusions._ This serious defect is +in practice linked up with erroneous preconceptions resulting in mental +and physical delusions which are far-reaching and dangerous. + +_An Example._ Take a person who, prior to re-education, has the habit of +putting the head back whenever an attempt is made to put the shoulders +back. Ask this person to put the head forward and keep the shoulders +still and it will be found that as a rule he fails to carry out the +order, and moves his shoulders also. Ask him to put the head forward +whilst the teacher holds the shoulders still, and the pupil will put the +head back instead of forward. + +4. _Defective Mental and Physical Control._ The most common form of this +defective control encountered in teaching work is when the teacher +wishes to move the head, or hand, or arm, or leg for the pupil, in order +to give the new and correct sensation in the proper use of the parts. +Experience proves that the great majority are utterly wanting in the +controls necessary to enable the person to gain this experience quickly. + +The teacher asks the pupil to lift his arm. He does so but exercises an +undue amount of tension. In order to give the pupil the new kinæsthetic +register of the correct amount of tension necessary, the teacher asks to +be permitted to lift the arm for him, but as a rule the pupil acts +exactly as he did when he was requested to perform the act himself. + +5. _Defective Inhibition._ The practical teacher finds all pupils more +or less hampered by lack of inhibitory control, the possession of which +would make re-education and co-ordination from the pupil’s standpoint +comparatively easy. Consideration will show that our ordinary mode of +life and the generally accepted teaching methods do not make for the +development of the inhibitory powers. On the contrary, our powers in +this direction rather tend to diminish, and the outward and visible +signs of the serious results are everywhere for him who runs to read. + +6. _Self-Hypnotism._ This very serious and all too common evil has not +been attacked on a practical basis. People have spoken of it and written +about it in a general theoretical way, much as they have done about +relaxation, but with no better results on the practical side, when +applied to everyday life. The self-hypnotism I am referring to is a +specific self-hypnotism indulged in at a given and particular time, and +is cultivated unknowingly by teachers and pupils during lessons, and +frequently by both in everyday life. + +People will tell you they can think better by closing their eyes. This +is a prevalent form of self-hypnotism, self-deception, and produces a +state of dreaming which is particularly serious because it is a harmful +condition assumed consciously. The ordinary dreamer falls into this +condition unconsciously. + +7. _Cultivated Apprehension._ This is probably the most serious +condition which we cultivate and which has been dealt with at length on +pages 249–259. + +8. _Prejudiced Arguments and Attempted Self-Defence._ The real weakness +and shallowness of human nature is shown in this connexion in a way +which is uncomplimentary to our intellectual pride. The saddest fact is, +that it is always intensified in the person who would be counted above +the average in intellectuality by a consensus of opinion. We are all +well aware that such an one to win an argument will strain his statement +of his facts in the direction he desires them. His reason is so +dominated by his emotions and his sense appreciation (feeling-tones) +that an appeal to the former is at first in vain. The majority of +mankind has overcompensated in these directions, and it is for this +reason that in the education and development of the child of to-day and +the future, we must see to it that we relinquish all educational methods +which tend to cultivate guidance and control through the emotions and +the sensory appreciations (feeling-tones). + +Some perception of the evils that we have thus briefly summarised has +been awakened in the minds of the more earnest thinkers during the last +few years, and, as a result, the systems of exercises display a clearly +marked tendency towards modification. They have lessened their +muscle-tensing violence, and have become, and are becoming, ever less +and less strenuous physical acts. Thus we find “physical culture” +advocates who a few years ago insisted upon the use of dumb-bells, and +in some cases dumb-bells increasing in weight over a graduated series of +exercises, now emphasising the necessity for _gentle_ exercises without +even mentioning the dumb-bell, which is perhaps as good a proof as any +of the truth of my contentions. + +My next instance, namely, “relaxation,” is even less efficient. The +usual procedure is to instruct the pupil, who is either sitting or lying +on the floor, to relax, or to do what he or she understands by relaxing. +The result is invariably collapse. For relaxation really means a due +tension of the parts of the muscular system intended by nature to be +constantly more or less tensed, together with a relaxation of those +parts intended by nature to be more or less relaxed, a condition which +is readily secured in practice by adopting what I have called in my +other writings the position of mechanical advantage.[6] But apart from +an incorrect understanding of the proper condition natural to the +various muscles, the theory of relaxation, like that of the rest cure, +makes a wrong assumption, and if either system is persisted in, there +must inevitably follow a general lowering of vitality which will be felt +the moment regular duties are taken up again, and which will soon bring +about the return of the old troubles in an exaggerated form. + +The last remedy mentioned at the opening of this chapter was “deep +breathing.” This is a later form of “physical culture” development, and +is, in effect, a modification in the right direction. It is the logical +outcome of the perception that strenuous, forcing, muscular exercises +were resulting in new and possibly greater evils than those they +professed to cure. “Deep breathing” is indeed a step in the right +direction, but only a step, because, while it does not always do serious +harm and in some instances, perhaps, a certain amount of good, it does +not go to the root of the matter, the eradication of defects, nor does +it take cognisance of the most important factor in the scheme of +physical co-ordination. What that radical factor is I shall explain in +detail in my next chapter, but I will first briefly review the chief +points of the argument as far as it has been unfolded. + +In imagination we have seen man through the darkness which covers his +first appearance on the earth, the early Miocene man. As we have +pictured him, he was a creature of simple needs and of a vigorous bodily +habit, an animal in all save that spark of self-consciousness which +burned feebly in his primitive, but increasing and differentiating +brain. Again we have a somewhat clearer vision of him with wider powers +of courage and cunning, adapting weapons to his use, and so specialising +the functions of his mind through a long two million years, through +palæolithic and neolithic periods into the age of bronze, where he has +become a reasoning, designing creature, with powers of imagination and +idealisation, powers still turned, however, to physical uses. + +And at last we reach the differentiation of man from man and class from +class which marks the historical period of civilisation, the period of +dwelling in cities, of adaptability to new and specialised habits, of +labour that makes little or no call upon the physical capacities, of +food procured without energy, the period when the slow process of +evolution, which has resulted in the product of a new and marvellous +instrument of self-conscious, directive powers, was becoming gradually +superseded by that which it had brought forth. + + + + + III + SUBCONSCIOUSNESS AND INHIBITION + + “You can have neither a greater nor a less dominion than that over + yourself.”—LEONARDO DA VINCI. + + +Within the last thirty years we have evolved a new science, the science +of psychology. A generation ago psychology was subject-matter only for +the philosopher, the metaphysician, the poet, or the ecclesiastic; now +it is being investigated in the laboratory by tests of sensibility, +reaction-times, and other responses to stimulation too technical to be +explained here, tests carried out by means of elaborate and intricate +instruments and machinery designed to weigh the _hidden springs of life_ +in the balance. The phrase I have italicised is purposely vague, for I +have no wish to fall foul of a terminology or to make any _a priori_ +assumption which might involve me in controversial matters completely +outside my province. At the same time I see clearly that some convenient +phrase will become necessary, and I will therefore adopt one which is at +least familiar and within certain limits descriptive enough, namely, the +“subconscious self.” + +It may seem strange that one should look to any such formally organised +science as modern psychology, to a science that is working in a +laboratory with mechanical appliances, for any elucidation of a question +which has for so long been regarded as strictly within the domain of the +priest. But science, as Tyndall said, is only another name for +common-sense, and a little consideration will show that the postulate I +have insisted upon, namely, the growth and progress of intellectual +control, demands that this admirable quality of common-sense or reason, +should be applied to the elucidation of this all-important problem. +Unhappily, psychology, from which we hope so much, is as yet in its +infancy, and the few attempts that have been made, such as those of the +late Professor Münsterberg, to apply the theories of the laboratory and +the class room to the practical work of the world, cannot be said to +have produced any results worth considering. In any case I must +transcend the present limits of academic psychology in this +consideration of the subconscious. + +The concepts which have grown up round this term, the “subconscious +self,” are in many cases curiously concrete in form. Much error has +sprung from that earnest and well-intentioned work of the late F. W. H. +Myers, _Human Personality and Its Survival After Bodily Death_. Mr. +Myers pictured an entity within an entity, and his work, though +inductive in form, was _a priori_ in method, for he had formed the +conception of a subjective personality taking shape within an objective, +material shell, and had controlled his evidence to a definite, +preconceived end. + +The fallacies of Myers have been exposed again and again. His argument +is intrinsically unsound, and when put to the test of newer knowledge +his hypothesis fails to explain the fact. But because Myers’ conception +was so graphic and credible it took a strong hold upon the popular +imagination, a hold which in the eight years following the publication +of _Human Personality_ has not become weakened in the minds of a great +number of people, full though these years have been of discovery and new +knowledge. It is for this reason that I have reverted to Myers’ +conception of the subconscious, or as he called it, the “subliminal +self,” inasmuch as I wish it to be clearly understood from the outset +that I use the term “subconscious self” to denote an entirely different +concept. Indeed, any one who has followed my argument to this point must +have inferred the trend of my purpose, namely, that as the intellectual +powers of man extend, we progress in the direction of _conscious +control_. The gradual control of evolution by the child of its +production has pointed always to this end, and by this means, and by +this alone, can the human race continue in the full enjoyment of its +physical powers without forfeiting a fraction of its progressive +intellectual ideal. + +It will inevitably be asked at this stage what I mean when I speak of +the “subconscious self,” and I must therefore answer that question to +the best of my ability, even though I have to leave for a moment the +limits of proved fact to tread on the wider ground of hypothesis. I do +not propose, however, to overburden my theory with the detail of +evidence, and what follows must therefore be taken as an inclusive +statement, much of which I could prove conclusively in a larger work, +whilst the unproved remnant must necessarily await confirmation from the +researches of future investigators in the domains of psychology. In the +first place then we must see not only that the subconscious self is not +a possession peculiar to man, but that it is in fact more active, in +many ways more finely developed, in the animal world. Among some animals +the consciousness of danger is so keen that we have attributed it to +prescience. The fear of fire in the prairies, of flood, or of the +advance of some natural danger threatening the existence of the animal, +is evidenced far ahead of any signs perceptible by human senses, and as +we cannot, except sentimentally, attribute powers of conscious reasoning +to the animal world, it is evident that this “foreknowledge” is due to a +delicate co-ordination of animal senses. Again, we see that animals +which have not had their powers dulled by many generations of +domestication make the majority of their movements, as we say, +“instinctively.” They can judge the length of a leap with astonishing +accuracy, or take the one certain chance of escape among the many +apparent possibilities open to them without an instant’s hesitation, and +as these powers are evidenced in some cases within a few hours or +minutes after the birth of the animal, they are admittedly not the +outcome of experience. + +The whole argument for the evidence of the possession of a subconscious +self by animals can be elaborated to any length, and depends upon facts +of observation made over a long period of time. The few examples I have +here cited merely illustrate that side of the question which throws into +prominence the point of what we may call abnormal powers, or powers +which seem to transcend those of human reason so far as it has been +developed. It is this appearance of transcendent qualities in the human +subconsciousness which misled Myers, who did not pause to apply his +allegory of the subconscious entity to the animal world. Such an +application would have tended to prove that the “soul” (for that is what +Myers really intended, however carefully he may have avoided the actual +word) of the animal was more highly developed than that of man. + +In the second place, however, we are confronted with the unquestionable +fact that the subconsciousness can be “educated” below the plane of +reason. Acts very frequently performed become so mechanical that they +can be repeated without any sense of conscious awareness by the +operator. The pianist, after constant rehearsals, will perform the most +intricate passage while his attention is engaged with an entirely +unrelated subject,—although it is particularly worthy of remark in this +connexion, that when such an art as the performance of music falls +temporarily into such an automatic repetition, the connoisseur will +instantly recognise the loss of some quality,—generally spoken of as +“feeling,”—in the rendering. Again, it appears that in some cases a more +or less permanent impression may be made upon the subconsciousness by +casual suggestions, often related to fear, even though such suggestions +be, in some cases, the result of a single experience. A nervous +hysterical subject, already far too willing to submit to the guidance of +emotion and what he or she fondly believes to be “instinct” or +“intuition” may be so harmfully impressed in this way as to develop any +of the many forms of “phobia,” which are, as the suffix correctly +implies, forms of morbid terror. These are but two instances of the +“education” of the subconsciousness below the reasoning plane, but a +dozen others will suggest themselves to the reader out of his own +experience. The important point is the fact that the phase of being with +which we are dealing becomes, as we progress through life, a composite +of animal instincts and habits acquired below the plane of reason either +by repetition or by suggestion. But before I leave this general +conception of the subconsciousness, I must emphasise the fact that up to +this point we share the qualities of the subconscious mind with the +animal kingdom. For in the lower organisms no less than in that of +humanity, this subconsciousness can be educated. The observations of +naturalists now confirm the belief that the young of certain birds—the +swallow has been particularly instanced—are _taught_ to fly by the +parent birds; whilst any one who has trained a dog will know how such a +trick as “begging” for food may become so habitual as to appear +instinctive. + +So much for general definition; I come now to the point which marks the +differentiation of man from the animal world, and which is first clearly +evidenced in the use of the reasoning, intellectual powers of +inhibition. + +Now it is evident that in the earlier stages of man’s development, the +inhibition of the subconscious animal powers was frequently a source of +danger and of death. Reason, not as yet sufficiently instructed and +far-seeing, was an inefficient pilot, and sometimes laid the ship aback +when she would have kept before the wind if left to herself. To abandon +the metaphor, the control was imperfect, it wavered between two +alternatives, and by rejecting the guidance of instinct it suffered, it +may be, destruction. But the necessity for conscious control grew as the +conditions of life came to differ ever more and more from those of the +wild state. This, plainly, was due to many causes, but chiefly to the +limitations enforced by the social habit which grew out of the need for +co-operation. + +This point must be briefly elaborated, for it marks the birth of +inhibition in its application to everyday life, and in so doing it +demonstrates the growth of the principle of conscious control which, +after countless thousands of years, we are but now beginning to +appreciate and understand. + +It is true that we have evidence of conscious inhibition in a pure state +of nature. The wild cat stalking its quarry inhibits the desire to +spring prematurely, and controls to a deliberate end its eagerness for +the instant gratification of a natural appetite. But in this, and in the +many other similar instances, such instinctive acts of inhibition have +been developed through long ages of necessity. The domestic kitten of a +few weeks old, which has never been dependent on its own efforts for a +single meal, will exhibit the same instinct. In animals the inherited +power is there; in man also the power is there as a matter of physical +inheritance, but with what added possibilities due to the accumulated +experience gained from the conscious use of this wonderful force. + +The first experience must have come to man very early in his +development. As soon as any act was proscribed and punishment meted out +for its performance, or as soon as a reward was consciously +sought—though its attainment necessitated realised, personal +danger—there must have been a deliberate, conscious inhibition of +natural desires, which in its turn enforced a similar restraint of +muscular, physical functioning. As the needs of society widened, this +necessity for the daily, hourly inhibition of natural desires increased +to a bewildering extent on the prohibitive side. There grew up first +“taboos,” then the rough formulation of moral and social law, and on the +other hand a desire for larger powers which encouraged qualities of +emulation and ambition. + +Among the infinite diversity of these influences, natural appetites and +the modes of gratifying them were ever more and more held in subjection, +and the subconscious self or instinct which initiated every action in +the lower animal world fell under the subjection of the conscious, +dominating intellect or will. And in this process we must not overlook +one fact of supreme importance, viz., man still progressed physically +and mentally. It is therefore clear that this control acquired by the +conscious mind broke no great law of nature, known or unknown, for, if +this acquired control had been in conflict with any of those great, and +to us as yet incomprehensible forces which have ruled the evolution of +species, the animal we call man would have become extinct, as did those +early saurian types which failed to fulfil the purpose of development +and perished before man’s first appearance on this earth. + +Before we attempt, then, any exact definition of the subconscious self +we must have a clearer comprehension of the terms “will,” “mind,” and +“matter,” which may or may not be different aspects of one and the same +force. More than two thousand years of philosophy have left the +metaphysicians still vaguely speculating as to the relations of these +three essentials, and personally, I am not very hopeful of any solution +from this source. The investigation, though still in its infancy in this +form, has taken the shape of an exact science, and it is to that science +of psychology as now understood that I look to the elucidation of many +difficult problems in the future. Without touching on the uncertain +ground of speculative philosophy, I will try, however, to be as definite +as may be with regard to my conception of the subconscious self. + +In the first place, great prominence has been given to the conception of +the subconscious self as an entity within an entity, by the claim made +for it that it has absolute control of the bodily functions. This claim +depends for its support upon the evidence of hypnotism and of the +various forms of auto-suggestion and faith-healing. Under the first +heading, we have been told that under the direction of the hypnotist the +ordinary functions of the body may be controlled or superseded, as for +instance, that a wound may be formed and bleed without mechanically +breaking the skin,[7] or that a wound may be healed more rapidly than is +consistent with the ordinary course of nature. Under the second heading, +which includes all forms of self-suggestion, we have had examples of +what is known as stigmatisation,[8] or the appearance on the bodies of +hysterical and obsessed subjects of some imitation of the five sacred +wounds. Indeed the instances of cures which seem to our uninstructed +minds miraculous, and due by inference to the power of faith, are so +numerous that no special example need be cited. These and many kindred +phenomena have been explained on the hypothesis that the hidden entity +when commanded by the will is able to exert an all-powerful influence +either beneficent or malignant, the obscure means by which the command +may be enforced being variously described. We see at once that the +conception of a hidden entity is the primitive explanation which first +occurs to the puzzled mind. We find the same tendency in the many +curious superstitions of the savage who turns every bird, beast, stone, +and tree into a Totem, and endows them with powers of evil or of good, +and discovers a “hidden entity” all of a piece with this conception of +the subconscious self, in a piece of wood that he has cut from a tree, +or a lump of clay that he has modelled into the rude shape of man, bird, +or beast. + +My own conception is rather of the unity than the diversity of life. +And since any attempt to define the term Life would be presumptuous, +the definition being beyond the scope of man’s present ability, I +will merely say that life in this connexion must be read in the +widest application conceivable. And it appears to me that all we +know of the evolution or development of life goes to show that it +has progressed, and will continue to progress, in the direction of +self-consciousness.[9] If we grant the unity of life and the +tendency of its evolution, it follows that all the manifestations of +what we have called the “subconscious self” are functions of the +vital essence or life-force, and that these functions are passing +from automatic or unconscious to reasoning or conscious control. +This conception does not necessarily imply any distinction between +the thing controlled and the control itself. This may be inferred +from the use of the word “self-conscious,” but the further +elucidation of this side of the theory is not germane to the present +argument. + +Now I am quite prepared to accept as facts phenomena of the kind I have +instanced, such as unusual cures effected by hypnotism, and by the +somewhat allied methods of the various forms of faith healing, but I do +deny, and most emphatically deny, that either procedure is in any way +necessary to produce the same or even more unusual phenomena.[10] In +other words, I maintain that man may in time obtain complete conscious +control of every function of the body without, as is implied by the word +“conscious,” going into any trance induced by hypnotic means, and +without any paraphernalia of making reiterated assertions or statements +of belief. + +Apart from my practical experience of the harm that so often results +from hypnotic and suggestive treatment, an experience sufficient to +demonstrate the dangers of applying these methods to a large majority of +cases, I found my objection to these practices on a broad and, I +believe, incontrovertible basis. This is that the obtaining of trance is +a prostitution and degradation of the objective mind, that it ignores +and debases the chief curative agent, the apprehension of the patient’s +conscious mind, and that it is in direct contradiction to the governing +principle of evolution, the great law of self-preservation by which the +instinct of animals has been trained, as it were, to meet and overcome +the imminent dangers of everyday existence. In man this desire for life +is an influence in therapeutics so strong that I can hardly exaggerate +its potentiality, and it is, moreover, an influence that can be readily +awakened and developed. The will to live has in one experience of mine +lifted a woman almost from the grave, a woman who had been operated upon +and practically abandoned as dead by her surgeons. A passing thought +flashing across a brain that had all but abandoned the struggle for +existence, a sudden consciousness that her children might not be well +cared for if she died, was sufficient to reawaken the desire for life, +and to revivify a body which no medical skill could have saved.[11] But +there is no need to quote instances. The fact is recognised, yet how +small is the attempt made to use and control so potent a force! The same +argument may be also applied to the prostration of the mind as a factor +in the popular rest cures which really seek to put the mind, the great +regenerating force, out of action. + +Returning to my definition of the subconscious self, it will be seen +that I regard it as a manifestation of the partly-conscious vital +essence, functioning at times very vividly but on the whole +incompletely, and from this it follows that our endeavours should be +directed to perfecting the self-consciousness of this vital essence. The +perfect attainment of this object in every individual would imply a +mental and physical ability and a complete immunity from disease that is +still a dream of the future. But once the road is pointed, we must +forsake the many bypaths, however fascinating, bypaths which lead at +last to an _impasse_ and necessitate a return in our own footsteps. +Instead of this, we must devote our energies along the indicated road, a +road that presents, it is true, many difficulties, and is not straight +and easy to traverse, but a road that nevertheless leads to an ideal of +mental and physical completeness almost beyond our imaginings. + + + + + IV + CONSCIOUS CONTROL + + “Man one harmonious soul of many a soul + Whose nature is its own divine control.” + —SHELLEY. + + +One of the most recent phases of popular, as opposed to scientific, +thought has been that which has endeavoured to teach the control of the +mind. This teaching has been spoken of in general as the “New Thought” +movement, though certain of its precepts may be found in Marcus +Aurelius. This movement has had, and is still having, a considerable +vogue in America, and the influence of it has been felt in England, many +of the writings of its exponents having been published here within the +last fifteen or twenty years. The object of the teaching is to promote +the habit of “right thinking” which is to be obtained by the control of +the mind. The “New Thought” teaches that certain ideas such as fear, +worry, and anger, are to be rigidly excluded from the mind and the +attention fixed upon their opposites, such as courage, complacency, +calm. With certain of the tendencies expressed in this movement I am in +sympathy, but following the usual course of such movements, the “New +Thought” is losing sight of its principle, which was, indeed, never +fully grasped, and is becoming involved in a species of dogma, the +rigidity of which is in my opinion directly opposed to its primary +object. One of its earlier and most capable exponents, however, Ralph +Waldo Trine, marked the principle with a phrase, and by naming one of +his works _In Tune with the Infinite_, gave permanence to the central +idea, though more recent writers in embroidering the theme have lost +sight of the original thesis. Moreover, I have not found in the “New +Thought” a proper consideration of cause and effect in treating the +mental and physical in combination. These writings exhibit, and have +always exhibited, the fallacy of considering the mental and physical as +in some sense antitheses which are opposed to each other and make war, +whereas, in my opinion, the two must be considered entirely +interdependent, and even more closely knit than is implied by such a +phrase. + +Again in all these writings we are confronted with one word which is +dominant, and by its iteration must produce an effect on the mind of all +readers. That word is “faith,” and because it is so prominent and so +little understood, I feel that it is essential I should give some +explanation of it in the light of my own principles. + +In the first place, it is perhaps hardly necessary for me to point out +that faith in this connexion need not be allied with any conception of +creed or religion. It is true that this is the form in which we are most +familiar with it in mental healing, and the associations which are +grouped round the word itself very commonly induce us to connect it with +the conceptions that have had such a wide and general influence on the +thoughts of mankind in all stages of civilisation. But we have abundant +evidence now before us that in healing it is the patient’s attitude of +mind that is of the first importance, and that faith is every whit as +effective when directed towards the person of the healer, a drug, or the +medicinal qualities supposed to be possessed by a glass of pure water, +as when it is directed to a belief in some supernal agency. This fact is +indisputable, and it is only because the latter form of faith is so much +more widespread, inasmuch as it lies at the very foundation of all +religions, that this agency has effected a number of cures out of all +proportion to those brought about by faith in some purely material +object. What I here intend by faith, therefore, is its exercise in the +widest sense and without any restriction of creed. + +So far as we can analyse the effect of what we call an act of faith on +the mental processes, it would seem that it is operative in two +directions. The first is purely emotional. The patient having conceived +a whole-hearted belief that he is going to be delivered from his pain or +disease by the means of some agency supernal or material, experiences a +sensation of profound relief and joy. He understands and believes that +without effort on his part he is to be cured by an apparent miracle, and +the effect upon him is to produce a strong, if evanescent, emotional +happiness. In this we have an exact parallelism between the patient +whose cure is physical and material, and the convert whose cure is +spiritual. Now it is widely acknowledged by scientists and the medical +profession generally that this condition of happiness is an ideal +condition for the sufferer, that it is not only the most helpful +condition of mind, but that it actually produces chemical changes in the +physical constitution, changes which are the most salutary in producing +a vital condition of the blood, and hence of the organisms. + +The second way in which this act of faith operates is in the breaking +down of a whole set of mental habits, and in the substitution for them +of a new set. The new habits may or may not be beneficial from the +outset apart from the effect produced by the emotional state which is +hardly ever maintained for a long period, but even so the breaking down +of the old habits of thought does produce such an effect as will in some +cases influence the whole arrangement of the cells forming the tissues, +and dissipate a morbid condition such as cancer. + +Thus we see that this so-called act of faith is in reality purely +material in its action, and there is no reason why we should have +recourse to it to produce the same and greater effects. It may perhaps +be asked by some objectors why we should seek to dismiss the act of +faith, since it undoubtedly produces these ideal conditions in some +cases. The answer is obvious. Faith-healing is dangerous in its practice +and uncertain in its results. It is dangerous, because in the majority +of cases its professors seek in the first place to alleviate pain. They +may do this, leaving the disease itself untouched, but, as I shall point +out later on, in such cases the disease will continue and eventually +kill the patient, even though he may be able successfully to fight the +pain. Faith-healing is also uncertain in its results, because, in +addition to the danger I have mentioned, it merely substitutes one +uncontrolled habit of thought for another. At first the new habit, +because it is new, may bring about a change to a better condition, but +if it remains, it will in its turn become stereotyped, and may very well +lead at last to just as morbid a condition as was induced by the old +mental habit it superseded. For these reasons, which are, I think, +trenchant enough, I desire most earnestly to see all the present +conceptions that surround this profession of faith-healing thrown aside +in order that we may arrive at a sane and reasoned process of mental +therapeutics. I have touched briefly on the movement here because it +emphasises the fact that we are dimly grasping at a truth but paralysing +our attempts to hold it by the premature assumption that we have it safe +at last. At the same time I believe that underlying the teachings of +these recent movements, “New Thought” and “Faith-healing” in general +(and in these two closely allied influences I include all the offshoots +and subdivisions), there is some apprehension of an essential, an +apprehension which is liable to lose its grip by reason of the dogma and +ritual that has grown up and tends to obscure the one fundamental. + +All these sects, parties, societies, creeds—call them what you will—have +a common inspiration; we need no further proof than this that no one of +the many developments from the common source is in itself complete and +perfect. There is good evidence that each new development as soon as it +becomes specialised is separated from its true source, becomes +overelaborated, and so works its own downfall, the principle becoming +absorbed and dominated by the bias of some individual mind. This is my +analysis of the phenomena. It follows that what we seek is the noumenon, +the reality, the true idea that underlies all these various +manifestations. + +Before I attempt, however, to trace out this common principle, I wish to +make three statements. + + + (1) I do not profess to offer a finally perfected theory, for by so + doing I should lay myself open to the same arguments I have advanced + against other theories of the same nature. I say frankly that we are + only at the beginnings of understanding, and my own wish is to keep my + theory as simple as possible, to avoid any dogma. + + (2) I do not propose for many reasons to consider in this place my own + methods in any other connexion but that of their application to + physical defects, to the eradication of diseases, distortions, and + lack of control, and, progressively, to the science of race culture + and the improvement of the physique of the generations to come. + + (3) I wish it to be clearly understood that this treatise is not + finally definitive. I hope in the future to have many opportunities of + elaborating my general thesis, and of stating my experience of + particular applications of my methods to peculiar cases, but I should + not be true to my own principles if I were not willing to accept + amendments, even perhaps to alter one or other of my premises, should + new facts tend to show that I have made a false assumption in any + particular. + + +Now that I have thus cleared the ground, I will examine what I believe +to be the first and greatest stumbling-block to conscious self-control, +namely, “rigidity of mind.” This rigidity results in a fixed habit of +thought and its concomitant evils, among which is the subjection of +functional and muscular habits to subconscious control. + +In defining rigidity of mind, I must hark back for a moment to that +suggestive phrase of Mr. Trine’s, _In Tune with the Infinite_, although +in the present application the rigidity I am concerned with is +considered in a physical connexion and does not involve interference +with any non-spatial conceptions. It is rather the first half of the +phrase that is here of importance, for to be “In Tune” conveys to my +mind, and I wish it to convey the same meaning to others, the idea of +sensitiveness to impressions and responsiveness to the touch, when “all +the functions of life are becoming an intelligent harmony.” In a word, I +want by this phrase to suggest the idea of being open-minded. For even +in reading this, if the individual deliberately puts himself in +opposition to my point of view, he can by no possibility hope to +benefit. Wherefore I desire above all things that he or she will read at +least with an open mind, form no conclusion until I have finished, and +will perhaps, more particularly, subdue the interference of that great +and ruling predisposition which has in the past so long impeded the +advance of science, and with which I will deal in my next chapter. + +Let us consider for a moment the application of rigidity of mind to +physical functions. A person comes to me with some crippling defect due +to the improper use of some organ or set of muscles. When I have +diagnosed the defect and shown the patient _how_ to use the organ or +muscles in the proper way, I am always met at once with the reply, “But +I can’t.” Let me ask any one who is reading this and who suffers in any +way, whether his or her attitude to the defect they suffer from is not +precisely the same? This reply indicates directly that the control of +the part affected is entirely subconscious; if it were not, we should +merely have to substitute the hopeful “I can” for that despondent “I +can’t,” to remove the trouble. By (a) hypnotic treatment, by (b) +faith-healing, or by (c) the application of the principles of the “New +Thought,” the patient in such a case would have the subconscious control +influenced, either (a) by the mechanical means of trance and suggestion +by the hypnotist, which leaves the conscious mind in exactly the +original condition and merely changes, and it may be only temporarily, +the habit of the subconscious control, or (b) and (c) by reiterated +commands of the objective mind. Even if these commands have been +reinforced by the influencing suggestion of the healer, they either +substitute by repetition one habit for another without any apprehension +by the intelligence of the true method of the exchange, or, what is +quite as frequent and far more harmful, they shut out the sensitiveness +to pain from the cerebral centres, and so leave the radical evil, no +longer labelled by nature’s warning, to work the patient’s destruction +in secret. Briefly, all three methods seek to reach the subjective mind +by deadening the objective or conscious mind, and the centre and +backbone of my theory and practice, upon which I feel that I cannot +insist too strongly, is that THE CONSCIOUS MIND MUST BE QUICKENED. + +It will be seen from this statement that my theory is in some ways a +revolutionary one, since all earlier methods have in some form or +another sought to put the flexible working of the true consciousness out +of action in order to reach the subconsciousness. The result of these +methods is, logically and inevitably, an endeavour to alter a bad +subjective habit whilst the objective habit of thought is left +unchanged. The teachings of the “New Thought” and of many sects of +faith-healers set out clearly enough that the patient must think rightly +before he can be cured, but they then set out, automatically, to carry +out their teaching by prescribing “affirmatives” or some sort of +“auto-suggestion,” both of which are in effect no more than a kind of +self-hypnotism, and, as such, are debasing to the primary functions of +the intelligence. + +I will take a simple instance from my own experience to illustrate a +case in point. A patient, whom I will call X, came to me with an +obstinate stammer arising from a congenital defect in the co-ordination +of the face, tongue, and throat muscles. Whenever X attempted to speak +he drew down his upper lip. This was the outward sign of a series of +vicious acts connected with a train of muscular movements, a sign that +the ideo-motor centres were working to convey a wrong guiding influence +to the specific parts concerned in the act of speech. These guiding +influences rendered X quite incapable of speech, and would, indeed, have +had the same effect upon any other individual who produced the same +working of the parts concerned. To insist in such a case that X should +repeat, “I can speak” or “I won’t stutter,” would be merely to endeavour +to reach a supposed omniscient subconscious self which would counteract +the evil by the exercise of some assumed and separate intelligence +possessed by it. I undertook the case by appealing to X’s intelligence. + +Now, strange as it may seem (and I intend to treat this curious +perversion in my next chapter), X’s objective intelligence is not so +easily reached and influenced as might appear. He has formed a muscular +habit of drawing down his lip independently of his conscious control, +and the line of suggestion set up by the wish to speak induces at once a +reflex action of a complicated set of muscles. X has learned to do this +automatically, and at first seems incapable of controlling those lip +muscles when the wish to speak is initiated. + +In this case my first endeavour must be directed to keeping in abeyance, +by the power of inhibition, all the mental associations connected with +the ideas of speaking, and to eradicating all erroneous, preconceived +ideas concerning the things X imagines he can or cannot do, or what is +or is not possible. My next effort must be to give X a correct and +conscious guidance and control of all the parts concerned, including, of +course, the lip and face muscles, and in order to obtain this control, +he must have a complete and accurate apprehension of all the movements +concerned. And this apprehension must precede and be preparatory to any +conception of “speaking,” during the application of all the guiding +orders involved. In originating some new idea which is to take the place +of the old idea of drawing down the upper lip, it may be necessary at +first to break the old association by means of some new order, such as +deliberately to draw the lip up, to open the mouth, or to make some +similar muscular act previously unfamiliar in its application to the act +of speaking. This new order is then substituted for the command to +speak. X is told not to speak but to draw up his lip, open his mouth, +etc. It will be understood that I have omitted much detail touching the +interdependence of the parts concerned, but I wish here to convey the +essentials of method rather than the physiological explanation of their +working. It must always be remembered that Nature works as a whole and +not in parts, and once the true cause of the evil is discovered and +eradicated all the affected mechanisms can soon be restored to their +full capacity. I may note here that X was completely cured of his +stammer, and that his was a particularly obstinate case, a fact chiefly +due to the confirmation of a wrong habit in early childhood. + +This is an example, chosen for its simplicity, to illustrate the prime +essentials of my theory, but it is capable of a very wide application, +so wide that it may be applied to the working not only of the ordinary +controlled muscles, but of the semi-automatic muscles which actuate the +vital organs. Not many years ago an Indian Yogi was examined by +Professor Max Müller at Cambridge, and we have it on the authority of +the latter that this Yogi was able to stop the beating of his own heart +at will and suffer no harmful consequences. + +Let it be clearly understood, however, that I have no sympathy with +these abnormal manifestations which I regard as a dangerous trickery +practised on the body, a trickery in no way admirable or to be sought +after. The performances of the Yogis certainly do not command my +admiration, and the well-known system of breathing practised and taught +by them is, in my opinion, not only wrong and essentially crude, but I +consider that it tends also to exaggerate those very defects from which +we suffer in this twentieth century. I have merely quoted this case of +the Yogi in support of my assertion that there is no function of the +body that cannot be brought under the control of the conscious will. + +That this is indeed a fact and not a theory, I do claim without +hesitation, and I claim further that by the application of this +principle of conscious control there may in time be evolved a complete +mastery over the body, which will result in the elimination of all +physical defects. Certain aspects of this control and the reasons why it +has not been acquired I will treat under the next heading. + + + + + V + APPLIED CONSCIOUS CONTROL + + + A CONCEPTION OF THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED + +The term “conscious control” is one which is employed by different +people to convey different conceptions. The usual conception is one +which indicates specific control, such as the moving of a muscle +consciously, and is practised by athletes who give performances of +physical feats in public. Again, there is the conscious movement of a +finger, toe, ear, or some other specific muscle or limb. + +The phrase “Conscious Control” when used in this work is intended to +indicate the value and use of conscious guidance and control, primarily +as a _universal_, and secondly as a _specific_, the latter always being +dependent upon the former in practical procedure. + +Furthermore, it is not used merely to indicate a guidance and control +which we may apply in the activities of life with but doubtful precision +in one or two directions only, but one which may be applied universally, +and with precision in all directions, and in all spheres where the +mental and physical manifestations of mankind are concerned. + +Since the publication of my book, _Conscious Control_, I have received +and continue to receive letters from interested readers concerning the +practical application of conscious control, and also regarding my +conception of the principles involved. + +“It is all very well to talk of conscious control, but how are we to +acquire it?” wrote one enquirer. “How far-reaching is its application?” +wrote another, whilst a third remarked, “If your experience has proved +that such far-reaching beneficial effects result from conscious guidance +and control, your concept must be much more comprehensive than that +usually accepted.” “I have a friend who is cursed with a bad temper,” +wrote another enquirer, “and he realises the fact. He has applied to his +medical and spiritual advisers for help. They have given him a certain +amount of valuable advice, but the result is far from satisfactory.” + +We all know of cases of men and women who eat or drink more than is good +for them, and we also know that only a small minority are able to master +their unhealthy desires in these directions. Examination of the +misguided majority would reveal the fact that they were badly +co-ordinated, and that psycho-physical conditions were present which +would lead an expert to expect an overbalanced state in one direction or +another, a domination of conscious reasoned control by subconscious +unreasoned desire. + +Such cases may be readily and successfully dealt with on a basis of +conscious guidance and control in the spheres of re-education, +re-adjustment, and co-ordination. + +To gain control where there is a tendency to overindulgence in alcohol +or food is a very difficult problem for the ordinary human being while +he remains in his badly co-ordinated condition. This is shown by the +failure which succeeds failure until the unfortunate person arrives at +the conclusion that it is impossible to break the habit. + +He or she then drifts into the advanced stages of a condition which +becomes as akin to disease as neuritis, neurasthenia, indigestion, or +rheumatism. As a matter of fact these malconditions may be the immediate +outcome of the indulgences before referred to. + +The unfortunate fact which we must face is that such people are +practically without control where these failings are concerned, and the +general opinion is that these people lack will-power. In my opinion this +is not really true. + +Say that a man is a thief and is caught and punished. He tells his +friends and relatives that he intends to reform. But does he really +intend to do so? In the first instance does not the answer to this +question depend upon the point of view of the person concerned? Let us +take as an example two brothers. The one is a thief but the other is +not, inasmuch as he has never stolen anything in his life. He would +scorn such an act, but he has no hesitation in taking advantage of a +friend with whom he makes an agreement. He may even fail to realise that +he is acting unjustly towards his friend. The fact is, he is well +acquainted with the details and possibilities of the business concern +which this agreement represents. He is aware of his superior knowledge +and he deliberately uses it in framing the clauses of the agreement so +that he is certain to derive more benefit from the transaction than his +less experienced friend, though at the same time he may thoroughly +understand that the contract should be drawn upon lines which would +ensure that equal benefits would be derived. This he calls business, not +theft. + +It is quite possible that the thief would scorn to take such advantage +of a friend. I have known of such cases; hence the phrase, “Honour among +thieves.” + +Now we do not speak of the other brother as lacking in will-power, but +wherein lies the difference in this connexion between him and his thief +brother? + +In the case of the thief, the promise to reform was made. He steals +again and again, so that people say in the ordinary way, “He is +hopeless, he hasn’t the will-power to enable him to reform.” As I have +before indicated, I fear this is not a correct solution. + +For if we admit that in both instances all depends upon the point of +view, we cannot be surprised that the mere promise to reform is usually +futile, and we must furthermore realise that a changed point of view is +the royal road to reformation. At the same time, experience of human +idiosyncrasies has taught us that the most difficult thing to change is +the point of view of subconsciously controlled mankind. The lack of +power to reform is the result of the usually partial failure of the +subconscious mental mechanisms in a sphere demanding reasoned judgment. + +As a matter of fact this man possesses a great amount of will-power and +energy in certain directions, just as he probably lacks it in others. +This applies equally to his brother and, in a greater or less degree, to +every human being. At the same time I think we are justified in +concluding that the thief, as compared with his brother, exercises his +energy, will-power and resourcefulness in but limited directions. This +applies to all people cursed with what we call criminal tendencies in +contrast to their more fortunate fellow beings. Here we arrive at the +point where we are once more confronted with misdirected energies +concentrated into narrow channels through abnormal tendencies; hence the +overcompensation which inevitably follows. + +A thief, unfortunately, too often confines his energies to what to his +perverted outlook—the result of a wrong point of view—is a legitimate +means of gaining the necessaries of life. From his perverted point of +view he merely takes something from another person which he considers he +has as much right to possess as any one else, if he is clever enough to +get it by any means at his command. I have heard a certain type of +Socialist express views which justify this mode of reasoning. His point +of view is practically that of the thief, and he needs the same help if +he is to come into communication with his reason. We know that men and +women have continued to steal for years without being even suspected, +and there cannot be any doubt that in thus escaping detection, they +prove that they possess forms of exceptional will-power, energy, +resourcefulness, courage, determination, and initiative, which, if +directed into the right channels, would have made them highly successful +and valuable members of society. + +It must not be forgotten that if the thief is detected, his punishments +are so formidable, not only because of the legal penalties he incurs, +but also because of the scorn and derision with which he meets in the +social sphere, even amongst his blood relations, that they would act as +a deterrent upon the ordinary person. + +Obviously, then, the problem to be solved in connexion with the thief or +any other criminal, is concerned with the psycho-physical conditions +which influence him in the direction of crime, and also with the failure +of punishment either to change his point of view or to direct his +excellent mental and physical gifts into honest and valuable spheres of +expression. + +We are all aware that a conservative is rarely converted to the liberal +viewpoint or vice versa in a day, or a month, or even a year. Such +mental changes, in the subconsciously controlled person should, with +rare exceptions, be made gradually and slowly; for the demands of +re-adjustment in the psycho-physical self are great, and depend upon the +conditions present in the particular person. It is conceivable that with +certain conditions present, the process of re-adjustment may bring about +such disorganisation as may cause a serious crisis. During an experience +of this kind the person would for a period be in greater danger than +ever,[12] and the length of this period would vary in different people. +The process of re-adjustment in all spheres means immediate interference +with the forces of strength and weakness, and in the case of the thief +under consideration the force of strength was associated with mental and +physical peculiarities in him as evil factors which had more or less +controlled him; in fact, they constituted guidance and direction in his +case. In all his physical and mental activities, which these evil +factors stimulated, he experienced his maximum of confidence and +directive power. + +Now where his weaknesses were concerned, he had little to depend upon. +His attempt to reform was a demand for re-adjustment, which, in turn, +meant a period of comparative loss of confidence and directive power. +His new efforts needed to be directed into channels where he not only +lacked confidence, but where he suffered most from the overcompensation +experienced in the past. In reality, his supports were suddenly wrenched +from him, and replaced by those which his well-meaning friends and +relatives considered infinitely superior and absolutely reliable. Their +experiences of life had, to their satisfaction, proved them to be so; +but their experiences were not his experiences, their strength was not +his strength, their weaknesses were not his weaknesses; and it is in +consequence of such facts as these that subconscious control fails, and +reasoned conscious control is needed. + +If I have succeeded in making my point clear to the reader he will +recognise and admit this unfortunate thief’s danger. He must, in a way, +sympathise with this man who, through no fault of his own, is being +directed during the period of comparative helplessness, in a round of +unfamiliar and complex experiences by a delusive and debauched +subconsciousness. If, on the other hand, conscious reasoned control had +been substituted and employed in re-education and co-ordination, the +process of re-adjustment would have presented the minimum of the +difficulties and dangers we have enumerated. + +In view of the foregoing, are we justified, except in rare instances, in +expecting to change the thief any more than the liberal or conservative +by ordinary methods on a subconscious basis? The evidence in the light +of experience is against the proposition. + +The conservative and the liberal of our example, no less than the thief, +are equally dependent upon subconscious guidance and control, and are +the victims of the particular tendencies, harmful and otherwise, which +have developed and become established, as a rule, without recognition, +and without any primary appeal to their reasoning faculties. + +Therefore, we must turn our attention once more to that psycho-physical +process which we call habit, including developments which have their +origin in consciousness as well as those which spring from the +subconsciousness. + +For instance, a man may be, as we say, born a thief. In other words, he +is cursed with the subconscious abnormal craving or habit which makes a +man a thief by nature. + +On the other hand, he may be quite normal at birth, but in early life he +may drift into simple and apparently harmless little ways which through +carelessness and lack of sound training, develop very slowly and remain +unobserved either by the person concerned or by his friends and +relatives. + +We all know of men and women who became drug fiends merely through +wishing to experience the sensation or sensations produced by the drug. +In the most unsuspecting way it is repeated at some future time. This +innocent beginning has so often developed into the drug habit. + +We know of apparently strong-minded scientific men who have taken drugs, +in the first instance, from a purely scientific standpoint and so in a +seemingly harmless way, but who, in spite of this, have rapidly fallen +victims to the drug habit. Exactly the same process has served to create +the majority of inebriates. + +It is important to keep in mind that different men and different women +fall victims to some particular stimulant or drug, whilst they are in +absolute mastery of themselves where other seductive influences are +concerned. + +For instance, A became addicted to a certain drug habit, but although he +had taken alcohol from an early age he never became an immoderate +drinker. It was not until he came into contact with this particular drug +that his latent abnormality or weakness or whatever one chooses to call +it, became fully manifested. Again, B had lived in China, and had +continually smoked opium with the Chinese. He did so for a year without +the habit gaining any hold upon him, but the tea habit on the contrary +became his danger. Despite the fact that his health was seriously +affected by overindulgence in tea, and that according to his medical +advisers’ opinion he had, by its immoderate use, developed certain +troubles which caused him considerable suffering, he continued his +excesses in tea drinking, as others do who come under the influence of +drugs, or of alcohol, in one or all of its forms. + +When this point is reached these people are, in the words of Emerson, +“out of communication with their reason”; a subconscious tendency. +Herein lies the explanation of difficulties which they rarely surmount, +difficulties which could not remain as such if subconscious control were +supplanted by conscious guidance and control of the whole organism; for +in practical procedures in life this conscious guidance and control +connotes “bringing them once more into communication with their reason” +and supplying the “means whereby” of successful re-adjustment. + +That they were out of communication with reason is indicated by the fact +that though they knew they were seriously ill, and were told by their +doctors that in order to regain health they must abstain from certain +foods and drinks, they did not so abstain. Their continuance in +indulgence merely satisfied some inward craving which can only become a +governing factor as against human reason, when men are controlled by the +subconscious instead of by the conscious powers; for subconscious +control (instinct) is the outcome of experiences in those spheres where +the animal senses exercised the great controlling and directing +influences in the early stages of man’s evolution; whereas conscious +control (reasoned experience) through re-education, co-ordination and +re-adjustment is the result of the use of the reasoning powers in the +conduct of life, by means of which man may fight his abnormal desires +for harmful sensory experiences. + +The fact that civilised human beings will take wine or sugar or drugs, +when conscious that it is gradually undermining health and character, is +proof positive of the domination of the physical over the mental self, +exactly as in the Stone Age. + +It shows that in the case of sugar, for instance, they have become +victims to the sense of taste. In other words, the sensations produced +by the sense of taste influence and finally govern their conduct in this +connexion, whereas instead they should be governed by the faculties of +reason. They have developed vicious complexes in which perverted +physical sensations must be satisfied, even at the cost of mental and +physical injury, and often of intense pain. + +This psycho-physical state does not indicate satisfactory progress on +the evolutionary plane up to the present time, and, furthermore, it does +not give promise of greater progress in the future under this same +subconscious direction. The domination of certain perverted sensations +presents another interesting phase, inasmuch as these sensations are +very often associated with comparatively superficial complexes. + +For instance, take the case of a person who is suffering from the ill +effects of taking sugar in harmful quantities. If he happens to decide +to abstain from satisfying his taste desires in regard to sugar, and +actually abstains, for, say, a week or ten days, it often happens that +he loses the seductive pleasing sensation formerly derived from sugar, +and frequently develops a positive dislike for it. + +This also serves to reveal in the majority of people the unreliability +of the different senses, such as taste, etc. Of course, in all these +cases this unreliability is due to abnormality in one or more +directions, usually more, and this fact emphasises the absolute +necessity for the establishment of those normal conditions which demand +conscious guidance and control, for their maintenance in civilisation; +conditions which tend to eradicate and prevent abnormal cravings and +desires in any direction. + +When discussing the foregoing phenomena with friends and pupils, I am +frequently asked questions like this: “To what are we to attribute the +particular manifestations of strength or weakness in different people, +where specific abnormal sensations are concerned?” + +“Why is one person swayed unduly by some particular sensation which he +knows is ruining his health and causing daily suffering, whilst another, +equally abnormal and deluded though proof against this failing of his +fellow being, succumbs to some other type of sensory influence?” + +It is simply a matter of the psycho-physical make-up of the individual, +of his inherent tendencies, and of his general experiences of life in +different environments. All people whose kinæsthetic systems are +debauched and delusive develop some form of perversion or abnormality in +sensation. The point of real importance is to eradicate and prevent this +kinæsthetic condition in order to make impossible in the human being +such domination by sensation. + +There is another point which exercises the layman’s mind, and that is +that great suffering, in consequence of abnormal indulgence in some +direction, does not act as a deterrent. + +Of course, if these unfortunates were in communication with their reason +and were thus consciously guided and controlled, such suffering would +serve to prevent them from repeating the experience which caused it. + +To those who have studied this curious phase of mental and physical +phenomena, it would almost seem that they derived a form of satisfaction +or pleasure from such suffering; otherwise, one would conclude, they +would not continue to repeat the acts, which, in their experience, have +been followed by actual pain and discomfort. + +And surely there is nothing very unreasonable in this suggestion, seeing +that there is little doubt that _ill health_ in some people is just as +natural as _health_ is in others. + +It simply means an attempt on the part of nature to do her work where +the conditions are _abnormal_, in accordance with the same process as +where they are _normal_. + +The person enjoying the latter condition abhors suffering and pain, and +will act reasonably in order to prevent both, and it is quite consistent +with our knowledge and experience of the abnormal in the human organism +to incline to the idea that those who are afflicted with abnormal +tendencies find a perverted form of pleasure in pain. + +And all these suggestions serve to support the theory that the first +principle in all training, from the earliest years of child life, must +be on a conscious plane of co-ordination, re-education and +re-adjustment, which will establish a normal kinæsthesia. + +The abnormal condition referred to is more or less governed by the +senses through the subconsciousness and we must remember that the great +controlling forces in the animal kingdom are chiefly _physical_. It is +also in keeping with the purely animal stage of evolution, and any +advance from this stage demands that the balance of powers must +gradually move in favour of the mental. + +The controlling and guiding forces in savage four-footed animals and in +the savage black races are practically the same; and this serves to show +that from the evolutionary standpoint the mental progress of these races +has not kept pace with their physical evolution from the plane of the +savage animal to that of the savage human. + +This brings us to the crux of my contentions regarding conscious +guidance and control in its widest meaning, that is, as a universal. + +Wherever we find the domination of subconscious (instinctive) control, +it affords proof that in the lowly-evolved states of life the physical +is the great controlling force, and we are well aware that this +condition does not ensure progress to those higher planes of evolution +which should be the goal of civilised growth and development, the goal +for which mankind was undoubtedly destined. + +The inadequate relative progress of the mental evolution of the black +races as compared with that of their physical evolution, when considered +in relation to their approximation to the savage animals, cannot be +considered other than a most disappointing result. It surely does not +furnish any convincing evidence that mankind is likely to advance +adequately on the evolutionary plane in civilisation by continuing to +rely upon the original subconscious guidance and control. + + + + + VI + HABITS OF THOUGHT AND OF BODY + + “The man who has so far made up his mind about anything that he can no + longer reckon freely with that thing, is mad where that thing is + concerned.”—ALLEN UPWARD, _The New Word_. + + +When speaking of the case of stammering, cited in my last chapter, I had +occasion to note that it was not an easy task to influence X’s conscious +mind. The point is this: A patient who submits himself for treatment, +whether to a medical man or to any other practitioner, may DO what he is +told, but will not or cannot THINK as he is told. In ordinary practice +the man who has taken a medical degree disregards this mental attitude +in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. Medicine, diet, or exercise is +prescribed, and if the patient obediently follows the mechanical +directions given with regard to the prescriptions, he is considered a +good patient. The doctor does not trouble as to the patient’s attitude +of mind, except in that one case out of a hundred, possibly a case of +flagrant hypochondria. + +Indeed I am willing to maintain and prove in this connexion that a very +large percentage of cases which are now being treated in our public and +private lunatic asylums, have been allowed to develop insanity by reason +of this disregard of the mental attitude. I cannot stop now to consider +this interesting subject of insanity, but I must note in passing that +the very large percentage of the cases I have mentioned should never +have been allowed to arrive at the condition which made it necessary to +send them to an asylum in the first instance. Very many of them, so far +from lacking mental control, possess minds of quite exceptional ability. +Some are instances of subjects who in the first place have assumed a +deliberate attitude to subserve a private end, such as the avoidance of +uncongenial work, or the overindulgence of some desire or perverted +sense, the result being that the attitude which was first adopted +deliberately, became afterwards a fixed habit, and so uncontrollable. + +When therefore we are seeking to give a patient conscious control, _the +consideration of mental attitude must precede the performance of the act +prescribed_. The act performed is of less consequence than the manner of +its performance. It is nevertheless a remarkable fact that although the +patient or enquirer into the system may apprehend this truth, he often +finds an enormous difficulty in altering some trifling habit of thought +which stands between him and the benefit he clearly expects. And the +simple explanation of this apparently strange enigma is that the +majority of people fall into a mechanical habit of thought quite as +easily as they fall into the mechanical habit of body which is the +immediate consequence. + +I will take an instance from a subject outside my own province in order +to bring the matter home, but I will preface my illustration by pointing +out that I personally am not in the least concerned to alter the habit +of thought of either of the persons I bring forward as examples, and I +only cite well-known political propaganda in order to give vividness to +my picture. + +Let us suppose then that A is a convinced Freetrader, and that Z is no +less certain of the glorious possibilities of Protection, and let us set +A and Z to argue the matter. We notice at once that when A is speaking +Z’s endeavours are confined to catching him in a misstatement or in a +fault of logic, and A’s attitude is precisely the same when Z holds the +stage. Neither partisan has the least intention from the outset of +altering his creed, nor could either be convinced by the facts and +arguments of the other, however sound. This is a fact within the +experience of every intelligent person. The disputants have so +influenced their own minds that they are incapable of receiving certain +impressions; a part of their intelligence normally susceptible of +receiving new ideas, even if such ideas are opposed to earlier +conceptions, is in a state of anæsthesia; it is shut off, put out of +action. The habit of mind which has been formed mechanically translates +all the arguments of an opponent into misconceptions or fallacies. +Neither disputant in our illustration has the least intention or desire +to approach the subject with an open mind. Unfortunately, the rigid +habit of mind does not only apply to political issues; it is evidenced +in all the thoughts and acts of our daily life, and is the cause of many +demonstrable evils. + +And touching this question of mental rigidity, I may cite a very +valuable criticism from Mr. William Archer, the well-known London +dramatic critic, on the primary point of the “Desirability of the Open +Mind.” This criticism was published in _The Morning Leader_ for 17th +December, 1910. I replied in the same paper, and my answer was published +on 23rd December, 1910. + +As this brief discussion illustrates very clearly the misconception +which most easily arises with regard to this question, I now reprint +these two letters, precisely as they originally appeared. + + + THE OPEN MIND + + _By William Archer_ + +“In the fifth chapter of an able and interesting book by Mr. F. Matthias +Alexander, entitled _Man’s Supreme Inheritance_ (Methuen), there occurs +a passage which I propose to take as the text of this week’s discourse. +Treating of ‘mechanical habits of thought,’ Mr. Alexander says: + + + “‘Let us suppose that A is a convinced Free Trader, and that Z is no + less certain of the glorious possibilities of Protection, and let us + set A and Z to argue the matter. We notice at once that when A is + speaking, Z’s endeavours are confined to catching him in a + misstatement or in a fault of logic, and A’s attitude is precisely the + same when Z holds the stage. Neither partisan has the least intention + from the outset of altering his creed, nor could either be convinced + by the facts and arguments of the other, however sound.... The habit + of mind which has been formed mechanically translates all the + arguments of an opponent into misconceptions or fallacies. Neither + disputant has the least desire to approach the subject with an open + mind. Unfortunately this rigid habit of mind does not only apply to + the issues of government; it is evidenced in all the thoughts and acts + of our daily life, and is the cause of many demonstrable evils.’ + + +“Very often, of course, the fact is as Mr. Alexander states it; but can +we, I wonder, accept the ideal of the ‘open mind’ implied in his +illustration? Is not a certain stability of conviction absolutely +necessary to the efficient conduct of the business of life? And are we +not almost as apt to err on the side of impressionability as on the side +of rigidity? I seem to remember a warning in Scripture against being +‘blown about by every wind of doctrine.’ + +“If we reflect for a moment, I think we shall see that the amount of +open-mindedness which reason demands must vary according to the nature +of the question at issue. On a question of fact, which is capable of +absolute demonstration, it is, of course, folly to let prejudice or bias +prevent us from perceiving the truth. But it is not on such questions +that disputes commonly arise. Theology, I fancy, is, in the modern +world, almost the only influence that frequently leads people to close +their minds against demonstrable facts or overwhelming probabilities. +But of the most important questions in life, many are not questions of +fact at all, while as to others, the evidence is so complex or so +inaccessible that demonstration is not, as the saying goes, humanly +possible. It is proverbially futile to argue on questions of taste; for +enjoyment consists in a relation of the perceiver to the thing perceived +which cannot be produced by force of reason or of reasoning. No doubt, +in going to ‘Salome’ or to the Post-Impressionist Exhibition, we ought +to take with us an open mind; that is to say, we ought not to go in a +wilfully Philistine or frivolous mood. And in discussing them +afterwards, we ought to preserve an open mind, in so far that we ought +not to make a law of our own limitations, and accuse of folly or +insincerity those people who see more in post-Wagnerism and +post-Manetism than (perhaps) we do. Yet even here open-mindedness may be +carried to excess; for undoubtedly there exists a great deal of +affectation and charlatanism in matters of art, and it would be weak +credulity to take every Maudle and Postlewaite at his own valuation. ‘A +popgun remains a popgun,’ says Emerson, ‘though the ancient and +honourable of this world affirm it to be the crack of doom’; and there +are innumerable questions of quality and value on which no one who has +any mind at all can possibly keep his mind open. + +“Let us turn now to political questions of the order suggested by Mr. +Alexander’s illustration. They are not, as a rule, questions of +ascertainable fact, but of speculation or conjecture as to the probable +results of a given course of action. They are generally very complex +questions; the present issue between the two Houses of Parliament is +almost unique in its simplicity. And not only is each question complex +in itself; it is inextricably interwoven with other questions of similar +complexity. Can we reasonably expect or desire, then, that either A or +Z, in a single discussion of such a topic and Tariff Reform, should have +his whole system of thought revolutionised? When such a conversion +occurs (and I suppose it does sometimes occur) ought we to praise the +convert’s open mind? Ought we not rather to pity his shallow mind, in +which the new conviction can scarcely be deeper rooted than the old? A +man’s political opinions, I take it, if they have any substance and +consistency, are, and ought to be, a sort of mosaic set in a cement of +fundamental principle. You may alter the pattern by laborious picking +and rearranging but not by a mere push at a single point. Does it follow +from this that political discussion is an idle waste of time? Not at +all. It forces us to rethink our thoughts, and to keep them consciously +and clearly related to fundamental principles. Also it sifts our +arguments; in looking out for our opponent’s fallacies we not +infrequently become aware of our own. Furthermore, a discussion may form +part of the long course of thought, or evolution of feeling, whereby a +really valid conversion may be ultimately brought about. Though we may +think ourselves wholly unmoved by our opponent’s reasoning, a +subconscious effect may remain, and may in due time manifest itself. +Without our realising it, one or two cubes in our mental mosaic may, in +fact, have been loosened. A greater result than this, from any single +discussion of a complex political question, is scarcely, I think, to be +desired. No doubt it is highly desirable that we should at one time or +another have brought a perfectly open mind to the study of such a +question as Tariff Reform; and this many of us have done. For my own +part, I can honestly say that when Mr. Chamberlain first threw the apple +of discord into our midst, I so clearly realised the merely traditional +and unreasoned character of my Free Trade ideas, that I was biassed, if +anything, against them, and fully prepared to find them fallacious. The +fact that I have not done so may be due to insufficient or unintelligent +study, but certainly not to any initial lack of openness of mind. + +“Finally, I would note another limitation to the ideal of the open mind. +There are certain questions on which we cannot safely keep our minds +open, because we know that that way madness lies. I once spent a whole +day at Concord, Mass., arguing with a friend who had become a convert to +astrology, and was bent on drawing my horoscope. To that I had no +objection; but I cannot pretend that my mind was for a moment open to +his arguments. Somewhat more difficult is the case of the +Bacon-Shakespeare theory: ought we to keep an open mind on that? I am +inclined to answer, ‘No’; for if we once lose grip of the fact that the +whole thing is an insanity, we are in danger of being submerged in a +swirling torrent of ‘_folie lucide_.’ The origin and psychological +conditions of the illusion are perfectly plain. It is, indeed, one of +the oddest and most instructive incidents in the history of the human +error, and in that sense worthy of study. Poor Bacon has been forced, by +no fault of his own, into the position of the Tichborne Claimant of +literature, and one cannot but wonder what he would think of the +Onslows, Whalleys, and Kenealys, who are pleading what they believe to +be his cause. But a really ‘open mind’ on the question is, I conceive, a +symptom of an exorbitant love of the marvellous and an imperfect hold +upon the reality of things. There are subjects on which no mind can +remain open without in some degree losing its balance.” + + + THE OPEN MIND + + _To the Editor of the “Morning Leader”_ + +“Sir—Although Mr. William Archer has rather misapprehended my point of +view in his very interesting article, I would not intrude a reply upon +you did I not believe that this question is one that lies at the root of +so many physical evils, and that it is a question, therefore, which must +not be hastily put on one side—as, no doubt, many of your readers will +be inclined to put it after their perusal of Mr. Archer’s temperate and, +apparently, logical reasoning. I say ‘apparently,’ because, though his +syllogism is sound enough, it is based on a faulty premise due to his +misapprehension of my statement; doubtless, I am to blame for not having +made myself fully comprehensible. + +“In the first place, let me admit at once that the whole question is +relative. Mr. Archer’s implied example of the man ‘blown about by every +wind of doctrine,’ is an example, from my point of view, of rigidity +rather than plasticity, inasmuch as he is necessarily a hysterical +neurotic, and is almost entirely dependent on his subconscious +processes. Now, it is these very subconscious processes which restrict +the use of the conscious, reasoning centres; which form what we call +habits of mind, that, becoming fixed, are almost beyond the control of +reason; which, in extreme cases, take possession of what was once the +intelligence, and are manifested as the _idée fixe_, the obsession, the +monomaniacal tendency. + +“But, disregarding these extremes, let me take an example from ordinary +life, and, perhaps, no better one could be offered than Mr. Archer’s own +of the Bacon-Shakespeare controversy, a subject, among others, which Mr. +Archer suggests is sufficient to upset our reason, should we attempt to +maintain an open mind with regard to it. + +“As a matter of fact, what he conceives as an open mind here is a mind +with an inclination to be perverted (or converted) by specious +reasoning. The right attitude of the open mind in this case is, ‘I have +weighed the arguments in favour of Bacon’s authorship and have found +them insufficient, and until such a time as new and better evidence is +forthcoming, I shall continue to hold the view I have always held.’ + +“The rigid attitude which I condemn in this connexion is the one that +says, ‘You will never alter my opinion, whatever fresh evidence you may +adduce.’ In the first example we can come to a conclusion on the +evidence; the conscious reason has been exercised and remains in +command. It is not until the attitude becomes subconscious and fixed +that any danger arises. When that comes about, the man who has decided +for Shakespeare’s authorship would remain unconvinced in face of any +discovery of new evidence. Yet can any one doubt, any one who cares to +walk through the world with open eyes as well as an open mind, that the +vast majority of opinions given out by the average man and woman have +become subconscious habits of thought? + +“My professional experience has shown me how great an obstacle to the +recovery of physical soundness this impeding habit of thought has +become. The whole purpose of my book (_Man’s Supreme Inheritance_), from +which Mr. Archer quotes, is to submit that the course of evolution had +tended in the direction of our obtaining conscious control of our own +bodies, and argues that this is the only means by which we can rise +above the artificial restrictions, often physically poisonous, imposed +by civilisation. And I assure you, sir, that this ideal of conscious +control is absolutely unrealisable by any person who is guided and +restrained by these subconscious habits of thought, and who is, in +consequence, quite unable to exercise the free use of his intelligence. + +“So what I intend by the open mind, and in this, I think, Mr. Archer has +not fully understood me, is the just use and exercise of conscious +reason, a use which is the rare exception to a very delimiting rule. + + Yours, etc., + “F. MATTHIAS ALEXANDER.” + +To this letter Mr. Archer did not reply, but this brief correspondence +covers very fairly, in my opinion, a statement of the popular objection +to the “open mind,” and my answer to that objection. + +Returning now to my own province of therapeutics, I need hardly give any +special instance to carry my point. Of late years much attention has +been given to the consideration of mental attitude in relation to +disease, and although no clearly defined remedy has been advanced, the +condition has been diagnosed and defined. The “fixed idea,” +hallucination, obsession, are all terms used deliberately to denote a +morbid condition, but we have to apply these terms much more widely and +grasp the fact that they are applicable to small, disregarded mental +habits as well as to the well-defined evils which marked their +development. In the case of X, the mental habit which had grown up as +the result of postulating, “I can’t draw my lip up before speaking,” was +only another aspect of the attitude of A and Z towards the subject of +their discussion, and it was precisely similar in kind. The aggregate of +these habits is so characteristic in some cases that we see how easily +the fallacy arose of assuming an entity for the subconscious self, a +self which at the last analysis is made up of these acquired habits and +of certain other habits, some of them labelled instincts, the +predisposition to which is our birthright, a predisposition inherited +from that long chain of ancestors whose origin goes back to the first +dim emergence of active life. Fortunately for us there is not a single +one of these habits of mind, with their resultant habits of body, which +may not be altered by the inculcation of those principles concerning the +true poise of the body which I have called the principles of mechanical +advantage,[13] used in co-operation with an understanding of the +inhibitory and volitional powers of the objective mind, by which means +these deterrent habits can be raised to conscious control. The false +pose and carriage of the body, the incorrect and laboured habits of +breathing that are the cause of many troubles besides the obvious ill +effects on the lungs and heart, the degeneration of the muscular system, +the partial failure of many vital organs, the morbid fatty conditions +that destroy the semblance of men and women to human beings,—all these +things and many more that combine to cause debility, disease, and death, +are the result of incorrect habits of mind and body, all of which may be +changed into correct and beneficial habits if once we can clear away +that first impeding habit of thought which stands between us and +conscious control. + +I believe I have at last laid myself quite open to the attack of the +habitual objector, a person I am really anxious to conciliate. I have +given him the opportunity of pointing a finger at my last paragraph and +saying, “But you only want to change one habit for another! If, as you +have implied, the habit of mind is bad, why encourage habits at all, +even if they are as you say, ‘correct and beneficial’?” + +Now this is a point of the first importance. But in the first place it +is essential to understand the difference between the habit that is +recognised and understood and the habit that is not. The difference in +its application to the present case is that the first can be altered at +will and the second cannot. For when real conscious control has been +obtained a “habit” need never become fixed. It is not truly a habit at +all, but an order or series of orders given to the subordinate controls +of the body, which orders will be carried out until countermanded. + +It will be understood, therefore, that the word “habit” as generally +understood, does not apply to the new discipline which it is my aim to +establish in the ordinary subconscious realms of our being. The reasons +for this are two: + + + (1) The conscious, intelligently realised, guiding orders are such as + may be continued for all time, becoming more effective year by year + until they are established as the real and fundamental guidance and + control necessary to that which we understand by the words growth and + evolution. + + (2) The stimuli to apprehension, or excitement of the fear reflexes, + are eliminated by a procedure which teaches the pupil to take no + thought of whether what he calls “practice,” is _right or wrong_. + + +This second statement, however, requires further elucidation; and I feel +that a lay description by a pupil of mine may present the case more +clearly to the untrained reader than any technical account. The excerpt +is from a letter written by the Rev. W. Pennyman, M.A. + + + “One great feature of Mr. Alexander’s system as seen in practical use + is that the individual loses every suggestion of _strain_. He becomes + perfectly ‘lissom’ in body; all strains and tensions disappear, and + his body works like an oiled machine. Moreover, his system has a + reflex result upon the mind of the patient, and a general condition of + buoyancy and freedom, and indeed of gaiety of spirit takes the place + of the old jaded mental position. It is the pouring in of new wine, + but the bottles must also be new or they will burst, and this is + exactly what Mr. Alexander’s treatment does. It creates the new + bottles, and then the new wine can be poured in, freely and fully.” + + +This quotation, however, describes a result, and the means to its +achievement can only be attained under certain conditions. There must +be, in the first place, a clear realisation by the pupil that he suffers +from a defect or defects needing eradication. In the second place, the +teacher must make a lucid diagnosis of such defects and decide upon the +means of dealing with them. In the third place there must be a +satisfactory understanding between teacher and pupil of the present +conditions and the means proposed to remedy them. + +These three preparatory realisations indicate the real psycho-physical +significance of the pupil’s mental position. He begins by a definite +admission that the subconscious factors by which his psycho-physical +organism is being guided are limited and unreliable. He acknowledges in +fact that he suffers from mental delusions regarding his physical acts +and that his sensory appreciation, or kinæsthesis, is defective and +misleading; in other words, he realises that his sense register of the +amount of muscular tension needed to accomplish even a simple act of +everyday life is faulty and harmful, and his mental conception of such +conditions as relaxation and concentration, impossible in practical +application. + +For there can be no doubt that man on the subconscious plane, now relies +too much upon a debauched sense of feeling or of sense appreciation for +the guidance of his psycho-physical mechanism, and that he is gradually +becoming more and more overbalanced emotionally with very harmful and +far-reaching results. + +The results indeed are all too obvious, and yet it must be presumed that +the individual has endeavoured to do the _right_ and not the _wrong_ +thing. Does any one set out to catch a train relying upon a watch which +as he knows perfectly well is unreliable? Would any sane person place +dependence on the reading of a thermometer that he knows to be +defective? No, we must admit not only that there is a failure to +register accurately in the sensory appreciation, but also that the fault +is unrecorded in the conscious mind. And it is for this reason that the +pupil must be given a new and correct guiding and controlling centre, +before being asked to perform even the simplest acts in accordance with +his own idea and judgment. + +Some understanding of these slightly technical and practical details is +necessary in order to form a clear idea of what is meant by the simple +word “habit,” which was the origin of this discussion; but I shall +return to a fuller analysis of method in this relation in Part II of +this work. What I wish to emphasise in this place is that the evil, +disturbing habit which it is necessary to eradicate is in the ordinary +experience both permanent and unrecognised. It may in some cases have +been originally incurred above the plane of reason, but this form of +habit is invariably perpetuated in the subconsciousness. On the other +hand, the mode of functioning which is substituted, but which may +nevertheless be spoken of quite correctly by the same term of “habit,” +is as subject to control as the routine of a well-organised office. +Certain rules are established for the ordinary conduct of business, but +the controller of that business must be at liberty to break the rules or +to modify them at his discretion. The man who allows an office to take +precedence of any other consideration—and I have known instances of such +a morbid concession to traditional procedure in business houses—is +surely and steadily on the way to commercial failure. + +I will now take an illustration of the principle from my own practice. +Suppose a patient comes to me who has acquired incorrect respiratory +habits, and suppose he is plastic and ready to assimilate new methods, +and that after receiving the new guiding orders from me, he soon learns +consciously to make a proper use of the muscular mechanism which governs +the movements of the breathing apparatus, a word that fitly describes +this particular mechanism of the body. Now it would be absurd to suppose +that thereafter this person should in his waking moments deliberately +apprehend each separate working of his lungs, any more than we should +expect the busy manager of affairs constantly to supervise the routine +of his well-ordered staff. He has acquired conscious control of that +working, it is true, but once that control has been mastered, the actual +movements that follow are given in charge of the “subconscious self” +although always on the understanding that a counter order may be given +at any moment if necessary. Until, however, such counter order is given, +if ever it need be given, the working of the lungs is for all intents +and purposes subconscious, though it may be elevated to the level of the +conscious at any moment. Thus it will be seen that the difference +between the new habit and the old is that the old was our master and +ruled us, whilst the new is our servant ready to carry out our lightest +wish without question, though always working quietly and unobtrusively +on our behalf in accordance with the most recent orders given. + +Briefly, as I see it, the subconsciousness in this application is only a +synonym for that rigid routine we finally refer to as habit, this rigid +routine being the stumbling-block to rapid adaptability, to the +assimilation of new ideas, to originality. On the other hand, the +consciousness is the synonym for mobility of mind, that mobility which +the subconscious control checks and impedes, mobility which will obtain +for us physical regeneration and a mental outlook that will make +possible for us a new and wider enjoyment of those powers which we all +possess, but which are so often deliberately stunted or neglected. + +Consider this point also in its application to the case of John Doe, +cited in my second chapter. If the mental attitude of that individual +had been changed, and he had learned to use his muscles consciously; if, +instead of automatically performing a set of muscle-tensing exercises, +he had devoted himself to apprehending the control and co-ordination of +his muscles, he could have carried his knowledge into every act of his +life. In his most sedentary occupations he could have been using and +exercising his muscular system without resort to any violent +contortions, waving of the arms or kicking of the legs, and I cannot but +think that he could better have employed the hours spent in this manner +by taking a walk in the open air or by occupying himself with some other +form of natural exercise. Still, if in his case certain mild forms of +exercise at certain times were necessary, such exercises should have +employed his mental and physical powers, and through these agencies he +should have used his muscular mechanism in such a way that its uses +could have been applied to the simplest acts, such as sitting on a stool +and writing at a desk. There would then have been no question of what we +have termed “civil war” within his body; the whole physical machinery +would have been co-ordinated and adapted to his way of life. + +In an earlier paragraph I pointed out that John Doe was suffering from +certain mental and physical delusions, and I endeavoured to show how +these delusions militated against his recovery of health. Returning to +this point now that the correct method has been indicated, I may use his +case to give another example of this method. What John Doe lacked was a +conscious and proper recognition of the right uses of the parts of his +muscular mechanism, since while he still uses such parts wrongly, the +performance of physical exercises will only increase the defects. He +will, in fact, merely copy some other person in the performance of a +particular exercise, copy him in the outward act, while his own +consciousness of the act performed and the means and uses of his +muscular mechanism will remain unaltered. Therefore before he attempts +any form of physical development, he must discover, or find some one who +can discover for him, what his defects are in the uses indicated. When +this has been done he must proceed to inhibit the guiding sensations +which cause him to use the mechanism imperfectly; he must apprehend the +position of mechanical advantage, and then by using the new correct +guiding sensations or orders, he will be able to bring about the proper +use of his muscular mechanism with perfect ease. If the mechanical +principle employed is a correct one, every movement will be made with a +minimum of effort, and he will not be conscious of the slightest +tension. In time a recognition will follow of the new and correct use of +the mechanism, which use will then become provisionally established and +be employed in the acts of everyday life. + +For instance, if we decide that a defect must be got rid of or a mode of +action changed, and if we proceed in the ordinary way to eradicate it by +any direct means, we shall fail invariably, and with reason. For when +defects in the poise of the body, in the use of the muscular mechanisms, +and in the equilibrium are present in the human being, the condition +thus evidenced is the result of an _undue rigidity_ of parts of the +muscular mechanisms associated with _undue flaccidity_ of others. This +undue rigidity is always found in those parts of the muscular mechanisms +which are forced to perform duties other than those intended by nature, +and are consequently ill-adapted for their function. + +As Herbert Spencer writes: + + + “Each faculty acquires fitness for its function by performing its + function; and if its function is performed for it by a substituted + agency, none of the required adjustment of nature takes place, but the + nature becomes deformed to fit the artificial arrangements instead of + the natural arrangements.” + + +Unfortunately, all conscious effort exerted in attempts at physical +action causes in the great majority of the people of to-day such tension +of the muscular system concerned as to lead to exaggeration rather than +eradication of the defects already present. Therefore it is essential at +the outset of re-education to bring about the relaxation of the unduly +rigid parts of the muscular mechanisms in order to secure the correct +use of the inadequately employed and wrongly co-ordinated parts. + +Let us take for example the case of a man who habitually stiffens his +neck in walking, sitting, or other ordinary acts of life. This is a sign +that he is endeavouring to do with the muscles of his neck the work +which should be performed by certain other muscles of his body, notably +those of the back. Now if he is told to relax those stiffened muscles of +the neck and obeys the order, this mere act of relaxation deals only +with an effect and does not quicken his consciousness of the use of the +right mechanism which he should use in place of those relaxed. The +desire to stiffen the neck muscles should be inhibited as a preliminary +(which is not the same thing at all as a direct order to relax the +muscles themselves), and then the true uses of the muscular mechanism, +i.e., the means of placing the body in a position of mechanical +advantage, must be studied, when the work will naturally devolve on +those muscles intended to carry it out, and the neck will be relaxed +unconsciously. In this case the conscious orders, by which I mean the +orders given to the right muscles, are preventive orders, and the due +sequence of cause and effect is maintained. + +I will, here, only note one more point in concluding my reference to the +hypothetical John Doe, who, nevertheless, stands as the representative +of a very large body of people. This point is the question of the +storing and reserving of energy, and, to use a phrase which has a +mechanical equivalent, the registration of tension. If you ask a man to +lift a _papier-mâché_ imitation of an enormous dumb-bell, leading him to +believe that it is almost beyond his capacity to raise it from the +floor, he will exert his full power in the effort to do that which he +could perform with the greatest ease. In a lesser degree the same +expenditure of unnecessary force is exerted by the vast majority of +“physical culture” students, and by practically every person in the +ordinary duties of daily life. The kinæsthetic system has not been +taught to register correctly the tension or, in other words, to gauge +accurately the amount of muscular effort required to perform certain +acts, the expenditure of effort always being in excess of what is +required, an excellent instance of the lack of harmony in the untutored +organism. This fact may be easily tested by any interested person who +will take the trouble to try its application. Ask a friend to lift a +chair or any other object of such weight that, while it may be lifted +without great difficulty, will in the process make an undoubted call on +the muscular energies. You will see at once that your friend will +approach the task with a definite preconception as to the amount of +physical tension necessary. His mind is exclusively occupied with the +question of his own muscular effort, instead of with the purpose in +front of him and the best means to undertake it. Before he has even +approached it, he will brace or tense the muscles of his arms, back, +neck, etc., and when about to perform the act he will place himself in a +position which is actually one of mechanical disadvantage as far as he +is concerned. Not only are all these preparations of course quite +unnecessary, but the whole attitude of mind towards the task is wrong. +In such instances as this, any preconception as to the degree of tension +required is out of place. If we desire to lift a weight with the least +possible waste of energy, we should approach it and grasp it with +relaxed muscles, assuming the position of greatest possible mechanical +advantage, and then gradually exert our muscular energies until +sufficient power is attained to overcome the resistance. + +Returning now to the consideration of that bias or predisposing habit of +mind which so often balks us at the outset, we may see at once that this +predisposition takes many curious forms. Sometimes, it is frankly +objective, and is outlined in the statement, “Well, I don’t believe in +all this, but I may as well try it.” In this form a single unlooked-for +result is generally enough to change disbelief into credulity. I write +the word “credulity” with intention, for I mean to imply that the +reaction in a certain type of mind is little, if any, better than the +profession of disbelief. What is required is not prejudice in either +direction, but a calm, clear, open-eyed intelligence, a ready, adaptive +outlook, an outlook, believe me, which does not connote indefiniteness +of purpose or uncertainty of initiative. + +Another form of predisposition arises from lack of purpose, and the +mental habits that go with this condition are hard to eradicate, more +particularly when the original feebleness has led to some form of +hypochondria or nervous disease which has been treated with the usual +disregard of the radical evil. It is not difficult for the most +superficial enquirer to understand that in treating cases like these any +method which relieves the subject still further of the exercise of +initiative—such a method as the rest cure, for instance, though I could +quote many others—only increases the original evil. The lack of purpose +is pandered to and cultivated, and after the six weeks or so of +treatment, the patient returns to his or her duties in ordinary life, +even more unfitted than before to perform them. As I have said before, +no account is taken of the instinct for self-preservation or the will to +live. This is the very mainspring of human life, yet in the routine of +our protected civilisation even its power tends at times to become +relaxed, and the machinery runs down. The machinery should then be wound +up again, instead of being allowed to become still further relaxed by +resting. This lack of purpose, the immediate effect of our educational +methods, is unhappily very common in all classes, but especially among +those who have no occupation, or those whose employment is a mechanical +routine which does not exercise the powers of initiative. The curious +thing about this very large class is that they do not really want to be +cured. They may be suffering from many physical disabilities or from +actual physical pain, and they may and will protest most earnestly that +they want to be free from their pains and disabilities, but in face of +the evidence we must admit that if the objective wish is really there, +it is so feeble as to be non-existent for all practical purposes. In +many cases this attitude of submission to illness is the outcome of a +strong subjective habit. The trouble, whatever it is, is endured in the +first instance; it is looked upon as a nuisance, perhaps, but not as an +intolerable nuisance; no steps are taken to get rid of it, and the +trouble grows until, by degrees, it is looked upon as a necessity. Then +at last, when the trouble has increased until it threatens the +interruption of all ordinary occupations, the sufferer seeks a remedy. +But the habit of submission has grown too strong, and as long as the +disease can be kept within certain bounds, no effort is made to fight +it. This is of course one of the commonest experiences in the healing +profession. A patient is treated and benefited and seems on the high +road to perfect health. Then follows a relapse. The first question put +is, “Have you been following the treatment?” and the answer, if the +patient is truthful, is “I forgot,” or “I didn’t bother any more about +it.” In a recent experience of a medical friend of mine, a patient +confessed to having stayed in the house for a week after a certain +relapse occurred, although the very essence of the prescription by which +he had previously benefited was to be in the fresh air as much as +possible. This simply means that the subjective habit of submission has +grown so strong that the objective mind, weakened in its turn by the +neglect of its guiding functions, is unable to conquer it. No +prescription or course of treatment can have any effect upon such a +patient as this, unless the subjective habit can be brought within the +sphere of conscious control. In other cases this apparent lack of desire +for health is due to an attachment to some dearly loved habit, which +must be given up if the proper functions of the body are to be resumed. +It may be a habit of petty self-indulgence or one that is imminently +threatening the collapse of the vital processes, but the attachment to +it is so strong that the enfeebled objective mind prefers to hold to the +habit and risk death sooner than make the effort of opposing it. Even in +cases where no harm can be traced directly to a markedly influencing +habit, the general all-pervading habit of lassitude or inertia is so +strong that any régime which may be prescribed is distasteful if it +involves, as it must, the exercise of those powers which have been +allowed to fall more or less into disuse. + +Space will not permit of my giving further instances of the predisposing +habit, but very little introspection on the part of my readers should +enable them to diagnose their own peculiar mental habits, the first step +towards being rid of them. We must always remember that the vast +majority of human beings live very narrow lives, doing the same thing +and thinking the same thoughts day by day, and it is this very fact that +makes it so necessary that we should acquire conscious control of the +mental and physical powers as a whole, for we otherwise run the risk of +losing that versatility which is such an essential factor in their +development. + +If, at this point, the reader feels inclined to analyse these habits and +to set about a control of them, I will give him one word of preliminary +advice, “Beware of so-called concentration.” + +This advice is so pertinent to the whole principle that it is worth +while to elaborate it. Ask any one you know to concentrate his mind on a +subject—anything will do—a place, a person, or a thing. If your friend +is willing to play the game and earnestly endeavours to concentrate his +mind, he will probably knit his forehead, tense his muscles, clench his +hands, and either close his eyes or stare fixedly at some point in the +room. As a result his mind is very fully occupied with this unusual +condition of the body which can only be maintained by repeated orders +from the objective mind. In short, your friend, though he may not know +it, is not using his mind for the consideration of the subject you have +given him to concentrate upon, but for the consideration of an unusual +bodily condition which he calls “concentration.” This is true also of +the attitude of _attention_ required for children in schools; it +dissociates the brain instead of compacting it. Personally, I do not +believe in any concentration that calls for effort. It is the wish, the +conscious desire to do a thing or think a thing, which results in +adequate performance. Could Spencer have written his _First Principles_, +or Darwin his _Descent of Man_, if either had been forced to any rigid +narrowing effort in order to keep his mind on the subject in hand? I do +not deny that some work can be done under conditions which necessitate +such an artificially arduous effort, but I do deny that it is ever the +best work. Nor will I admit that such a case as that of Sir Walter Scott +can logically be argued against this view. For the real earnest wish to +write the Waverley novels was there, even if it originated in the desire +to pay the debts he took upon himself, and not in the desire to write +the novels because he took a pleasure in the actual performance. +Briefly, our application of the word “concentration” denotes a conflict +which is a morbid condition and a form of illness; singleness of purpose +is quite another thing. If you try to straighten your arm and bend it at +the same moment, you may exercise considerable muscular effort, but you +will achieve no result, and the analogy applies to the endeavour to +delimit the powers of the brain by concentration, and at the same time +to exercise them to the full extent. The endeavour represents the +conflict of the two postulates “I must” and “I can’t”; the fight +continues indefinitely, with a constant waste of misapplied effort. Once +eradicate the mental habit of thinking that this effort is necessary, +once postulate and apprehend the meaning of “I wish” instead of those +former contradictions, and what was difficult will become easy, and +pleasure will be substituted for pain. We must cultivate, in brief, the +deliberate habit of taking up every occupation with the whole mind, with +a living desire to carry each action through to a successful +accomplishment, a desire which necessitates bringing into play every +faculty of the attention. By use this power develops, and it soon +becomes as simple to alter a morbid taste which may have been a lifelong +tendency as to alter the smallest of recently acquired bad habits. + +The following is an interesting experience with a pupil who was strongly +inclined to a belief in the value and power of concentration. This pupil +contested vigorously my attacks on the object of her faith, as practised +in accordance with the orthodox conception. She put forward the usual +arguments, of course, and I quite failed to make any impression on her +mental attitude towards the vexed question under discussion. But at +last, some days after our first encounter, my opportunity came. We were +not at the time directly discussing concentration, but we were dealing +with kindred subjects, and presently my pupil began to speak of the +attitudes adopted by people towards the things in life that they like or +dislike to do. Her own plan, she said, with a touch of pride, had been +to develop the habit of keeping her mind on other and more pleasant +subjects whenever she had been engaged in a task that was unsympathetic +to her, and she had so far succeeded in the cultivation of this habit +that the disagreeable sensations of any unpleasant duty were no longer +experienced by her. I then put one or two questions to her and +elucidated among other facts that for years she had been unable “to +concentrate” when reading and that this difficulty was becoming +constantly more pronounced. Fortunately this instance opened those +locked places of her intelligence that I had been unable to reach by +argument. I showed her how she had been cultivating a most harmful +mental condition, which made concentration on those duties of life which +pleased her appear as a necessity. She had been constructing a secret +chamber in her mind, as harmful to her general well-being as an +undiagnosed tumour might have been to her physical welfare. I am glad to +say that she came to admit the truth of my original position and has +since begun her efforts to carry out the suggestions I offered for the +correction of her bad habit. + +And in all such efforts to apprehend and control mental habits, the +first and only real difficulty is to overcome the preliminary inertia of +mind in order to combat the subjective habit. The brain becomes used to +thinking in a certain way, it works in a groove, and when set in action, +slides along the familiar, well-worn path; but when once it is lifted +out of the groove, it is astonishing how easily it may be directed. At +first it will have a tendency to return to its old manner of working by +means of one mechanical unintelligent operation, but the groove soon +fills, and although thereafter we may be able to use the old path if we +choose, we are no longer bound to it. + +In concluding this brief note on mental habits I turn my attention +particularly to the many who say, “I am quite content as I am.” To them +I say, firstly, if you are content to be the slave of habits instead of +master of your own mind and body, you can never have realised the +wonderful inheritance which is yours by right of the fact that you were +born a reasoning, intelligent man or woman. But, I say, secondly, and +this is of importance to the larger world and is not confined to your +intimate circle, “What of the children?” Are you content to rob them of +their inheritance, as perhaps you were robbed of yours by your parents? +Are you willing to send them out into the world ill-equipped, dependent +on precepts and incipient habits, unable to control their own desires, +and already well on the way to physical degeneration? Happily, I believe +that the means of stirring the inert is being provided. The question of +Eugenics, or the science of race culture, is being debated by earnest +men and women, and the whole problem of contemporary physical +degeneration is one which looms ever larger in the public mind. It is +the problem which has exercised me for many years, and which is mainly +responsible for the issue of this book, and in my next chapter I shall +treat it in connection with the theory of progressive conscious control +which I have outlined in the foregoing pages. + + + + + VII + RACE CULTURE AND THE TRAINING OF THE CHILDREN + + “In what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what + way to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what + way to behave as a citizen; in what way to utilise those sources of + happiness which nature supplies,—how to use all our faculties to the + greatest advantage; how to live completely? And this being the great + thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing + which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the + function which education has to discharge.”—HERBERT SPENCER, + _Education_. + + +Every child is born into the world with a predisposition to certain +habits, and furthermore, the child of to-day is not born with the same +development of instinct that was the congenital heritage of its +ancestors a hundred or even fifty years ago. Many modern children, for +example, are born with recognisable physical disadvantages that are the +direct result of the gradually deteriorating respiratory and vital +functioning of their forbears. + +For many months, the period varying with the sex and ability of the +individual, the vital processes and movements are for all practical +purposes independent of any conscious control, and the human infant +remains in this helpless, dependent condition much longer than any other +animal. The habits which the child evidences during this protracted +period are those hereditary predispositions which are early developed by +circumstance and environment, habits of muscular uses, of vital +functioning, and of adaptability. If it were possible to analyse the +tendencies of a child when it is, say, twelve months old, we could soon +master the science of heredity which is at present so tentative and +uncertain in its deductions, but the child’s potentialities lie hidden +in the mysterious groupings and arrangement of its cells and tissues, +hidden beyond the reach of any analysis. The child is our material; +within certain wide limits we may mould it to the shape we desire. But +even at birth it is differentiated from other children; our limits may +be wide but they are fixed. Within those limits, however, our capacity +for good and evil is very great. + +There are two methods by which a child learns. The first and, in earlier +years, the predominant method is by imitation, the second is by precept +or directly administered instruction, positive or negative. + +With regard to the first method, parents of every class will admit the +fact not only that children imitate those who are with them during those +early plastic years, but that the child’s first efforts to adapt itself +to the conditions surrounding it are based almost exclusively on +imitation. For despite the many thousand years during which some form of +civilisation has been in existence, no child has yet been born into the +world with hereditary instincts tending to fit it for any particular +society. Its language and manners, for instance, are modelled entirely +on the speech and habits of those who have charge of it. The child +descended from a hundred kings will speak the language and adopt the +manners of the East End should it be reared among these associations; +and the son of an Australian aboriginal would speak the English tongue +and with certain limitations behave as a civilised child if brought up +with English people. + +No one denies this fact; it has been proved and accepted, yet how often +do we seek to make a practical application of our knowledge? Although +the science of heredity is still tentative and indeterminate, no +reasoning person can doubt from this and other instances that in the +vast majority of cases at least, the influence of heredity can be +practically eradicated. Personally, I see very clearly from facts of my +own observation that when the characteristics of the father and mother +are analysed, and their faults and virtues understood, a proper training +of the children will prevent the same faults and encourage the same +virtues in their children. + +To appreciate to the utmost the effect of training upon the children, we +must remember that the first tastes, likes, or dislikes of the infant +begin to be developed during the first two or three days after birth. +Long before the infant is a month old, habits, tending to become fixed +habits, have been developed, and if these habits are not harmful, well +and good. The first sense developed is the sense of taste, a sense that +develops very quickly and needs the most careful attention. Artificial +feeding is in itself a very serious danger, but when this feeding is in +the hands of careless or ignorant persons the danger becomes increased a +hundredfold. An instance of this is the common idea that considerable +quantities of sugar should be added to the milk. This is done very often +to induce the child to take food against its natural desire. It may be +that the child has been suffering from some slight internal derangement, +and Nature’s remedy has been to affect the child with a distaste for +food in order to give the stomach a rest. Then the unthinking mother +tempts the child with sugar, and all sorts of internal trouble may +follow. But in such a case as this the taste for a particular thing, +such as sugar, is encouraged, and apart from the direct harm which may +result, the habit becomes the master of the child, and may rule it +through life; the child, in fact, is sent out into the world the slave +of the sense of taste. + +Unfortunately, in ninety cases out of a hundred, children up to the age +of six or seven years are allowed to acquire very decided tastes for +things which are harmful. Women are not trained for the sphere of +motherhood, they do not give these matters the thought and attention +they deserve, and hence they do not understand the most elementary +principles concerning the future welfare of their offspring in such +matters as feeding and sense guidance. Children are not taught to +cultivate a taste for wholesome, nourishing foods, but are tempted, and +their incipient habits pandered to, by such additions as the sugar I +have more particularly cited. + +At the present time I know a child of five years old whose taste is +already perverted by the method, or lack of method, I have indicated. +This child dislikes milk unless undue quantities of sugar are added, +will not eat such food as milk puddings or brown bread, and has a strong +distaste for cream. It is almost impossible to make the child eat +vegetables of any kind, but he is always ready to take large quantities +of meat and sweets. The child is already suffering from malnutrition and +serious internal derangement. The latter would be greatly improved by +small quantities of olive oil taken daily, but it is only with the +greatest difficulty that the child can be induced to take it. If he +lives with his parents for the next ten years, he will grow into a weak +and ailing boy, and will suffer from the worst forms of digestive +trouble and imperfect functioning of the internal organs. + +Apropos of this point, I remember hearing a question put to my friend, +Dr. Clubbe of Sydney, by a London specialist, who asked what, in Dr. +Clubbe’s opinion, was the primary cause of the derangement of the +natural working of a child’s muscular mechanism and respiratory system. +The answer was given without hesitation, “Toxic poisoning as a result of +artificial feeding.” The logic of this answer will be readily +apprehended by the layman, when he considers the interdependence of +every part of the system, for in this case the nerve centres connected +with the sensory apparatus of the digestive organs and the urea control +also the respiratory processes. As a consequence, when these centres are +dulled in their action as a result of toxic poisoning, there is a loss +of activity in the processes of respiration, with consequent +maladjustments of those parts of the muscular mechanism more nearly +concerned, and so the whole machine is thrown out of gear. + +Thus we see that in such instances the mischief begins very early in the +life of the child, and it is carried on and exaggerated with every step +in its development. Even in babyhood precept and coercion should come +into play. Usually when the child cries, little effort is made to +discover the cause. Often the child is soothed by being carried up and +down the room. It is wonderful how soon the infant begins to associate +some rudiments of cause and effect. The child who is unduly pandered to +will soon learn to cry whenever it desires to be rocked or dandled, and +thus the foundations of pandering to sensation are quickly laid. + +But as the child comes to the observant age its habits begin to grow +more quickly. We have admitted that a child imitates its parents or +nurses in tricks of manner and speech, yet we do not stop to consider +that it will also imitate our carriage of the body, our performance of +muscular acts, even our very manner of breathing. This faculty for +imitation and adaptation is a wonderful force, and one which we have at +our command if we would only pause to consider how we may use it in the +right way. The vast majority of wrong habits acquired by children result +from their imitation of the imperfect models confronting them. But how +many parents attempt to put a right model before their children? How +many learn to eradicate their own defects of pose and carriage so that +they may be better examples to the child? How many in choosing a nurse +will take the trouble to select a girl whom they would like their +children to imitate? Very, very few, and the reason is simple. In the +first place they do not realise the harmful effect of bad example, and, +in the second, the great majority of parents have so little perception +of truth in this matter that they are incapable of choosing a girl who +is a good specimen of humanity, and are sublimely unconscious of their +own crookedness and defects. + +Children too accept their parents’ defects as normal and admirable. The +boy of 12 or 14 never dreams for instance that his father’s protruding +stomach is anything but the condition proper to middle-age, and often, +doubtless, figures to himself the time when he will arrive at the same +condition. The time will come when such things as these—I refer to the +abnormality of the father—will be considered a disgrace. What then can +we hope from these parents who are at the present time so unfit, so +incapable of teaching their own children the primer of physical life? +And I may note here that this principle has a wider application than +that of the nursery; it holds, also, in connection with the model of +physical well-being set by the teachers in all primary and secondary +schools. There is no need for me to elaborate this theme. The iniquity +of allowing children to be trained in physical exercises, in our Board +Schools for instance, by a teacher who is obviously physically unfit, is +sufficiently glaring. + +The crux of the whole question is that we are progressing towards +conscious control, and have not yet realised all that this progress +connotes. Children, as civilisation becomes continually more the natural +condition, evidence fewer and fewer of their original savage instincts. +In early life they are faced by two evils, if they are developed on the +subconscious plane. If they are trained under the older methods of +education they become more and more dependent upon their instructors; if +under the more recent methods of “_free expression_” (to which I shall +presently refer at some length) they are left to the vagaries of the +imperfect and inadequate directions of subconscious mechanisms that are +the inheritance of a gradually deteriorated psycho-physical functioning +of the whole organism. + +In such conditions it is not possible for the child to command the +kinæsthetic guidance and power essential to satisfactory free +expression, or indeed to any other satisfactory form of expression for +its latent potentialities. As well expect an automobile, if I may use +the simile, to express its capacity when its essential parts have been +interfered with in such a way as to misdirect or diminish the right +impulses of the machinery. + +The child of the present day, once it has emerged from its first state +of absolute helplessness, and before it has been trained and coerced +into certain mental and physical habits, is the most plastic and +adaptable of living things. At this stage the complete potentiality of +conscious control is present but can only be developed by the +eradication of certain hereditary tendencies or predispositions. +Unfortunately, the usual procedure is to thrust certain habits upon it +without the least consideration of cause and effect, and to insist upon +these habits until they have become subconscious and have passed from +the region of intellectual guidance. + +I will take one instance as an example of this, the point of +right-and-left-handedness. We assume from the outset, and the +superstition is so old that its source is untraceable, that a child must +learn to depend upon its right hand, to the neglect of its left. This +superstition has so sunk into our minds by repetition that it has become +incorporated in our language. “Dexterous” stands for an admirable, and +“sinister” for an inauspicious quality, and we may even find ignorant +people at the present day who say that they would never trust a +left-handed person. As a result of this attitude and of the absolute +rule laid down that a child must learn to write and use its knife with +the right hand only, the number of ambidextrous people is limited to the +few who, by some initial accident, used their left hand by preference +and were afterwards taught to use their right. In a fairly wide +experience I do not remember having heard of a father or mother who has +said: “This child may become an artist or a pianist,” for example, “and +may therefore need to develop the sensitiveness and powers of +manipulation of the left hand as well as the right,” although I have +known of many cases where much time and trouble had to be expended in +acquiring the uses of the left hand later in life, such cases as those +of persons suffering from writers’ cramp and dependent for their living +on their ability to use a pen. + +I have cited this example of right-handedness because it exhibits the +pliability of the physical mechanism in early life, and the manner in +which we thoughtlessly bind it to some method of working, without ever +stopping to think whether that method is good in itself, or whether it +is the one adapted for the conditions of life into which the child will +grow. We thrust a rigid rule of physical life and mental outlook upon +the children. We are not convinced that the rule is the best, or even +that it is a good rule. Often we know, or would know if we gave the +matter a moment’s consideration, that in our own bodies the rule has not +worked particularly well, but it is the rule which was taught to us, and +we pass it on either by precept, or by holding up our imperfections for +imitation and then we wonder what is the cause of the prevailing +physical degeneration! + +What is intended by these methods of education is to inculcate the +accumulated and inferentially correct lessons derived from past +experience. It is true that the lesson varies according to the +religious, political, and social colour of the parent and teacher, but +speaking generally, the intention would be logical enough, if we could +make the primary assumption that each generation starts from the same +point,—the assumption, in other words, that a baby is born with the same +potentialities, the same mental abilities and assuredly the same +physical organism whether he be born in the 16th or the 20th century. + +And even as recently as a hundred years ago, that assumption might have +been made with some show of reason. For the changes were so slight and +have evolved so slowly as to attract little attention. Granted similar +conditions of parentage and upbringing, the differences between the +child of 1800 A. D. and that of 1700 A. D. were hardly noticeable. + +That statement, however, does not apply to the child of 1917. For many +years past there has been unrest and dissatisfaction in the world of +education. New methods have been tried, superimposed for the most part +on the top of the older ones, and even more daring experiments have been +made, experiments which sought to throw over the old traditions, bag and +baggage. All these trials have so far failed, in my opinion; and one +reason for the failure has been due to the fact that educationalists as +a body have been unable to recognise the obvious truth that the child of +the twentieth century cannot be judged by the old standards. + +This truth is so evident to me that I hesitate at the necessity to prove +it. It seems incredible to me that any one of my generation could fail +to realise the extraordinary differences between the contemporaries of +his own growth and the children of our present civilisation. I could +produce a dozen instances of this difference, but one must suffice in +this place. It is, however, an example that is peculiarly typical. For I +remember, and my experience has not been in any way an abnormal one, the +facility with which the children of my generation learnt the uses of +common tools. In a sense they may be said to have inherited a certain +dexterity in the handling of such things as a hammer, knife, or saw. +To-day many parents are greatly impressed if a child of from 2½ to 6 +years old can use one of these implements with a reasonable show of +efficiency. I have known fathers and mothers representative of the +average parent of to-day who find any instance of this efficiency in +their own children an almost startling thing and certainly matter for +boast to their relations and friends. + +Unhappily the real difference goes far deeper than this superficial +effect would at first seem to indicate. The early attempts of the modern +child to employ his physical endowment in such common and necessary acts +as walking, running, sitting or speaking, are far below the standard of +ability that I remember a generation ago. The standard of kinæsthetic +potentiality has been lowered. Elements that I will not attempt to +trace, lest I be tempted on to the fascinating ground of evolutionary +theory, have intervened most amazingly in the past thirty years, and the +most evident result of this intervention has been the marked change in +the subconscious efficiency of the modern child. + +Thus, even from the birth of the infant, our problem is not precisely +that of the old educationalists; and this primary congenital difference +between the children of two generations has been, and is being, +exaggerated in the nurseries of the independent classes both in England +and America. (Doubtless in other countries of Europe the same effects +are being produced, but I prefer to speak only of that which I have +observed and closely studied for myself.) There is still a tendency to +take all responsibility and initiative away from the child of wealthy +parents. Nurses first and governesses later perform every possible act +of service that shall relieve the child of trouble. It is not even +allowed to invent its own games. Toys are supplied in endless +quantities, expensive, ingenious toys, that need no imaginative act to +transform them into reduced models of the motors, trains, or animals +they are manufactured to represent, and some one, some adult, is always +at hand to amuse the child and _teach him how to play_. I must italicise +the absurdity of that last sentence. For what does this teaching mean, +if it does not mean that it is seeking to substitute the adult idea of +play for the childish one? In my day, any old brick played the part of a +train or a horse, and in the mental act required to see the reality +under so uncompromising a guise my imagination was exercised. Then I, +and the other children of my time, grew dissatisfied with so poor a +substitute, and as we progressed in experience, the stimulated +imaginations found expression in _inventing_ and in _making_ better +replicas of the realities of our childish experience. And we grew with +the exercise. We had our little responsibilities and we taught ourselves +not only how to play but how presently to adapt our play to the great +business of social life. But what equipment is furnished to the child +who never has an independent moment throughout its nursery career? How +can such a child hope to succeed in life, should the fortune it hopes to +inherit from its parents be suddenly lost or diverted? Every one knows +the answer. We can see the results in any great city of modern +civilisation, in London slums and in the Bowery of New York. A few +generations of such teaching as this and we should have had a +differentiated race as helpless as the slave-keeping ants. + +But although this petrifying method of teaching and supervision is still +practised, the reaction against it has already set in both in England +and America. Unhappily that reaction has been too violent as such +reactions commonly are. From one extreme of permitting the child no +opportunity of the exercise of independent thought and action, we have +flown to the other in adopting the principle which is now known as “Free +Expression”—a principle which I can show to be no less harmful than +over-supervision. In fact so far as the physical expression of a child +is concerned, the methods of Free Expression are even more dangerous +than those of the opposite school. + +In England, this movement towards “Free Expression” has not so far been +crystallised into a definite propaganda, nevertheless a number of +thoughtful but unhappily inexpert parents are trying to adopt the +principle in their own homes. Mr. Shaw’s Preface to his _Misalliance_ +puts the theory of the method in a very clear and convincing argument. +His main assumption is as follows: “What is a child? An experiment. A +fresh attempt to produce the first man made perfect; that is, to make +humanity divine. And you will vitiate the experiment if you make the +slightest attempt to abort it into some fancy figure of our own....” +That represents, of course, an idealist attitude, and every +idealistically minded parent in Great Britain who reads that Preface of +Mr. Shaw’s on “Parents and Children” at once attempts to put the theory +into practice. The results, if the theory is persisted in, will be +disastrous; and although in many cases the parents realise their error +by practical experience before the child reaches the age of seven or so, +certain cases I have seen demonstrate all too clearly that much mischief +is being done even at the age of seven; faults and bad habits have +become so far established that it is sometimes very hard to eradicate +them. + +And in America the mischief is going further still. So-called “free” +schools have been instituted which, although they may differ in the +detail of their methods, are based on the same underlying principles. As +far as I have examined the theory and practice of these schools their +purposes are: + + + (1) To free the child as far as possible from outside interference and + restraint. + + (2) To place him in the right environment and then to give him + materials and allow him activities through which he may “freely + express himself.” + + +Now this presupposes, firstly, that the child if left to himself has the +power of expressing himself adequately and freely; secondly, that +through this expression, he can educate himself. How far both these +suppositions are fallacies will be understood by any one who has +followed my argument and my citations of actual cases even up to this +point; but the matter is so important that I do not hesitate to bring +forward further evidence to establish my objection to this new and +dangerous method. + +I will begin by drawing attention to the practical side of two of the +channels for self-expression, which are specially insisted upon in +schools where the new mode is being practised, namely, dancing and +drawing. A friend of mine always refers to them as the two D’s, a phrase +that refers very explicitly to these two forms of damnation when +employed as fundamentals in education. + +The method of the “Free Expressionists” is to associate music with the +first of these arts. Now music and dancing are, as every one knows, +excitements which make a stronger emotional appeal to the primitive than +to the more highly evolved races. No drunken man in our civilisation +ever reaches the stage of anæsthesia and complete loss of self-control +attained by the savage under the influence of these two stimuli. But in +the schools where I have witnessed children’s performances, I have seen +the first beginnings of that madness which is the savage’s ecstasy. +Music in this connection is an artificial stimulus and a very potent +one. And though artificial stimuli may be permissible in certain forms +of pleasure sought by the reasoning, trained adult, they are uncommonly +dangerous incitements to use in the education of a child of six. + +Need I defend still further my description of music as an artificial and +powerful stimulus? During the present war it has been reported that the +influence of alcohol and drugs has been resorted to by the Germans to +drive their men to the attack. But we know that in earlier wars, the +greatest effects could be attained by music, effects that drive the +fighters into the most delirious excesses of savagery. And, doubtless, +if the sound of music could have made itself heard above the awful din +of guns that precede a modern advance, the old stimulus would have been +preferred by the Germans to the administration of drugs. As it is, I +have heard that bands are used whenever possible. Full-grown men and +women will admit that they can become “drunk” with music and by “drunk” +I mean that the motions of the subconsciousness are excited to such a +pitch that they take control, until they completely dominate the +reasoning faculties. Alcohol produces this result by partial paralysis +of the peripheral cilia, music and dancing by overexaltation of the +whole kinæsthetic system. In the latter case, however, no evil effects +can be produced in the first instance, without the reasoning consent or +submission of the subject. Savages and _young children have not yet +learnt to withhold that consent_. + +And altogether apart from this question of intoxication—to which by the +way every individual is not susceptible—these unrestrained, unguided +efforts of the children to dance are likely to prove extremely harmful. +I have watched while first one air and then another has been played on +the piano, the intention of these changes being to convey a different +form of stimulus with each air, and I admit that the children responded +in accordance with the more or less limited kinæsthetic powers at their +command. But it was very obvious to me that all these little dancers +were more or less imperfectly co-ordinated; that the idea projected from +the ideo-motor centre constantly missed its proper direction; that +subconscious efforts were being made that caused little necks to take up +the work that should have been done by little backs; that the larynx was +being harmfully depressed in the efforts to breathe adequately causing +both inspiration and expiration to be made through the open mouth +instead of through the nostrils; and that the young and still pliable +spines were being gradually curved backwards and the stature shortened +when the very opposite condition was essential even to a satisfying +æsthetic result. + +And when we realise that the teachers who witness these lessons are +entirely ignorant of the ideal physical conditions that are proper to +children, and so are wofully unaware of the dangerous defects that are +being initiated by these efforts to dance, we must admit that, as +practised, this particular form of free expression is being encouraged +at a cost that far outweighs any imagined advantage. + +Here, for instance, is an example that came directly under my notice. A +little girl six years old was brought to me for kinæsthetic examination +and I found her to be in really excellent physical condition. She was +then sent to school where she became interested in dancing. The dancing +at this school was considered a form of free expression, and the +children were encouraged to make their own movements, undirected. +Different airs were played to which the child was expected to react, and +the little girl of my example found great pleasure in this part of her +school work and gave much of her time to it, until she was considered to +express herself more freely than any of the other children in the form +of art she had chosen. I may point out that one of the essential +principles of these free-expression schools is to permit a child to +choose its own activity and to pursue it for practically as long as it +desires. + +Her mother, however, became dissatisfied after a time with her child’s +general condition. Curious and somewhat alarming physical distortions +were beginning to manifest themselves, most noticeably a tendency to +carry her head on one side, a tendency she was unable to rectify. At +last the mother brought back the child to me for re-examination. + +Now less than a year before I had passed this child as an unusually fine +example of correct physical co-ordination. When she came back to me she +was in little better condition than a congenital degenerate. All that +fluent co-ordination of her muscular mechanisms had disappeared, and in +place of it I found rigid tendons, stiffened muscles, and, worst of all, +faulty habits of guidance and control, among them a habit of governing +the muscles of her body and legs by stiffening the unrelated muscles of +her neck. (Incidentally I may note in passing that in the human being +the neck is very often the indicator of inadequate and false controls. +There are good reasons why this should be the case, _a priori_, but they +are too technical for this book.) A further particular defect was due to +a tensing and shortening of the upper muscles of the thighs where they +are attached to the torso, a defect that was tending to warp and shorten +the child’s stature. Lastly, the most significant change of all, the +child who a year before had been outspoken and fearless, and clear of +speech, was now timid and shy, and mumbled her words so badly that I +could with difficulty understand her. + +Here then is a case of a child, starting in the best physical condition, +who was placed in what was considered the right environment and +permitted the exercise of free activity. And I claim that the harmful +result was so inevitable that any one of real experience might have +anticipated it with almost absolute certainty. + +The second ominous “D” is drawing, and this comes into another category +of damnation, since mental rather than physical effects are concerned, +although the latter are involved both in the harmful, uncorrected poses +adopted by the children when seated at the table, and in the false +directions of the ideo-motor centres of which only a few reach the +essential fingers that are holding or more often grotesquely clutching +the pencil. It may seem a small thing to the layman that a child should +try to guide a pencil by movements of its tongue, but to the expert that +confusion of functions is indicative of endless subconscious troubles. + +Let me describe the practical procedure of a certain type of +“free-drawing” lesson. Pencils, paper, and the usual paraphernalia are +placed on tables or desks in different parts of the schoolroom, in the +hope that the child may be tempted to use them in drawing. Then, one +day, a pupil takes up a pencil and makes an attempt to draw, another +follows his example and so on, until all the pupils have made some kind +of effort in this direction. + +Now the act of drawing is in the last analysis a mechanical process that +concerns the management of the fingers, and the co-ordination of the +muscles of the hand and forearm in response to certain visual images +conceived in the brain and imaginatively projected on to the paper. And +the standard of functioning of the human fingers and hand in this +connection depends entirely upon the degree of kinæsthetic development +of the arm, torso, and joints; in fact upon the standard of +co-ordination of the whole organism. It is not surprising, therefore, +that hardly one of these more or less defectively co-ordinated children +should have any idea of how to hold a pencil in such a way as will +command the freedom, power, and control that will enable him to do +himself justice as a draughtsman. + +Any attentive and thoughtful observer who will watch the movement and +position of these children’s fingers, hand, wrist, arm, neck and body +generally, during the varying attempts to draw straight or crooked +lines, cannot fail to note the lack of co-ordination between these +parts. The fingers are probably attempting to perform the duties of the +arm, the shoulders are humped, the head twisted on one side. In short, +energies are being projected to parts of the bodily mechanism which have +little or no influence on the performance of the desired act of drawing, +and the mere waste projection of such energies alone is almost +sufficient to nullify the purpose in view. + +But I have already said enough to prove that no free expression can come +by this means. The right impulse may be in the child’s mind, but he has +not the physical ability to express it. Not one modern child in ten +thousand is born with the gift to draw as we say “by the light of +Nature,” and that one exceptional child will have his task made easier +if he is wisely guided in his first attempts. + +But my chief objection to this teaching of drawing is the encouragement +it gives to profitless dreaming. Drawing is an art, and we know some of +the characteristics that are commonly imputed to the artist,—though many +of the greatest artists have been exemplarily free from them. These +characteristics are eccentricity, lack of balance, power of +self-hypnotism, and a general irrationality. Yet surely it cannot be +emphasised too strongly that the artist succeeds in spite of these +impediments to expression, and not because of them. These +characteristics that I have instanced are by-products of the artistic +genius. They are developed through erroneous conceptions and +overconcentration on a particular creative activity, and time and again +in the history of the world these by-products have ruined, +incapacitated, and disgraced men of real genius. + +Nevertheless, if I can judge by my experience of this form of free +expression, the child is encouraged to practise the eccentricity as a +means to obtain the gift of drawing, which as a principle is about the +same as trying to breed race horses with weak lungs because it has been +noted that certain very fast horses have been rather deficient in this +respect. To encourage eccentricity is not to breed genius, and genius +itself is more free and more creative when it is not hampered by +eccentricity. Let us, at least, have some appreciation of rational cause +and effect. + +So much for my two “D’s,” but my general criticism of the “free +expression” experiment does not end there. For I must confess that I +have been shocked to witness the work that has been going on in +these schools. I have seen children of various ages amusing +themselves—somewhat inadequately in quite a number of cases—by +drawing, dancing, carpentering, and so on, but in hardly a single +instance have I seen an example of one of these children employing +his physical mechanisms in a correct or _natural_ way. I insist upon +the use of the word _natural_ even though it be applied to such +relatively artificial activities as drawing and carpentering. For +there is a right, that is to say a most effective, way of holding +and using a pencil or a carpenter’s tool. But the children I saw +commonly sat or stood in positions of the worst mechanical +advantage, and the manner in which they held their pencils or their +tools demonstrated very clearly that until their management of such +instruments was corrected, they could never hope to produce anything +but the most clumsy results. Worse still, these children were +forming physical habits which would develop in a large majority of +cases into positive physical ills. A child who tries to guide its +pencil by futile movements of its head, tongue, and shoulders may be +preparing the way to ills so far-reaching that their origin is often +lost sight of. + +As an instance of this, I recently had a case of a boy of 3½ years who +suffered from fear reflexes. If a stranger entered a room when the child +was present, he would cry and cling to his mother or nurse. At the +seaside after asking to be allowed to bathe with other children, he was +subsequently afraid to go near the water. And in many other ways he +exhibited unreasoning terrors which, according to the general diagnosis +common in such cases, were presumed to be the cause of his general +backwardness, a symptom particularly marked in his speech, for he was +only able to articulate a few words and those very imperfectly. + +My first examination of him revealed the fact that he lacked proper +control of his lips and tongue, and of one internal physical function, +the latter chiefly at night. And that the lack of control in these +particulars was the direct cause of his psycho-physical condition was +very conclusively proved by my treatment of him. Treated on a basis of +conscious guidance and control, re-educated and co-ordinated, the child +made rapid advancement, and he progressed towards a condition +approximating more closely to what one might call normal, than he had +experienced since birth. The fear reflexes became less and less subject +to excitement, he grew less irritable, his temper was more controlled, +and his outbursts of crying were exhibited far less often. + +I have cited this instance to show what strange psychic effects may +spring from apparently purely physical causes,—though, indeed, the +complement of psycho-physical is so unified that it is impossible to +divide the components and place them on one plane or the other. In this +boy’s case, the primary cause of the trouble was probably congenital, +but equal and greater troubles may arise from much smaller original +defects if the initial habit is confirmed and crystallised by use, as I +fear will be the case, if the child is left to develop itself on the +lines of the free expression advocates. It is quite certain, for +example, in the case just referred to, that no amount of “free” activity +could have released the child from his constrictions whilst the +influence caused by his malco-ordinations still existed. + +But surely I have given evidence enough to prove my case against this +last development in education. In an ideal world into which children +were born with ideal capacities, Mr. Shaw’s thesis might have some +weight. In this rapidly changing world of the 20th century we require, +more than ever before, a system that shall guide and direct the child +during his earlier years. This implies no contradiction of what I have +said earlier anent the method of constant supervision. The necessary +correction of physical and mental faults that I am advocating is a very +different thing from the attempt to mould a child into one particular +preconceived form. I would only insist that the children of to-day, born +as they are with very feeble powers of instinctive control, absolutely +require certain definite instructions by which to guide themselves +before they can be left to free activity. And these directions must be +based on a principle that will help the child to employ his various +mechanisms to the best advantage in his daily activities. These +directions involve no interference with what the child has to express; +they represent merely a cultivation and development of the _means_ +whereby he may find adequate and satisfying release for his +potentialities. + +It is true that the foregoing principles must and will involve certain +necessary prohibitions, but if we select those essentials that deal with +the root cause of the evil instead of with the effects, we render +unnecessary the continual admonitions and “naggings” which represented +one of the vices of the old system, a vice from which it has been the +object of the new education to free the child. + +To sum up this aspect of child-training, I find that on the whole the +methods of the older educationalists, with their definite prohibitions +and their exact instructions, were less harmful than the extremes of the +modern school that would base their scheme of education upon a child’s +instinctive reactions. The older methods failed, I admit, for one +reason, because the system was carried too far; for another, because the +injunctions and prohibitions were based on tradition, prejudice, and +ignorance, instead of upon a scientific principle dictated by reason. +But the new methods fail because they are founded on an entirely +erroneous assumption which is demonstrably fallacious. Can any method be +defended that is open to such a charge? + +Give a child conscious control and you give him poise, the essential +starting point for education. Without that poise, which is a result +aimed at by neither the old nor the new methods of education, he will +presently be cramped and distorted by his environment. For although you +may choose the environment of a nursery or a school, there are few, +indeed, who can choose their desired environment in the world at large. +But give the child poise and the reasoned control of his physical being +and you fit him for any and every mode of life; he will have wonderful +powers of adapting himself to any and every environment that may +surround him. And if he be one of those exceptional individuals that, by +some rare gift of nature or by some force of personality, are able to +bend life to their own needs, be very sure that so far from having +suppressed his power of free expression, you will have strengthened and +perfected just those abilities which will enable the genius to put forth +all that is best and greatest in him. + +My last charge against the advocates of free expression is that they +themselves are not free. So many propagandists and teachers show an +unwarranted intolerance towards the exponents of the old systems. They +are, in fact, too constricted in their mental attitude to give play to +their imagination. From one extreme they have flown to the other, and so +have missed the way of the great middle course which is wide enough to +accommodate all shades of opinion. + +For let me state clearly in concluding this comment on a new method, +that I am, myself, as strong an advocate for free expression, rightly +understood, as any propagandist in the United States of America. But I +am convinced by long observation and experiment that the untrained child +has not the adequate power of free expression. There are certain +mechanical and other laws, deduced from untold centuries of human +experience, laws that are only in the rarest cases unconsciously +followed by the natural child of to-day. (One of these rare cases that +has recently come under my notice has been the billiard playing of Mr. +George Gray. I am of the opinion that the mechanical principle of the +position adopted by him could be scientifically demonstrated as being as +nearly perfect for its particular purpose as any position could be. And +according to my observation of him, Mr. Gray manifests in his play the +most remarkable and controlled kinæsthetic development I have yet +witnessed. But how many George Grays has the world so far produced?) + +Over twenty-two years ago in Australia, I was teaching what I still +believe to be the true meaning of free expression. My pupils in this +case came to me for lessons in vocal and dramatic expression. Now by the +old methods these pupils would have been taught to imitate their master +very accurately in vocal and facial expression, in gesture, in the +manner of voice production; and it would have been at once apparent to +any one acquainted with the manner and methods of the teachers, where +each pupil had received his training. Furthermore, pupils educated by +those methods were taught to interpret each poem, scene, or passage on +the exact lines that were considered correct by their respective +teachers. + +My own method, which at that time was regarded as very radical and +subversive, was to give my pupils certain lessons in re-education and +co-ordination on a basis of conscious guidance and control, and in this +way I gave the reciter, actor, or potential artist the means of +employing to the best advantage his powers of vocal, facial, and +dramatic expression, gesture, etc. He could then safely be permitted to +develop his own characteristics. A few suggestions might be necessary as +to interpretation, but the individual manner was his own. No pupil of +mine could be pointed to as representing some narrow school of +expression, although most of them could be recognised by the confidence +and freedom of their performances. + +And in this connection it may be of interest to my readers to know that +in 1902–3 I decided to test the principles I advocated, and to this end +I organised performances of “Hamlet” and “The Merchant of Venice” for +which I gave special training on the lines I have just indicated to +young men and women, none of whom had previously appeared in a public +performance of any kind whatsoever. I trained all these young people on +the principles of conscious guidance and control, principles that I had +then developed and practised. My friends and critics naturally +anticipated a wonderful exhibition of “stage fright” on the evening of +the first performance, but as a matter of fact not one of my young +students had the least apprehension of that terror. By the time they +were ready to appear the idea of “stage fright” was one that seemed to +them the merest absurdity. It may be said that they did not understand +what was meant by such a condition. And this, although I would not allow +a prompter on the nights of the public performance! I regard this as one +of the most convincing public demonstrations I have yet made of the +wonderful command and self-possession that may be attained by the +inculcation of these principles. + +For it must be observed that I sent these tyros to the performance +capable of expressing their own individualities. If they had been hedged +about or boxed in by an endless series of “Don’ts” confining their +performances by a rigid set of rules, the majority of them would almost +certainly have broken down within the first two minutes. On the other +hand, it is hardly necessary to picture the chaos that would have +ensued, had I sent them on the stage without training of any kind, poor, +helpless, ignorant examples of what they supposed to be free expression. + +The foregoing is an example of education in only one sphere of art, but +it serves as an excellent indication of the essential needs of +education, in general, where the child is concerned. We must give the +child of to-day and of the future as a fundamental of education as +complete a command of his or her kinæsthetic systems as is possible, so +that the highest possible standard of “free expression” may be given in +every sphere of life and in all forms of human activity. We must build +up, co-ordinate, and re-adjust the human machine so that it may be _in +tune_. We are all acquainted with the expression “_tune up_” where the +automobile is concerned, and when we wish to command the best expression +of this machine we avail ourselves of the “_tuning up_” process of the +mechanical expert. And as the human organism is, as Huxley says, a +machine, we must remember that if we wish it to express its +potentialities adequately it must be “_in tune_.” This will represent +what we consider to be that satisfactory condition of the child’s +kinæsthetic systems which will enable him to express himself freely and +adequately. It constitutes the “means whereby” of free and full +expression, of adaptability to the ever changing environment of +civilised life, and to all that these two essentials connote. + +In this note on race culture and the training of children, I have thus +far dwelt almost exclusively on the earlier years of childhood. But I +have much to say at some future time on the questions of primary and +secondary education, that is, of the boy and girl at school between the +ages of, say, seven and eighteen. No one who has read so far with +attention and has earnestly attempted to comprehend my point of view, +will now be able to urge that the question of education, secular or +religious, is outside my province, for the mental and physical are so +inextricably combined that we cannot consider the one without the other, +but, at the risk of being accused of repetition, I will briefly state my +case in this connexion once again, as follows: + +I wish to postulate: + +That conscious guidance and control, as a universal, must be the +fundamental of future education. + +That civilisation and education, as manifested up to the present, cannot +be said to have compelled man to advance adequately from the lower to +those higher planes of satisfactory evolution, where his savage animal +instincts will not under any circumstances, or in response to any +stimuli, dominate his transcendent tendencies, or put him out of +communication with his reason. + +That mankind should progress by slow continuous processes from one stage +of evolution to another. This will be particularly the case when he is +passing from his animal subconscious stage to the higher, reasoned +conscious stages, during which process he will develop a new +subconsciousness (cultivated, not inherited) under the guidance of +consciousness, likewise an increasing control which holds his animal +proclivities in check. + +That the evolutionary progress from childhood to adolescence, and so +through the vicissitudes of life which follow, is determined by the +process adopted, the ratio of progress being in accordance with the +standard of efficacy of this process, and that this principle of +evolution applies equally to a nation. + +That subconsciously developed mechanisms (subconscious guidance and +control) function satisfactorily during those stages of our evolution +which approximate to the more or less animal plane. + +That the old moderate methods of education are not incompatible with +cultivation and development on the animal subconscious plane. + +That “free expression” principles cannot bring satisfactory results +while the subject’s mechanisms are operated by inherited subconscious +guidance and control. + +For this very reason, all aid to progressive development must conform to +the principle of the projection of guiding orders and controls in the +right direction or directions with the simultaneous employment of +positions of mechanical advantage, irrespective of the correctness or +otherwise of the immediate result. The result may be unsatisfactory +to-day and to-morrow, or during the next week, but if the position of +mechanical advantage is employed and orders and controls in the right +direction are held in mind and projected again and again, a new and +correct complex sooner or later supersedes the old vicious one, and +becomes permanently established. + +That consciously controlled mechanisms (conscious guidance and control) +are essential to man’s satisfactory development and progress to the +higher stages of his evolution; and to that continued adequate vital +functioning of his physical or mental organism necessary in these +advanced stages, where more rapid adaptability to the swiftly and +everchanging environment, and the power to _see_, and _comprehend new +ideas_, are the urgent demands of an advancing civilisation. + +That consciously controlled mechanisms are essential to the successful +inculcation of the principle of “free expression” and all that it +connotes in Education. + +Conscious guidance and control, as the fundamental in education, +commands the fundamentals of “free expression.” The words free or +freedom are herein used in their true meaning, not in the ordinary +acceptation. I refer to the point of view which causes one to ask, “Is +there such a thing as real freedom?” For we know that we cannot have +freedom without restraint, any more than we can have psycho-physical +harmony without antagonism. + +It is said that the dividing line between tragedy and comedy is not one +that the majority of people readily recognise, and this is also the case +in regard to what is called freedom and licence. This is the danger +which the new democracies of the world are facing at this very moment, +and their dangers will be increased a thousandfold in the near future, +when they will be called upon to pass through that critical period of +re-adjustment which must follow the present world crisis. + +In this matter of education I am, admittedly, an iconoclast. I would +fain break down the idols of tradition and set up new concepts. In no +matters do we see more plainly the harmful effect of the rigid +convention than in this matter of teaching. We speak commonly of +training the minds of children. It is a happy expression in its origin, +and we still retain its proper intention when we apply the word to its +uses in horticulture. + +The gardener does, indeed, train the young growth. He draws it out to +the light and warmth and leads it into the conditions most helpful for +its development. + +And so, in teaching, the first essential should be to cultivate the uses +of the mind and body, and not, as is so often the case, to neglect the +instrument of thought and reason by the inculcation of fixed rules which +have never been examined. Again, where ideas that are patently erroneous +have already been formed in the child’s mind, the teacher should take +pains to apprehend these preconceptions, and in dealing with them he +should not attempt to overlay them, but should eradicate them as far as +possible before teaching or submitting the new and correct idea. I say +“teaching or submitting” and perhaps the latter word better expresses my +meaning, for by teaching I understand the placing of facts, for and +against, before the child, in such a way as to appeal to his reasoning +faculties, and to his latent powers of originality. He should be allowed +to think for himself, and should not be crammed with other people’s +ideas, or one side only of a controversial subject. Why should not the +child’s powers of intelligence be trained? Why should they be stunted by +our forcing him to accept the preconceived ideas and traditions which +have been handed down from generation to generation, without +examination, without reason, _without enquiry as to their truth or +origin_? The human mind of to-day is suffering from partial paralysis by +this method of forcing these unreasoned and antiquated principles upon +the young and plastic intelligence. + +The educational system itself is grievously inadequate and detrimental, +as all thinking educationalists are aware, but the decision regarding +the necessity for physical exercise and “deep breathing” in our schools +has added another evil. I wish to say here deliberately that the many +systems of physical training generally adopted show an almost criminal +neglect of rational method, and of the test which can demonstrably prove +the practice to be unsound and hurtful. + +Some years ago I wrote in the _Pall Mall Gazette_: + + + “I will merely point out that in our schools and in the Army human + beings are actually being developed into deformities by breathing and + physical exercises. I have before me a book on the breathing exercises + which are used in the Army, and any person reasonably versed in + physiology and psychology, and knowing they are inseparable in + practice, will at once understand why so much harm results from them. + Take either the officers or the men. In a greater or less degree the + unduly protruded upper chests (development of emphysema), unduly + hollowed backs (lordosis), stiff necks, rigid thorax, and other + physical eccentricities have been cultivated. It is for these reasons + that heart troubles, varicose veins, emphysema, and mouth breathing + (in exercise) are so much in evidence in the Army. As this is a matter + of _national importance, I am prepared to give the time necessary to + prove to the authorities (medical or official) connected with the + Army, the schools, or the sanatoria, that the ‘deep breathing’ and + physical exercises in vogue are doing far more harm than good_, and + are laying the foundations of much graver trouble in the future. The + truth is that all exercises involving ‘deep breathing’ cause an + exaggeration of the defective muscular co-ordination already present, + so that even if one bad habit is eradicated many others—often more + harmful—are cultivated.” + + +And again in my pamphlet “Why We Breathe Incorrectly” (Nov., 1909) I +wrote: + + + “Let me make myself clear by explaining that the man who breathes + incorrectly and inadequately, does so as an immediate and inevitable + consequence of abnormal and harmful conditions of certain parts of his + body. The man who breathes correctly and adequately does so as an + immediate and inevitable consequence of normal and salubrious + conditions of the same parts. It therefore follows that if the + conditions present in the second man can be induced in the first, he + will then, but not otherwise, be a correct and adequate breather. And + the process by which this is achieved is simply a re-adjustment of the + parts of the body by a new and correct use of the muscular mechanisms + through the directive agent of the sphere of consciousness. This + change brings about a proper mechanical advantage of all the parts + concerned, and causes, thanks to the right employment of the relative + machinery, such expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity as to + give atmospheric pressure its opportunity. Now here we have (a) the + directive agent of the sphere of consciousness, and (b) the use of the + muscular mechanisms—the combination causing certain expansions and + contractions, and _the result being what is known as breathing_. It + will at once be seen, therefore, that the act of breathing is not a + primary, or even a secondary, part of the process, which is really + _re-education of the kinæsthetic systems associated with correct + bodily postures and respiration_, and will be referred to universally + as such in the near future. As a matter of fact, given the perfect + co-ordination of parts as acquired by my system, breathing is a + subordinate operation which will perform itself.” + + +I stand by every word of this to-day. Hundreds of soldiers every year +have to leave the British Army on account of heart trouble directly +brought about by the “drill-sergeant’s chest” and its concomitant +strains and rigidities. Not long ago, Mr. Punch had a picture of a young +boy riding in the Row with his groom and answering that worthy’s +question as to how he would salute a Royal Personage—“Same as the +soldiers do; hold my hand up to my hat and look as if I was going to +burst”! Certainly a straw showing which way the wind blows. + +These same soldiers will start on a long route march with chest “well +set” and stiff. The strain of marching inevitably brings them later into +an easier slouching position, which makes continuance possible and at +its worst is not so positively harmful as is the tension of the other +posture. + +Compare the free, loose but more healthy physical attitude of the sailor +ashore with that of the “smart” soldier strutting in town like a pouter +pigeon for the honour of the regiment. It is your team of sailors that +is the readier and the more effective for hard work. + +And but a few weeks (now years) ago, I saw with dismay in a popular +illustrated daily paper a truly pathetic picture of a class of +schoolboys with hollowed backs and protruding chests looking like +nothing so much as very ruffled pouter pigeons. And the master was +commended for his zeal in producing such results by “deep breathing.” +(See photographs facing this page.) + +Is it, I would ask, likely on the face of it that the right position in +which a man or woman should stand for health’s sake should be one +needing positive strain to preserve? The thing is preposterous, and I am +convinced that nothing can result from the application of such +principles but complete chaos, physical and mental. + +To return to my general theory of training, I fear I must not +particularise too definitely in some directions, but my instance of +right-handedness has its application. On the one hand we are willing to +sacrifice reason for such a tradition and convention as this; on the +other for an untried and possibly illogical idea. The defence for the +latter sacrifice is generally based either on the need for enthusiasm or +the necessity for proceeding by a system of trial and error. Well, as to +enthusiasm, I will claim that no one is a greater enthusiast than I am +myself, but I will not permit my enthusiasm to dominate my reason. One +day I hope to write an account of how I arrived at the practical +elucidation of my principles of conscious control, and when I do, I +shall show very plainly how one of the greatest, if not _the_ greatest +danger against which I had to fight was my own enthusiasm. It is as +vivid and keen to-day as it was over twenty years ago, but I should +never have worked out my principles, if I had allowed it to dominate my +reason. Again, as to the argument pleading the necessity for empiricism, +I admit also that my own methods have been and still are, in some +directions, experimental. But with regard to the “free expression” +movement, I claim that the error in practice has been sufficiently +demonstrated, and further than that, I must insist that we are not +justified in experimenting on children. I have never done that inasmuch +as I have realised that the error may be irreparable. Could any fault +weigh heavier on a human conscience than that by which, however +unwittingly, another human life had been distorted? + +Wherefore, pleading on behalf of my most important client, the child of +this younger generation, I demand that we shall proceed to neither of +the dangerous extremes that threaten his physical and mental well-being. +On the one hand we must avoid the thrusting upon him of fixed ideas, by +which you may narrow his mind, for I know that when you limit him, +imparting to him deliberately your own mental habits, the effects go far +beyond what we are pleased to call the “formation of character.” On the +other hand we are not justified in leaving him entirely to himself. +Whilst he has the right of choice within certain limits, he has not, +unhappily, the ability to choose in his earlier years. We need not bind +him to choose this or that, but we must educate him in such a way as to +give him the power of choice. In Mr. Allen Upward’s delightful work, +_The New Word_, which I have already quoted, he says: “Give the child +leave to grow. Give the child leave to live. Give the child leave to +hope and to hope truly.... He is the plaintiff in this case. I say that +he is mankind ... and his birthright is the truth.” And to that I would +add, “Give the child leave, also, to learn. Give him opportunity to +profit by all the knowledge we can give him out of our experience. His +birthright, indeed, is the truth, but we must aid him in making the +discovery.” + +It is full time that we gave more earnest thought to this matter. I +cannot in this brief outline dwell on the many phases of proper food, +clothing, and physical training, and all those other points which we +must consider. The Kinæsthetic Systems concerned with correct and +healthy bodily movements and postures have become demoralised by the +habits engendered in the schoolroom through the restraint enforced at a +time when natural activity should have been encouraged and +scientifically directed, and in the crouching positions caused by +useless and irrational deskwork. + +And I may note in this connection that I am continually being asked, +both by friends and unknown correspondents, for my opinion concerning +the correct type of chair, stool, desk or table to be used in order to +prevent the bad habits which these pieces of furniture are supposed to +have caused in schools. In my replies I have tried to demonstrate that +the problem is being attacked from the wrong standpoint. + +Let us consider the problem in the light of common-sense. Suppose, for +example, that there is an ideal chair, some wonderful arrangement of +perfect angles, hollows, and supports that will almost magically rectify +or prevent every fault in the child’s physical mechanism. Suppose +further that the child finds great ease and repose when seated in this +ideal chair. How then can he avoid suffering the tortures of all that is +uncomfortable, when he rides in the cars, or sits down in his own home, +or visits a friend, or goes for a picnic on the river or in the woods? I +see nothing else for it; when that ideal chair has been found, our child +will have to carry it about with him wherever he goes. + +In the second place, how is it possible for this ideal chair to be +miraculously adaptable to every age and type of child? Are we to treat +children as plastic lumps of clay to be fitted to the model insisted +upon by the lines of our ideal chair; or are we to study and measure +each individual and have a chair built to his measure, once a year, say, +until he is adult? + +No, what we need to do is not to educate our school furniture, but to +educate our children. Give a child the ability to adapt himself within +reasonable limits to his environment, and he will not suffer discomfort, +nor develop bad physical habits, whatever chair or form you give him to +sit upon. I say, “within reasonable limits,” for it is obviously absurd +to expect a Brobdingnagian child to use a Lilliputian chair. But let us +waste no valuable time, thought, or invention in designing furniture, +when by a smaller expenditure of those three gifts we may train the +child to win its own conscious control, and rise superior to any +probable limitations imposed by ordinary school fittings. + +For the problem to be solved in education is that same problem which +needs solution in the social, political, religious, industrial, +economic, ethical, æsthetic and other spheres of progressive human +activity. In every sphere of life we have for years given “effects” the +significance of “causes” and have made worthy attempts to put matters +right on this unsound basis. In the case of education certain symptoms +have been recognised as more or less harmful, and the whole blame has +been placed upon the method or methods of education involved. + +For at least half a century, the method of the social worker was +conceived on the lines of giving money, food, and clothing to the poor, +in an attempt to ameliorate their condition. The evils of this false +policy came home to them in a practical way, and nowadays, the object of +the social worker is to give the poor the “means whereby” of general +advancement and of getting money, clothes, and food by their own +efforts. + +The same principle holds good in the treatment of the children. Hitherto +educationalists have given them what they considered they needed. What +we must do in the future is to give them the “means whereby” they may +themselves satisfy their needs and command their own advancement. + +The adoption of new methods is a procedure which always demands a due +and proper consideration of the thing, person, or persons to which they +are to be applied. Investigation along these lines would probably have +revealed the real _cause_ of the difficulties to be faced in the +education of the child of to-day, which is that the process of civilised +life has gradually changed the child’s psycho-physical condition at +birth. In this process much has been gained and much lost. From the +educator’s point of view the losses have been stupendous as compared +with the gains, for the all-important kinæsthetic systems have been +deteriorated by man’s attempt to pass from the lower (animal) to the +higher stages of the evolutionary plane while depending upon a +subconsciously controlled organism. + +I have still very much more to say on this subject of education, and I +hope to have an opportunity in the near future of elaborating my methods +and of setting them out so that they may be practically and universally +applied. But if by these few remarks I can arouse some interest in this +world problem, I shall have done something towards its solution. It is a +problem which is very urgent at the present time, and is growing more +urgent every day. All that we have done up to the present time is to +enforce one rule or another upon the children as an experiment, for all +the rules have been rigid in their enforcement, however unscientific in +their conception. In place of these rules I look for an ideal which I +believe to be comparatively easy of realisation. I look for, and already +see, a method of training our children which shall make them masters of +their own bodies; I look for a time when the child shall be so taught +and trained that whatever the circumstance which shall later surround +it, it will without effort be able to adapt itself to its environment, +and be enabled to live its life in the enjoyment of perfect health, +physical and mental. For, as I have already pointed out, man has +progressed towards the higher and more complex stages of civilisation. +He has continued to change his habits of life and being still far from +the highest state attainable he will continue to change. The farther he +becomes removed from the primitive uncivilised stage of his evolution +the less likely is he to have the opportunity in the daily routine of +his life so to exercise the physical machinery that it will be prevented +from working imperfectly by the controls of instinct. “Conscious +control” will enable man to adapt himself more readily to changing +conditions of life. No one who looks out upon this latter day world with +discerning eyes can fail to see that the changes tend to become more +rapid and more radical than ever before in the history of the world’s +progress. + +We look towards the goal, and it is best to seek the highest and be +content with no less, but at the same time it is necessary that we +should consider the practical detail of our journey. What follows in +Parts II and III may seem trivial by comparison with the high endeavour +I have outlined, but it is the triviality of the essential detail. + +I wish to point the road still more clearly, and to show how every man +and woman may learn to walk upon it. + + + + + VIII + EVOLUTIONARY STANDARDS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE CRISIS OF 1914 + + +In the previous chapters I have dealt briefly with the fundamentals upon +which our whole structure of education and civilisation is based, and +have attempted to point to the different tendencies developed by the +individual in the struggle to progress upon this basis. At the same time +I have indicated that which I am confident is the only true fundamental +upon which mankind in a state of civilisation may progress and evolve to +a condition commanding freedom for all time from those limiting, +narrowing, and debasing qualities which belong to the animal spheres of +existence. + +It seems to me that the present world crisis indicates that this is the +psychological moment to make a wide application of my principles, though +my reader may consider that I should not enter the debatable ground of +hypothesis in a work which has been devoted, up to this point, to +arguments almost entirely drawn from personal experiences and +observation. + +I have dealt with the fundamentals employed in the development of the +child and the adult, and I have postulated that the evolutionary +progress from childhood to adolescence, and on through the vicissitudes +of life which follow, is determined by the process adopted, the ratio of +progress being in accordance with the standard of efficacy of this +process, and that this principle of evolution applies equally to a +nation. + +It then devolves upon us to consider the different processes adopted by +different nations, in order to gauge accurately their different stages +of evolution and their possibilities of growth and development towards +real individual and national progress. + +After centuries of endeavour in the direction of progress in accordance +with well-defined processes, founded upon approved educational, +religious, economic, political, industrial, ethical and æsthetic +principles, and after a century of unprecedented progress in the realm +of Arts and Sciences, we are faced with the spectacle, in a supposedly +civilised nation, of a debauched kinæsthesia which has manifested itself +in such a display of savage instincts as will present us in the eyes of +a more highly evolved universe as plunged in the depths of barbarism. + +During the past three years the people of the world have been shocked +and stirred by events which even four years ago were considered +impossible in the stage of civilisation then reached. In consequence, we +find that a special and earnest endeavour is being made to solve +problems of vital importance which have a bearing upon the future +development and cultivation of the potentialities of mankind. + +It is, therefore, essential to recognise that we have reached a point in +the process called civilisation which will be recorded as one of the +most critical and vital in the world’s history. + +At this moment the great nations of Europe are engaged in the most +terrific conflict of force ever recorded, whilst in America, a land of +peace, there is being witnessed what is probably the most bitterly +contested conflict of opinion ever experienced regarding the conduct, +policy, and duty of the American nation where the old world is +concerned. + +(This was penned prior to American intervention in the war.) + +The happenings of the past three years must influence our present and +future opinion of the value of our educational, political, moral, +social, industrial, religious and other principles where the progress of +man is concerned, as he passes from the animal plane of his evolution to +those higher planes for which he is undoubtedly destined. + +The conclusions thus reached will so influence the future welfare of +mankind that the facts from which these conclusions are deduced demand +the most serious attention and study of every human being. + +It is therefore essential that we make an earnest endeavour to discover +fundamentals. In this connexion we must consider the available evidence +concerning the cause or causes of this conflict in Europe which has +shaken our boasted advancement in civilisation to its very roots. What +does this recrudescence of barbarity mean when viewed with an open and +unprejudiced mind in its relation to the future of those principles +which alone make for the real mental, physical, and spiritual growth of +mankind in progressive civilisation? + +It signifies a tremendous clash of opposing forces, a desperate conflict +between the lowly-evolved peoples of the world as against the more +highly evolved races, the struggle of an open-minded, mobile idealism +for the supremacy of the individual against a narrow-minded, rigid, +material automatism which entails the suppression of the individual and +the obliteration of his reason in the supposed interests of the State. + +Let us take, then, a general comparative view of the compelling +psycho-physical forces in the life of primitive and civilised nations up +to the crisis. America in this stands apart and must be considered +separately. + +_In Primitive Nations._ The compelling forces were chiefly physical and +subconscious. The very essentials of life depended almost entirely upon +brute force. Daily experiences gave a keen edge to savage instincts and +unbridled passions, to an automatic development which opposed the +cultivation of the faculty of adaptability to new environment. Even the +spheres of courage were limited, and when confronted with the unusual +these peoples quaked like cowards, and fled panic-stricken from the +unaccustomed, as in the case of the negroes in the Southern States of +America when the men of the Ku-Klux Klan pursued them on horseback +dressed in white. + +_In Civilised Nations._ The compelling forces have become less and less +physical and less subconscious than in the case of primitive nations, +but the advance from the physical to the mental and from the +subconscious to the conscious has not been adequate or sufficiently +comprehensive to establish the mental and conscious principles as the +chief compelling forces in the progress of the nation or even of the +individual. The essentials of life do not depend upon brute force, and +daily experiences become less and less associated with factors which +make for the development of savage instincts and unbridled passion, or +automatic development. But experience has proved that civilised nations +have failed to come through the ordeal of adaptation to the everchanging +environment of civilisation with satisfactory results. The spheres of +courage are still more or less limited, and when brought suddenly face +to face with the unusual and unexpected people still exhibit a tendency +to panic and loss of control. The progress made by civilised nations +from the primitive state to the present has not been upon comprehensive +lines. The result has been that the majority of the activities of the +nation have been limited, and in those few activities where the widening +influence held sway, the freedom became licence and led to +overcompensation. This condition was sufficiently harmful as long as it +applied to the individual and to individual effort, the individual being +more or less held in check by collective opinion; but when it applied to +the nation and to national effort, that nation which ignored the opinion +of other nations developed unchecked, and the national decision to +stifle the individual, body and soul, if it seemed to be for the welfare +of the State, constituted the most powerful force in the prevention of +progress on the evolutionary plane. + +For this decision, once it became the result of national conception, +carried with it the most damaging and impossible of all mental processes +in the sphere of true evolutionary advancement. In the first place the +national decision was the result of an erroneous national conception, +the outcome of what I have called, for the want of a better name, +“manufactured premises.” + +Manufactured premises are the forerunners of unsound and delusive +deductions—a stultification of reason—and demand the cultivation of a +form of self-hypnotism which is fatal to national or individual +progress. + +A few observant people noted this dangerous habit even in the early +literature of the German nation, and watched with keen interest its +cultivation in all spheres of activity in recent years. This explains +the stupendous failure of German judgment in all matters of national and +international importance, of the impossibility of the peoples of that +nation to see anything from any other point of view but their own, of +their crass stupidity in gauging the psychology of other nations, and +particularly that of the American nation. + +In the foregoing we have fundamentals worthy of consideration. They must +occupy the attention of all thinking people who wish to make a +contribution towards the uplifting of mankind and the establishment of a +standard of reasoned guidance and control which should make another +barbarous conflict unthinkable and therefore impossible. + +Naturally, every nation is ready enough with a more or less humane +reason for its madness. Self-protection, an altruistic regard for the +rights of smaller nations, a sense of high duty towards mankind at +large, all these pleas have been urged as explaining the single +principle which has drawn this or that nation into the whirlpool. And +each and every nation must surely have pleaded liberty as their excuse +at some time or another, liberty being one of those adaptable terms that +may be used to mean almost anything. Before the war Germany was +maintaining a right for “liberty” of expansion, a defensive use of the +word that has hardly anything in common with the American use at the +present time. + +On the other hand philosophers, economists, psychologists, commercial +experts, and the public at large have been busy with a dozen other +theories of the primary causes of the war. We have heard much talk of +race hatred, of business rivalry, of high commercial and political +intrigues, and a dozen other influences, and all of them have been put +forward at one time or another as the sole reason for the present welter +of blood and fury. We have, in fine, so many reasons from which to +choose that we may be quite sure no single one of them can possibly +afford us an inclusive and adequate explanation. + +But I will go still further than that. For I maintain on grounds which I +find logically unshakeable, that if we admit, as seems the only sensible +course, that something of all these reasons and excuses has entered into +the conditions producing such awful results, we must still seek some +explanation of the preceding state that made these conditions possible. +All our reasons, in fact, are mere effects, and we are groping for our +primary cause among resultant phenomena. We can never solve our problem +by such a method as this. We might as well hope to find the origin of a +child by dissecting its limbs and intestines. Our only hope is to shift +our viewpoint, to cease our muddled examination of the details just in +front of us, and try to see our problem in the broad terms of one who +can stand back and see life moving through the centuries. + +With all people, in all spheres of life, we know only too well that +certain mental and physical manifestations give an absolute clue to +their character, to their aims in life, their ideals, and, what is more +to the point, to the stage they have reached in the process called +evolution. + +Incidentally, I would point out that education as generally understood, +even when it implies the most up-to-date methods, does not necessarily +mean progress on the evolutionary plane any more than ability as a +linguist need denote a high standard of mentality. + +This applies also to most arts and particularly to those where music and +dancing are concerned. The lower the stage of evolution, within certain +limits, the greater the appeal of music and dancing. + +When we review the history and general progress of humanity we +find the instincts and traits of the animal—the brute force +principle—predominating at certain stages. If we go back far +enough we find that there was a stage when it was always +predominant. + +Therefore, a test as to the ratio of progress of nations on the +evolutionary plane is to be found in their tendency and desire to +advance beyond that stage where the mental and physical forces, which +should only belong as inherited instincts to the brute animals and +savages, hold sway; and with this in view, if we take a survey of the +history, ideals, habits of life, mental outlook, and general tendencies +of the German nation, it will show conclusively that these +self-hypnotised people approximated too closely to the lower animals and +savages in their mode and chief aims of life. + +The great and noble ideals and aims of mankind making for progress +towards the more highly evolved states were cast aside for the +unreasoning, brutal, and ignoble principles which make for the +debasement of man’s elevating potentialities, and hold him a slave to +the cruel and lowly-evolved state of the primitive creatures. That any +nation or nations should deliberately adopt, as their highest ideals and +aims, brute force in all its hideous aspects, desecration of mind, body, +and soul for the State, justification of criminal instincts and acts if +employed on behalf of the State, destruction, rape and plunder, murder +and torture to terrify innocent civilians; that they should adopt, in +short, the brutal principle that “Might is Right” in that special +national form in which it has been manifested in the last half century +and directed towards what is now known as “Militarism,”—all this is +surely proof positive that they have progressed but little on the upward +evolutionary stage from the state occupied by the brute beast and the +savage. The criminal aspect of the outrage of all that rightthinking +human beings hold dear is intensified by the fact that the nations which +perpetrated the deed were among the most prosperous of the world, and +enjoyed, as aliens, the same privileges as the subjects of those nations +whose hospitality and confidence they abused. + +The nations bearing the brunt of the struggle against this outburst of +primitive brutal instincts and desires have long since reached a stage +in their evolution which made the methods of Attila unthinkable. If +forced into war they conducted it on the evolved plane of the human, and +not that of the animal. They treated their captives as honourable men +and extended to them every conceivable consideration within their power. +Prior to this war the ideals and aims of these nations were the +antithesis of those of their lowly-evolved enemies, and they were ideals +and aims which made for the right to live in peace with all other +nations. They aimed at the reduction of armaments, and gave practical +proof of their aims. They opened their ports and their markets to their +present enemies and gave them a free hand in every respect in all +spheres of activity. They had no desire to beat down the ideals and +principles which make for the ennoblement of mankind, they had no wish +to dominate the world by brute force and to establish a system of living +and a form of conduct which grinds the individual into a mere heartless +unreasoning automaton, rigid-brained, driven like an animal, and not +daring to claim even his soul as his own. + +For many years prior to the crisis of 1914 we listened to the blatant +outbursts of German professors and other educated authorities of that +nation concerning its superiority to other nations. We were asked to +believe that certain individuals of that nationality had reached the +stage of the superman. These unfortunate and deluded people have for +some time been cursed with this obsession. + +Thinking men and women of other nations listened and wondered when these +claims were made concerning these supermen, and after examining the +evidence advanced to support these claims became convinced that they +were not justified. The stupendous failure of the supposed supermen in +every sphere of mental and physical activity in the present war proves +the correctness of these convictions. + +It seems inconceivable that supermen could so have guided and directed +the whole national energy of Germany that it became more and more +narrowed,—like the German mind,—until it concentrated almost solely upon +the stupid conception of the domination of the world by Germany. To this +end, the national energy was diverted chiefly into two channels: + + + COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY AND MILITARISM + +One of the great features connected with the former was the +extraordinary development of machinery, which demanded for its +successful pursuance that the individual should be subjected to the most +harmful systems of automatic training. + +The standardised parts of the machine made demands which tended to +stereotype the human machine. The limitations of human activity, mental +and physical, reached the maximum. The power to continue work under such +conditions depended upon a process of deterioration in the individual. +He was slowly but surely being robbed of the possibility of development. +The very soul of man was crushed to foster an industrial process which +was to provide the sinews of the war machine, to support that curse +called militarism, and the demoralisation of Germany came chiefly +through that nation’s conceptions of militarism which, in the first and +last analysis, stands for the worst manifestation of those savage +instincts and unbridled passions associated with the lowest stages of +primitive race development. + +The horrible results of the sum total of the national madness which the +foregoing represents are now revealed before us, for to Germany this +militarism constituted a rigid plan, a system, and a world-philosophy. + +She is convinced, against all the evidence, that her plan, system, or +philosophy, is so undeniably right as to constitute an absolute. As a +nation she has no mobility, no poise. She is influenced by a stultifying +idea, the perfection of her own “Kultur” (a word more properly +translated as a civilisation than by the word “culture” as used in the +English or American sense). She is, in fact, just as badly co-ordinated, +as unable to follow the true mandate of reason, as any individual who is +dominated by a fixed idea. + +For the trouble is that when reason is so far held in check that it +loses its power of denial, it must have lost its power of control. The +original “idea” formulated in the conscious mind has sunk so deep into +the subconscious that it cannot be changed except under the influence of +some stronger outside power. For nearly fifty years Germany, in her +schools, her gymnasiums, her universities, her civic and her political +life, has been inculcating a rigid and mentally demoralising system, and +she is suffering now—as the monomaniac in private life must suffer—for +her particular form of insanity. + +Even in the conduct of her great campaign, this weakness of hers has +begun to defeat her. She has lost the power of adaptability in military +matters. She repeats the faults of her original plan, despite the +endless illustrations that have been afforded by her Western antagonists +that that plan can be very considerably bettered. No doubt the Higher +Command may realise in some instances the weakness of the old method in +conditions that have been immensely modified since August, 1914, but +they are impotent to change, in a year or in a decade, the effect of +their own teaching on the millions of Germany’s army. The massed attack, +for example, has been demonstrated to be a disastrous failure—a single +well-placed machine-gun can defeat it—but Germany’s soldiers will not +advance in a scattered attack. They have learnt to depend upon the +nearness of their comrades. Separate a German battalion and it has +neither confidence nor courage. + +Again, can one reasonably doubt that the German nation suffers from some +form of self-hypnotism when one sees evidence of the almost pathetic +belief apparently still placed in the campaign of “frightfulness”? The +German people themselves are afraid—an inevitable symptom of certain +forms of monomania—of the horrible devices they themselves are using, +and no evidence can bring home to them the fact, that the plan of +terrorising their enemies not only fails but recoils even upon their own +heads. London—I speak from experience—is not intimidated by Zeppelin +raids by night, nor by seaplane raids by day. The inhabitants of London +do not cower under these terrible afflictions and beg for peace; on the +contrary each horrible incident arouses afresh their determination to +prevent, if possible, a recurrence of such savagery in the world’s +history. Any sane nation must have realised this fact eighteen months +ago; Germany, blind and rigid in the trance of her self-hypnosis, still +staggers on to her own destruction. + +In the opposite direction it is interesting to note the methods of the +British. In their case, we can trace no such clear effort for narrowness +and organisation. The general policy of the nation, whether internal or +international, had that haphazard air which is so commonly cited as +being a characteristic of the English method as a whole. We saw an +almost complete inability to govern or even to manage that still largely +subconsciously ruled country of Ireland. We witnessed the most +astounding blunders of policy with regard to foreign countries (witness +Lord Salisbury’s cession of Heligoland to Germany in 1890, Gladstone’s +handling of the first Boer War, and a dozen other instances), and even +with regard to the treatment of Britain’s own colonies, whilst +internally her educational and administrative systems were the result of +a method of trial and error which was sometimes well-nigh disastrous. + +The British have in them a peculiar kind of empiricism. They are ready +to laugh at and to criticise their own defects. They admit quite freely, +for example, that they “blundered through somehow” in the Boer War, and +that they have blundered again and again (most destructively in +Gallipoli) in the present campaign. Their criticism of the rigidity of +their own military methods is a proof that if the criticism is sometimes +justified, the people at home—aye! and the New Army abroad—have never +been infected with that rigidity themselves. But, in truth, that +rigidity of discipline is now little in evidence in the field. And how +little it has affected the British and French plan of campaign may be +judged by the fact that every new device of any importance during the +war, whether a device of method or of mechanical invention, has been +originated by France and Great Britain. Now, from the German point of +view, this adaptability to circumstances would be pronounced, _a +priori_, as certain to lead to disaster. I put it to America, on the +evidence afforded by the battle-fields of France, which method is the +more likely to achieve ultimate success? + +Returning now to my single reason for the cause of the present war, I +feel that the explanation has already been given. Granted a nation +educated and trained as Germany has been, some explosion was inevitable +sooner or later. If we have in our midst an individual suffering from a +fixed idea, he must in time become intolerable to us. Never in the +history of the world have thought and the tendency to organisation been +more fluid than they were in the first years of the 20th century. Yet +one great and powerful nation interfered with us at every turn, impeding +the flow of liberal thought by her obsession with the ideas of her own +greatness and the omnipotence of her military machine. Nevertheless the +other nations of Europe adapted themselves within limits to the demands +of this rigid mechanism in their midst. And it may be that these very +powers of endurance and adaptability hastened the crisis. They were +regarded by the monomaniacs of Germany as signs of weakness, and just as +their own philosopher Nietzsche went mad by concentration on his own +invariable theme, so at last Germany crossed the bounds of sanity, +imbued with a crazy belief in her own omnipotence. She ran amuck in the +wide streets of Europe, and even yet she has not realised her own +madness. I seriously question whether she will come to anything like a +proper realisation of that madness in the present generation. She has +allowed a habit of mind to become fixed; and it has fallen into the +realms of her subconsciousness. We must treat her as mad, but she is +nevertheless to be pitied. + +Earlier in this chapter, I separated America from the rest of the world. +And my reason for this is that I regard this great nation of the United +States as still in its early childhood from one point of view. I have an +immense confidence in the future of America. I see that she has +potentialities and opportunities such as no other nation has ever had. +For her the possibilities of control by reason are illimitable. But at +the same time I must issue a very serious warning to every American +reader of this book. For already I have seen the imitation of certain +habits of thought, habits which, if they are persisted in, will sink +deep into the national subconsciousness and prove a source of danger to +the body politic. + +My wish for America is that she should preserve as far as possible an +open mind. She has recently entered the Great War for reasons that every +right-minded man and woman must applaud and respect. I trust that she +will come out of it with the same balance and power of choice, so that +when she has to turn again to her own affairs, to matters of education, +of government, and of her commercial interests, she will be able to form +a national mind, sane enough and strong enough to control the great +national body. + +No finer ambition is possible than this. The old ambition of dominance, +whether commercial or military, defeats itself by its very exaggeration. +Such ambitions mount up until they become topheavy, and, even if they +could be achieved, the result would be nothing but a decadence such as +that which followed the Empire of Rome. + +But given such a power of co-ordination and of self-control in the race, +as a unit, as could be compared with the balance of a wise and healthy +man, that nation would be free, with a greater liberty than history can +record, and to such a nation little would be impossible. She would +become the teacher of the world by the force of her reason and example. +She would inaugurate the coming of a greater and wiser humanity. + + + END OF PART I + + + + + PART II + CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL + + + + + EDUCATION + + +“It is because the body is a machine that education is possible. +Education is the formation of habits, a superinducing of an artificial +organisation upon the natural organisation of the body; so that acts, +which at first require a conscious effort, eventually become unconscious +and mechanical.”—HUXLEY. + + + RE-EDUCATION + +“It is because the body is a machine that (RE)education is possible. +(RE)education is the formation of (NEW AND CORRECT) habits, a +(RE-INSTATING OF THE CORRECT) artificial organisation upon the natural +organisation of the body; so that acts, which at first require conscious +effort, eventually become unconscious and mechanical.” + + + + + INTRODUCTION TO PART II + + +In the first part of this volume I have endeavoured to explain the +general principle which underlies my work. I will now present my +proposition from a slightly different angle, as it were, to ensure a +clearer view of it, that is, I shall deal with it in the light of its +practical application to the acts of everyday life. + +I trust I may do something to convince thinking men and women that +conscious control is essential to man’s satisfactory progress in +civilisation, and that the properly directed use of such control will +enable the individual to stand, sit, walk, breathe, digest, and in fact +live with the least possible expenditure of vital energy. This will +ensure the highest standard of resistance to disease. When this +desirable stage of our evolution is reached the cry of physical +deterioration may no longer be heard. + +I will write out as concisely, as definitely, and as boldly as possible, +my claims and my main argument. In a second part I have added some more +discursive notes and comments, which I trust will meet the many requests +I have received for further light on certain points in my former book. + +With the records of my casebooks for over twenty years before me I feel +it right to set down my convictions in terms that do not admit of any +doubt or uncertainty. My conclusions upon the urgent question of +physical decadence have not been formulated in haste. They are +deductions from a long series of striking results and observed facts, +and, frankly, I consider them so important that I cannot hesitate to +deliver my message in a tone which may appear to some to savour of +over-confidence. So be it! + + + + + I + SYNOPSIS OF CLAIM + + +1. My first claim is that psycho-physical guidance by conscious control, +when applied as a universal principle to “living,” constitutes an +unfailing preventive for diseases mental or physical, malformations, and +loss of general efficiency. It is commonly considered that these +conditions are brought about by such evils of civilisation as the +limitation of energy, and by that loss of so-called “natural conditions” +which civilisation entails. + +It is my earnest belief that the intelligent recognition of the +principles essential to guidance by conscious control are essential to +the full mental and physical development of the human race. Due +consideration will convince even the sceptical that if mankind is to +evolve to the higher stages of mental and physical perfection, he must +be guided by these principles. They alone will bring men and women of +to-day to the highest state of well-being, enabling them to grapple +effectively with the problems of the day in the world of thought and +action, gradually widening the dividing line which separates civilised +mankind from the animal kingdom. + +There is no sphere of human activity, of human feeling or philosophy +where the adoption of the principles of conscious guidance and control +would not bring invaluable benefits. + +At present man is held in bondage by many subconscious instincts which +enslave the animal kingdom, the savage, and the semi-savage. Let me +illustrate this. Animals and savages become immediately unbalanced when +they experience the unusual, as for instance, when they see an express +train dash along for the first time. Such a new experience would cause +the bravest animal to become overwhelmed with that degree of fear which +momentarily suspends his normal guidance by instinct. So also with the +savage, who would be equally unbalanced by an experience of this kind. +In most spheres of normal life, he, like the animal, depends on +instinctive guiding principles which act with perfect balance under +accustomed circumstances. In the face of the unusual, however, he is +unable to meet suddenly the requirements of a new environment. To meet +these he needs reasoned, conscious guidance which is the outcome of the +habit of conscious control, and marks the dividing line between the +animal kingdom, where instinct is the guide, and the human kingdom where +its members are in communication with reason. + +The mental and physical limitations and imperfections of men and women +of the present day make it impossible for them to meet satisfactorily +the great majority of the requirements of their present environment, and +render them quite incapable of making the best of their capabilities in +any new environment. These instinctive guiding principles, not even +perfectly balanced as in the case of the savage and the animal, are +miserably insufficient to meet the conditions of the modern world with +its ever changing environment. Yet it is upon these instincts that men +and women rely, to the detriment of their mental and physical +attainments. + +2. My next claim is that all such diseases as those referred to above +(e.g., cancer, appendicitis, bronchitis, tuberculosis, etc.) are too +often permitted to remain uneradicated and frequently undetected, and so +to develop in consequence of the failure to recognise that the real +cause of the development of such diseases is to be found in the +erroneous preconceived ideas of the persons immediately concerned, ideas +which affect the organism in the manner described in Part I of this +book. + +The only experience which the average man or woman has in the use of the +different parts of the human organism is through his or her +subconsciousness. The result is a subconscious direction which in the +imperfectly co-ordinated person is based on bad experiences and on the +erroneous preconceived ideas before mentioned. Small wonder, then, that +such direction is faulty and leads to the development of serious defects +and imperfections. With this erroneous direction even the attempt to +carry out a simple action in accordance with subconscious habit is +fraught with danger, for it invariably affects in a detrimental manner +other parts of the subject’s organism which have nothing to do with the +particular act or acts attempted. For instance, in the subconsciously +controlled person the attempt to lengthen the neck is invariably +preceded by a movement of the eyes in an upward or downward direction. +Wrong use of the eyes in this or some similar manner too frequently is +the forerunner of what eventually develops into an established habit, +often causing an unnecessary and undue strain of the eyes which +seriously impairs their efficiency, and which in the ordinary way of +life leads to the specific treatment of these organs. It is obvious, +however, that what is needed in such a case is the eradication of the +erroneous preconceived idea and harmful habits, thereby removing +gradually the undue and unnecessary strain upon the organs of sight. +This will enable them to regain their lost efficiency and it is almost +certain that specific treatment of any kind on orthodox lines will be +unnecessary. In consequence of faulty guidance misdirected energies are +not confined to one part of the organism. They affect the hands, arms, +shoulders, legs, thorax, hips, knees, ankles and other parts of the +organism, frequently causing strain and interference with the +functioning of the different organs and finally seriously injuring them. +To support this second claim I bring forward the following arguments: + +(a) Till now little or no attention on a practical psycho-physical basis +has been given to the vital and harmful influence of this faulty +direction (of subconscious origin) and of the erroneous preconceived +ideas and faulty posture associated therewith. Under such influences the +subject can hardly fail to cultivate a wrong mental attitude towards +life in general and towards the art of living (evolving satisfactorily), +especially in regard to the primary causation of the defects which may +be present or which may develop eventually, but also in regard to the +essential laws connected with the eradication of these defects. + +(b) Owing to the lack of distinction between reasoned (conscious) and +unreasoned (subconscious or partly-conscious) actions, the subject +suffers from various forms of mental and physical delusions, notably +with regard to the physical acts he performs. Incidentally it should be +pointed out that if this is true of the ordinary acts of everyday life +how much more so of those physical acts which may be necessary to meet +the demands of some new environment! As a striking instance of delusion +in physical acts let us take the case of a man _who believes himself to +be merely overcoming what he regards as essential inertia, when he is +really fighting the resistance of undue antagonistic muscular action +exerted by himself_, a resistance of which he is not consciously aware. +In all such cases there is a constant conflict between two great forces, +the one (subconscious) destined to exercise supreme directive powers +during the early stages of human evolution, the other (conscious) to +supersede this limited direction and finally to prove the reliable guide +through the higher and highest stages of the great evolutionary scheme +which leads to the full enjoyment of his potentialities. It must be +remembered that the former became firmly established during centuries of +subconscious direction, holding undisputed sway until the first +glimmering of reasoned conscious guidance came in its crudest form to +disturb its power, a power which it is destined one day to overthrow. In +the present stage of our mental and physical progress the conflict +continues with gradually increasing energy, and while the conflict is +being waged the subject is influenced first in one direction by the +dictates of his subconsciousness (called by some “instinct,” by others +“intuition”), and then in another by his awakened conscious powers which +he is gradually but slowly developing. Of the real significance of this +conflict he has, unfortunately, no true realisation. At the same time he +undoubtedly feels the force of these two influences as conflicting +energies, but only in a dim, mysterious way. He is swayed first by one +force and then by the other as happens when we hear a man or woman say, +“Well, that seems the thing to do, but I feel that I shouldn’t do it.” + +Very often he does what he feels instead of what seems to be the correct +thing, and, moreover, the former is very frequently right. This is not +surprising, seeing that the subconscious instinct in us is much more +developed than the conscious faculty. But granting the subconscious its +fullest degree of merit, we are forced to recognise its serious +limitations in the mode of life (civilisation) with its ever changing +environment which human progress demands. We must have a guiding +principle without these limitations, to enable us to adapt ourselves +much more quickly to the new environments which are inevitable in the +progress of civilisation towards its legitimate goal. + +We must have something more reasoned and definite than that which +subconscious direction offers, and so we come to the need of reasoned +guidance. Up to the present neither of these forms of direction really +reaches the mind as a definite tangible idea consciously conceived. This +is because of the fundamental principles upon which subconscious +direction has been built up, and in consequence of the undeveloped +condition of conscious guidance. Furthermore, the subject has not yet +made any serious attempt to analyse these two forces, of whose +particular workings he is but dimly aware. The fundamental principle +which we call evolution demands that every human being shall be enabled +to make this analysis, so that he may differentiate between the impulses +springing from his subconsciousness (instinct-inhibition) and the +conceptions created in his reasoning conscious mind. + +The subject will thus cultivate the habit of distinguishing between +reasoned and unreasoned actions and this will at once tend to the +prevention of mental and physical delusions in all directions, notably +in regard to his physical acts in old or new environments. + +(c) Whilst these delusions remain, the subject will continue to perform +wrong or detrimental actions, for as long as his settled mental attitude +towards such actions remains unchanged, he will believe that he is +performing them in a correct manner. It is owing to this involuntary, +and on his part unrecognised, misapprehension, that many malformations +and inefficiencies become established, which sooner or later may lead to +definite disease. The popular misconception of the subject’s +responsibility in the matter leads him to be commonly pitied as for +unavoidable defects, whereas it is of the first importance that he +should realise the responsibility is his and his alone. He must be made +aware that such defects arise from his own fault, and are the outcome of +his ignorance or wilful neglect. + +Once this new mental attitude is firmly established there is hope for +the afflicted person and he will have the satisfaction of knowing that +he is, as it were, working out his own salvation on common-sense +practical lines, devoid of pernicious sympathy, face to face with real +facts, and stimulated by a principle which cannot fail to secure the +very best efforts in the right direction of which any ordinary person is +capable. + +(d) It is essential in the necessary re-education of the subject through +conscious guidance and control that in every case the “means whereby” +rather than the “end,” should be held in mind. As long as the “end” is +held in mind instead of the “means,” the muscular act, or series of +acts, will always be performed in accordance with the mode established +by old habits. When each stage of the series essential to the “means +whereby” is correctly apprehended by the conscious mind of the subject, +the old habits can be broken up, and every muscular action can be +consciously directed until the new and correct guiding sensations have +established the new proper habits which in their turn become +subconscious, but on a more highly evolved plane. + +In effect these new habits ensure conditions which give new life to, and +maintain in a high state of efficiency, every organ of the body, the +automatic functions being reacted upon by the consciously controlled +energies. By my system of obtaining the position of “_mechanical +advantage_,”[14] a perfect system of natural internal massage is +rendered possible, such as never before has been attained by orthodox +methods, a system which is extraordinarily beneficial in breaking up +toxic accumulation; thus avoiding evils which arise from +auto-intoxication. + +The position of mechanical advantage, which may or may not be a normal +position, is the position which gives the teacher the opportunity to +bring about quickly with his own hands a co-ordinated condition in the +subject. Such co-ordination gives to the pupil an experience of the +proper use of a part or parts, in the imperfect use of which may be +found the primary cause of the defects present. It is by the repetition +of such experiences of the proper use of his organism that the pupil is +enabled to reproduce the sensation and to employ the same guiding +principles in everyday life. The placing of the pupil in what would +ordinarily be considered an abnormal position (of mechanical advantage) +affords the teacher an opportunity to establish the mental and physical +guiding principles which enable the pupil after a short time to repeat +the co-ordination with the same perfection in a normal position. + +I maintain in this connexion, that any case of incipient appendicitis +may be treated successfully by these methods. Further, when this +position of mechanical advantage has been attained through the +employment of the first principles of conscious guidance and control, a +rigid thorax may regain mobility, no matter what the age of the subject, +and full thoracic expansion and contraction may be acquired and, with +the minimum of effort, maintained. During the practical process by which +this thoracic elasticity and maximum intra-thoracic capacity is +gradually established, the body of the subject is at the same time +re-adjusted and mental principles are inculcated which will enable him +to maintain the improved conditions in posture and co-ordination which +are being set up, and which will secure the normal and necessary +abdominal pressure in the right direction, thus constituting a natural +form of massage of the digestive organs which is maintained during the +ordinary actions of everyday life. + +3. I am able to re-adjust and to teach others to re-adjust the human +machine with the hands; to mould the body, as it were, into its proper +shape, and with an open-minded pupil it is possible to remove many +defects in a few minutes, as, for example, to change entirely the +production of a voice, its quality and power. + +4. In prescribing the principles of conscious guidance and control, we +are dealing not with an epidemic of physical or mental degeneracy, but +with a stage in the progress of the human race from the subconscious and +instinctive to the conscious and reasoned command of the whole human +mechanism. In other words, we have reached a stage in the process of +civilisation where demands are being made which we are unable to meet +satisfactorily, and with the serious results which may be seen on every +hand, results from which we can escape only by passing from those +primitive modes of guidance which approximate too closely to those of +the animal kingdom where the greater potentialities of the human being +remain latent. + +The suggested adoption of conscious guidance and control as a universal +principle on the lines heretofore outlined will enable us to move slowly +but with gradually increasing speed towards those higher psycho-physical +spheres which will separate the animal and human kingdoms by a deep +gulf, and mankind will then enjoy the blessings which will be the +natural result of capacities fully developed. + + + + + II + THE ARGUMENT + + +The marked tendency toward physical degeneracy among the men and women +of all civilised races has been the constant theme of physiologists, +therapeutists and other specialists; endless explanations have been put +forward to account for it, and countless remedies suggested to +counteract it. In this question, as in the details of medicine and +surgery, the general inclination of the human mind is always towards a +treatment of epidemic symptoms, towards vague generalisations in the +diagnosis and treatment of individual symptoms, whether the word +“individual” in this case refers to a specific sufferer or a correlated +class of diseases, towards a regard of effects rather than of causes. + +As a reaction against this long-accepted method of dealing with +individual symptoms by differentiated treatment, there has arisen a +great diversity of so-called “mind-healers,” whose _a priori_ methods +and lack of any clearly conceived system have brought their efforts into +disrepute. Such were the conditions which over twenty years ago I sought +to understand, believing—as I still do—that the whole human race was at +some great psycho-physical turning point in its history, and that if the +true nature of this evolutionary stage could be understood, it might and +should be possible to direct man’s physical and mental progression and +so combat, and in time eliminate, a thousand evils which seem to have no +counterpart in the world of the lower animals, save in very exceptional +cases. + +In embarking upon this enquiry I realised from the outset that I was +dealing not with a world-wide epidemic but with a stage of progress, and +that it was essential therefore that I should at once discard all +theories which advocated, implicitly or explicitly, a return to similar +conditions. Evolution knows no such return to extinction. The species +must go forward to a triumphant perfection, or give place to a more +dominant, more complete, self-controlled type. + +Now if man as an animal, with an animal body differing little in +anatomical structure from other families of the order of Primates, is +yet differentiated physically by a susceptibility to disease and bodily +degeneration, which, save in very exceptional cases, finds little or no +parallel in the lower animals, we must determine the prime cause of such +differentiation. The solution of the problem which is commonly put +forward, and which has found support in the body calling themselves in +England and in the United States “Eugenists,” I cannot accept as +universal. This theory rests mainly on the contention that in the human +polity the physical struggle for existence has ceased to have effect, +that the unfit are permitted to produce offspring equally with the fit, +and that for the natural selection imposed by circumstances which are +fatal to the weak we must substitute an arbitrary selection in order to +maintain the high efficiency of the natural type. Though I am in +sympathy with many principles of Eugenics I reject this theory as a +universal one. It is inconsistent with the great and inspiring ideal of +the progress of the human race toward a mental and bodily perfection. If +we believe in the idea of a Purpose running through life, unfolding +itself to each successive generation and expressing itself in the terms +of human experience; if, in other words, we believe in any scientific +theory of development, in any large scheme of progress, it is impossible +to accept a theory which assumes the lack of adaptability in man’s +physical body to thrive in the conditions which have grown up around +him, or to enter its true and natural kingdom of perfect soundness. If +we postulate that a third of civilised humanity is unfit to continue the +race, we can only conclude that man’s physical evolution has proved a +failure, and that the race is doomed ultimately to extinction. And, in +the last analysis, it is inconceivable that the prime instinct and +desire for reproduction can be overruled at the dictates of any small +body of men, or even that such a method, if possible, could be +productive of any highly desirable results. + +Wherefore I take my stand firmly on the ground that the body of +civilised man is capable not only of continuing the struggle for +existence but of rising to a higher potentiality. So, returning to the +point of differentiation between man and the lower animals, I am now +convinced that we must seek for the cause of this physical degeneration +not in the pressure of new circumstances of life, but in the progress +from one state of being to the next. I maintain that in order to +discover the solution of this twofold problem of universal disease and +its universal remedy, we must look to this enormous growth of reasoning +power, and to the consciousness and realisation of the means whereby the +desired effect can be obtained. For the animal and the lower races of +mankind do not perform physical acts by any process of reason. They are +the servants of that strange directing law which governs the flower in +its curiously ingenious devices to ensure cross-fertilisation, no less +than the higher mammalia in the rules of their gregarious societies, the +law for which we have found no better term than Instinct. It is this +“instinct” which guides all the nervous muscular mechanisms of the +animal’s anatomical structure, and is traceable as the motive in all +functional processes. But in the physical economy of mankind this +instinct is actually at war with, and is ever being controlled and +superseded by conscious, directive reason. + +The number of man’s instinctive actions grows ever more limited, (1) as +the result of a complete change of habit, and (2) more noticeably, as +the outcome of a mental evolution which prompts him continually to seek +a cause for every action, to analyse and endeavour to comprehend the +secret springs of his being. Moreover civilisation, with its +multitudinous problems of life and its perpetual interplay of +personalities, demands even in the minutiæ of physical action a constant +reasoning, a deliberate and comparatively rapid adaptation to +surroundings such as instinct is quite unable to provide. Thus man’s +whole body is a polity ruled by two governors whose dictates are not +invariably consistent one with the other; and one governor is frequently +disobeyed at the expense of the other. This fact, indeed, is obvious +when it is thus considered, but we have to determine the possible +outcome. There are three alternatives. The first, a return to the sole +guidance of instinct, is unthinkable. The second, the continuance of +this dual government, is the very condition which has led to the evils +we seek to remedy. There remains the third, namely, that man’s physical +evolution points to progress along the road of reasoned, conscious +guidance and control. It was this last conclusion which over twenty +years ago led me to investigate and to practise the means by which this +conscious guidance and control could be obtained, so as to apply it to +the eradication and prevention of human ills, and to the maintenance of +the body in a high degree of physical perfection. + + + + + III + THE PROCESSES OF CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL + + +The formulation of the method of conscious guidance and control arises +in practice from a close study of the imperfect uses of the mental and +physical mechanisms of the human organism. Since, as has been shown, +conscious guidance and control is necessary and is being practised to +some extent, inefficiently, by every civilised man and woman, it is +essential that its principles should be thoroughly understood. The +method is based firstly on the understanding of the co-ordinated uses of +the muscular mechanisms, and secondly, on the complete acceptance of the +hypothesis that each and every movement can be consciously directed and +controlled. + +In re-educating the individual, therefore, the first effort must be +directed to the education of the conscious mind. The words +“re-educating” and “re-education” have a specific meaning. In the +individual the normal processes of education in the use of the +anatomical structure is conducted subconsciously, certain instincts +commanding certain functions, whilst other functions are conducted +deliberately. The effects of this haphazard process have either to be +elaborated or broken down, according to the defects established by +misuse of the mechanisms, and the first step in re-education is that of +establishing in the pupil’s mind the connexion which exists between +cause and effect in every function of the human body. + +In the performance of any muscular action by conscious guidance and +control there are four essential stages: + + + (1) The conception of the movement required; + + (2) The inhibition of erroneous preconceived ideas which + subconsciously suggest the manner in which the movement or series of + movements should be performed; + + (3) The new and conscious mental orders which will set in motion the + muscular mechanism essential to the correct performance of the action; + + (4) The movements (contractions and expansions) of the muscles which + carry out the mental orders. + + +The process of re-education concerns itself with establishing these +principles, and for the purpose of illustration we may take a typical +example of a patient who has had no experience of them. + +A well-built, muscular man in the prime of life, conducting during +business hours a sedentary occupation and taking more or less violent +exercise during his leisure, becomes a chronic sufferer from indigestion +with all its concomitant troubles. He complains that the physical +exercises of the gymnasium no longer do him any good, but appears to +think that if he gave up his office work altogether, an economic +impossibility for him, he might recover. + +Suppose he is asked to stand upright and take a “deep breath.” It will +be found that he immediately makes movements which tend to retard the +proper action of the respiratory processes rather than to promote such +action. For instance, it is almost certain that in the attempt to make +the movement referred to he will stiffen the muscles of his neck, throw +back the head, hollow the back, protrude the stomach, and take breath by +audibly _sucking_ air into the lungs. The muscles over the entire +surface of the bony thorax will be unduly tensed, tending to more or +less harmful thoracic rigidity at the very moment when the maximum of +mobility is needed. How could the result be otherwise? For, in telling +the pupil to take a “deep breath,” the teacher starts out with the +assumption that the pupil can do so. But why such an assumption? What +guide in carrying out the order has the pupil except his own admittedly +erroneous guidance? I say “admittedly” erroneous, for I contend that the +pupil’s condition, together with the fact that he and the teacher deem +it necessary to remedy it, is tantamount to this admission. So common, +so almost universal is such a response as the above to these orders that +the truth of the statement may be tested on any average individual. Now +the mistakes of this response need not be dwelt upon here. They have +proved in every case in my experience sufficient explanation for the +trouble of the digestive organs. Examination of the subject will reveal +the hollowing of the back with the accompanying protrusion of the +abdominal wall, whilst the abdominal muscles will be deficient in the +energy and tone necessary to the maintenance of efficiency in the +digestive organs. Now in dealing with this case, many parts of the +organism will require re-adjustment. The spine must be straightened and +lengthened, the mean thoracic capacity permanently increased in order to +give free play to the internal organs, and the firmly established habit +of drawing breath by _sucking_ air into the lungs must be broken. + +It is essential in this place to point out that no system of physical +exercises will alter the present condition of the subject in respect of +these faults, since all exercises will be conducted under a primary +misconception with regard to the use of the muscles involved in the +re-adjustment and co-ordination of the organism. + +We may now follow the individual through the four stages in the +inculcation of the principles of conscious control. In the first place +it is necessary that he should have a clear understanding of the faults +we seek to remedy. No tacit compliance on his part to a treatment, the +processes of which he does not understand, will be of the slightest +value. He must accept completely the principle in detail. In the second +place he must be taught to realise his erroneous conceptions which +result in erroneous movements, and this, whether the conceptions be +conscious or subconscious. He must also be taught to inhibit, and, +finally, to eradicate these preconceived ideas and the mental order or +series of orders which follow from them. Only then can he give the +correct guiding orders as next described. + +In the third place, then, he must learn to give the correct mental +orders to the mechanisms involved, and _there must be a clear +differentiation in his mind between the giving of the order and the +performance of the act ordered and carried out through the medium of the +muscles_. The whole principles of volition and inhibition are implicit +in the recognition of this differentiation. Thus, to return to the +example under consideration, we will suppose that I have requested the +pupil _to order_ the spine to lengthen and the neck to relax. If, +instead of merely framing and holding this desire in his mind, he +attempts the physical performance of these acts, he will invariably +stiffen the muscles of his neck and shorten his spine, since these are +the movements habitually associated _in his mind_ with lengthening his +spine, and the muscles will contract in accordance with the old +associations. In effect it will be seen that in this, as in all other +cases, stress must be laid on the point that it is _the means_ and not +the _end_ which must be considered. When the end is held in mind, +instinct or long habit will always seek to attain the end by habitual +methods. The action is performed below the level of consciousness in its +various stages, and only rises to the level of consciousness when the +end is being attained by the correct “means whereby.” + +In the fourth place, when the correct guiding orders have been practised +and given by the mind, a result attained by attention and the +instruction of the teacher, the muscles involved will come into play in +different combinations under the control of conscious guidance, and a +reasoned act will take the place of the series of habitual, unconsidered +movements which have resulted in the deformation of the body. And it +must be kept clearly in mind that the whole of the old series of +movements has been correlated and compacted into one indivisible and +rigid sequence which has invariably followed the one mental order that +started the train; such an order, for instance, as “Stand upright.” + +Leaving this specific example, I come now to a consideration of the +general principles involved. Firstly, as to the teaching method. + +Every one who has had experience, personally or vicariously, of the many +“methods” and “systems” of teaching breathing, speaking, singing, +physical culture, golf, fencing, etc., must have noticed that whilst the +failures of these “methods” are many, the successes are comparatively +few. + +The few successes are of course set down to exceptional natural +aptitude, whilst the teacher has an explanation of those cases more +flattering to himself and prefers not to consider too closely the +average of his failures. The truth is that all these systems break down +because the pupil, in the attempt to adopt them, is guided always by his +subconscious direction and is forced to depend too much on what is +called natural aptitude. When guidance by conscious control and reason +supersedes guidance by instinct, we shall be able to develop our +potentialities to the full. + +My own analysis of the matter is that the teaching method is, as a rule, +entirely wrong, and wrong because of a fundamental misconception and an +entirely inaccurate analysis resulting in a false premise. The pupil’s +defects are dealt with commonly through their effects and not their +causes. It is not recognised that every defective action is the result +of the erroneous preconception of the doer, whether consciously or +subconsciously exercised, and the orders which directly or indirectly +follow. Nor is it understood that a pupil under the influence of such +erroneous preconceptions can make no real progress till he is made to +realise that it is he himself who is actually bringing about the +defective action. The teacher does not attach sufficient importance to +the fact that the pupil is often under a complete misapprehension as to +his own actions, being under the delusion that he is doing one thing +when he is often doing the exact opposite. + +No real progress in the overcoming of faults can be made until the pupil +consciously ceases to will or to do those things which he has been +willing and doing in the past, and which have led him to commit the +faults that are to be eradicated. “Don’t do this, but this,” says the +teacher, dealing with _effects_. In other words, it is assumed that the +defective action on the part of the pupil can be put right by “doing +something else.” The teacher accepts and preaches this doctrine without +ever analysing the defect to its root cause in the human will, the motor +of the whole mechanism. He forgets that in “doing something else” the +pupil must use the same machinery which, _ex hypothesi_, is working +imperfectly, and that he must be guided in his action by the same +erroneous conceptions regarding right and wrong doing. Neither teacher +nor pupil seems to remember that to know whether practice is _right_ or +_wrong_ demands judgment. Judgment is the result of experience. Faulty +or wrong experience means faulty or bad judgment, whereas correct +experience means good judgment. + +The very fact that the pupil was beset with defects and needed help +proves that his _kinæsthetic_ experiences were incorrect and even +harmful, and as his judgment on the kinæsthetic basis has been built +upon such faulty experience, the judgment will prove most misleading and +unsound. + +Therefore we are forced to dispense, for the time being, with the sense +of feeling as a guide in its old sphere of associations. We cannot deny +that we are beset with defects, that even when the way is made clear for +their eradication we cannot follow that way on our old mode of +procedure, because our guides in the form of sensory appreciations +(feeling-tones), general experience, and judgment are unworthy of our +confidence, and will guide us in such a way that, even if we succeed in +eradicating some specific defect, it will be found that in the process +we have cultivated a number of others which are as bad or even worse +than the original. + +It seems also to me that practice so-called is so rarely directed by a +reasoned analysis on a reasoned plan. Nor does the teacher analyse and +instruct with accuracy. He demands from the pupil merely imitative not +reasoned acts. This makes practice so often futile for the imperfectly +co-ordinated person, and teaching both halting and inadequate. + +With regard to this question of the imitative method I have frequently +had to point out to vocal pupils that certain effects and capacities, +which they hoped to acquire in a few lessons, were a result of a proper +conscious knowledge on my part of the “means whereby” the voice is +produced. To achieve these results they must study and master the same +principles, but they could never reproduce them by a series of imitative +acts divorced from knowledge of the processes involved and skill in +using these processes. There is no royal road to anything worth having, +and the imitative method of teaching seems to me pure charlatanry. + +The position of the teacher and pupil is a very hopeless one as long as +their standpoint is still on the subconscious plane, and the physical +and mental conditions of our time, when considered in the light of the +teaching methods adopted in the past, afford abundant proof of this. + +My reader can rejoice that the foregoing is a faithful representation of +our position to-day. He can rejoice because these tremendous forces +demand that if he wishes to progress he must leave the subconscious +plane of animal growth and development, and adopt the reasoned conscious +plane of guidance and control by means of which mankind may rise to +those high evolutionary planes for which his latent and undeveloped +potentialities fit him. + +I will now endeavour to outline the teaching method which should be +adopted if we are to pass successfully from subconscious to conscious +guidance and control, in the endeavour to remove defects and delusions +and to develop and establish correct guiding centres and senses. + +The conscious guidance and control advocated here is on a wide and +general, and not on a specific basis. Conscious control applied in a +specific way in unthinkable, except as a result of the principle +primarily applied as a universal. For instance, the conscious +controlling of the movements of a particular muscle or limb, as +practised by athletes and others, is of little practical value in the +science of living. The specific control of a finger, of the neck, or of +the legs should primarily be the result of the conscious guidance and +control of the mechanism of the torso, particularly of the antagonistic +muscular actions which bring about those correct and greater +co-ordinations intended to control the movements of the limbs, neck, +respiratory mechanism and the general activity of the internal organs. + +In order to describe the teaching method necessary in this connexion, I +will indicate the procedure which should be adopted in the attempt to +help a pupil in whom undue tension of the muscles of one side of the +neck causes the head to be pulled down on that side. In the ordinary +way, the pupil is told to relax and straighten the neck and he and his +teacher devote themselves to this end. This attempt may be attended with +more or less success, chiefly less. If they do succeed in removing the +specific trouble it is almost certain that new defects will have been +cultivated during the process. In any case the teacher’s order to relax +and straighten the neck is incorrect and primarily the result of a wrong +assumption. It started from a false premise which led to false +deductions. The pupil and his teacher decided that something was wrong +and that therefore something specific had to be done to put it right. +The “end” was held in mind primarily and not the “means whereby.” + +The correct point of view is: Something is wrong in the use of the +psycho-physical mechanism of the person concerned. Is this imperfection +or defect a direct or indirect result of this person’s own direction and +action, or is it the result of some influence outside of himself and +beyond his power to control? It can be proved conclusively that his +imperfections or defects are due entirely to causes springing directly +or indirectly from his own ideas and acts. + +It is therefore obvious that the correct order of procedure for teacher +and pupil is first for the pupil to learn to prevent himself from doing +the wrong things which cause the imperfections or defects, and then, as +a _secondary_ consideration in procedure, to learn the correct way to +use the mental and physical mechanisms concerned. + +If there is any undue muscular pull in any part of the neck, it is +almost certain to be due to the defective co-ordination in the use of +the muscles of the spine, back, and torso generally, the correction of +which means the eradication of the real cause of the trouble. + +This principle applies to the attempted eradication of all defects or +imperfect uses of the mental and physical mechanisms in all the acts of +daily life and in such games as cricket, football, billiards, baseball, +golf, etc., and in the physical manipulation of the piano, violin, harp +and all such instruments. + +My reader must not fail to remember that mental conceptions are the +stimuli to the ideo-motor centre which passes on the subconscious or +conscious guiding orders to the mechanism. In dealing with human defects +or imperfections we must consider the inherited subconscious conceptions +associated with the mechanisms involved, and also the conceptions which +are to be the forerunners of the ideo-motor guiding orders connected +with the new and correct use of the different mechanisms. + +In order to establish successfully the latter (correct conception), we +must first inhibit the former (incorrect conception), and from the +ideo-motor centre project the new and different directing orders which +are to influence the complexes involved, gradually eradicating the +tendency to employ the incorrect ones, and steadily building up those +which are correct and reliable. + +It will therefore be understood that if we eliminate the conception +established and associated with our defects or imperfections, it means +that we are really eliminating our inherited subconsciousness, and all +the defective uses of the psycho-physical mechanism connected therewith. + +In our attempts on these lines we are, at the outset, confronted with +the difficulty of mental rigidity. The preconceptions and habits of +thought with regard to the uses of the muscular mechanisms are the first +if not the only stumbling-blocks to the teaching of conscious control. +Many of these preconceptions are the legacy of instinct, others arise +from habitual practices started by a faulty comprehension of the uses of +the mechanism, others again by conscious or unconscious imitation of +faults in others. In this last case it may be noted that although we are +always deploring the degeneracy of civilised man the exemplars held up +for the child’s conscious and unconscious imitation are nearly always +faulty specimens. These preconceptions and habits of thought, therefore, +must be broken down, and since the reactions of mind on body and body on +mind are so intimate, it is often necessary to break down these +preconceptions of mind by performing muscular acts for the subject +vicariously; that is to say, the instructor must move the parts in +question while the subject attends to the inhibition of all muscular +movements. It would be impossible, however, to describe the method in +full detail in this place, owing to the extraordinary variability of the +cases presented, no two of which exhibit precisely the same defects. On +broad lines it is evident that the misuses must be diagnosed by the +instructor who may be called upon to use considerable ingenuity and +patience in correcting the faults, and substituting the correct mental +orders for the one general order which starts the old train of vicious +habitual movements. The mental habit must be first attacked and this +mental habit usually lies below the level of consciousness; but it may +be reached by introspection and analysis, and by the performance of the +habitual acts by other than the habitual methods, that is, by physical +acts performed consciously as an effect of the conscious conception and +the conscious direction of the mind. + +Speaking generally, it will be found that the pupil is quite unable to +analyse his own actions. Tell a young golfer that he has taken his eye +off the ball or swayed his body, and he feels sure, in his heart, that +you are mistaken. The imperfectly poised person has not a correct +apprehension of what he is really doing. In this apparently simple +matter of the carriage or poise of the body I find in quite nine-tenths +of my cases a harmful rigidity[15] which is quite unconsciously assumed. +When it is pointed out to them, and physically demonstrated, they almost +invariably deny it indignantly. I ask a new pupil to put his shoulders +back and his head forward, and he will consistently put both back or +forward. I tell a new pupil he is shortening his spine, and in +attempting to lengthen it he invariably shortens it still more. The +action is one over which he has neither learnt nor practised any control +whatever. He is simply deluded regarding his sensations and unable to +direct his actions. I do not therefore in teaching him actually order +him to lengthen his spine by performing any explicit action, but I cause +him to rehearse the correct guiding orders, and after placing him in a +position of mechanical advantage I am able by my manipulation to bring +about, directly or indirectly as the case may be, the desired +flexibility and extension. + +The process is of course repeated until the pupil gains a new +kinæsthetic sense of the new and correct use of the parts, which become +properly co-ordinated, and the correct habit is established. He will +then no longer find it easy to cause his physical machinery to work as +it did before the fault was thus effectively eradicated. + +I frequently have to treat cases of congenital or acquired crippling and +distortion. I protest against the mental attitude which looks upon such +ailments as incurable and beyond the control of the patient—the mental +attitude of the person who says, “Poor fellow,” to the sufferer, and +induces him to repeat and be dominated by this paralysing formula. As a +matter of plain fact the condition is maintained by the pupil’s +erroneous ideas concerning “cause” and “effect,” and the working of his +own mechanism, and so, subconsciously but quite effectively, he is +really causing and maintaining the trouble. My method is to make an +examination and then to apply tests to discover the real cause or +causes, namely, the erroneous preconceived ideas, and to find out what +minimum of control is left, and therefrom to develop a healthy condition +of the whole organism by a simple and practical procedure which step by +step effects the desired physical and mental changes. Like the +faith-healer, then, I lay much stress on the mental attitude of the +patient; unlike him, instead of denying the existence of the evil I make +the pupil search out with me its cause. I then explain to him that his +own will (not mine or some higher will) is to effect the desired change, +but that it must first be directed in a rational way to bring about a +physical manifestation, and must be aided by a simple mechanical +principle and a proper manipulation. In this way a reasoned and +permanent confidence is built up in the pupil instead of a spurious +hysterical one which is apt to fail as suddenly as it arose. I will not, +for instance, allow my pupils to close their eyes during their work, in +spite of a constant plea that they can “think better” or “concentrate” +better with their eyes shut, for, as a rule, I find that this resolves +itself into an attempt at self-hypnotism. I make them endeavour to +exercise their conscious minds all the while. As I have already said, I +maintain further and I am prepared to prove that the majority of +physical defects have come about by the action of the patient’s own will +operating under the influence of erroneous preconceived ideas and +consequent delusions, exercised consciously or more often +subconsciously, and that these conditions can be changed by that same +will directed by a right conception implanted by the teacher. + +In this connexion I am able to give particulars of an interesting case. + +A well-known actor fell during rehearsal and injured his arm so severely +that he was unable to raise it more than five or six inches from his +side without intense pain. He consulted many medical men without relief, +and had been disabled for six weeks when he was sent to see me. + +I diagnosed the case as a subjective subconsciously willed disablement. +Of course, the last thing I mean is that it was “affected” in the usual +sense; all the patient’s interests and character made this impossible. + +I asked him to lift his arm. “I can’t.” “But please try.” He did so and +the cause of his trouble was immediately apparent to me. He was using +the muscular mechanisms of the arm and neck in such a way as to place a +severe strain on the injured muscle, such a strain indeed as would have +been harmful to a normal arm and which caused him intense pain. For +instance, he was exerting force sufficient to lift a sack of flour and +he _looked_ as if he had been called upon for such an exertion! He was +stiffening all the muscles which he should have relaxed, and was +altogether acting as the subconsciously controlled person of to-day does +habitually act when something unusual occurs. To put the matter in the +terms of my thesis, he acted in accordance with a subconscious guiding +influence which had long since lost the standard of accuracy of instinct +possessed by his early ancestors, whilst nothing had been given to or +cultivated by him in his civilised state to compensate for its loss. The +“cure” was so simple as to appear ludicrous. I had diagnosed that the +subconsciously stiffened muscles were the cause of the trouble. My +efforts were devoted to obtaining the correct action of the arm with the +minimum of tension. This was done by manipulation and by giving him +guiding orders which brought about the correct use of the parts +concerned. Within ten minutes he was able to lift his arm with very +little pain and he resumed his professional work at once and without +relapse. Note that the relaxing was not brought about by a preliminary +order to relax, an action which entailed processes of which he had no +true consciousness and over which therefore he had no control. Note also +that this demonstration is much more effective for the treatment of +similar later accidents and for general self-development and control, +than any hypnotic “suggestion” that there was no pain.[16] + +I do not deny, for it would be against the evidence, that the healers do +contrive to remove pain; but apart from the danger of removing mere +symptoms (that is, removing nature’s danger signals and leaving the +danger untouched), their methods have the obvious limitation of being +repugnant to many, and have fallen into some discredit amongst those who +are by no means amongst the least capable, accomplished, and thoughtful +human types. + +Another very interesting case was that of a man who stuttered and came +to me for help. All stutterers have their particular and peculiar little +accompaniments to the main defect. His was a harmful habit of moving his +arm up and down from the elbow as he attempted to speak. I asked him why +he did this, and he replied that he _felt_ it assisted him in speaking. +I explained and demonstrated to him that this was a delusion, that this +movement of the limb was really a hindrance and not an assistance. He +saw that a considerable amount of valuable mental and physical energy, +which should have been conveyed to the mechanisms and organs of speech, +was being diverted to a limb which might have been amputated without +interfering in any way with those mental and mechanical processes upon +which his powers of speech entirely depended. He became convinced on +these points and intimated his willingness to endeavour to carry out my +instructions. I assisted him to establish a working conscious control +basis and improved his co-ordination generally. + +Then I made the following request: + +“I wish you to project orders to these newly developed co-ordinators. +You will then be prevented from employing your arms as an aid in +speaking, and in your general attempts at conscious guidance in private. +In public I wish you to adopt the following mode of procedure: + + + “Whenever a person speaks to you, asking a question or in any way + trying to open up a conversation, you must as a primary principle + refuse to answer by mentally saying _No_. (This will hold in check the + old subconscious orders—the bad habit of moving the arm. It + constitutes the inhibition of the old errors before attempting to + speak). + + “Then give the new and correct orders to your general co-ordinations + and command the ‘means whereby’ of the act of correct and controlled + speaking. + + “Make this a principle of life.” + + +Perhaps I should add here that I convinced this pupil by practical +demonstrations that the energy directed to his arm was wasted and +misdirected; that, if this energy were correctly directed to the proper +co-ordinations concerned with the mechanism of breathing and speaking, +the process would represent the difference between correct and incorrect +attempts in the direction of ultimate satisfactory breath and speech +control. In this particular case the desired end was gained in a few +weeks. + +The observant person must have noted the singularly small range of +physical control exercised by the average adult outside the narrow +sphere of his daily routine actions. In the realm of sport, for +instance, take the golf swing. A novice, or for that matter a player of +some experience carefully “addresses” the ball and is instructed _to +swing up and down again in the same orbit_, without moving the head or +swinging the body. The professional has arranged the stance; the drive +seems the simplest of actions; yet, more often than not, it fails +lamentably. And the player, nine times out of ten, _has no sort of +consciousness_ of what has interfered with his stroke. + +This is a very common instance of the failure to achieve the desired end +in those who depend solely upon subconscious direction. Even the +accomplished and practised golfer has periods when he acknowledges that +he is “off his game” or “out of form,” times when his skill leaves him +altogether _because he cannot register consciously_ the method which, +when he uses it instinctively, enables him to play well. + +Where the novice is concerned, however, the stubborn fact to be faced is +that it is practically impossible for the ordinary person to carry out +such instructions as _swing up and down again in the same orbit, etc._, +with precision and accuracy. At the first attempt the pupil may, by mere +chance, succeed. He may even make a second successful attempt, and a +third, and so on. But such instances are very rare. On the other hand, +he may begin badly and after a few days record a series of successes. +Incidentally, I will point out that this applies more or less to the +majority of experienced golf players. We all know that to vary is to be +human. But there should not be such an alarming gulf between our best +and our worst. It is very serious from the mental point of view. It +shakes our confidence in ourselves to the very roots of our mental and +physical foundations. Such experiences have a bad effect even upon the +emotions generally, and the person concerned develops irritation, bad +temper, and other undesirable traits at a time (a time of recreation and +pleasure) when there should be an absolute absence of these harmful +conditions. + +It will readily be conceded that during our attempts at this or any +other game the mental condition of the performer should be in keeping +with a pleasurable and health-giving form of outdoor exercise. + +But to return to the stumbling-blocks in the way of the correct +performance of an act which requires one “to swing up and down in the +same orbit.” These arise mainly from the tendency of the great majority +to curve and shorten the spine unduly and otherwise to interfere with +the correct conditions of the muscular system of the back, the spine, +and the thorax in the performance of certain physical acts.[17] These +tendencies are particularly marked when the arms are employed in such a +movement as the “swing down” to make the stroke following the +preparatory “swing up.” Consequently not one person in a thousand is +capable of maintaining during the _down_ stroke those conditions of the +back and spine present during the _up_ stroke. Consideration of these +points will indicate that in order “to swing up and down in the same +orbit,” it is essential that the position of the spine—particularly as +regards its length and relative poise during the up and down +movement—must be maintained. Other conditions are of course necessary +but I cannot deal with more than one or two of the chief factors. + +In order to secure the proper use of the arms and legs correct mental +guidance and control are necessary. Such guidance and control should, of +course, be conscious. Furthermore, this mental guidance and control must +co-ordinate with a proper position and length of the spine and the +accompanying correct muscular uses of the torso, if these limbs are to +be controlled by that guidance and co-ordination which will command +their accurate employment at all times within reasonable limits. + +The foregoing are a few of the fundamental difficulties with which the +golf teacher and pupil are beset. Those who have taken lessons will at +once admit that the ordinary teaching methods fail to reach these +difficulties satisfactorily. As a matter of fact they are not even taken +into consideration. The orthodox teaching method holds the “end” in view +and not the “means whereby.” It depends upon the giving of orders on the +“end-gaining” principle, such an order, for instance, as “Swing up and +down again in the same orbit,” without consideration of the “means +whereby”; that is, without making certain that the pupil has the power +to maintain a proper position of his spine and back and to use the limbs +correctly during the performance of such physical acts. In other words, +the teacher should first discover if his pupil is reasonably correctly +co-ordinated in those muscular uses of his organism which are essential +to the proper carrying out of instructions necessary to the performance +of definite physical acts demanding co-ordination in the use of the +human body and limbs. + +If these tests are not made the beginner will waste much valuable time, +dissipate his energies, suffer needless worry and suspense, and become +unduly apprehensive in his attempt to gain even a very moderate standard +of dependable excellence in playing golf or other games to which he may +devote himself. + +If we employ as the fundamental in teaching the principles of conscious +guidance and control on a basis of re-education and general +co-ordination the following advantages should accrue: + + + (1) The pupil will be made aware of his specific defects in the + employment of his mental and physical organism in physical + performances. + + (2) When he has been made aware of these defects, he can be taught to + inhibit the faulty movements, and his teacher can assist him to gain + slowly but correctly the necessary experiences in the correct use of + those muscular mechanisms which will enable him sooner or later to + govern them properly without the aid of the teacher, and to employ + them with accuracy and precision in his game of golf and other + physical performances. + + (3) In the golf act under consideration he must first be given the + correct experiences in the use of the muscular mechanisms of the torso + and legs with the arms falling naturally at his side. + + (4) The correct experiences should then be given with the use of the + arms in making the “up stroke.” When this act can be performed without + interference with the satisfactory conditions of the torso and legs, + the correct experiences should be given in making the “down stroke” + but without attempting to _drive_ the ball. This latter portion of the + whole act should not be attempted until the pupil is familiar with the + different movements described in 1, 2, 3 and 4. + + (5) When the attempt to drive is finally made, the idea to be held in + mind is that of _repeating the experiences as a whole_ (in other + words, the “means whereby”), not the idea of making a drive. If the + pupil holds the “end” (i.e., making a drive) in mind he will at once + revert to all his old subconscious habits in the use of his mental and + physical organism, whereas, on the other hand, if he holds in mind the + “means whereby” (his new correct experiences) he will sooner or later + put them correctly into practice and make his drives with an accuracy + and precision which will give the maximum of satisfaction and + pleasure. + + +I have personal knowledge of a person who, by employing the principles +of conscious control which I advocate, mounted and rode a bicycle +down-hill without mishap on the first attempt, and on the second day +rode 30 miles out and 30 miles back through normal traffic. This same +person was also able to fence passably on first taking the foil into his +hands. In each case the principles involved were explained to him and he +carefully watched an exhibition, first analysing the actions and the +“means whereby,” then reproducing them on a clearly apprehended plan. +This, it seems to me, should be a normal, not an abnormal human +accomplishment. Just as a cat by sheer instinct, the first time she +essays to jump, gauges her powers and the distances with accuracy, so, +with more reason and greater ease, the human subject, by employing +consciously controlled intellect and kindred experience in place of +instinct, should be able to direct his powers to a definite ordained end +with less physical strain and less frequent physical repetition, i.e., +“Practice.” + +In this connexion I have been often asked the difference between +instinct and intuition. I define instinct as the result of the +accumulated subconscious psycho-physical experiences of man at all +stages of his development, which continue with us until, singly or +collectively, we reach the stage of conscious control; whilst intuition +is the result of the _conscious reasoned_ psycho-physical experiences +during the process of our evolution. + +The word “subconsciousness” is but a formula for our habits of life. I +hold strongly that when we shall have reached the state of conscious +control in civilisation, and have established thereby new and correct +habits, a new and correct subconsciousness will become established. + +I might here with advantage re-emphasise my view regarding the supreme +importance of conscious control. + +Conscious control is imperative, as I have pointed out, because instinct +in our advancing civilisation largely fails to meet the needs of our +complex environment. Without conscious control the subject or patient +may know he has defects, may know further what those defects are, may +even know at what explicit improvement he is to aim, and yet may be +quite unable by means of imitation or the orthodox and traditional +methods of instruction to effect the desired end. + +With conscious control, on the other hand, true development (unfolding), +education (drawing out), and evolution are possible along intellectual +as against the old orthodox and fallacious lines, by means of reasoned +processes, analysed, understood, and explicitly directed. Conscious +control enables the subject, once a fault be recognised, to find and +readily apply the remedial process. + +It is my belief, confirmed by the research and practice of nearly twenty +years, that man’s supreme inheritance of conscious guidance and control +is within the grasp of any one who will take the trouble to cultivate +it. That it is no esoteric doctrine or mystical cult, but a synthesis of +entirely reasonable propositions that can be demonstrated in pure theory +and substantiated in common practice. + +I will now consider at greater length a characteristic case for the +elucidation of these various points of theory and practice. + +M. H., a youth fourteen years old, was sent to me by a well-known throat +specialist. He had removed two nodules from the boy’s vocal chords, and +had given him special treatment in a nursing home for a month, but +without any satisfactory improvement. The mother came to me with the boy +and was present during my treatment. I found that his attempts to speak +resulted in a hoarse whisper accompanied by spasmodic twitchings of +various parts of the body and by facial contortions, all this being +brought about by erroneous conceptions, left untouched by the former +teacher, as to the amount of effort needed in order to speak. In his +former lessons he had been told to try and improve the utterance of +simple sounds and words, without any analysis or pointing out of the +wrong means which he had previously employed to this end. All his +efforts to carry out his teacher’s directions were made in accordance +with his original preconceptions and former experience. His muscular +mechanisms were employed in the same (wrong) way and his whole +consciousness and explicit and implicit self-directions were exactly the +same as they had been previously. + +He had opened his mouth imperfectly and had been ordered by his teacher +to open his mouth wider. But there had been no recognition by the pupil +that he had not opened his mouth sufficiently, neither had there been +any analysis by the teacher of the pupil’s failure to open the mouth (a +seemingly simple thing but _ex hypothesi_ not simple to the patient), or +of the concomitant contortions and automatic reaction. As well say, “You +have been speaking improperly, now speak properly,” and call that a +lesson, as indeed it would have been called in the early Victorian era, +as, “Open your mouth wide, speak up, and don’t make nervous movements.” +It is not the “end” that the teacher and pupil must work for, but the +“means whereby.” And this discovery of the “means whereby,” differing in +different subjects and not to be stated in a general formula, can only +be the result of trained observation and careful, patient investigation +and experience. In practice, the anxiety of this particular pupil to +_speak_ along the lines of his old preconceived ideas, when nothing had +been done to remove them, had made his many lessons fruitless, and had +set in motion the old habitual train of irrelevant and hampering +actions. + +My own treatment then is: First to observe and analyse and bring about a +proper working of the machinery in general (nature does not work in +parts but as a whole): then to point out the first guiding order or +orders to be brought into play by the pupil, namely, the inhibiting of +the tension of the muscles working the lower jaw. The pupil must be made +to realise clearly that this involves no action whatever on his part, +but that he need only remember the correct inhibiting orders and employ +them in accordance with definite instructions. When he does this it at +once results in the freeing of his jaw, enabling me to move it for him +with my hand. This gives him for the first time the correct kinæsthetic +sense in connexion with the action of his jaw and makes it clear once +and for all to him that the desired action is perfectly and easily +possible. The subconscious jerkings and contortions pointed out one by +one are patiently inhibited by the pupil, sometimes directly but more +often by the explicit use, under my direction, of guiding orders which +gradually co-ordinate and remedy the whole faulty system of the pupil’s +muscular action. One by one the wrong actions and reactions are +inhibited, the tightening of the neck, the throwing back of the head, +the tension of the lower jaw, the deep “sucking” breath, the jerks of +the limbs, the grimaces; and then, on the positive side, the right +actions are gradually built up, such as the free controlled opening of +the mouth, the even “pneumatic” breath, the upright balanced poise, the +clear enunciation and correct vocalisation.[18] + +The brain of both pupil and teacher are at work the whole time. No use +is made of “hypnotism” or of auto-suggestion, but the confident, +skilful, patient and explicit directions of the teacher should tend to +remove flurry and vagueness and consequent waste of mental and physical +effort. + +The analysis of even the simplest processes is apt to appear unduly +complex. This case can be stated briefly on the practical side. It took +twenty lessons to break down the bad habits and another twelve to effect +a complete and permanent cure. + +With regard to such a simple act as opening the mouth two or three +factors should be emphasised: firstly, the tendency to yield to +erroneous preconceived ideas, secondly, the delusions of the pupil in +regard to thought and action, thirdly, a pernicious dependence on +sensation which has been based solely upon experience of defective +action. + +There are very few men, for instance, who, when told to open the mouth, +will not throw the head back with the idea, as it were, of lifting the +upper jaw away from the lower. They do not observe or reflect that an +inhibition of the subconscious orders which cause the mechanisms to keep +the mouth closed will bring about such a relaxation of that muscular +tension as will allow the jaw to drop. It does in fact commonly drop in +the case of that type of idiot who is most often open-mouthed; whilst it +is common knowledge that in boxing a blow on the head, heavy enough to +throw out the controlling gear, causes the jaw of the injured boxer to +drop of itself and to remain dropped for a considerable time. + +When I ask a pupil to let me move his lower jaw away from his upper he +usually increases instinctively the tension that keeps the lower jaw in +place. As I have frequently pointed out, an enormous aggregate waste of +energy is involved in these constant and irrational tensions. + +But the matter becomes seriously harmful in, let us say, such actions as +singing and speaking, for when the mouth is opened with this unconscious +and absurd expenditure of force, the neck is unduly stiffened, the head +is thrown backwards, the larynx unduly and harmfully depressed, and +thereby in a position most unfavourable to good vocalisation. As I have +for years pointed out and demonstrated in my own practice, from these +ill-considered tensions spring the different forms of throat and ear +trouble which are so common and which so frequently defy ordinary or for +that matter extraordinary and highly specialised medical treatment. By +inducing a proper conception of the right method of opening the mouth, I +can command in the patient, and what is more important, teach him to +command in himself, a free condition in which the larynx tends to be +slightly raised and relaxed instead of tightened and depressed; whilst +there will surely follow and that with a minimum of effort, a greater +mobility of the facial muscles and of those of the lips and tongue so +essential to good and clear enunciation and vocalisation. + +This, in the briefest summary, is the method of teaching the process of +conscious control of the muscular mechanisms. I come now to an equally +brief consideration of the effects of this method. Speaking generally, I +have found that the first immediate effects are a general stimulation +and increased efficiency of the whole organism. Nor is this difficult to +understand. For it would seem that in the life led by civilised man so +little demand is made upon any but the commonly exercised muscles, and +these are called upon for comparatively so little effort, that a general +sluggishness supervenes, with consequent stagnation resulting in the +commonly observed effects of auto-intoxication. With the breaking up of +the old motor habits, the muscular mechanisms are brought into full +play, the toxins which have accumulated are broken up and disturbed, and +increased vitality, a sense of power, and enormously improved efficiency +follow as a matter of course. Beyond this, and still speaking generally, +I find that there are increased powers of resistance against the attacks +of infectious diseases, and—possibly the greatest effect since it +guarantees the lasting qualities of the change which is brought about—an +ability to check the formation of any bad, incipient muscular or mental +habit. This last is, in my opinion, of the very first importance, for it +demonstrates the power of the individual, once these principles of +conscious guidance and control are mastered, to be the lord of his own +body. + +Of the specific effects procured by the inculcation of these methods I +cannot speak at length, but I am able to produce a list of cases which +have been treated by me, in some of which I can only say that I have +been astonished at the results. These include cases diagnosed by +prominent physicians in England, Australia, and the United States of +America as paralysis, varicosity, tuberculosis, asthma, adhesions of the +lungs, hæmorrhage, congenital and other malformations, effects of +infantile paralysis, many varieties of throat, nose and ear trouble, +hayfever, chronic constipation, incipient appendicitis and colitis; and +in no case that has come under my personal supervision have I discovered +any relapse that was not curable by a few further instructions in the +principles enunciated. Looking to the future and to the development and +elaboration of this method, I foresee that a race which has been +educated on the lines of what I have called “conscious guidance and +control” will be eminently well fitted to meet any circumstance which +the civilisations of the future may impose. The minds and bodies alike +of such a race will be adaptable to any occupation that may be their +lot. To those who have been educated in these principles no severe +physical exercise is a necessity, since there are no stagnant eddies in +the system in which the toxins can accumulate, and to them will belong a +full and complete command of their physical organisms. That this +practical and by no means visionary or untried psycho-therapy will in +time supersede the tentative and restricted methods of somato-therapy, I +am confident, and I sincerely hope that the great benefits which these +principles confer will not be confined to any one race or people. The +wonderful improvements in physical health—often deemed “miraculous” by +the uninitiated—which have been effected in adults, adumbrate the +potentialities for efficiency which may be developed in the children of +the new race. + +It is essential that the peoples of civilisation should comprehend the +value of their inheritance, that outcome of the long process of +evolution which will enable them to govern the uses of their own +physical mechanisms. By and through consciousness and the application of +a reasoning intelligence, man may rise above the powers of all disease +and physical disabilities. This triumph is not to be won in sleep, in +trance, in submission, in paralysis, or in anæsthesia, but in a clear, +open-eyed, reasoning, deliberate consciousness and apprehension of the +wonderful potentialities possessed by mankind, the transcendent +inheritance of a conscious mind. + + + + + IV + CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL IN PRACTICE + + +Whilst under the guidance of the subconscious mind, mankind cannot +readily adapt itself to the rapidly and everchanging conditions imposed +by civilisation. A proper standard of mental and physical perfection +implies an adaptability which makes it easy for a man to turn from one +occupation in which a certain set of muscles are employed, to another +involving totally different muscular actions. Under the present +subconscious guidance such an easy transference is, to say the least of +it, likely to be a very rare occurrence. + +For the purpose of demonstration we may assume that a man who has been +engaged in clerical work all his life is suddenly called upon to become +a ploughman and to make a success, within a reasonable time, of his new +occupation. This is an extreme instance, but the argument will apply +equally well in a less extreme case. As he is subconsciously controlled +he will attack the problem through his sense of feeling—through his +feeling-tones—and strive directly for the desired “end.” He will make no +reasoned estimate of the “means whereby” he may make a success. He will +not, as a preliminary to the act of ploughing, consider the particular +demands which will be made on different parts of his organism, nor will +he take into account the elemental laws which are essential to a +satisfactory use of the plough as an instrument to be controlled in its +legitimate sphere. His mind is fixed from the start on the +achievement,—on the act of ploughing. He looks only to the end he +desires to attain. + +So he will grip the handles of his plough, set the horses in motion, and +will be pleased to find that the plough moves more or less through the +earth, chiefly less, for he finds it difficult to keep the share +embedded and to keep the furrow straight. When he succeeds, he is almost +certain to be thrown from side to side by the movements of the plough, +which are affected by the hard or soft ground it meets in its progress. +He holds no conscious reasoned guiding principles in his mind. His +efforts are simply subconscious, in a chance endeavour to gain the end +in view. + +In order to maintain his own equilibrium and the efficient working of +the plough, it is highly probable that he will unduly tense muscles +which are precisely those which should not be tensed, and relax those +which should do the most work. The tension of the muscles of the arm +will almost certainly be unnecessarily high, and the general use of the +wrong muscles will tend to destroy the proper equilibrium rather than to +maintain it. We thus see that the moment he steps into his new +occupation (which he no doubt had congratulated himself would bring +perfect health in its train), he immediately begins to cultivate new and +harmful habits during his daily round.[19] He becomes a badly +co-ordinated, imperfectly guided ploughman precisely as he was a badly +co-ordinated and imperfectly guided clerk. When the principles of +reasoned conscious control are adopted, the man leading a sedentary life +will be able to take up the occupation of ploughman without any fear of +cultivating harmful habits. Moreover, he will attain proficiency in +ploughing in one-tenth part of the time that the subconsciously +controlled man took to obtain a half-mastery of it. + +Let us see how he would set about it from the point of view of reasoned +conscious guidance and control. Acting under the guiding principles of +reasoned and conscious control he will consider first the “means +whereby” he may achieve his object, rather than that object itself. He +will take time to consider well the factors to be overcome. It will be +obvious to any one who will take the trouble to watch another man at the +plough, that a great deal of proper manipulation is necessary to keep +the share embedded and a straight furrow. The manipulation requires +firstly the maintenance of the ploughman’s equilibrium under very +difficult circumstances. This consideration will make it clear to him +that his body must remain comparatively steady and support the arms and +legs as the trunk of a tree does its limbs, following as nearly +perpendicularly as possible the line the furrow should take. It will be +evident to him that the “give and take” of the joints of the arms and +legs are the chief moving factors which should meet the different +movements of the handles of the plough. His highly trained guiding +sensations will not permit him to make more physical tension with any +part of the muscular system than is absolutely necessary, and only the +particular muscles best adapted for the control of his equilibrium and +his plough will be called into special use. For instance, when the left +handle of the plough is forced upwards and the right downwards by the +plough being thrown into a position leaning towards the right, the +ploughman’s left arm will bend at the wrist, elbow, and shoulder, and +the right straighten in order to maintain his equilibrium and general +control without undue strain and interference with the proper position +of the torso. Of course the left arm should exercise a downward pressure +on the left handle, and the right should tend to pull the right handle +upwards in order to straighten the plough again in its most effective +position in the furrow. The left leg should be slightly bent at the +knee, and the right leg should be kept straight and firm. The ploughman +would thereby exercise his maximum of control in the right direction +with the minimum of effort, and freedom from harmful strain. It will be +clear from this example that in the consciously controlled stage of +psycho-physical development men and women will be able, without fear of +mental or physical harm, to adapt themselves at once to any strange or +unusual circumstances in which they are placed. They will act in the +face of the unaccustomed or the unsuspected at the direction of their +conscious reasoning minds, before any promptings springing from the +subconscious mind can take possession of them. Just as they will be able +by conscious reasoning to change their habits at will, to be to-day a +clerk, to-morrow a reasoning ploughman, so they will meet sudden +surprise by that same conscious reasoning and accurate judgment which +follows it. I have already drawn attention to the conduct of animals and +of men and women in the lower stages of evolution when they are +confronted with any phenomena to which they are unaccustomed; how that +they stand terror-struck and immovable, and betray themselves. Such a +condition of mind contains no element of control or reasoning, and the +high importance of re-educating civilised men and women to a condition +in which their control and reason are the main factors, need scarcely be +emphasised at this point. On all sides is seen the destruction, the +waste, the loss in human lives and human energy which are the direct +outcome of a civilisation based on subconscious action. + +It is our duty now to superimpose a new civilisation founded on reason +rather than on feeling-tones and debauched emotions, on conscious +guidance and control rather than upon instinct. The savage is +terror-struck when an eclipse passes over the sun; he bows to wood and +stone, quivering with fear at any desecration of any of his puppet gods. +Anything which has no place in his limited range of experience he +approaches through instinct which may preserve but is more likely to +betray him. To-day the greater part of mankind carries out the normal +responsibilities of a lifetime guided by the same imperfect forces. Men +have learnt the meaning of many things which to the savage were +inscrutable, but when faced with the unknown they betray the same lack +of control. Suddenly-angered men will make a retort which in the light +of reflection appears to them foolish and inadequate. It is an everyday +experience. In the calmer moments that follow, they think of the “things +they might have said,” the things they might have done, which is a +simple indication of the fact that in the heated moment their emotions +held sway over them, whilst their reason and control were in abeyance. +The subconsciously controlled person is immediately thrown into a state +of panic when faced by any emergency which presents an element of +danger. + +Under such circumstances many become self-hypnotic and in this state +will be found absolutely out of communication with their reason. As an +instance of this, one may quote the behaviour of unbalanced people in a +fire. In trying to save some of their possessions before making their +escape they will throw from the windows as likely as not articles which +will certainly be broken to atoms in their fall. The man who threw the +drawing-room clock through the window and carried the hearthrug +downstairs is no fictional figure. His action represents the kind of +behaviour that may be expected from the uncontrolled person in such an +emergency. The following instance from my own experience may prove +interesting in this connexion. + +I arrived late one evening at a large hotel in a well-known mining town +in one of the Colonies. I was told that there was not a room available, +but that if I cared to share a room with two beds in it, with the two +little sons of the proprietor, I might have a night’s rest. Those who +have any experience of a mining town where there is a “gold rush” on +will appreciate my good fortune. Eight weary souls that night slept on +the billiard-table and I do not remember how many found a bed on the +hard, draughty floor of that same room. A great friend of mine was +living at the hotel. He was a man of considerable learning and accounted +by all who knew him as a fine scholar and the possessor of a fine +intellect. The last injunction we received from the proprietor before he +retired was, “Be sure to lock your door.” After a long chat with my +friend we went very late to bed. Remembering the request of my host I +bolted the door, extinguished the light and almost immediately fell into +a sound sleep. Within an hour I was awakened by the crackling sound of +burning wood and the roar of flames. I realised at once that the hotel +was on fire and almost immediately the tongues of flame found their way +into my room through the top of the wooden walls and began to lick the +ceiling of the bedroom. + +My first thought was for the little lads who were sleeping in the room. +I unbolted the door, and taking one under my left arm began to search +for the other. By this time the room was filled with smoke, so I took +the one boy out and returned to the search in the dense smoke. He had +evidently jumped out of his bed half awake, for I found him under the +bed. Taking both under my arms I rushed down the stairs and ran with +them to their father’s bedroom. He dashed out and calling his +men-servants at once proceeded to take measures to extinguish the fire. +I, of course, rushed to my friend’s room, awakened him, and after +lighting his candle and seeing him jump to the floor I left him, and +proceeded to give the general alarm. I then joined those who were +fighting the flames, which after a while were successfully extinguished. +My readers will be able from this account to judge of the time which +elapsed between the visit to my friend’s room and the complete +extinguishing of the fire. When all was over I looked round to exchange +a word with my friend and was surprised to find that he was not of the +number by whom we were surrounded. I walked back to his room and was +amazed to find him absolutely dressed. When I entered the room he was +calmly buttoning up his waistcoat as on any other morning when he had +nothing to fear. He was self-hypnotised as regarded his chances of being +burned alive, and had even shaved. + +Thousands of instances of similar behaviour in unusual circumstances +might be given, and the list might well be completed with the now famous +story concerning Carlyle’s failure to keep in “communication with his +reason,” on the occasion that Henry Taylor was ill. He heard the news, +and became overanxious to help his friend. We can only conclude that he +was under the domination of his subconsciousness, when he rushed off to +Sheen with the remaining portion of a bottle of medicine which had +helped Mrs. Carlyle, without knowing the particular uses of the medicine +or the cause of his friend’s illness. + +The managing director of one of the largest business houses operating in +Great Britain and America had been sent to me for treatment by his +medical adviser. We had frequently discussed the psychological +tendencies and characteristics of young men likely to make their way in +the business world. One day, after a chat on this subject in which we +were both interested, he informed me that there was always room in his +firm for the right kind of young man, and intimated that if I knew one +he would be glad if I would send him along. For some weeks prior to this +time I had been asked to interest myself in a young man I had never met. +I mentioned this to my pupil, and he said, “Ask the young man to write +to me and I will fix an appointment.” This was done, and the following +is the young man’s account of the interview: “I called on Mr. —— and he +positively insulted me. When I entered his office he asked me to sit +down while he finished a letter. After about five minutes he jumped +suddenly from his chair, walked towards me, and banging his fist with +great vigour on a table near me, shouted, ‘What the devil do you know +about business?’ Of course,” the young man continued, “I was so unnerved +that I could not even collect my thoughts and I was so flurried that I +could not answer his further questions. He told me he hadn’t any +position to suit me.” “My dear young man,” I remarked, “why did you +allow Mr. —— to insult you? Why did you not remonstrate with him and +assure him that you could not permit him to speak to you in such a way?” +“I was so upset by his sudden attack, and I didn’t expect to be treated +in such a way.” “Just so,” I replied, “you were nonplussed by the +unexpected. But I hope this will be a lesson to you. Mr. —— was only +testing you, and he wants men who are capable of dealing with unexpected +events and situations in his business. If you had made an instant +protest against his manner, you would now be in a position in his firm +because you would have come successfully through his test.” + +In that stage of evolution which may be defined as purely animal, the +powers of instinct in accustomed circumstances are quite remarkable, and +it is due to this fact that the animal, in certain conditions of danger, +will do the one right thing to escape. On the other hand, in proof of +the limitations of instinct, we have only to name the noble and +subconsciously controlled ostrich, so wily in its movements, and so +clever in many directions, which when confronted with more than an +ordinary danger, presses its head into the sand and allows its pursuer +to kill it. The powers of instinct are undoubtedly limited in the animal +kingdom, in uncivilised mankind, and in all stages of evolution where +subconscious control is the guiding principle. This fact perhaps +accounts more than anything else for the rise and fall of nations and of +races, for no community as yet has cultivated and developed a national +consciousness in communication with reason. The psychology of nations is +too large a subject to deal with here, but, logically, if the principles +of conscious guidance and control, as I have outlined them in +application to the individual, were further adopted by the rising +nation, it is unthinkable that it should ever suffer from deterioration. + +It would act in all crises strictly in accordance with the dictates of +reason, and, guided by a judgment born of tested experiences, it would +be supreme. + + + + + V + CONSCIOUS GUIDANCE AND CONTROL + + + APPREHENSION AND RE-EDUCATION + +The average person may exhibit complete nerve control and balance during +accustomed experiences and accomplishment of the different mental and +physical demands made during the ordinary round of life, but, when +suddenly confronted with the unexpected or unknown, he betrays undue +apprehension and loss of control, even when the new experience may not +hold any real terrors for him. The fact is, he becomes panic-stricken by +the effects of the new experience. He is mentally incapable of +considering the “facts of the case,” for his reasoning power is thrown +completely out of use by the unusual, and he is reduced to the level of +the terrified animal or savage. This shows that we have not reached the +stage of evolution where, by employing the reasoning faculties, we +should be able to meet any emergency with control and calmness and do +the right thing at the psychological moment. The really clever barrister +takes advantage of this human weakness, and when cross-examining +proceeds to unbalance the witness by an unexpected attack on a new line. +If the barrister is successful in his choice in this connexion he will +assuredly gain his end with the witness who has not learnt to meet the +unusual with reasoned judgment. He will become unnerved, and the +barrister can hardly fail to succeed in disconcerting him. + +Let me point out, however, that the barrister himself can be caught in +the same trap if the witness adopts a mode of procedure which will be +new to his rival. It will be merely a matter of which gets his blow in +first. As an instance, in a case of special interest at which I was +present, the following took place. Incidentally I should mention that +the barrister and witness had a mutual friend by whom they had sent +uncomplimentary messages to one another before the meeting in court. +Naturally both were on guard. The barrister opened by, “Now, Mr. ——, +might I _suggest_——” and made the unfortunate mistake of repeating this +the second time, whereupon the witness calmly remarked, “May I remind +you that you are here to _ask questions, not to suggest_.” The barrister +was quite nonplussed for the moment. This disturbed his usual control +and allowed his feelings to dominate his judgment, and during the +remainder of the case he failed to regain his balance and gave so much +attention to trying to get even with the witness that he missed many +points of the greatest value to his case and the verdict was gained by +his opponents. + +The removal of the Hunt Club Cup from its stand at Ascot Race Course is +a trenchant example of the practical application of the knowledge of the +weakness of men and women in the direction indicated. Constables and +employees of the makers of the cup were on duty to ensure its safety, +and moreover, there were always crowds of people round it. To any +ordinary person it would have seemed absolutely impossible to remove +such a large article without being detected. Despite this fact it was +taken from its stand and removed from the Ascot grounds. One of those +who successfully carried out this scheme must have been a highly +developed psychologist, a man who knew only too well the weaknesses of +his fellow-men. Presumably he knew that something unexpected must be +done suddenly in order to attract and divert for a considerable length +of time the constables guarding the Cup, during which time the thief +would be enabled to get some distance away with his prize before its +removal would be noticed. We are told that a group of men caused a +disturbance, that heated words were exchanged and blows followed, no +doubt at a prearranged signal. The thief counted on the psychological +fact that the constables were unlikely to use their reason and so +preserve their self-control by continuing to watch the Cup in the face +of this unexpected occurrence, and during the distraction therefore the +theft was accomplished. + +It must be obvious that there is going on a wicked waste of this +wonderful power of reasoning, where reliance is placed on an automatic +subconsciousness which permits the suspension of our common-sense and +upsets our balance, thus narrowing our sphere of usefulness. Therefore +if we are really to progress in the future, subconscious guidance must +be superseded by a reasoned and conscious guidance which can safeguard +us in unusual circumstances and at critical moments. For with real +progress on a sound basis we must expect a great increase in “critical +moments” and “unusual circumstances,” and our development must be on +those lines which will enable us to meet them with calmness and +common-sense, doing the one right thing the latter will suggest. This +failing in reasoned action is as common amongst the educated as amongst +the uneducated, and it is a most serious indictment of our present +educational system that it should be so, and that as it is at present +constituted it does not offer any real solution of the problem to be +applied by the men and women of the future. + +Take as an example a very prevalent form of human weakness, namely, our +attitude of mind in regard to simple worries, whether real or imaginary. +It is an interesting psychological fact that there are millions of +highly educated people who have cultivated unwillingly what may be +called the “worry habit.” This worry habit is directly the outcome of +the lack of use of our reasoning faculties, as is conclusively proved to +me in my long professional experience by the fact that people suffering +in this way worry exactly in the same degree when the cause has been +removed as when it was actually a reality. I can hear my readers say, +“But the person is not convinced that the cause has been removed.” In +the experience I refer to they were absolutely convinced, and in my next +book there will be a fitting opportunity, I hope, to explain at +considerable length this mental condition which seems so extraordinary +and unreasonable. + +This is one of the most difficult mental defects a teacher can be called +upon to eradicate, because it shows that the person so afflicted is +dominated by a subconsciousness built up of delusion and undue +apprehension without any relation to common-sense or fact. Another +instance of the disregard of reasoned judgment is demonstrated to me +constantly in the mental attitude of my pupils when they first come to +me for lessons. In the endeavour to perform some particular act, however +simple, many pupils exhibit a degree of apprehension out of all +proportion to the point at issue. This makes progress almost impossible +and causes considerable distress. It is not my intention to deal with +any of the complex examples which come to my notice in my daily +experience with intelligent and educated pupils, but merely to set down +some of the very simple examples of difficulties which seriously retard +the progress of well-meaning people while undergoing any training. + +Naturally a teacher is forced to point out at the beginning that this or +that is wrong. All too frequently the pupil at once shows distinct signs +of unnecessary apprehension. As this condition is the most retarding +feature in any teaching work, I have for years in my own work devoted +special attention to it and at once make an attempt to prevent it by +endeavouring to put the pupil into “communication with his reason.” +There are numerous and widely differing means to this end in the early +stages of re-education to the description of which a whole book might +easily be devoted, but it is sufficient here to mention it in a general +way. I begin by pointing out that we expect these different things to be +wrong, that their being so is not a case for worry or apprehension, +seeing that they assuredly can be corrected. I draw attention to the +obvious fact that a pupil comes to a teacher because there is something +wrong. That must be the primary idea, otherwise the teacher’s help is +superfluous. Then, why worry when the defects or failings are discovered +and made known to one? Surely it is something that should evoke pleasure +rather than worry. In other words, if we have imperfections and defects, +we seek help because we are conscious of their existence, because we +wish to know definitely what they are, so that we may have an +opportunity to eradicate them. Common-sense dictates that we should find +a teacher who can detect these defects and diagnose their cause, and +when this is done the pupil has much to ease his mind, much to bring him +real satisfaction when the teacher can assure him of their eradication, +and a changed mental attitude should immediately follow. But many people +are so out of communication with their reason that it needs days of +re-education to establish a satisfactory working basis. + +Now, to bring about the correct performance of any act by the principles +of my system of teaching it is not necessary at the beginning to call +upon the pupil for any specific physical efforts. This very fact should +remove immediately any cause for worry or apprehension, but in many +cases it does not. When this is the case the teacher must explain that +the reason that the pupil is unable to perform the act correctly is that +he believes that there is something for him to do physically, when as a +matter of fact the very opposite is necessary. He _is doing_ what is +wrong. Obviously he should begin then by ceasing to do what is wrong, +not by endeavouring blindly to do what is right. The process is this: +Apprehensively he tries to do what he thinks his teacher desires him to +do. The old wrong subconscious orders follow in their usual channels, +and before he realises the fact he is performing the act in the old +wrong manner. Therefore he must learn to inhibit these incorrect +subconscious orders, which result in undue physical tension and the +imperfect use of his muscles. But instead of employing inhibition he +adds to his difficulties by renewing his efforts on the old basis to put +right what he is told is wrong, and he actually employs increased force +in accordance with his own estimate of the amount needed to perform the +act. And why so? Chiefly because the ordinary human being has lost the +habit of inhibition, and because he is guided here by his sense of +feeling, in this connexion the most unreliable guide. + +When it is explained to such a pupil that inhibition is the first step +in his re-education, that his apprehensive fear that he may be doing +wrong and his intense desire to do right are the secrets of his failure, +he will invariably endeavour to prevent himself from doing anything, by +exerting force usually in the opposite direction. And so he creates a +second harmful force which, in conjunction with the first, serves only +to increase the undue physical tension and to intensify the already +exaggerated apprehensive condition. The fundamental principle in the +re-education of such a subject is the prevention of this undue and +unnecessary apprehension. He must not attempt to remedy any defect by +“doing something” physically in accordance with his sensory +appreciation, which is the outcome of his erroneous preconceived ideas +and incorrect psycho-physical experience. His reasoning power is +dominated by his sense of feeling where his psycho-physical self is +concerned, so that he cannot even attempt to carry out any physical act +excepting the one he _feels_ to be right, despite the fact that by his +reasoning faculties and practical proof, he knows that his sense of +feeling is misleading and is the outcome of erroneous preconceived +ideas. We must therefore make him understand that so very frequently in +re-education the correct way to perform an act _feels_ the impossible +way. There is only one way out of the difficulty. He must recognise that +guidance by his old sensory appreciation (feeling) is dangerously faulty +and he must be taught to regain his lost power of inhibition and to +develop conscious guidance. The teacher must with his hands move the +pupil’s body for him in the particular act required, thereby giving him +the correct kinæsthetic experience of the performance of the act. + +To the uninitiated this may seem a simple matter, but if my reader will +put it to the test, it will not be necessary for me to convince him that +it is quite otherwise in the majority of cases. This is not surprising +when it is realised that as soon as the teacher places his hands on the +pupil and attempts to move him, he is at once in contact with his faulty +and deceptive sense of feeling, the dominating sense in the +subconsciously controlled person under such circumstances. My experience +has proved that the pupil at first will act in precisely the same way if +I attempt to perform the act for him as if I had asked him to do it +without my assistance. He is just as apprehensive as a result of one +request as of the other, and in this state of apprehensiveness he is, +mentally and physically, impossible to deal with from the standpoint of +re-education. He conjures up in his mind all kinds of fears that he will +do this or that incorrectly. If you mention that he did a certain thing +when you placed your hands on him, he will make an endeavour physically +to prevent himself the next time. This, of course, is one of the worst +errors a pupil can make. It is usually attended by far more tension and +apprehension than when he performed the act which you pointed out was +incorrect. The re-education work really begins here and it takes weeks, +nay, sometimes months to bring the pupil to a stage in his co-ordination +when he will be really once more in communication with his reason. With +these facts before us I feel that my reader will advocate with me the +necessity of adopting principles which will create new and correct +habits, and eradicate needless apprehension and fear from the souls of +human beings. To this end we must break the chains which have so long +held them to that directive mental plane which belongs to the early +stages of his evolution. The adoption of conscious guidance and control +(man’s supreme inheritance) must follow, and the outcome will be a race +of men and women who will outstrip their ancestors in every known +sphere, and enter new spheres as yet undreamt of by the great majority +of the civilised peoples of our time. The world will then make in one +century greater progress in evolution towards a real civilisation than +it has made in the past three. + + + + + VI + INDIVIDUAL ERRORS AND DELUSIONS + + +Frequent reference has already been made to individual delusions, +errors, and misconceptions of a more or less harmful nature associated +with our mental and physical efforts in the different rounds of daily +life. I wish now to draw special attention to those which may be said to +have a more strictly personal bearing than those referred to heretofore, +and which have not been fully recognised despite the fact that they are +forerunners of unusually harmful and persistent bad habits. The +individual misconceptions, errors, and delusions to which I refer are +indicated in the cases which follow. They are the direct result of most +laudable attempts to accomplish something considered necessary to the +welfare of life, something which seemed essential to success in life, +something which was felt to be a worthy achievement in life. Among these +I would instance: + +The attempt to bring about some change considered necessary in the shape +or use of a part or parts of the physical organism, and to conceal or +change some supposed or real psycho-physical peculiarity, weakness, or +defect. + +The clinging to erroneous reasoning, in the face of undoubted evidence +which revealed the errors in such reasoning, regarding the mode of +procedure adopted in the attempt to prevent or “cure” attacks of illness +and painful or disagreeable experiences. + +The decision that a certain condition is present, and the definite +conclusion as to its degree of harmfulness or the extent of its general +effect upon the organism, or its influence upon the daily conduct of +life. + +The attempt to remedy what the subject considers a lack of +concentration. + +The attempt to gain benefit by relaxation in consequence of the +recognition of undue tension of the muscular mechanisms, not only in +physical acts, but also during the attempt to rest by sitting in a +chair, lying on a bed or couch, etc. + +The detection by the subject of symptoms which are always considered +serious and call for immediate eradication and future prevention. The +original conception in this connexion is influenced by warped and +incorrect subconscious experiences, and consequently a narrow and +perverted view is taken of the conditions present. + +The “one-brain-track” method is in operation and the _modus operandi_ +adopted by the subject is therefore deduced from false premises. +Symptoms are considered causes and furthermore the chief aim of the +subject in practical procedure is the attainment of the “end” desired, +not the due and proper considered analysis of the “means whereby” which +will secure that “end.” + +Perusal of the following history of cases will serve to draw attention +to the little-recognised but all-important fact that mankind’s attempts +at self-help on a subconscious basis in the spheres indicated cause him +to live in a self-created danger zone. Moreover, the area of this zone +is being gradually but surely extended by each and every new experience +in those psycho-physical activities where attempts are being made in +what may be termed preventive and curative spheres. + +The foregoing applies to a very wide range of bad habits over the whole +organism, such as: + + + (1) The cultivation of harmful habits in consequence of misdirected + energy and mental delusions which cause disorders and defects of the + eyes, ears, nose and throat, etc. + + (2) The development of the dangerous habit of not hearing any + instructions, opinions, advice or argument which if put into practical + procedures would be contrary to the psycho-physical subconscious habit + associated with some defect, peculiarity or other abnormal condition. + + (3) The development of overcompensation in some direction. “Running an + idea to death,” as we say. + + (4) The harmful domination by a “fixed idea,” on account of which the + subject struggles to gain an “end” without adequate and sound + consideration of the correct “means whereby,” or of possible + consequences to him in the cultivation of defects during this process. + + + CASE I + +An attempt to hide a thin neck. + +The subject’s wife intimated that the thinness of his neck made him look +many years older than his real age. This occupied his mind for some time +and he was increasingly worried by his wife’s statement. He felt that he +must find a practical remedy, but in the plan which he conceived he only +thought of the “end” he had in view which was to hide what he believed +to be an unsightly and unsatisfactory part of his anatomy. He conceived +the idea of wearing as high a collar as possible and, not being +satisfied with the result, he took a second and very harmful step in the +hiding plan. This was a deliberately cultivated habit of shortening his +neck until the under part of the jaw rested on the top of the collar, +while the head was pulled back until the lower part of the back of the +head pressed on the back of the collar. From his point of view a +satisfactory remedy had been found and the denounced neck was at last +concealed from view. + +In the standing, sitting, and walking positions these uses, or rather +misuses, of the muscles of the neck soon grew into a very firmly +established habit which became associated with a general tendency +towards the shortening of the neck and spine, whilst the muscular +co-ordinations of the whole organism were gradually and harmfully +interfered with. + +Some of my impressions at the first interview were: + + + (1) The exaggerated rolling movement of his body when walking. + + (2) The pressure of the under part of the jaw and the lower part of + the back of the head or upper part of the neck on the collar. + + (3) The marked lumbar curve of the spine with the usual shortening of + stature and protruding abdominal wall. Harmful flaccidity of the + abdominal muscles and general stagnation of the abdominal viscera. + + (4) The fallen arches of the feet—one foot caused very considerable + pain at times when standing or walking. + + (5) That colour of the skin and condition of the eyes which indicates + serious internal disorder. + + (6) The upper part of the front of the chest was held unusually high + (pouter-pigeon style). The thorax was harmfully rigid. + + (7) The apprehensive mental condition in his own personal affairs and + also in his contact with the practical affairs of life. + + +His medical advisers were unanimous in declaring that he was suffering +from nerve and digestive disorders and he failed to make any improvement +during many years of treatment. In his own words he “had year by year +gone from bad to worse” until he was often too nervous to cross a street +with ordinary traffic, and his fears in this connexion were increased by +frequent attacks of giddiness when he almost lost his sense of +equilibrium. He complained of painful distention after meals and +suffered much from insomnia. + + + CASE II + +An attempt to conceal his height when interviewing actor-managers of +shorter stature. + +It is well known in professional circles that there is a prevailing idea +in the mind of the actor-manager that he should be taller than the +actors who support him. The actor to whom I refer in this instance +discovered that he had missed several lucrative engagements by being +taller than the actor-manager with whom he had arranged personal +interviews. Incidentally I may mention that he possessed a fine physique +and enjoyed at this time good health. It is obvious that an actor must +endeavour to prevent the loss of good engagements in his profession, and +as his height was the only stumbling-block to his desires and +necessities he considered his problem from this point of view only. +Never for a moment did it occur to him that any mental or physical harm +could result. With this “_one idea_” view he sought his remedy and soon +decided that he must train himself to use his mechanisms in such a way +that he could shorten his stature during interviews when seeking +professional engagements. He succeeded in this direction, but +unfortunately subconscious guidance and control takes no heed of the +“means whereby” to be employed. His idea was merely to make an effort to +gain the “end” he desired, and he was never really conscious of the +actual means he ultimately employed. He merely conceived the idea of +standing in a way which made him appear as short or even shorter than +the person he was interviewing. Of the real mechanical happenings he was +quite ignorant, and he had never thought it necessary to improve his +knowledge in these all-important processes. This man came to me for help +some four or five years after beginning to adopt this way of standing +during the interviews. He had then been suffering for a considerable +time from loss of voice, general exhaustion, and nerve and digestive +disorders. On one occasion he experienced a mental and physical crisis +which his medical advisers called “a nervous breakdown.” + +Some of my impressions at the first and subsequent interviews were: + + + (1) The undue and harmful lumbar curve of the spine with the + corresponding intra-abdominal pressure. + + (2) The harmful and undue depression of the larynx and its + accessories. + + (3) The exaggerated “gasping” in breathing in vocal and dramatic + efforts. + + (4) The undue rigidity of the thorax and a minimum intra-thoracic + capacity. + + (5) The lack of mental control in any attempts in psycho-physical + re-education and co-ordination. + + (6) A pessimistic mental outlook with recurring fits of depression. + + (7) In the standing and walking positions the hips were held too far + forward, the knee joints were pressed too far back and the angle of + the torso from the hips was harmfully inclined backwards, with a + general tendency, as we say, to narrow the back. + + + CASE III + +A fixed idea regarding a definite mode of procedure adopted after +experiencing a week’s illness in bed. + +This lady developed certain symptoms for the first time. She then +decided upon a practical common-sense method of dealing with them which +would undoubtedly have been the correct one in the long run. The day +following her first efforts in this direction her feeling-tones +registered that she was much worse, in fact that she was very ill indeed +and that the latest symptoms were worse than those she had hoped to +remove and ultimately prevent. She decided that her attempted remedy had +actually been the cause of additional trouble without in the least +relieving the original symptoms. The remedy referred to was one of +activity, mental and physical. She therefore came to the conclusion that +this new phase of her illness had been actually brought about by the +attempt she had made to fight her symptoms by simple but active methods. +This conclusion became with her an _idée fixe_. + +In discussing the matter the foregoing facts were vouchsafed to me. She +said that she had given due consideration to them and had concluded in +consequence of her experiences that the real remedy must be to go to bed +and to allow the disorder to take its own course. This unfortunate +experience caused her to continue to hold the idea that as soon as she +felt any of the symptoms which preceded the first attack she should at +once go to bed, to “prevent,” as she put it, “the possibility of +increasing the severity of the attack.” She was absolutely convinced +that she must not make any effort, mental or physical, in the way of +removing or resisting the disorder as she had done on the first occasion +of the attack. She decided upon the easy way of inactivity and +non-resistance. Once the conscience seized upon an excuse for what the +mental and physical “make-up” really craved she was doomed, and her +conclusions were really influenced by this subconscious tendency. It is +not surprising that after pursuing such a mistaken course for six months +the attacks became more frequent and severe despite medical help, and +the periods during which she was confined to her bed, and which she +considered necessary to her recovery, became longer and longer. But the +worst feature in her case was her increasing inability to make a real +effort in the direction of health. She was actually developing her +tendency to allow things to take their course, she was cultivating the +serious habit of being guided and controlled by what she “felt” rather +than by her reason. Her relatives at last came to the conclusion that +her psycho-physical condition was serious and I was asked to express an +opinion from this point of view. + +At the outset one suspected some incorrect and harmful mental outlook +and after a few lessons succeeded in securing the pupil’s admission of +the fact. A review of this mental conception may prove interesting and +perhaps of great value to my readers, as it shows that as long as it +existed her chances of permanently eradicating these symptoms were nil. +The whole procedure constituted a prostitution of those physical, +mental, and spiritual forces which are inseparable from and absolutely +essential to that condition of the human organism which we call good +health. This lady was suffering from the inadequate functioning of the +vital organs associated with and responsible for good digestion and +adequate elimination. This was proved conclusively by the results which +accrued from a method of psycho-physical treatment which restored the +adequate functioning after the eradication of the mental conception +referred to above. + +The position then was as follows: + + + Certain symptoms were recognised which were the result of the + stagnation of organs which needed increased activity in functioning. + As a matter of fact they happened to be such as would have yielded + more or less to a steady walk of a mile or so daily. The effect, + therefore, of lying in bed for days was only a palliative measure. But + in consequence of her first impressions through her debauched sense of + feeling when she adopted active measures as a remedy, she made a + definite decision against their adoption in the future; in fact, she + absolutely objected to a second trial of the active method. In the + intervals of freedom from these attacks the one idea was rigidly held + in mind that on the recognition of the slightest symptom she must go + to bed and remain there. She even considered any other mode of + procedure harmful. These ideas became an obsession. She became less + and less in communication with her reason and the fact that she + admitted that the attacks became more frequent and the symptoms more + serious did not cause her to relinquish her bed treatment in favour of + some other. The fact is that her debauched emotions and feeling-tones + had taken control instead of remaining secondary factors to reason. + + +It is possible to give hundreds of such cases, and attention is +specially drawn to the fact that the _one idea_ principle of meeting +life’s difficulties is the real cause of these serious results. If Case +I, for instance, had held in his mind the “means whereby” for the +concealment of his neck and had watched carefully the effect of his +attempts in this particular upon his whole organism, he would assuredly +have come to the conclusion that the thin neck, natural in his case, was +to be preferred to the positive evils he was unconsciously cultivating. +Neither he nor his wife detected any of the numerous defects as they +developed during the neck-concealing process. On the other hand, they +were both aware that he was gradually failing in health and had reached +a stage which his medical advisers considered serious. Of course, never +for a moment was the influence of the process of shortening the neck +connected with his increasing troubles and disorders. His mental +training had been solely on the lines of working for an “end” (“one +brain-track method”) instead of holding in his mind the “means whereby.” + +He had never doubted for a moment the fallibility of the sensory +appreciation of his organism. He firmly believed that immediately he +decided to effect a change in his physical self he could command it by +the employment of his subconscious guiding principles. He was unaware +that these instinctive factors were delusive and unreliable as his +directive agents. + +If the reader’s interest can be aroused in this connexion, all-important +benefits must accrue in even the simplest spheres of daily life. +Furthermore, the more difficult problems of living will be sensibly +considered without fear of the disastrous results which are now so +common. + + + + + VII + NOTES AND INSTANCES + + +Since this book was published in England, I have received a steady flow +of letters from interested readers, lay and professional, which have +been of great value to me. Among this correspondence, three pertinent +questions occur again and again, and I am forced to infer (1) that these +points are of peculiar interest to my readers and (2) that no +satisfactory explanation of them is suggested by the application of the +broad principles I have laid down. I feel, therefore, that in this, the +American edition of my work, it may be well to treat these questions and +various other matters which arise out of them for the benefit of future +readers. + +The three main questions—two of which occur in about eighty per cent. of +letters I have received—are these: + +(1) What is the correct standing position, and the position of +mechanical advantage? + +(2) How is the reader to apply the principles of conscious control as +here laid down, to specific bad habits such as overindulgence, whether +in tobacco, alcohol, particular foods, etc., or to the cure of such +diseases as asthma, tuberculosis, constipation, spinal curvature, +appendicitis? + +(3) What are the outward signs of improvement to be noted during +treatment, and are there scientific reasons for these results? In this +connection I have several times been asked to give particulars of some +of my more striking and representative cases. + +I will take these three questions _seriatim_, and devote as much space +as possible to each of them. + + I. “_What is the correct standing position, and the position of + mechanical advantage?_” + +I think the average man is very apt to forget that he cannot assume a +position of stable equilibrium and a position which ensures a perfect +mobility, unless his feet are so placed as to furnish at once a stable +pose and a ready pivot and fulcrum. The most perfect base is obtained by +setting the feet at an angle of about forty-five degrees to one another. +In all other erect positions (the defects becoming exaggerated as this +angle is decreased), it will be found that there is a tendency to hollow +and shorten the back and to protrude the stomach, and if any effort is +made to avoid these serious faults in posture, such effort will only +result—unless the feet are moved to the correct position—in a stiffened, +uneasy, and unstable attitude. It is not possible, however, to set out +in written language the correct pose of the feet and legs in the ideal +standing position, and I therefore subjoin four photographs which have +been specially taken for this purpose (first published on 22nd October, +1910), and which show quite clearly not only the correct position of the +feet, the fundamental problem, but also how the whole body of the person +is thereby thrown into gear. + +But when this ideal position is realised, the task of obtaining it by +each individual has still to be undertaken. With reference to this task, +I cannot do better than quote my pamphlet of July, 1908, entitled _Why +“Deep Breathing” and Physical Culture Exercises Do More Harm than Good_, +from which it will be clearly seen that the ideal position varies +slightly according to the idiosyncrasies of the person concerned. The +passage in question is as follows: + +“In the first place, to allow a pupil to assume, of himself, a certain +standing position, means that his own perceptions and sensations are +given the sole onus of bringing about the co-ordination upon which such +standing position depends, an onus which they are quite unable to bear. + +“The perceptions and sensations of all who need respiratory and physical +re-education are absolutely unreliable. It is the teacher who should +have the responsibility of certain detailed orders, the literal carrying +out of which will ensure for the pupil _what is then the correct +standing position for him_. I emphasise this last, because no one +stereotyped position can be correct for each and every pupil. When the +person so employs the different parts of his body that one can speak of +his ‘harmful position in standing or walking,’ it is only by causing the +physical machinery gradually to resume correct and harmonious working, +thus changing the position from time to time, that serious harm can be +averted and satisfactory results secured. I may point out, moreover, +that in trying to assume the ‘proper standing position’ at the outset, +the pupil unavoidably puts severe strain upon the throat, thereby paving +the way for throat, ear, and eye disorders.” + +Take the case, for example, of a boy who stoops very much, and combines +a sinking above and below the clavicles with abnormal protrusion of the +shoulder-blades. If he is told to “stand up straight” he will at once +make undue physical effort to carry out the order thus crudely given, +with the result that the shoulders will be thrown backward and upward, +the shoulder-blades still further protruded, and the front and upper +parts of the chest unduly elevated and expanded. There will also be a +narrowing, a sinking, and a flabbiness of the lower dorsal and posterior +thoracic region, with corresponding fixed protrusion and rigidity of the +front chest wall, undue arching of the lumbar spine, shortening of the +body and harmful stiffening of the arms and neck, instead of a fulness, +broadness, and firmness of the back, with free mobility of the chest +walls, resulting in normal curve of the lumbar region and comparative +lengthening of the spine. With the arms hanging vertically, the relative +position of that part of the thorax where the lungs are situated will be +seen to be in front of the arms, instead of being, as it should be, +behind them. In such a position, the boy feels helpless and tires +rapidly, owing to the imperfect co-ordination, and any attempt to +accustom him to this erect posture will ultimately result in +deterioration rather than improvement. + +Now the narrowing and arching of the back already referred to is exactly +opposite to what is required by nature, and to that which is obtained in +re-education, co-ordination, and re-adjustment, viz., _widening of the +back and a more normal and extended position of the spine_. Moreover, if +these conditions of the back be first secured, the neck and arms will no +longer be stiffened, and the other faults will be eradicated. + +In order to obviate the evils enunciated in the last two postulates the +teacher must himself place the pupil in a position of mechanical +advantage,[20] from which the pupil, by the mere mental rehearsal of +orders which the teacher will dictate, can _ensure the posture +specifically correct for himself_, although he is not, as yet, conscious +of what that posture is. + +I further elaborated the same point in _Why We Breathe Incorrectly_ +(November, 1909), and from this pamphlet I will now quote another +passage which bears directly on some important points involved, viz.: + + + “There can be no such thing as a ‘correct standing position’ for each + and every person. The question is not one of correct position, but of + correct co-ordination (i.e., of the muscular mechanisms concerned). + Moreover, any one who has acquired the power of co-ordinating + correctly, can re-adjust the parts of his body to meet the + requirements of almost any position, while always commanding adequate + and correct movements of the respiratory apparatus and perfect vocal + control—a fact which I demonstrate daily to my pupils. Continual + re-adjustment of the parts of the body without undue physical tension + is most beneficial, as is proved by the high standard of health and + long life of acrobats. It is a significant fact that the very reverse + is the case with athletes, showing that undue muscular tension does + not conduce to health and longevity.” + + +[Illustration: + + A.A. THE FEET ARE HERE PLACED IN THE IDEAL POSITION FOR OBTAINING + PERFECT EQUILIBRIUM OF THE HUMAN MACHINE, AND FOR PERMITTING THE + MAXIMUM ACTIVITY OF THE FUNCTIONING OF THE WHOLE ORGANISM. NOTE.—IT + IS EVIDENT THAT EITHER THE RIGHT OR LEFT FOOT MAY BE IN ADVANCE + WITHOUT AFFECTING THE CORRECTNESS OF THE POSE. +] + +[Illustration: + + B.B. THE FEET ARE HERE PLACED IN A POSITION WHICH COMPELS AN IMPERFECT + ADJUSTMENT OF THE WHOLE ORGANISM IN ORDER TO SECURE EVEN AN + IMPERFECT EQUILIBRIUM. THIS POSITION RESULTS IN THE MINIMUM ACTIVITY + OF THE VITAL FUNCTIONING. +] + +From what I have now said, it will be quite evident that the primary +principle involved in attaining a correct standing position is the +placing of the feet in that position which will ensure their greatest +effect as base, pivot, and fulcrum, and thereby throw the limbs and +trunk into that pose in which they may be correctly influenced and +_aided_ by the force of gravity. The weight of the body, it should be +noted (see diagram AA), rests chiefly upon the rear foot, and the hips +should be allowed to go back as far as is possible without altering the +balance effected by the position of the feet, and without deliberately +throwing the body forward. This movement starts at the ankle, and +affects particularly the joints of the ankles and the hips. When +inclining the body forward, there must be no bending of the spine or +neck; from the hips upwards the relative positions of all parts of the +torso must remain unchanged. When the position is assumed, it is further +necessary for each person to bring about the proper lengthening of the +spine and the adequate widening of the back. The latter needs due +psycho-physical training such as is referred to in the two extracts +quoted above. + +This standing position as now explained is physiologically correct as a +primary factor in the act of walking. The weight is thrown largely upon +the rear foot, and thus enables the other knee to be bent and the +forward foot to be lifted; at the same time the ankle of the rear foot +should be bent so that the whole body is inclined slightly forward, thus +allowing the propelling force of gravitation to be brought into play. + +The whole physiology of walking is, indeed, perfectly simple when once +these fundamental principles are understood. It is really resolved into +the primary movements of allowing the body to incline forward from the +ankle on which the weight is supported and then preventing oneself from +falling by allowing the weight to be taken in turn by the foot which has +been advanced. This method, simple as it may appear, is not, however, +the one usually adopted. The mechanical disadvantage displayed in what +is known as a “rolling gait,” for instance, a gait which is common +enough, is absolutely impossible when the instructions given are +carefully followed. And the effect upon the whole mechanical mechanism +of the person concerned is shown by the fact that when the co-ordinating +principles brought about by this method are established, there is a +constant tendency for the torso to lengthen, whereas the usual +tendency—due to faulty standing position and the incorrect +co-ordinations which follow—is for the torso to shorten. + +Nearly every one I examine or observe in the act of walking, employs +unnecessary physical tension in the process in such a way that there is +a tendency to shorten the spine and legs, by pressing—if I may so put it +familiarly—down through the floor instead of, as it were, lightening +that pressure by lengthening the body and throwing the weight forward +and moving lightly and freely. In consequence of the “shortening” and +“pressing down” just referred to, the civilised peoples are becoming +more and more flat-footed. The properly co-ordinated person employs a +due amount of tension in such a way that the tendency of the spine and +legs is to lengthen, and the equilibrium is such that the undue pressure +through the floor is absent and there is a lightness and freedom in the +movements of such a person that is most noticeable. The person who is +flat-footed has only to establish these conditions to restore the +natural arch of the flatfoot. + +We can find, perhaps, no better instance of the necessity for the +application of the principles of conscious control to these fundamental +and essential propositions of standing, walking, and running, than in +the photographs taken of Dorando as he appeared when he was making his +last terrible efforts to reach the tape at the conclusion of the +Marathon race in London in 1908. One sees that he was desperately +wearied, and that whatever conscious control of his muscular mechanisms +he may ever have obtained, he was at this moment completely under the +domination of subconscious (or subjective) control, that he was out of +“communication with his reason.” His body, as we see him in these +photographs, is thrown back from the hips, his arms are outstretched +behind him, and his legs are bent forward at the knee. As a consequence, +he is compelled to use almost all his physical force in order to save +himself from falling backwards. He is struggling against a tremendous +gravitational pull which is dragging him away from his goal. If Dorando, +magnificent athlete as he undoubtedly is, had been trained in the +principles of conscious control, such an attitude would have been +impossible for him, tired and exhausted even as he was. For if he had +not been subconsciously controlled, he would have employed his +common-sense at this moment and would have acted according to the +guidance of its mandate. It is at such critical moments that we have +urgent need for the control of reason, for it is then that we suffer +most from the loss of the animal equivalent—instinct. + +Dorando’s muscles may have been taxed to their utmost capacity, but if +he had been consciously controlled he would have leaned forward, not +back, and while he had the strength necessary (but a very small part of +the strength he was actually expending) to prevent himself from falling +on his face, that gravitational force would have dragged him on instead +of dragging him back from the object of his achievement, as was actually +the case. He would, in short, have been able to make the _best_ instead +of the _worst_ use of his powers. + +Faults such as we see exaggerated in this instance are to be found in +the carriage of many people to-day, and the fact is one of great +importance to medical men. Patients are constantly advised to take +walking exercise, although in many cases that exercise undoubtedly does +more harm than good. In my opinion it is very essential that all doctors +should devote more attention to this subject than they are devoting at +the present time, in order that they may be in a position to advise +which of their patients will be benefited by taking walking exercise, +and which of them by so doing will aggravate the troubles from which +they are suffering. For it should be evident, I think, that the good +effects of fresh air and gentle exercise will be practically nullified, +if the patient can only obtain them by exaggerating and perpetuating the +defects which have led him to the prescription. + +These same rules are equally applicable in principle to the acts of +sitting and of rising from a sitting position. Very few people have the +right mental conception of the “means whereby” of these acts or of the +correct use of the parts which should be employed in their performance, +and this despite the fact that we are performing these acts continually, +and with such apparent ease from our own point of view. If you ask any +of your friends to sit down you will notice, if you observe their +actions closely, that in nearly all cases there is undue increase of +muscular tension in the body and lower limbs; in many cases the arms are +actually employed. As a rule, however, the most striking action is the +alteration in the position of the head which is thrown back, whilst the +neck is stiffened and shortened. Now I will describe the correct method, +but it must be borne in mind that it is useless to give what I here call +“orders” to the muscular mechanism, until the original habit and the +principle of mental conception connected with this action have been +eradicated. If, for instance, before giving any of the “orders” which +follow, the experimenter has already fixed in his mind that he is to go +through the performance of sitting down, _as that performance is known +to him_, this suggestion will at once call into play all the old vicious +co-ordinations, and the new orders will never influence the mechanisms +to which they are directed, because those mechanisms will already be +imperfectly employed, and will be held in their old routine by the force +of the familiar suggestion. Firstly, then, rid the mind of the idea of +sitting down, and consider the exercise and each order independently of +the final consequence they entail. In other words, study the “means,” +not the “end.” Secondly, stand in the position already described as the +correct standing position, with the back of the legs almost touching the +seat of the chair. Thirdly, order the neck to relax, and at the same +time order the head _forward_ and up. (Note that to “order” the muscles +of the neck to relax does not mean “allow the head to fall forward on +the chest.” The order suggested is merely a mental preventive to the +erroneous preconceived idea.) Fourthly, keep clearly in the mind the +general idea of the lengthening of the body which is a direct +consequence of the third series of orders. And fifthly, order +simultaneously the hips to move backwards and the knees to bend, the +knees and hip-joints acting as hinges. During this act a mental order +must be given to widen the back. When this order is fulfilled, the +experimenter will find himself sitting in the chair. But he is not yet +upright, for the body will be inclined forward, unless he frustrates the +whole performance at this point by giving his old orders to come to an +upright position. Sixthly, then, and this is of great importance, pause +for an instant in the position in which you will fall into the chair if +the earlier instructions have been correctly followed, and then after +ordering the neck to relax and the head _forward_ and up, the spine to +lengthen and the back to widen, come back into the chair and to an +upright position by using the hips as a hinge, and without shortening +the back, stiffening the neck, or throwing up the head. + +The act of rising is merely a reversal of the foregoing. Draw the feet +back so that one is slightly under the seat of the chair, allow the body +to move forward from the hips, always keeping in mind the freedom of the +neck, and the idea of lengthening the spine. Let the whole body come +forward until the centre of gravity falls over the feet, that is to say, +until the poise is such that if the chair were removed at this point, +you would be left balanced in the position of a person performing the +“frog dance,” then by the exercise of the muscles of the legs and back, +straighten the legs at the hips, knees, and ankles, until the erect +position is perfectly attained. + +If you care to experiment on a friend in this act of rising, you will +observe that in the movement as performed by an imperfectly co-ordinated +person, the same bad movements occur, tending to stiffen the neck, to +arch the spine unduly, to shorten the body, and to protrude the +abdominal wall. + +This completes the co-ordinating idea with regard to standing, walking, +and sitting, and the exercises indicated in the explanations I have made +will be found exceedingly helpful as a first step towards a proper and +healthful use of the muscular mechanisms in these simple acts of +everyday life. + + II. “_How are the principles of Conscious Control to be applied to + the cure of specific bad habits, or to the cure of specific + diseases?_” + +The following letter is typical of many: + + + “Dear Sir,—I have read your book, _Man’s Supreme Inheritance_, with + much interest, and I hope you will forgive me if I venture to point + out a difficulty which presents itself to my mind, and probably to the + mind of the ordinary reader. + + “It is this: In what way is it proposed to _apply_ the principle of + ‘conscious control’ in a given case—say in the overcoming of a habit, + such as smoking, to take a common example—or in the case of functional + disorders, as constipation? It seems to me that the great attraction + to most people of the popular books on so-called ‘New Thought’ is that + they lay down clear and precise rules which can be put into practice, + so that the reader knows what he must do to be saved. But I confess I + am unable to gather how you would recommend setting about the + attainment of your principles. It would be a great help to me, and no + doubt to others, if this could be explained, and probably in the + larger work which you contemplate this will be more fully done. + + “In the meantime, however, if it is not asking too much, I should be + extremely grateful to you if you could very kindly indicate the method + you propose by which the principles could be applied in such cases as + I have suggested....” + + +Now, I may be doing the writer of this letter an injustice, but I am +inclined to class him among the many enquirers who seem confidently to +anticipate a miracle. In my introduction I have said, “In this brochure +will be found no mention of royal roads, panaceas, or grand specifics,” +yet I feel sure that some of my readers have, nevertheless, imagined +that by some marvellous means they may be cured by taking thought, +despite all that I have written with regard to that procedure. We see in +one paragraph of the letter quoted above a nice example of the desire to +lean towards any mechanical method. “The great attraction ... of the +popular books on so-called ‘New Thought,’” we read, “is that they lay +down clear and precise rules which can be put into practice.” It is true +that I have not laid down any “clear and precise rules” which may cover +every conceivable form of physical and mental trouble, as do the +exponents of “New Thought” and “faith-healing,” and I think that my +reason should be plain enough, for in my experience I have never found +two cases exactly alike, and the detailed instructions which I might lay +down for A might be extremely detrimental to B or C. + +Nevertheless, since I see that some further explanation is needed, I +will adumbrate the general principles which embrace the rule of +application, however diverse the method may be in practice. + +In the first place, all specific bad habits such as overindulgence in +food, drink, tobacco, etc., evidence a lack of “control” in a certain +direction, and the greater number of specific disorders such as asthma, +tuberculosis, cancer, nervous complaints, etc., indicate interference +with the normal conditions of the body, lack of control, and imperfect +working of the human mechanisms, with displacement of the different +parts of that mechanism, loss of vitality and its inevitable +concomitant, lower activity of functioning in all the vital organs. When +the subject has arrived at this condition, harmful habits become +established and the standard of resistance to disease is seriously +lowered. + +To regain normal health and power in such cases, what I have called +“re-education” is absolutely imperative. This treatment begins, in +practically all cases, by instructions in the primary factors connected +with the eradication of erroneous preconceived ideas connected with bad +habits, and the simplest correct mental and physical co-ordination. The +displaced parts of the body must be restored to their proper positions +by re-education in a correct and controlled use of the muscular +mechanisms. In this process the blood is purified, the circulation is +gradually improved, and all the injurious accumulations are removed by +the internal massage which is part and parcel of the increased vital +activity from such re-education. + +Thus the first stage in the eradication of bad habits and disorders is +reached when improved conditions of health are established. Nor must it +be forgotten that in this process of re-education a great object lesson +is given to the controlling mind. In the very breaking up of maleficent +co-ordinations or vicious circles which have become established, a new +impulse is given to certain intellectual functions which have been +thrown out of play. The reflex action which is setting up morbid +conditions can only be controlled and altered by a deliberate +realisation of the guiding process which is to be substituted, and these +new impulses to the conscious mind have, analogically, very much the +same effect as is produced on the body by the internal massage referred +to above. The old accumulations of subconscious thought are dispersed, +and room is made for new conceptions and realisations. + +When the first stage is passed, it is just as easy at almost any time of +life to establish “good” habits (“good” that is, by the test of all our +experience and knowledge) as “bad” ones. Bad habits mean, in ninety-nine +per cent. of cases, that the person concerned has, often through +ignorance, pandered to and wilfully indulged certain sensations, +probably with little or no thought as to what evil results may accrue +from his concessions to the dominance of small pleasures. This careless +relaxation of reason, in the first instance, makes it doubly difficult +to assert command when the indulgence has become a habit. Sensation has +usurped the throne so feebly defended by reason, and sense, once it has +obtained power, is the most pitiless of autocrats. If we are to maintain +the succession that is our supreme inheritance, we must first break the +power of the usurper, and then re-establish our sovereign, no longer +dull and indifferent to the welfare of his kingdom, but active, +vigilant, and open-eyed to the evils which result from his old policy of +_laissez-faire_. + +So many people, I find, seem to regard the principles of conscious +control as a kind of magic which may be worked by some suitable +incantation. They appear to think that we may obtain conscious control +of, say, the secretive glands, that we may be able to give an order to +secrete more or less bile or gastric juice by a command of the objective +mind. If such a thing were possible, and if I could endow any person +with such power to-morrow, I should know perfectly well that I should, +by so doing, be signing that person’s death warrant; I might equally +well give him a dose of poison. To refer to my metaphor of the sovereign +ruler, you might as well expect a king to order and superintend the +detail of his subjects’ private life as expect the conscious mind +directly to order and superintend every function of the body. If the +king will ordain good and just laws, his policy will prosper; the detail +of organisation must be left to inferior officers. In the care of the +body the organisation is there, aptly and perfectly adjusted to its +functions, and when the ruling power of conscious control has ordained +the sane laws which shall establish peace and prosperity within the +assembly, the organisation already in force will work in harmony to its +fit and proper ends. On the other hand, there is great danger in +underrating the power of conscious control which, if it must not be +prematurely forced and made to intrude on automatic functions, must in +no way be undervalued or delimited. + +For instance, though it may not be possible to control directly each +separate part of the abdominal viscera, we can control directly the +muscles of the abdominal wall which encloses the viscera, and in +reducing a protruding abdomen we can control many other muscles, notably +those of the back, which when they are properly employed and +co-ordinated will, by widening and altering the shape of the back, make +place for the protruded stomach, allow it to occupy the natural position +from which it has been ousted, and so give free play once more to the +natural functions of the viscera that have been distorted and pinched by +the forced positions they have had to assume. Here we see that though +conscious control does not affect by a process of direct command, as it +were, the lower automatic functions, there is great danger in assuming +that such functions are beyond the reach of my methods. + +This danger was brought before me when I read, in the _British Medical +Journal_ for December, 1909, an article on one side of my teaching +contributed by Dr. S——, an old pupil of mine. + +In this article Dr. S—— says: + + + “Man’s education does not always demand conscious instruction; in the + absence of unfavourable circumstances he can learn by unconscious + imitation of good models.” + + +Now this is not demonstrably untrue, but at the same time it is, as I +shall show, extraordinarily misleading, and is, in effect, just as +valuable as the prescription of champagne and hothouse grapes for a +pauper patient. + +In the first place, we must remember, and Dr. S—— has himself admitted +the fact, that the normal is the rarest of all states. Medical experts +find that their most constant source of error in diagnosis arises from +the overreadiness to assume normal conditions in patients whose internal +economies and muscular co-ordination are, in fact, far from the ideal +standard of proportion and interdependence. Yet if the expert trained in +physiology fails to note the distortions which are upsetting the whole +economy, what body is to be named the supreme authority that shall +select the “good models” for unconscious imitation? + +In the second place, we have to reckon with a psychological factor which +at once determines the question of the validity of unconscious +imitation. This factor is the demonstrable truth that unconscious +imitation does in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand +lay hold of the faults of the imitated and pass over the virtues. In a +long experience of re-educating many professional men and women for the +stage in this country, I have had abundant opportunity to observe the +methods of the “understudy” set to “imitate” his or her principal, and +my invariable experience has been that subconscious imitation has always +been shown by a reproduction of the actor’s or actress’s most prominent +failings. The intellectual reading of the part, the subtler inflexions +of voice and the finer details of gesture are passed by, and the +“understudy” reproduces the “mannerisms,” all those obvious tricks of +speech, manner, and gesture which are the least essential factors in the +true reading of the part. Again, my experience in cases of stammering +has shown me very clearly that especially among boys and young men, the +stutter has in a very large majority of cases come about by the +imitation of some other boy. We do not find boys so apt to imitate one +of their fellows who speaks particularly well. + +Now this imitation of a fault in speech is subconscious and will not +always right itself naturally, and the reason for this will become clear +with a little consideration. Set a man to work on an elaborate and +intricate piece of machinery. Tell him that if he moves a switch here +and a lever there, certain effects will be produced and certain desired +results obtained. The movements are simple ones, and the man left to +himself will be able to control the working of the machine with ease and +certainty. But let us suppose that some essential part of the machine is +put out of gear, and that the machine instead of running smoothly and +easily begins to jerk and hiccough. Our assumed operator is immediately +at a loss. He sees that there is something wrong, and that there is +obvious friction where there was ease before; noise has taken the place +of silence; but he knows nothing of the working of the machine save the +elementary movements of the switch and lever, in the uses of which he +has had instruction. Now, he may perform these movements again and +again; but the machine still stutters, and our operator, quite at a +loss, can do nothing to obviate these faults. He must allow the machine +to continue working badly if it works at all. + +The boy we have adduced as an example of a stammerer, who has copied +some fault of another boy and found that fault become permanent, is in +exactly the same position as the unskilled operator of our illustration. +This boy knows the ordinary uses of his vocal machine which have +heretofore produced normal results, but he does not know enough of the +machine to repair it when it is put out of gear; he cannot control the +machinery so that it may at once be restored to its previous efficiency. +But just as the unskilled operator may be instructed in the complete +mechanism he is set to supervise, and may then stop the machine when any +fault becomes evident, discover the source of the defect and set it +right; so will any person who has been instructed in the principles of +conscious control be able to detect and obliterate any fault in his +vocal or any other bodily mechanism, even if that fault was originated +below the level of consciousness. + +These marked examples furnish a sound and unfailing analogy to the +principles of unconscious imitation in their application to physiology. +The perfectly co-ordinated man or woman does, as a matter of fact, offer +less mark for imitation to the ordinary observer than the man or woman +who displays an obvious defect, just as the perfectly dressed man or +woman passes with less remark than those people who affect some +exaggeration of costume in order to attract attention. Were we able at +this time to set the Greek model before our children, we should be able +to display it only on occasion, and the unconscious imitative powers of +the child would seize hold far more readily of the marked defects with +which it would be forced into contact during the greater part of its +waking life. In a perfect world, unconscious imitation would not be able +to exert a perverting influence, and to the conception of such a world +we may well turn our attention, but we shall never attain it by any +means other than these principles of conscious, reasoning, deliberate +construction, or reconstruction, upon which I have based the whole of my +theory and practice. + +And, finally, there is still a serious danger to be reckoned with, even +should we find sufficient methods in our present civilisation from which +we might learn by unconscious imitation. We must remember that during +the advance of civilisation mankind has lost the faculty we call +instinct, the faculty which guided mankind in a state of nature as it +still guides the lower animal world. During our advance from this +primitive condition, the one great defect in our mental, physical, and +educational training has been the failure to recognise that civilised +life is the death-bed of instinct, and that in civilised life man’s +education must always demand conscious instruction. For we see that it +is at the critical moments that men fail to rise to the occasion. In +such a case as that of Dorando, already cited, we see that a perfectly +trained athlete, a man capable of the magnificent effort he made in the +great Marathon race, was robbed of his victory by his dependence at the +critical moment upon unconscious control as opposed to the conscious +control which is the thesis of _Man’s Supreme Inheritance_. And every +day we are told that at critical moments, at the crisis of a debate, +when suddenly called upon to decide a question of moment, or when faced +with terrifying physical danger, men “lose their heads”—and fail. It is +more especially at these times, at the crises of life, that the men who +had been _educated_ in the principles of conscious control would be +capable of acting with the same reason and common-sense that +characterised their mental and physical acts on the ordinary occasions +of life. If they had relied upon _unconscious_ imitation they would +still be dependent, to a certain degree, upon instinct. + +Before leaving Question II, however, I will deal specifically with two +of the prevailing maladies of our time, viz., spinal curvature and +appendicitis, and show how the principles I have enunciated have a +particular bearing on the prevention and cure of these two serious +ailments. + +1. _Spinal Curvature._ A perfect spine is an all-important factor in +preserving those conditions and uses of the human machine which work +together for perfect health, yet there are comparatively few people who +do not in some form or degree suffer, perhaps quite unconsciously, from +spinal curvature. + +The present attitude towards this very serious mark of physical +degeneration would be ludicrous were it not that the matter is one of +almost tragic importance, and I may quote in this connexion a letter of +mine which appeared in _The Pall Mall Gazette_ for 14th March, 1908. +After dealing with certain other matters which need not be reproduced +here, I cited the following instances of the results of our present +attitude: + + + “In our schools and in the army, human beings are actually being + developed into deformities by breathing and physical exercises. I have + before me a book on the breathing exercises which are used in the + army, and any person reasonably versed in physiology and psychology, + and knowing they are inseparable in practice, will at once understand + why so much harm results from them. Take either the officers or the + soldiers. In a greater or less degree the unduly protruded upper + chests (development of emphysema), unduly hollowed backs (lordosis), + stiff necks, rigid thorax, and other physical eccentricities have been + cultivated. It is for these reasons that heart troubles, varicose + veins, emphysema, and mouth breathing (in exercise) are so much in + evidence in the army. As this is a matter of national importance, I am + prepared to give the time necessary to prove to the authorities + (medical or official) connected with the army, the schools, or the + sanatoria that the ‘deep breathing’ and physical exercises in vogue + are doing far more harm than good, and are laying the foundations of + much graver trouble in the future. The truth is that all exercises + involving ‘deep breathing’ cause an exaggeration of the defective + muscular co-ordination already present, so that even if one bad habit + is eradicated, many others, often more harmful, are cultivated. + + “In this connexion it is only necessary to point to the serious + effects of ‘deep breathing’ and physical culture exercises in the + causation of throat and ear disorders, following upon the undue and + harmful depression of the larynx—the crowding down of the structures + of the throat—such depression occurring with every inspiration, and as + a rule with every expiration. This disorganisation and consequent + strain in the region of the throat is always found exaggerated, and + tends gradually to increase in people who are subject to asthma, + bronchitis, and hay fever, and the removal of the factors causing such + strain and disorganisation means great relief and gradual progress + towards the eradication of these disorders; but, of course, all + organic troubles should be removed in such cases.” + + +Now I may say further that I have not, up to now, examined any method of +physical culture or respiration which has not tended to bring about in +time some form of directly harmful lumbar spinal curvature. And I have +never examined a case of the (alleged) cure of spinal curvature in which +the front of the chest has not been harmfully altered, and very often +seriously deformed. The original idea in diagnosis of spinal curvature +which has led to the methods producing these results is “that the +activity of the muscles is necessary to the retention of the spine in an +erect position, in consequence of which, therefore, the primary cause +for the scoliosis must be sought in an abnormal function of the muscles +influencing the spine.” This is the myopathic theory of Eulenburg, an +authority whose dicta have had an important influence in medical +practice. + +The error of advocating physical exercises, as generally understood, of +any kind in the treatment of spinal curvature is even greater than in +the case of John Doe, whom I cited in the earlier part of this work and +whose case should be again referred to in this connexion. The question +here also is one of correct conscious recognition, and it is much more +marked in the case of spinal curvature than in the case of my earlier +illustration, a case in which there was no special deformity, and in +which the muscle-tensing exercises I deprecated did not work to +emphasise a marked structural malformation. + +The important factors in relation to spinal curvature are these: + + + (_a_) The bent or curved and therefore shortened spine. + + (_b_) The decreased internal capacity of the thoracic cavity. + + +Plainly, attention must first be given to straightening and lengthening +the curved and shortened spine. This can be done by an expert +manipulator who is able to diagnose the erroneous preconceived ideas of +the person concerned, and cause the pupil to inhibit them while +employing the position of mechanical advantage. And it can be done +without asking the pupil to perform what he understands as a single +physical act. Moreover, if the correct guiding orders are given to the +pupil by the teacher, and the pupil makes no attempt to hold him or +herself in the lengthened position, such use of the muscular mechanism +will, nevertheless, be brought about as will ensure that the torso is +held in a correct position. Formerly, the consciousness in regard to the +correct action has been erroneous, a mere delusion, and the muscular +mechanisms have worked to pull the body down. The truth of the matter is +that in the old morbid conditions which have brought about the curvature +the muscles intended by Nature for the correct working of the parts +concerned had been put out of action, and the whole purpose of the +re-educatory method I advocate is to bring back these muscles into play, +not by physical exercises, but by the employment of a position of +mechanical advantage and the repetition of the correct inhibiting and +guiding mental orders by the pupil, and the correct manipulation and +direction by the teacher, until the two psycho-physical factors become +an established psycho-physical habit. + +During this process of re-education, factor (_b_) has not been +forgotten. A little consideration will show that any alteration in the +spine must necessarily affect the position and working of the ribs. (The +analogy of the keel of a boat and the ribs which spring from it may well +be held in mind to make clear the following explanation.) It will be +seen that as the ribs are held apart by muscular tissues (analogous to +the boards of a boat), a bending of the spine will not buckle the ribs +unless great force is applied, force sufficient to rupture the muscular +tissue. But it is equally evident that there must be some play in the +ribs in order that they may adjust themselves to the new position. This +play is effected in the human body (and would be effected mechanically +in the ribs of a boat, if they possessed sufficient elasticity) by the +coming together of the ends of the “false” and “flying” ribs, that is, +those lower ribs which are not attached to the bony sternum. This +flattening of the curve of the ribs, and the approach of their free ends +towards each other, reduces the thoracic cavity, just as in our +illustration of the boat its capacity would be reduced if we forcibly +narrowed the distance between the thwarts. On the other hand, we see +that by increasing the thoracic capacity and so increasing the distance +between the ends of these ribs, we are applying a mechanical principle +which by a reverse action tends to straighten the spine. + +These two actions, the re-education of the “Kinæsthetic Systems” and the +increasing of the thoracic capacity which applies a mechanical power by +means of the muscles and ribs to the straightening of the spine, are +both aspects of the one central idea, and are not separate and divisible +acts. + +2. _Appendicitis._ The prevalence of appendicitis has always seemed to +me one of the most striking proofs of the inefficiency of present-day +methods in regard to health. At times I am filled with wonder that we +permit such bad conditions to become established as may necessitate the +removal of the appendix. It is, of course, well known that the operation +is frequently performed when the conditions do not warrant such extreme +measures, but cases have come under my notice, nevertheless, and those +not among the uneducated classes, in which the symptoms had become so +aggravated by years of harmful habits of life as to necessitate the +major operation. Fortunately there is a section of the medical +profession which objects, on scientific grounds, to the removal of the +appendix in all but extreme cases, and this opposition and the evidence +adducible as to the comparative ease with which the exaggerated +condition may be avoided and the trouble completely cured by natural +means, is doing much to limit the sphere of those champions of the knife +who are never content unless they can be dissecting the living body. + +There can be no question or shadow of doubt that when the whole frame is +properly co-ordinated and the adjustment of the body is correct and +controlled according to the principles I have enunciated, it is a +practical impossibility to get appendicitis. The cause of the trouble is +due to imperfect adjustment of the body which allows or forces the +abdominal viscera to become displaced and to fall. The first consequence +of this is a change of pressures and the loss of the natural internal +massage, present in normal conditions. This leads to constipation among +other symptoms, and permits the gradual accumulation of toxic poisons. + +When the trouble has already shown itself and there is some positive +inflammation of the appendix and tenderness in that region, it is by no +means too late to apply my methods. The new co-ordinations which may in +such cases be brought about very quickly, and established later, at once +relieve false internal pressures and permit a natural re-adjustment of +the viscera, and the furtherance of a rapid return to a healthy and +normal condition is greatly accelerated by the internal massage. + +With regard to this latter treatment to which I have already referred in +this chapter, I may mention that many pupils have asked me if I use +internal massage in my system of re-education. In my brochure on the +_Theory and Practice of Respiratory Re-education_, included in Part III, +it will be found that I used this description, as I said, for lack of +one that was sufficiently comprehensive, but the principle itself is one +of the first importance. + +When a patient or pupil is placed in the position of mechanical +advantage I have so often had occasion to refer to, the manipulator can +secure the maximum movement of the abdominal viscera in strict +accordance with the laws of nature and will obtain at the same time a +maximum functioning of all the internal organs. In this way foreign +accumulations are dissipated, constipation is relieved, and the more or +less collapsed viscera—the cause of all the trouble—are restored to +their proper places and resume their natural functions. + +All these things, it will be seen, are essential factors in the +prevention and cure of appendicitis, and I may add that the application +of these principles in a very large number of cases in which an +operation has been medically advised has conclusively demonstrated their +value to the individual and to the race. + +Appendicitis, like influenza, is probably almost an impossibility in the +natural state; it is one of the results of civilisation and +subconsciously controlled mechanisms, and is possible only through the +conditions we have developed; and these adventitious troubles and +ailments will continue to appear and to do their work of destruction +until some general recognition is made of the necessity for substituting +conscious control for the partly superseded forces which in a wild state +render these ailments impossible. + + III. “_What are the outward signs of improvement to be noted during + treatment?_” + +The signs of improvement are manifold and they necessarily vary +according to the nature of the original defect, but I will set out here +some of the more characteristic, such as occur in generally typical +cases. + +We see, in the first place, that the characteristic defects of the body, +whether displacements of some part or parts of the muscular mechanism +(in some cases even displacement of the bones), or defects of pose which +throw some unusual strain upon a muscle, or, more commonly, a group of +muscles not intended to take such strain, all have some correlated +defects, which may be observed by the instructed as certain visible +peculiarities and abnormalities. And we must draw particular attention +in this connexion to the fact that these outer signs are _correlated_ +with the inner defects. Neither outer sign nor inner defect is from one +point of view the _result_ one of the other. The original cause is some +faulty or imperfect co-ordination or conception of function; the inner +defect and outer sign-mark are equally a consequence as they are to us +an index. + +As we should naturally expect, the chief sign-manual is to be found in +the face. To me, that is a most valuable document upon which is written +many curious, intricate, sometimes alarming confessions. The expression +of the eyes, the set of the lips, the drawing of the forehead, and the +more pronounced dragging of the flexible face muscles, are all marks +which may be read by the expert, and, to answer the question directly, +one of the earlier outward signs of improvement is to be found in a +relaxation of the forced and unnatural expression which results from +these contortions. It must be obvious that I cannot here set out in +detail the symptomatic distortions which accompany the various internal +defects, but one may be noted as an exemplar for the others however +diverse. + +The case in question was one of dilation of the heart and as such was +brought to me by a medical friend, and, as a matter of fact, though this +was the most alarming symptom, it was but one of many springing from +deep-seated causes. Incidentally I may note that the spine was arched +inwards, the legs were unduly and most abnormally stiffened when the +patient was in a standing position, and the upper part of the chest was +held most harmfully high—this last symptom being the influence which +produced what was really a tertiary effect, though in this case the most +threatening one, viz., the dilation of the heart. Now this patient +carried certain very curious marks in the face: first a general +expression of strain in the eyes and cheek muscles, and secondly four +very marked indents or pits in the forehead. Here, indeed, were marks +which the expert might read, and it was extremely interesting to note, +as my treatment progressed and the patient recovered the proper use of +the body and a consequent return to perfect health, first, the +disappearance of the strained expression of eyes and face muscles, and +secondly, the gradual filling up of the four curious indentations in the +forehead. In this case the original symptoms were so marked that the +patient’s friends all commented on the change of expression during the +progress of the treatment. + +The face, however, is by no means the only index. Many defects lead, by +way of stiffened neck and throat muscles, to an alteration in the +quality and power of the voice. There too the mode of movement and the +failure to express purpose in muscular action, the fumbling, indirect +attempt to perform a simple act, are aids to diagnosis, either of the +original defect, or, by their reversion to natural, easy functioning, of +the progress of the cure. + +Generally, also, we observe a clearing of the skin and eyes as the +defects are eradicated, improvements which are due to better circulation +and the improved quality of the blood, factors which bring about a +continually increasing power in the organism to purge itself not only +through the bowels and kidneys, but also through the skin. + +Lastly, we may note a general improvement in physique, in the carriage +of the body, in the whole appearance of co-ordinated, reasoned control. + +Another curious and interesting test of the co-ordinated person who is +attaining conscious control of the uses of his body is obtained by +observing his hands when they fall to his sides in the position which +comes naturally to him. One may say that there are three main stages to +be observed in man’s development in this particular, though the +gradations are many and not, perhaps, always strictly progressive. The +first stage may be observed in the lowest savages, the Hottentot, the +Australian aboriginal, and many races at an early stage of development. +Such examples stand with body thrown back from the hips, stomach +protruded, and—here is the test—_with the palms of the hands forward_, +the elbows bent into the sides, the thumbs sticking out away from the +body. The second stage is evidenced in the averaged civilised man of +to-day who stands as a rule with the palms of his hands towards his +body, his elbows to the back, his thumbs forward. In the third stage, +the properly co-ordinated person stands with the back of his hands +forward, the thumbs inwards, and the elbows slightly bent outwards. This +is a curious but little known test, which, in my experience, has never +failed as an index to imperfect muscular co-ordination. + +I believe I have now answered in sufficient detail the somewhat wide +intention of these three main questions, but in conclusion I will note +one further point that has been raised. + +This is the question as to why the great majority of men and women +breathe from their stomach or the upper chest and so allow, among other +evils, the costal arch to be narrowed and the flying ribs to become +constricted and stiffened. In the case of many women there can be no +doubt that this is due to the use of tight corsets which confine these +ribs, and do great general harm in constricting the natural play of the +vital functions. But another and, in my opinion, the primary cause is +the common practice of swathing a child in bands almost immediately +after birth, and keeping him so fettered during many months of infancy. +The idea of this practice is to prevent rupture in male children should +they be subject to violent fits of crying or coughing, but the question +of the relative tightness or looseness of these swathings is left in the +hands of a nurse, who, in the great majority of cases, thinks it well to +be on the “safe side” by winding the child unnecessarily tightly. +Obviously the early habit is retained through life unless it is broken +by some outside influence. The pliancy of the young organisms is such +that the functioning of the breathing apparatus is quickly re-adjusted, +but the evils which gradually accumulate, from this and similar causes, +do not show themselves as a rule till much later in life. + +Another cause is any imperfect adjustment of the muscular mechanism, a +failure which may be due to incorrect training, to unconscious +imitation, or to any of the chances which are always being presented to +the child in the haphazard system of physical education which obtains in +our nurseries and schools. + +And on this note I may well conclude my chapter, for no argument I can +advance in favour of a careful consideration of the principles I have +laid down can have such cogency and force as the most superficial +examination of the physique of the children in our schools and the +adults in our streets. We are indeed suffering, not only in Great +Britain but on the continents of Europe and America, from a failure to +recognise that man is no longer a natural animal, whose life-habits were +dependent upon the development of the faculty of instinct, and that all +systems of physical culture (and how diverse they are!) must necessarily +fail unless they take into account that first and last essential, the +free use and consciousness of the reasoning, controlling mind. + + + + + PART III + THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF A NEW METHOD OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION + + _First published 1907._ + +“Whoever hesitates to utter that which he thinks the highest truth, lest +it should be too much in advance of the time, may reassure himself by +looking at his acts from an impersonal point of view.... It is not for +nothing that he has in him these sympathies with some principles and +repugnance to others. He, with all his capacities, and aspirations, and +beliefs, is not an accident, but a product of the time. He must remember +that while he is a descendant of the past he is a parent of the future; +and that his thoughts are as children born to him, which he may not +carelessly let die.”—HERBERT SPENCER. + + + + + I + INTRODUCTORY + + +It may be of interest to my readers to know that the method I have +founded is the result of a practical and unique experience, for my +knowledge was gained— + +1. While vainly attempting to eradicate personal, vocal, and respiratory +defects by recognised systems. + +2. While afterwards putting into practice certain original principles, +which enabled me to eradicate these defects. + +3. While giving personal demonstrations of the application of these +principles from a respiratory, vocal, and health-giving point of view. + +I first imparted the method thus evolved to patients recommended by +medical men over ten years prior to June, 1904. At that date I +introduced it to leading London medical men, who, after investigation, +decided that the method was, as one doctor put it, “the most efficient +known to (him).” + +The method makes for— + +In _Education_: + + + 1. Prevention of certain defects hereinafter referred to. + + 2. Adequate and correct use of the muscular mechanisms concerned with + respiration. + + +In _Re-education_: + + + 1. Eradication of certain defects hereinafter referred to. + + 2. Co-ordination in the use of the muscular mechanisms concerned with + respiration. + + +The result of (2) is not only to make that function efficient, but also +to ensure that normal activity and natural massage of the _internal +organs_ so necessary to the adequate performance of the vital functions +and the preservation of a proper condition of health. + + F. MATTHIAS ALEXANDER. + + + + + I + THE THEORY OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION + + +The artificial conditions of modern civilised life, among which is +comparative lack of free exercise in the open air, are conducive to the +_in_adequate use of breathing power. Indulgence in harmful habits of +feeding and posture have caused these same habits, through heredity and +unconscious imitation, to become “second nature” in the great majority +of adults to-day and frequently in children, even at an early age. + +The normal condition of vigour in the action of the component parts of +the respiratory mechanisms is greatly interfered with; general nervous +relaxation is brought about, and a feeble, flabby action becomes +permanent. + +Certain muscles of the thoracic mechanisms which should take the lead in +the performance of the breathing movements remain entirely inert for the +greater part of life, whilst others, which were never intended by nature +to monopolise this particular act but only to serve as a relief or +change, are used solely for the act of breathing. + +Hence arises a condition in which the posture, the symmetry of the body, +the graceful normal curves of the whole frame, suffer alteration and +change. + +The capacity and mobility of the thorax (chest) are decreased, its shape +(particularly in the lumbar region, clavicles, and lower sides of the +chest) is changed in a harmful way, and the abdominal viscera are +displaced, whilst the heart, lungs, and other vital organs are allowed +to drop below their normal position. Inadequate holding-space of the +thorax—which means a distinct lessening of the “vital capacity”—and +displacement of the vital organs within it, are great factors in +retarding the natural activity of the parts concerned, which are +therefore unable fully and naturally to perform their functions. Under +these circumstances the natural chemical changes in the human organism +cannot be adequate. + +The serious interference with the circulatory processes and the +inadequate oxygenation of the blood prevent the system from being +properly nourished and cleansed of impurities, for the action of the +excretory processes will be impeded and the whole organism slowly but +surely charged with foreign matter, which, sooner or later, will cause +acute symptoms of disease. + +It will at once be understood that the defects enumerated produce +distinct deterioration in the condition of the different organs of the +body, and it is well known that an organ’s power of resistance to +disease depends upon the adequacy of its functioning power, which in its +turn depends upon adequate activity. + +Records exist which prove that Chinese physicians as early as 2000 B.C. +employed breathing exercises in the treatment of certain diseases. It is +therefore obvious that the people concerned had reached: + + + 1. A stage in their evolution which corresponds with that of our time, + i.e., demanding re-education. + + 2. A stage of observation of cause and effect similar to that of + to-day, which led them to see the need of re-education. Such + re-education is essential to the restoration of the natural conditions + present at the birth in every normal babe, though gradually + deteriorated under conditions of modern life. + + +In recent years the following members of the medical profession have +urged the inestimable value of the cultivation and development of the +respiratory mechanism, and their conclusions have been borne out by the +practical results secured by respiratory re-education combined with +proper medical treatment. + + + MEDICAL OPINIONS CONCERNING THE EVIL EFFECT OF INTERFERENCE WITH AND + INADEQUATE USE OF THE RESPIRATORY PROCESSES + +Mr. W. Arbuthnot Lane, surgeon to Guy’s Hospital, in his lecture +published in the _Lancet_, December 17, 1904, p. 1697, urges that +reduction in the respiratory capacity is a very great factor in lowering +the activity of all the vital processes of the body, and that in the +first instance inadequate aeration and oxygenation is the result of a +serious alteration in the abdominal mechanisms, and afterwards this +insufficient aeration impairs the digestive processes. + +Dr. Hugh A. McCallum, in his clinical lecture on “Visceroptosis” +(dropping of the viscera), as published in the _British Medical +Journal_, February 18, 1905, p. 345, points out that over ninety per +cent. of the females suffering from neurasthenia (exhaustion of nerve +force) are victims of visceroptosis, and that the conditions present are +bad standing posture, imperfect use of the lower zone of the thorax, and +the lack of tone in the abdominal muscular system which leads to +defective intra-abdominal pressure. He also mentions that Dr. John +Madison Taylor of Philadelphia and Keith of England were the two first +to point out that the origin of this disease begins in a faulty position +and use of the thorax. + +In a leading article in the _Lancet_, December 24, 1904, p. 1796, this +passage occurs: “Whatever may be the causes, it is certain that an +increasing number of town-dwellers suffer from constipation and atony of +the colon, and that purgatives, enemata, and massage are powerless to +prevent their progress from constipation to coprostasis.” + + + CONVALESCENTS + +The value of respiratory re-education in the treatment of convalescents +was pointed out recently (1905) by M. Siredey and M. Rosenthal in a +paper read at a meeting of the Société Medicale des Hôpitaux. + +An excerpt from the _Lancet_, February 18, 1905, p. 463, reads as +follows: + + + “They said that respiratory insufficiency was one of the causes of the + general debility which showed itself after an acute illness. It was + easily recognised by the following symptoms, which the patient + presented, namely, thoracic insufficiency, shown by absence or + impairment of the movement of the thorax; and diaphragmatic + insufficiency, shown by immobility or recession of the abdomen during + inspiration—a condition met with in pseudo-pleurisy of the bases of + the lungs. + + “Respiratory re-education was, in their opinion, the specific + treatment for respiratory insufficiency. In the case of convalescents + it constantly produced a progressive threefold effect, namely, + expansion of the thorax, diuresis, and increase of weight. It promoted + in a marked degree the recuperation of the vital functions which + followed acute illness, and the general health of the patients + improved rapidly. It ought to be combined with other forms of + treatment, and the action of the latter was enhanced by it.” + + +The matter of preventing defective and restoring proper action clearly +calls for attention. The foregoing will enable the reader definitely to +understand what is necessary, viz., + + + 1. In _Prevention_. The inculcation of a proper mental attitude + towards the act of breathing in children, to be followed by those + detailed instructions necessary to the correct practice of such + respiratory exercises as will maintain adequate and proper use of the + breathing organs. + + 2. In _Restoration_. A body possessing one or other or all of the + defects previously named will need re-education in order to eradicate + the defects brought about by bad habits, etc., and to restore a proper + condition. As the breathing mechanism is ordinarily _unconsciously_ + controlled, it is necessary, in order to regain full efficiency in the + use of it, to proceed by way of _conscious_ control until the normal + conditions return. Afterwards, when perfected, unconscious control—as + it originally existed prior to respiratory and physical + deterioration—will supervene. + + + + + II + ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED AND FACTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN THE THEORY AND + PRACTICE OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION + + “Each faculty acquires fitness for its function by performing its + function; and if its function is performed for it by a substituted + agency, none of the required adjustment of nature takes place; but the + nature becomes deformed to fit the artificial arrangements instead of + the natural arrangements.”—HERBERT SPENCER. + + +Anything that makes for good may be rendered harmful in its effect by +injudicious application or improper use, and many authorities have +referred to this fact in connexion with breathing exercises. For the +guidance of my readers I will detail some of the harmful results which +accrue from the attempt to take what are known as “deep breaths” during +the practice of breathing and physical exercises, in accordance with the +instructions set down and the principle advocated in recognised +breathing systems. + +At the outset, let me point out that respiratory education or +respiratory re-education will not prove successful unless the mind of +the pupil is thoroughly imbued with the true principles which apply to +atmospheric pressure, the equilibrium of the body, the centre of +gravity, and to positions of mechanical advantage where the alternate +expansions and contractions of the thorax are concerned. In other words, +_it is essential to have a proper mental attitude towards respiratory +education or re-education, and the specific acts which constitute the +exercises embodied_ in it, together with a proper knowledge and +practical employment of the _true primary movement_ in each and every +act. + +I may remark that I recognised this factor and put it to practical use +over twenty years ago, but it has been quite overlooked or neglected in +the other systems formulated before and since that time. In fact, when I +introduced my method to leading London medical men they quickly admitted +the value of this important factor, and expressed their surprise that on +account of its importance it had not been previously advocated, seeing +that from a practical point of view it is so essential, not only in the +eradication of respiratory faults or defects (re-education), but also in +preventing them (education). + +A proper mental attitude, let me repeat then, is all-important. From its +neglect arise many of the serious defects ordinarily met with in the +respiratory mechanism of civilised people, all of which are exaggerated +in the practice of customary “breathing exercises.” + +1. “_Sniffing_” or “_Gasping_.” If the “deep breath” be taken through +the nasal passages there will be a loud “sniffing” sound and collapse of +the alæ nasi, and if through the mouth, a “gasping” sound. The pupil has +not been told that if the thorax is expanded correctly the lungs will at +once be filled with air by atmospheric pressure, exactly as a pair of +bellows is filled when the handles are pulled apart. + +It is a well-known fact, but one greatly to be regretted, that many +teachers of breathing and physical exercises actually tell the pupils +that, in order to get the increased air-supply they _must_ “sniff.” + +Worse than this, many medical men are guilty of similar instruction to +their patients, and when giving a personal demonstration of how a “deep +breath” should be taken, they “sniff” loudly and bring about a collapse +of the alæ nasi, throw back the head, and interfere with the centre of +gravity. Of course, it is only necessary to remind them of the law of +atmospheric pressure as it applies to breathing, and they at once +recognise their error. + +Such a state of affairs serves to show that lamentable ignorance +prevails even in the twentieth century in connexion with so essential a +function as breathing, and on reflection we must realise the seriousness +of a situation which, from some points of view, is really pathetic. + +Most people, if asked to take a “deep breath,” will proceed to—I use the +words spoken by thousands of people I have experimented upon—“suck air +into the lungs to expand the chest,” whereas, of course, the proper +expansion of the chest, as a primary movement, causes the alæ nasi to be +dilated and the lungs to be instantly filled with air by atmospheric +pressure, without any harmful lowering of the pressure. + +2. During this harmful “sniffing” act it will be seen that— + + + (a) The larynx is unduly depressed; likewise the diaphragm. + + The undue strain, caused by this unnatural crowding down of the larynx + and its accessories, is undoubtedly the greatest factor in the + causation of throat troubles, especially where professional + voice-users are concerned. This has been abundantly proved by the + practical tests which I have made during the past twelve years. My + success in London with eminent members of the dramatic and vocal + profession, sent to me by their medical advisers, might be mentioned + in this connexion. + + (b) The upper chest is unduly raised, and in most cases the shoulders + also. + + (c) The back is unduly hollowed in the lumbar region. + + (d) The abdomen is generally protruded, and there is an abnormally + deranged intra-abdominal pressure. + + (e) The head is thrown too far back, and the neck unduly tensed and + shortened at a time when it should be perfectly free from strain. + + (f) Parts of the chest are unduly expanded, while others that should + share in the expansion are contracted, particularly the back in the + lumbar region. + + (g) During the expiration there is an undue falling of the upper + chest, which harmfully increases the intra-thoracic pressure and so + dams back the blood in the thin-walled veins and auricles and hampers + the heart’s action. + + (h) Undue larynx depression prevents the proper placing and natural + movements of the tongue, the adequate and correct opening of the mouth + for the formation of the resonance cavity necessary to the + vocalisation of a true “Ah.” + + It is well known that the tongue is attached to the larynx, and + therefore any undue depression of the latter must of necessity + interfere with the free and correct movements of the former. + + (i) The head is thrown back to open the mouth. + + This is a common fault, even with professional singers, but a moment’s + consideration of the movements of the jaw—from an anatomical point of + view—will show that it should move downwards without effort, and that + it is not necessary to move the head backwards in order to effect the + opening of the mouth by the lowering of the jaw, since, as a matter of + fact, the latter movement will be more readily and perfectly performed + if the head remains erect without any deviatory posture. + + Every voice-user should learn to open the mouth without throwing back + the head. Very distinct benefits will accrue to those who succeed in + establishing this habit. + + +It is well known that the practice of “physical culture” exercises has +caused emphysema, and it has been suggested that unnatural breathing +exercises have also been responsible for the condition. I refer to this +because I wish to show that it would not be possible to cause emphysema +by the method of respiratory education and re-education I have +formulated. + +Emphysema may be caused by:— + + + 1. The reduction of the elasticity of the lung cells and tissue + resulting from undue expansion of the lungs and from their being held + too long in this expanded position. + + 2. The undue intra-thoracic pressure, during an attempt at expiration + or some physical act, upon the air cells, which remain filled with air + in consequence of the means of egress from the lungs being temporarily + closed by the approximation of vocal reeds and ventricular bands. + + +If the fundamental principles of my method are observed, these +conditions cannot be present during the practice of the exercises, and +emphysema therefore not only cannot be produced but is likely to be even +remedied where previously existing. + +In the first place, the tendency unduly to expand any part or parts of +the thorax in particular, to the exclusion of other parts, is prevented +by the detailed personal instruction given in connexion with each +exercise in its application to individual defects or peculiarities of +the pupil. Moreover, the mechanical advantages in the body-pose and +chest poise assumed in these exercises cause them to be performed with +the minimum of effort, and lead to an even and controlled expansion of +the whole thorax. There is not, as is too often the case, an undue +expansion of one part of the chest, while other parts, which should +share in such expansion, are being contracted—a condition that obtains, +for instance, when the diaphragm is unduly depressed in inspiration. In +this latter case there is a sinking above and below the clavicles, a +hollowing in the lumbar region of the back, undue protrusion of the +abdomen, displacement of the abdominal viscera, reduction in height, +undue depression of the larynx, and the centre of gravity is thrown too +far back. + +The _striking feature_ in those who have _practised customary breathing +exercises_ is an _undue lateral expansion_ of the lower ribs, when +several or all of the above defects are present. This excessive +expansion gives an undue width to the lower part of the chest, and there +are thousands of young girls who present quite a matronly appearance in +consequence. The breathing exercises imparted by teachers of singing are +particularly effective in bringing about this undesirable and harmful +condition. + +The guiding principle that should be invariably kept in mind by both +teacher and pupil is to secure, with the minimum of effort, perfect use +of the component parts of the mechanisms concerned in respiration and +vocalisation. Then, sooner or later, adequate mobility, power, speed, +absolute control, and artistic manipulation must follow. + +Most people—teachers as well as pupils—when thinking of or practising +breathing exercises, have one fixed idea, viz., that of causing a _great +expansion_ of the chest, whereas its proper and adequate _contraction_ +is equally important. There are, indeed, many cases in which the +expiratory movement calls for more attention than the inspiratory. + +Careful observation will show that those who take breath by the +“sniffing” or “gasping” mode of breathing always experience great +difficulty with breath-control in speech and song, or during the +performance of breathing exercises. This remains true whether the air is +expelled through the mouth or nasal passages, and it is due to the +imperfect use of the thoracic mechanism, and the consequent loss of +mechanical advantage already referred to at the end of the inspiration. + +The natural and powerful air-controlling power is therefore absent, and +its absence causes undue approximation of the vocal reeds, and probably +of the ventricular bands in the endeavour to prevent the escape of air, +which air, when once released under these conditions, is thereafter +inadequately and imperfectly controlled. + +In vocal use there is considerable increase in this lack of +breath-control, the upper chest being more rapidly and forcibly +depressed during the vocalisation. + +This is not a matter for surprise, for if a mechanical advantage is +essential to the proper expansion of the thorax for the intake of air, +it is equally essential to the controlling power during the expiration, +and if during the expiration the upper chest is falling, it clearly +proves that the advantage indicated is not present. + + + + + III + THE PRACTICE OF RESPIRATORY RE-EDUCATION + + + HABIT IN RELATION TO PECULIARITIES AND DEFECTS + + “If we contemplate the method of Nature, we see that everywhere vast + results are brought about by accumulating minute actions.”—HERBERT + SPENCER. + +The mental and physical peculiarities or defects of men and women are +the result of heredity or acquired habit, and the most casual observer +has noticed that certain peculiarities or defects are characteristic of +the members of particular families, as, for instance, in connexion with +the standing and sitting postures, the style of walking, the position of +the shoulders and shoulder-blades, the use of the arm, and the use of +the vocal organs in speech, etc. + +Such family peculiarities or defects are unconsciously acquired by the +children, often becoming more pronounced in the second generation, such +acquirements making for good or ill, as the case may be. I will, +however, confine myself to an enumeration of those with a harmful +tendency, as an understanding of bad habits is essential to the +consideration of the teaching principles adopted in my method of +respiratory-physical re-education. + +The chief peculiarities or defects may be broadly indicated as:— + + + 1. An incorrect mental attitude towards the respiratory act. + + 2. Lack of control over, and improper and inadequate use of, the + component parts of the different mechanisms of the body, limbs, and + nervous system. + + 3. Incorrect pose of the body and chest poise, and therefrom + consequent defects in the standing and sitting postures, the + interference with the normal position and shape of the spine, as well + as the ribs, the costal arch, the vital organs, and the abdominal + viscera. + + +Re-education, when one or other or all of these peculiarities or defects +are present, means eradication of existing bad habits, and the following +will indicate some of the chief principles upon which the teaching +method of this re-education is based:— + +That where the human machinery is concerned Nature does not work in +parts, but treats everything as a whole. + +That a proper mental attitude towards respiration is at once inculcated, +so that each and every respiratory act in the practice of the exercises +is the direct result of volition, the primary, secondary, and other +movements necessary to the proper performance of such act having first +been definitely indicated to the pupil. + +It may prove of interest to mention that W. Marcet, M.D., F.R.S., and +Harry Campbell, M.D., B.S., London, are of opinion that volition as such +makes a direct demand upon the breathing powers quite apart from all +physical effort, and with these great advantages, that, unlike the +latter, it neither increases the production of waste products nor tends +to cause thoracic rigidity, thus more or less retarding the movements of +the chest. The experiments made by Dr. Marcet show that the duration of +a man’s power to sustain the muscle contraction necessary to raise a +weight a given number of times depends upon the endurance of the +brain-centres causing the act of volition rather than upon the muscular +power. An instance is quoted of a man who lifted a weight of 4 pounds +203 times, and who, after resting and performing forced breathing +movements, raised the same weight the same height 700 times. + +Regarding muscle development and chest expansion, Dr. Harry Campbell has +in his book on breathing taken the case of Sandow. His conclusion will +prove of interest. He pointed out that Sandow claimed to be able to +increase the size of the chest 14 inches—that is, from 48 to 62 inches +in circumference. Dr. Campbell then expressed the opinion that this +increase is almost entirely the result of the swelling up of the large +muscles surrounding the chest, and that most probably the increase in +his bony chest (thorax) is not more than 2 to 3 inches, seeing that his +“vital capacity” is only 275 cubic inches. + +(For ten years past I have drawn the attention of medical men to the +deception of ordinary chest measurements and to the evils wrought by the +physical training and the “stand at attention” attitude in vogue in the +army, and also to the harmful effects of the drill in our schools, where +the unfortunate children are made to assume a posture which is exactly +that of the soldier, whose striking characteristic is the undue and +harmful hollow in the lumbar spine and the numerous defects that are +inseparable from this unnatural posture.) + +There is such immediate improvement in the pose of the body and poise of +the chest whatever the conditions (excepting, of course, organised +structural defects), that a valuable mechanical advantage is secured in +the respiratory movements, and this is gradually improved by the +practice until the habit becomes established, and the law of gravity +appertaining to the human body is duly obeyed. + +The mechanical advantage referred to is of particular value, for it +means prevention of undue and harmful falling of the upper chest at the +end of the expiration, which is always present in those who practise the +customary breathing exercises, the pupil being then deprived of the +mechanical advantage so essential to the proper performance of the next +inspiratory act. + +Then follows due increase in the movements of expansion and contraction +of the thorax until such movements are adequate and perfectly +controlled. + +Further, these expansions are primary movements in securing that +increase in the capacity of the chest necessary to afford the normal +oscillations of atmospheric pressure, without unduly lowering that +pressure—or, in other words, they give opportunity to fill the lungs +with air, while the contractions overcome the air pressure and force the +air out of the lungs, and at the same time constitute the controlling +power of the speed and length of the expiration. + +The excessive and harmful lowering of the air pressure in the +respiratory tract, and the consequent collapse of the alæ nasi, is +prevented by so regulating the respiratory speed that the lungs are +filled by atmospheric pressure. + +The value of this will be readily understood when it is remembered that +such lowering, which is always present in the “sniffing” mode of +breathing, causes collapse of the alæ nasi. It also tends to cause +congestion of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract on the sucker +system, setting up catarrh and its attendant evils, such as throat +disorders, loss of voice, bronchitis, asthma, and other pulmonary +troubles. + +From the first lesson the effect upon the splanchnic area is such that +the blood is more or less drawn away from it to the lungs, and is then +evenly distributed to other parts of the body. The intra-abdominal +pressure is more or less raised, and there is a gradual tendency to the +permanent establishment of normal conditions. + +The use of bandages or corsets is to be condemned as treatment in +protruding abdomen instead of the adoption of practical means to remove +the cause. Such support to the abdominal wall is artificial and harmful, +since it tends to make the muscles more flaccid. The respiratory +mechanism should be re-educated, for this would mean a re-education or +strengthening of the supports Nature has supplied. In other words, the +sinking above and below the clavicles and the undue hollowing of the +lumbar spine—the great factors in the direct causation of the protrusion +of the abdomen—are removed, and a normal condition of the abdominal +muscles established. This means a very decided improvement in the figure +and general health. + +The improvement in the abdominal conditions (the improved position of +the abdominal viscera and the development of the abdominal muscles) is +proportionate to that of the respiratory movements—a fact that can be +readily understood when I point out that the movements of the parts are +interdependent. When the faulty distention of the splanchnic area is +present it will be found that the diaphragm is unduly low in breathing; +and when there is excessive depression of the diaphragm in respiration +there is interference with the centre of gravity by displacement +forward, and the compensatory arching backward in the lumbar region. + +After a time there is such improvement in the use of the component parts +of the mechanism that an inspiration may, if desired, be secured by a +depression of the diaphragm, while at the same moment the condition in +the splanchnic area is actually improved. + +Improvement in respiratory exchange is secured by gradual increase in +the expansions and contractions of the thorax, which increases the +aeration of lungs, the supply of oxygen, and the elimination of CO_{2}. + +The quantity of residual air in the lungs is greatly increased, and if +the expired air is always converted into a controlled whispered vowel +during the practice of the breathing exercises very great benefits +accrue, notably those derived from the prolonged duration of air in the +lungs, and the proper inter-thoracic pressure necessary to force the +adequate supply of oxygen into the blood and eliminate the due quantity +of CO_{2}. + +The employment of these whispered tones means the proper use of the +vocal organs in a form of vocalisation little associated with ordinary +bad habits, and that perfect co-ordination of the parts concerned which +is inseparable from adequately controlled whisper vocalisation. + +There is a rapid clearing of the skin, the white face becoming a natural +colour, and a reduction of fat in the obese by its being burnt off with +the extra oxygen supply. + +This reduction in the weight and size is often quite remarkable, as also +the development of the flaccid muscles of the abdominal wall and the +consequent improvement in the activity of the parts concerned. + + + + + CONCLUDING REMARKS + + +The foregoing will serve to draw attention to the far-reaching and +beneficial effects of what, for the lack of a more satisfactory and +comprehensive name, I refer to as respiratory re-education. + +It is a method that makes for the maintenance and restoration of those +physical conditions possessed by every normal child at birth, the +presence of which ensures a proper standard of health, adequate +resistance to disease, and a reserve power which, if a serious illness +should occur, will serve to turn the tide at the critical moment towards +recovery. The insurance of such a condition for a generation would mean +the regeneration of the human race as constituted to-day; and I have no +hesitation in stating that the results secured during the past twenty +years, and particularly during the past thirteen years in London in +co-operation with leading medical men, justify me in asserting that the +practical application of the principles of this new method in education +and re-education will be invaluable in overcoming the disadvantages and +bad habits of our artificial civilised life, and that they will prove +the great factor in successfully checking the physical degeneration of +mankind. + + + + + INDEX + + + =Abdominal wall=, 20, 202, 264, 286, 291; + A. pressure, 191, 264, 266, 304, 320, 327, 336, 339. + + =Abnormality=, 69, 115; + abnormal physical condition, 71, 115, 262. + + =Aborigines=, of North America, New Zealand, Japan, 8, 10. + + =Acrobats and athletes=, 278, 296. + + =Acts (actions)=, mechanical, 9, 33 ff.; + mechanical repetition of, 6, 33; + reflex, 54; + reasoned and unreasoned, 185–188, 204, 252; + instinctive number of, decreasing, 197; + imitative and reasoned, 207; + muscular, performed vicariously by teacher, 23, 207, 212, 214 ff., + 217, 257; + performance of habitual, by other than habitual methods, 213, + in sitting, 284; + antagonistic action, 185; + manner of performance, all-important, 74; + act of faith, 48 ff. + + =Adaptability=, man’s, to changing environment, 28, 140, 143, 156, 161 + ff., 182, 187, 195, 197, 237 ff.; + slowness of process, 9; + in children, 116, 136, 153, 155; + German point of view, 173; + adaptability to the unusual, 161 ff., 182, 241, 245, 248 ff., 297; + examples of, 249 ff. + + =Affirmatives=, 53. + + =Alcohol=, 59, 288. v. =Overindulgence=. + + =Ambidexterity=, 118. + + =America=, 174 ff. + + =Anæmia=, 15. + + =Anæsthesia=, 124, 236. + + =Anger=, 44. + + =Ankles=, 184, 279. + + =Appendicitis=, Preface, 183, 191, 235, 303–305. + + =Apprehension=, 88; + in pupil, 253; + and re-education, 249–59; + cultivated, 25. + + =Aptitude, natural=, 205. + + =Archer, William=, 76 ff. + + =Argument=, 193 ff. + + =Arms=, incorrect use of, 23, 98, 184, 216, 219, 238, 276; + in drawing, 130. + + =Associations, mental=, connected with ideas of speech, 54. + + =Asthma=, 234, 274, 288, 299, 336. + + =Atavism=, 10, 14. + + =Athletes=, 57, 278, 296. + + =Atmospheric pressure=, in connection with breathing, 20, 147, 324 ff., + 336. + + =Attention=, attitude of, 103 ff.; + “stand at attention,” 334. + + =Auto-intoxication=, 21, 190, 234, 304; + in case of child, 113. + + =Automatism=, 160–167; + automatic control, 46, 54; + automatic functions, 189, 290–292; + automatic development, 160 ff.; + automatic training and machinery, 169. + + =Auto-suggestion=, 38, 52, 218, 231. + v. =Self-hypnotism=. + + + =Bacteriology=, Preface. + + =Back=, wrong use of, 98; + hollowing of, 201, 276, 298, 327, + in children, 126; + lengthening and widening of, 277, 291. + v. =Spine=. + + =Bad temper=, 58, 133, 222. + + =Balance=, lack of mental, 131; + upset by emergency, 252; + v. =Co-ordination=. + + =Bicycling=, 226. + + =Blood=, v. =Circulation=. + + =Body, human, potentialities of=, Preface, 2; + v. =Potentialities=. + + =Body=, civil war in, 15 ff., 93, 186, 197; + in so-called concentration, 103; + as a mechanism not understood, 16–18; + delusions in regard to uses of, 20; + false poise and carriage of, 86, 114, 129, + in drawing, 130, + in dancing, 136, + due to rigidity, 213; + lengthening of, 284 ff. + + =Boxing=, 232. + + =Breathing=, explanation of act, 147; + deep breathing, 13, 27, 145 ff., 149, 275, 298, 323; + by sucking in air, 20, 201 ff., 231, 267, 325, 326, 335; + incorrect habits of, 86, 310, 317, + example of, 91 ff., 201; + control of, 179, 220; + even pneumatic, 231; + “breathing exercises,” 298, 329, 335; + Chinese methods, 319; + mouth breathing, 146, 298, + in children dancing, 126. + v. =Part III=, 313–340. + + =British=, methods of, 171 ff. + + =Bronchitis=, 183, 299, 336. + + =Brute force=, principle of, 161, 165 ff. + + + =Cancer=, Preface, 47, 183, 288. + + =Carlyle, Thomas=, 245. + + =Catarrh=, 336. + + =Cause and effect=, due sequence of, 45, 96, 132; + effects given significance of causes, 133; + in usual teaching methods, 205; + in connection with re-education, 200, 215. + + =Chemical changes=, in physical constitution, produced by mental + condition, 47. + + =Chest=, unduly elevated, 264, 276, 298, 307, 327, 330, 334; + measurements, fallacy of, 325. + + =Child=, v. =Education=. + + =Circulation=, 17, 19, 21, 29, 289, 308. + + =Civilisation=, as a factor in physical degeneration, 7 ff., 14; + in relation to evolution, 11; + artificial, 14, 317, 340; + man’s progress towards higher stage of, 155, 187; + critical stage of, 159, 192; + future, to be based on reason, 243. + + =Claim, synopsis of=, 181–192. + + =Colitis=, 235. + + =Colon=, atony of, 320. + + =Common-sense=, 30. + v. =Reason=. + + =Concentration=, 89, 216, 261; + warning with regard to, 102 ff.; + national, 169. + + =Conscious guidance and control, theory and practice of=, Preface; + man’s progress in direction of, 31 ff., 107, 115, 141, 155, 186, 197, + 208; + necessity for, 35, 54, 57–72, 84, 156, 163, 179, 181, 187, 227, 296, + 305, 322; + possibility of complete, 41, 44 ff., 56; + primarily universal, secondly a specific, 59, 209; + universal application of, 72, 141, 181 ff., 192; + practical application of, 57–72, 179; + reasoned, 182, 187; + as synonym for mobility of mind, 92; + for poise, 136; + for reasoned experience, 68; + as fundamental of future education, 141–155; + danger of underrating power of, 291; + as adaptability in emergency, 241. + + =Conscious guidance and control, methods of=, 94, 189, 225, 230, + formulation of, 119 ff.; + four essential stages in, 200 ff.; + compared with other teaching methods, 52; + mental position of teacher and pupil, 89, 231; + application in connection with breathing, 91; + dramatic training, 138; + golf, 221–226; + ploughing, 239 ff.; + sitting, 283; + rising, 285; + walking, 279–283; + automatic functions, 290–292; + emergencies, 243 ff., 249, 282, 297; + individual errors and delusions, 260272; + bad habits, 288 ff.; + application, in case of stuttering, 219 ff., 294, + spinal curvature, 301; + appendicitis, 304; + effects of treatment, 233 ff., 306–312; + in case of defective speech, 53, 133, 231, 233 ff.; + lasting quality of change, 234. + + =Confidence=, based on reason, 215; + loss of, due to subconscious guidance, 222. + + =Consciousness=, with regard to use of muscular mechanisms, 17 ff., 94, + 96; + necessity of quickening the conscious mind, 52. + + =Constipation=, 20, 235, 274, 304, 320. + + =Contortions=, subconscious, 231; + facial, 229–307. + + =Control=, defective mental and physical, 23 ff., 267, 288; + growth and progress of intellectual, 30; + mental, in “New Thought,” 44; + co-ordinated reasoned, 308. + + =Co-ordination, defective=, case of congenital, 53; + in case of stammering, 53 ff.; + overindulgence, 58 ff., 68, 71; + deep breathing, 146; + children dancing, 126; + drawing, 130; + national, 170; + with reference to respiration, 148, 316; + to education, 140; + case of deterioration of correct, 127 ff.; + of improved, 219; + correct, 190, 304, 308; + in standing position, 278; + test of correct, 309; + individual and national compared, 175. + + =Crippling=, 215. + + =Courage=, 2, 161, 171. + + + =Dancing=, 124 ff., 165. + + =Debility=, 13, 15, 86. + + =Defects=, bodily, 14 ff., 51, 114, 183 ff.; + failure to eradicate by direct means, 95, 255; + dangerous, initiated by school methods, 127, 129, 132, 152. + + =Degeneracy=, 6, 7, 12, 107, 179, 212, 247, 311, 319, 340; + comparison between rural and urban, 6; + not an epidemic, but a stage in progress of human race, 192 ff.; + in children, 106. + + =Delusions (mental and physical)=, 18, 89, 185, 188, 206, 214, 216, + 219, 232, 253; + in connection with physical exercises, 21 ff.; + national, 167, 209; + specific cases, 260, 272. + + =Deterioration, physical=, Preface. v. =Degeneracy=. + + =Development=, 11, 160, 238; + scientific theory of, 195. + + =Diagnosis=, 89, 193, 213, 255, 308. + + =Diaphragm=, 337. + + =Digestion=, 179, 266, 320. + + =Disablement=, subconsciously willed, 216. + + =Disease=, immunity from, 43, 86; + resistance to, Preface, 179; + submission to, 268 ff. + + =Doe, John=, case of, 15 ff., 21 ff., 93 ff. + + =Dorando=, 281–296. + + =Dramatic expression=, 138. + + =Drawing=, 129 ff. + + =Dreaming=, 25, 131. + v. =Self-hypnotism=. + + =Drug habit=, 66 ff. + + =Dumb-bells=, 13, 26, 97. + + + =Eccentricity=, 131 ff. + + =Education=, in relation to evolution, 11, 25 ff.; + as generally understood, does not necessarily mean progress on the + evolutionary plane, 165; + in earlier years, two methods of learning, 109, 114, 118; + compared with re-education, 178; + indictment of, 252. + =Methods of education=, on false basis, 25 ff.; + on true basis, such as will establish a normal kinæsthesia, 71, + 140, 155. + =On subconscious basis=, two methods, older, of supervision, modern, + of free expression, 115 ff.; + older method, 122, 134; + rigidity in, 136 ff., 144, 145, 151, 155; + concentration in, 103; + physical exercises, criticism of, 115, 145, + as doing more harm than good, 146; + as haphazard system, 310 ff.; + failure of, owing to general ignorance of ideal physical condition + in children, 114, 127; + modern method (free expression), 115 ff., 122, 136, 142; + danger of experimentation, 150. + =On basis of Conscious Guidance and Control=, 134 ff., 228, 296; + essential starting point, 135; + guidance and direction necessary in earliest years, 134; + postulates concerning necessity of conscious guidance and control + as fundamental in education and commanding fundamental of free + expression, 141–143; + meaning of “training,” 144; + child’s right of choice within limits, 151; + problem to be solved, 153 ff.; + primary and secondary education, 141. + + =Effects and causes=, v. =Cause and Effect=. + + =Effort=, minimum of, employed, 94; + misapplied, 95 ff., 103 ff., 130. + + =Emotion=, 25, 34, 46, 90, 278, 328; + in connection with music and dancing, 124. + + =Emphysema=, 298, 328. + + =End=, v. =Means whereby=. + + =Energy=, 14, 179; + examples of wasted, 97, 130, 216, 219 ff., 232 ff. + + =Enunciation=, 231. + + =Environment=, in education, 110, 123, 128, 136. + + =Equilibrium=, 95, 238, 265, 274, 280, 324. + + =Eugenics=, 106, 194. + + =Eulenburg=, myopathic theory of, 300. + + =Evolution=, 3–12, 28, 31, 37, 185, 319; + governing principle of, 41; + towards conscious guidance and control, 40, 72, 84, 87, 141 ff., 155, + 159, 181, 197, 208, 228; + standards of, 157 ff.; + national, 158, 162, 165, 194, 228, 248. + + + =Face=, expression of, 306 ff.; + change during treatment, 308. + + =Faith-healing=, Preface, 38, 40, 45 ff., 52, 193, 215, 218, 288; + dangers of, 48. + + =Fat=, reduction of, 339; + morbid condition of, 86. + + =Fear=, 34, 44, 88, 161, 182, 265; + fear reflexes, 88, 133; + stage fright, 139; + causing self-hypnotism, 242. + + =Feeling-tones=, v. =Sensory appreciation=. + + =Feet=, position of, for standing, 274, 279; + for walking, 279–283; + flatfoot, 264, 280. + + =Fencing=, 204, 226. + + =Flaccidity=, undue, 95. + + =Frazer’s “Golden Bough,”= Preface. + + =Freedom=, 136, 143, 163; + German conception of, 163 ff. + + =Free expression=, 116 ff., 122 ff., 136, 142, 143, 150; + in dramatic training, 138 ff. + + =Functions=, bodily, 15, 16, 184, 288, 305, 308; + control of, 38, 41, 56. + + + =Games=, 211. + + =Germany=, 163 ff. + + =Golf=, 204, 211–213, 221–226. + + =Gravity, centre of=, 285, 324, 336. + + =Greece=, civilisation of, 7. + + + =Habit (Habits)=, effects of, slow to show themselves; difference + between old and new conception of, 87, 90, 92; + predisposition to, 86; + in child, 108 ff.; + of thought and of body, 73 ff., 86 ff.; + muscular, 18, 54, 212; + mental, 47, 53, 212; + how affected by act of faith, 47 ff.; + by suggestion, 52 ff.; + control of mental, 102; + mechanical, 75, 77 ff., 105, 116; + harmful, 86, 189, 234, 322, 333, 340; + attachment to harmful, 101, 106; + specific harmful, 219, 273, 286–290, 317; + of using eyes, 184; + of submission to illness; + cultivation of harmful, 105, 147, 207, 239, 262; + development of harmful in children, 106, 111, 114, 123, 132–134; + incorrect changed to correct, 86, 104, 151, 189, 214, 241, 289, 332; + ability to check incipient, 234; + habit of distinguishing between reasoned and unreasoned actions, + necessary to evolution, 188. + + =Hallucination=, 85. + + =Hand=, evolution of, 5; + movement of, 23; + incorrect use of, in drawing, 130; + position of hands as test of co-ordination, 309 ff. + + =Hayfever=, 235, 299. + + =Head=, delusion in regard to movement of, 18; + example of, 23, 214; + in drawing, 130; + head thrown back, 201, 231, 233, 263, 283, 327. + + =Heart=, 15, 19, 56, 298, 318; + heart trouble among soldiers, 148; + case of dilation of, 307. + + =Heredity=, 10, 108 ff. + + =Hips=, 184, 279, 284. + + =Hypnotism=, Preface, 38 ff., 52, 218 and note, 231, 236; + dangers of, 41. + + =Hypochondria=, 99. + + + =Ideo-motor centres=, 53, 129, 211. + + =Idée fixe=, 50, 83, 85, 95, 262, 267; + national, 170–173. + + =Ill health=, in some people as natural as health in others, 71. + + =Imitation=, 212, 292–297, 310, 317, 332; + deliberate, 94; + unconscious, 109, 114, 118, 212, 292–297; + of faults in speech, 293 ff.; + as method of teaching, 207, 228. + + =Improvement=, signs of, 53, 133, 233 ff., 306–312. + + =Indigestion=, 15, 20, 201. + + =Individual.= v. =State=, 160 ff., 166, 167. + + =Inertia, mental=, 101, 105, 185. + + =Influenza=, 305. + + =Inhibition=, 35 ff., 54, 86, 94, 188, 200, 212, 225, 231 ff., 256, + 301; + defective, 23; + as a preventive order, 96, 210, 220, 255 ff. + + =Initiative=, 99, 121. + + =Inoculation=, 2. + + =Insanity=, Preface, 74. + + =Insomnia=, 15. + + =Instinct=, 33 ff., 186, 188, 196; + as equivalent to subconscious control, 68; + in modern child, 108, 115, 118 ff., 135, 154; + primitive, 166, 182; + in modern man, 182, 183, 186, 204, 296, 311; + standard of accuracy lost, 217, 227; + compared with intuition, 227; + limitation of, in animals, 247, + in man, 296. + + =Intelligence=, growth of, in man, 4 ff., 54, 84, 98; + dominating instinct, 37. + + =Intoxication=, emotional, 125. + + =Intuition=, 34, 186, 203; + compared with instinct, 221. + + + =Jaw=, movement of, in speaking, 230; + relaxation of, to open mouth, 232 ff. + + =Judgment=, 206, 241, 248; + German failure in, 163 ff. + + + =Kinæsthetic register=, 97. + v. =Sensory appreciation=. + + =Kinæsthetic systems=, defective and delusive, 22, 70, 89 ff., 206; + normal, 71; + case of George Gray, 137; + overexaltation of, 125; + demoralisation of, 151, 155; + national, 158; + satisfactory condition of, constitutes “means whereby” of free and + full expression, 140; + re-education of, in connection with breathing, 148; + with speaking, 230. + + =Knees=, 184, 279, 284. + + =Ku-Klux Klan=, 161. + + =Kultur=, 169. + + + =Larynx=, depressed, 233, 267, 299, 327; + in children dancing, 126; + raised and relaxed, 233. + + =Lassitude=, 15, 101. + + =Legs=, movement of, 23, 184; + shortening of, 280; + stiffening of, 307. + v. =Golf and Ploughing=. + + =Lips=, incorrect use of, in speech, 53, 133. + + =Lordosis=, 298. + + =Lungs=, 17, 19, 92, 235, 318, 325 ff., 335. + + + =Malformations=, 188, 235. + + =Malthus=, 8. + + =Man=, present danger of, 5 ff., 13, 23; + progress through the ages, 28 ff., 37; + supreme inheritance of, 11, 106, 156, 228, 236, 258, 290, 297. + v. =Potentialities=. + + =Manipulation=, v. =Acts=, vicariously performed by teacher. + + =Manufactured premises=, 162, 210. + + =Massage=, internal natural, 190, 191, 289, 304 ff., 316. + + “=Means whereby=,” rather than the end, to be considered, 16, 135, 140, + 189, 204, 210, 230, 262, 263, 266, 283; + of successful re-adjustment, 67; + of free and full expression, 140; + of conscious guidance and control, 197; + of controlled speech, 208, 220, 230; + of playing golf, 224, 226; + of bicycling, 226; + of ploughing, 237 ff.; + of standing position, 275 ff.; + of walking, 279–283; + of sitting, 283; + of rising, 285; + in relation to social reform, 11, 154; + to education, 154; + to individual errors and delusions, 262 ff. + + =Mechanical advantage=, position of, 27, 86, 94, 96 ff., 132, 189 ff., + 214, 273, 277, 301, 304, 321 ff., 335. + + =Mechanistic theory=, 4. + + =Medical opinion concerning respiration=, 319. + + =Mental attitude=, importance of subjects, 15 ff., 20 ff., 46, 51 ff., + 73 ff., 85, 93; + wrong, of subject, 15, 18, 98, 185, 188, 252 ff., 267, 269; + deliberately adopted, becomes fixed habit, 74; + of teacher, 89, 215; + of pupil, 89, 253; + towards breathing, 322–324, 333. + + =Method of teaching=, 204 ff. + + =Militarism=, 166, 169 ff. + + =Monomania=, v. =Idée fixe=. + + =Mouth=, imperfect opening of, 229; + controlled opening of, 230 ff., 233, 327. + + =Müller, Max=, 56. + + =Münsterberg=, psychological theories of, 30. + + =Muscles=, new ways of using, 6; + atrophied, 6, 15; + semi-automatic, 56; + conscious movement of, 57; + control and co-ordination of, 93. + + =Muscular mechanism (muscular system)=, incorrect use of, 17 ff., 51, + 86, 95, 288, 310; + correct use of, 93, 225, 278, 289; + mechanical development of, 16; + derangement of, in child, 113; + correct natural use of, in children, 132; + thoracic, 317. + + =Music=, 124 ff., 165; + musical instruments, 211. + + =Myers, F. W. H.=, his concept of the subconscious self, 30 ff. + + + =Natural aptitude=, 205, 262, 283. + + =Natural selection=, 3–5, 16, 195; + as opposed to conscious selection, 6. + + =Neck=, shortening of, 262, 283; + in children dancing, 126; + drawing, 130; + stiffening of, 96, 98, 201, 203, 209, 231, 233, 298, 308; + as indicator of inadequate control, 128, 184. + + =Nervous prostration=, 16. + + “=New Thought=,” 44, 52, 287. + + + =Obsession=, v. =Idée fixe=, 168. + + =One-brain-track method=, 262, 266, 270. + + “=Open mind=,” 51, 76 ff., 160, 174; + contrasted with credulity, 98. + + =Orders=, conscious guiding, 55 ff., 87 ff., 91; + incorrect subconscious, 255; + new and correct, 90 ff., 94, 142, 250, 203, 211, 214, 217, 283; + preventive, 96. + + =Overcompensation=, 25, 61, 64, 90, 162, 262. + + =Overindulgence=, 58 ff., 66 ff., 74, 273, 288. + + + =Pain=, 48, 68 ff., 100, 218; + perverted form of pleasure in, 71. + + =Panaceas=, Preface, 287. + + =Paralysis=, 234, 235. + + =Persia=, civilisation of, 7. + + =Philosophy=, 4, 28, 38; + application of conscious control to, 182. + + =Physical culture=, Preface, 4, 13 ff., 17 ff., 25, 97, 145, 201–202, + 275, 299 ff.; + methods of, 299 ff.; + v. =Spinal curvature=. + + =Physical exercises=, mechanical, 14, 19, 93, 145 ff., 201; + recent tendency to modify, 26; + reason for failure of, 21; + imitations of bad models in, 115; + unnecessary under methods of conscious guidance and control. + + “=Phobia=,” 34. + v. =Fear reflexes=. + + =Pineal eye=, 5. + + =Plague=, as a factor in evolution, 7. + + =Play=, children’s, 121. + + =Ploughing=, 237–241. + + =Poise=, 86, 95, 136, 213, 231, 286, 317; + mental, physical, and spiritual balance, 11. + + =Potentialities=, man’s, Preface, 4, 11, 192, 196, 205, 208, 236; + of conscious control in modern child, 116; + standard of kinæsthetic, in modern child, lowered, 120; + debasement of, 166. + + “=Practice=,” 88, 207, 227, 230. + + =Precept=, 106, 109, 118. + + =Preconceived ideas=, erroneous, 23, 54, 144, 183, 184, 203, 205, 215, + 216, 232, 261, 301; + in a nation, 162; + as the legacy of instinct, 212; + in relation to lifting a weight, 97 ff.; + to art, 131; + to speech, 228. + + =Predisposition=, 86, 99 ff., 108. + + =Prejudice=, 51, 83, 98; + prejudiced arguments, 25, 75, 251. + + =Psychology=, 29 ff., 38. + + =Psycho-physical=, examination, 19, 128, 133, 202, 215; + p. conditions, 58, 62; + p. process, 65; + p. make-up of the individual, 70; + p. organism, 89; + p. condition of child at birth, 154; + p. forces, 160; + p. guidance, 181; + p. spheres, 192; + p. turning point in civilisation, 194; + p. mechanism, 210; + p. habit, 262, 301; + p. peculiarities, 260; + p. treatment, 270. + + =Psycho-therapy=, 235. + + + =Reaction of mind on body and body on mind=, 45, 134, 212. + + =Re-adjustment=, 59, 63, 65, 71, 140, 147, 192, 202; + national, 144; + “means whereby,” of successful, 67, 278. + + =Reason=, 30, 35, 67; + domination of, by sensation, 25, 160, 197, 256, 290, 311; + national stultification of, 162, 170; + as basis of confidence, 215; + of new civilisation, 242; + necessity for, in emergency, 243 ff., 249, 282. + + =Re-education=, 59, 65–71, 96, 189, 253 ff., 258, 277, 340; + specific meaning of, 199; + fundamental principle of, 256; + of kinæsthetic systems, 148, 302; + respiratory, 313–340; + in connection with overcoming bad habits, 288; + with spinal curvature, 301. + + =Reform, social=, 11, 153; + induced by suggestion, 54; + in connection with will-power, 59; + cause of failure of, 61. + + =Relaxation=, Preface, 13, 24, 89, 217, 261, 284; + real meaning of, 26, 96; + illustration of, in lifting weight, 98. + + =Resistance to disease=, Preface, 179, 284, 288, 318, 340. + + =Respiration=, 20, 113; + respiratory re-education, 313–340; + medical opinion concerning, 319. + v. =Breathing=. + + =Responsibility of patient=, 188, 215. + + =Rest cures=, Preface, 16, 43, 99. + + =Ribs=, movement of, in breathing, 302, 310, 333. + + =Rigidity=, 95, 148, 212–213, 264; + mental, 50, 76, 82 ff.; + applied to physical functions, 51; + harmful thoracic, 147, 201; + national, 160–167; + in educational methods, 118, 136, 139; + in military methods, 170, 172. + + =Rome=, civilisation of, 7. + + =Rupture=, 310. + + + =Sandow=, 330. + + =School furniture=, 154. + + =Science=, as another name for common-sense, 30; + advance of, impeded, 51. + + =Scott, Sir Walter=, 103. + + =Self-hypnotism=, 24 ff., 131, 216, 262; + national, 162, 166; + in connection with “frightfulness,” 171; + due to fear, 243–245. + + =Self-preservation=, 41, 99. + + =Sensation=, pandering to, 66, 68 ff., 111, 113, 290; + perverted, 69, 74; + new correct guiding, 189. + + =Sensory appreciation=, habit of dependence on, 9, 232, 237; + unreliable, 21 ff., 69, 89, 97, 207, 232, 256, 275; + dominating reason, 25; + new and correct, 24, 190, 214, 225, 230, 257 ff. + + =Shakespeare-Bacon controversy=, 81 ff. + + =Shaw, G. Bernard=, on education, 122. + + =Shortening= (“pressing down”). v. =Spine=. + + =Shoulders=, delusions in regards to movement of, 18, 23, 214, 276. + + =Simple life=, 8 ff. + + =Singing=, 232. + + =Sitting=, act of, 179, 283–285, 332; + in children, 120; + rising from sitting, 285–286. + + =Skin=, 264, 308, 339. + + =Speech=, 53 ff., 219 ff., 220 ff., 294, 332; + in children, 120; + case of defective, 133. + + =Spine=, lengthening of, 202, 222, 277; + shortening of, 203, 214, 264 ff., 274 ff., 280, 300, 307; + in children dancing, 126; + spinal curvature, 297–303. + + =Stammering=, 53, 219, 293. + + =Standing=, 179, 264, 267, 273, 279, 320; + “proper standing position,” 276, 278, 284, 332; + no correct standing position for each and every person, 278; + “stand at attention,” 204, 334. + + =Stature=, shortening of, 128, 266, 276. + + =Stealing=, case of, 59 ff. + + =Stigmatisation=, 39. + + =Stimulants=, 16. + + =Stomach=, protruding, 115, 201, 274, 291. + + =Stooping=, case of, 276. + + =Subconsciousness= (subconscious self), 29–47, 54; + Myers’ concept of, 30 ff., 85; + education of, below the plane of reason, 33; + impressionability to suggestion, 34; + definition of, 42; + delusive, 64, 89, 270; + dominating reason, 58, 128, 287, 252; + function of, after conscious control has been acquired, 92; + as synonym for habit, 92, 174, 227; + elimination of inherited, 211; + built up of delusion and undue apprehension, 253. + + =Subconscious guidance and control=, 52, 61, 67–72, 83, 142, 205, 207, + 266, 281; + failure of, 63, 183, 201, 241, 249 ff.; + in modern child, 120 (v. =Instinct=); + in primitive nations, 160, 186; + in civilised nations, 161, 174, 247; + in relation to reform, 11, + to education, 25 ff., 115, + to self-help, 262; + advance to conscious guidance, hitherto inadequate, 187; + standard of accuracy lost, 217. + + =Sympathy=, 188, 215. + + =Symptoms=, 193, 261, 267; + regarded rather than causes, 19, 193, 218. + + + =Taboos=, 37. + v. =Inhibition=. + + =Taste, sense of=, 68 ff., 111; + case of perverted, in child, 112. + + =Teeth=, 4. + + =Tendencies=, criminal, 61. + (v. =Reform=); + subconscious, 67; + inherent, 70, 109 ff. + + =Tension=, degree of, required, 24, 89, 97 ff.; + undue, 23, 95, 216–219, 256, 261, + in so-called concentration, 102, + in speaking, 230, in ploughing, 238, + in walking, 280, + in sitting, 283. + + =Thoracic capacity=, explained and illustrated, 20; + minimum of, 19 ff., 267; + increase of, 191, 202, 302, 335; + decrease of, 300, 317 ff., 320. + + =Thorax=, 19, 147, 184, 191, 201, 267, 277, 298, 324. + + =Throat and ear trouble=, 233, 235, 262, 276, 299, 336. + + =Tobacco=, 288. + + =Tongue=, incorrect use of, 133; + importance of, for clear enunciation, 233. + + =Tonics=, 17. + + =Totems=, 39. + + =Toxic poisoning=, 114. + v. =Auto-intoxication=. + + =Training=, v. =Education=. + + =Trance=, 41, 52. + v. =Hypnotism=. + + =Trine, Ralph Waldo=, 45. + + =Tuberculosis=, 183, 234, 274, 288. + + + =Upward, Allen=, on child education, 151. + + + =Varicosity=, 234, 298. + + =Vermiform appendix=, 5. + + =Viscera, abdominal=, 19 ff., 264, 291, 304 ff., 333, 336. + + =Visceroptosis=, 320. + + =Vocalisation=, 138, 231, 327, 330, 338; + change in quality of voice, 192, 308; + vocal chords, 228; + vocal control, 278, 295; + loss of voice, 266, 336. + + =Volition=, v. =Will=. + + + =Walking=, 179, 264, 267, 270, 279–283, 332; + in children, 120. + + =War=, 8; + the present crisis, 157 ff., 164, 167 ff., 175; + discussion of causes of, 160; + re-adjustment after, 144. + + =Will=, 38, 86, 99, 203, 215, 333; + the will to live, 42, 99; + will-power in relation to overindulgence, 59. + + =Wish=, meaning of, with reference to the eradication of bad habits, + 103 ff. + + =Worry=, 44, 252 ff. + + + =Yogis=, system of breathing, 56. + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + Modern investigators, however, almost unanimously incline now to the + theory that the cause of cancer is a morbid proliferation of the cells + not due to the primary influence or isolation of alien bacteria. + +Footnote 2: + + It should, however, be clearly understood in this connection that + certain laws of natural selection must, so far as we can see, always + hold good; and it would not be advisable to alter them even if it were + possible. For example, that curious law may be cited which ordains the + attraction of opposites in mating and so maintains nature’s average. + The attraction which a certain type of woman has for a certain type of + man, and vice versa is, in my opinion, a fundamental law, and any + attempt to regulate it would be harmful to the race. This, however, is + no argument against the regulation of prevention of marriages between + the physically and mentally unfit. + +Footnote 3: + + For a further statement of one aspect of heredity, see Chapter VI of + this book. + +Footnote 4: + + For a fuller analysis of this, see p. 92 et seq. of this volume. + +Footnote 5: + + For fuller explanation, see Chapter VI, p. 147. + +Footnote 6: + + See Part II, p. 189. + +Footnote 7: + + Cf. _Hypnotism_, by Albert Moll. Good cases of suppuration, + blistering, and bleeding, as the result of suggestion without any + preliminary abrasion of the skin, are those supplied by the records of + Professor Forel’s experiments at the Zurich Lunatic Asylum. These + experiments were conducted on the person of a nurse who is described + as the daughter of healthy country people, and not a hysterical + subject. + +Footnote 8: + + There is much evidence on this point, some of it conflicting, but the + main fact must be considered above question. + +Footnote 9: + + Cf. Herbert Spencer, _Education_, Chapter XI, “Humanity has progressed + solely by self-instruction.” + +Footnote 10: + + Moreover, I deny that hypnotism can possibly succeed except in + comparatively rare instances. It is not universal in its + applicability. + +Footnote 11: + + Two years later this woman came to me in a state of collapse, the + results of the after effects of a bad attack of pleurisy. She proved + an admirable patient, and is now in perfect health. She was a + magnificent instance of a case in which the power was there, finely + developed, but not the knowledge which would enable her to make full + use of that power. + +Footnote 12: + + In this connection the following verses (24, 25, 26) from the Gospel + according to St. Luke, Chapter XI, are interesting: + + 24. When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, he walketh through + dry places, seeking rest: and finding none, he saith, I will return + unto my house whence I came out. + + 25. And when he cometh, he findeth it swept and garnished. + + 26. Then goeth he, and taketh _to him_ seven other spirits more wicked + than himself; and they enter in, and dwell there: and the last state + of that man is worse than the first. + +Footnote 13: + + Certain aspects of these principles will be found set out in detail in + Part II of this volume. + +Footnote 14: + + A simple, practical example of what is meant by obtaining the position + of mechanical advantage may be given. Let the subject sit as far back + in a chair as possible. The teacher, having decided upon the orders + necessary for the elongation of the spine, the freedom of the neck + (i.e., requisite natural laxness), and other conditions desirable for + the particular case in hand, will then ask the pupil to rehearse those + orders mentally, at the same time that he himself renders assistance + by the skilful use of his hands. Then holding with one hand one or two + books against the inner back of the chair, he will rely upon the pupil + mentally rehearsing the orders necessary to maintain and improve the + conditions present, while he, with the other hand placed upon the + pupil’s shoulder, causes the body gradually to incline backwards until + its weight is taken by the back of the chair. The shoulder-blades + will, of course, be resting against the books. The position thus + secured is one of a number which I employ and which for want of a + better name I refer to as a position of “mechanical advantage.” + +Footnote 15: + + A very notable though trivial instance of mental “rigidity” was + brought to me by a pupil while writing these pages. A fireman on duty + at a theatre had neglected to unbolt the escape doors. When severely + reprimanded he pleaded that he had been instructed by an assistant + manager to do duty in another part of the theatre at the time he + usually opened the escapes. The following night the assistant manager + instructed him to make the same change in his routine on which the man + pleaded, “Don’t ask me to do that, sir. I forgot the escapes last + night and I am sure to forget ’em again if you make me go that way + round. You see, sir, I’ve gone round the other way so long that if I + make a change I seem to lose my memory.” + +Footnote 16: + + “This experimental observation is so far to our interest that it has + proved that hypnotic suggestion is by far surpassed in the duration of + its effects by suggestion in the waking state, and this again by + regular teaching and practice. But this is physiologically explicable: + Hypnotic suggestion obtains its results solely through the intensity + of the isolated stimulus and through the brain-track it leaves behind, + which has an abnormally slight connexion with the whole associative + mechanism of the brain. Regular instruction, on the contrary, is based + on the strong associative implanting of the stimulus and the + brain-track it leaves behind, with the normal activity of the brain, + i.e., on the many-sidedness of the nervous connections and their + reproductive effect; whilst, in the first case, the trace is more or + less easily effaced, in the second the accompanying reproductive, + sympathetic stimulus increases and preserves the result obtained, as + well as effecting the other bodily functions dependent on it.”—_The + Psychic Treatment of Disease_, Berthold Kern. + +Footnote 17: + + A simple experiment will serve to prove this shortening by the + increase of, say, the lumbar curve. Take a piece of cardboard of six + inches in length and place it flat on a table or against the wall. + With a pencil draw lines on the table or wall as close to the upper + and lower ends of the cardboard as possible. Remove the cardboard and + curve it slightly across the lower portion about an inch from the end + which touched the lowest line. Replace it on the lower line without + interfering with the curve and you will find that it does not reach + the upper line any longer. A similar condition occurring in the human + being means a shortening in stature. + +Footnote 18: + + As I have already explained in Part I, inspiration is not a sucking of + air into the lungs but an inevitable instantaneous rush of air into + the partial vacuum caused by the automatic expansion of the thorax. + +Footnote 19: + + It is worthy of note in this connexion that during the past two years + the English hospitals have been crowded with cases of men who, + formerly accustomed to sedentary occupations, have “broken down” with + army training. + +Footnote 20: + + See also note, Part I, p. 86. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + + + Page Changed from Changed to + + 74 altering some trifling habit of altering some trifling habit of + though: which stands thought which stands + + ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last + chapter. + ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77075 *** |